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Social Work Theses Social Work

Spring 2010

Father Absence and Self-Esteem Amongst Economically

Disadvantaged Children
Casey Kevorkian
Providence College

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FATHER ABSENCE AND SELF-ESTEEM AMONGST ECONOMICALLY

DISADVANTAGED CHILDREN

A project based upon an independent investigation, submitted

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of Arts in Social Work.

Casey Kevorkian
Providence College
Providence, Rhode Island

2010
 2

Casey Kevorkian
Father Absence and Self-Esteem
Amongst Economically Disadvantaged Children

ABSTRACT

Children begin to build self-esteem in early childhood based on social and emotional
development. Previous research has shown that children inhabiting homes where the biological,
adoptive, or step father are present have shown to exhibit higher levels of self esteem and social
functioning. However, further information regarding the positive male influence, lesbian
parenting, or the absence of “paternal absence” stigmas have show to contradict the previous
research. This study investigated the self-esteem of economically disadvantaged children using
results from the Devereux Early Childhood Assessment as it relates to the levels of father
involvement. 115 children ages 3-5 involved in a governmentally subsidized pre-school and case
management program were studied using a composite DECA score as rated by both parents and
pre-school providers. Family case managers and student files were used to yield demographic
data and data regarding paternal presence and involvement. To determine possible relationship,
this information was synthesized into charts and analyzed using non-parametric correlations
(Mann Whitney Test and Spearman’s r). The findings revealed no significance between the
levels of paternal involvement and participant’s self-esteem. The findings of this work are
intended to inform the social work profession of the benefits of further inclusion of fathers in
social service interventions and promote social policy to advocate for the rights of fathers in the
human services field.
 3

OUTLINE
I. Introduction
a. Problem Formulation
i. Economically disadvantaged children who do not have fathers present have
shown to have lower levels of self-esteem and security as compared to peers
who do have fathers present.
b. Problem Justification
i. Numbers – Who is effected and how many involved
1. Between 1960 and 2006, “the number of children living without
fathers in single-mother homes grew from 8 percent to 23.3
percent, while 34 percent of children currently do not live with
their biological fathers” (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2007 as cited
in National Fatherhood Initiative, 2008).
2. According to the 2005 U.S. Census Bureau “there are
approximately 13.6 million single parents in the United States, and
those parents are responsible for raising 21.2 million children”.
Of these families, 84 percent are custodial mothers (U.S. Census
Bureau, 2007)
3. Approximately half of divorces involve families with at least one
child, which affects about one million children a year (Fields,
2003).
ii. Social work practice- Understanding any possible correlation between self
esteem and father absence can inform social workers of risk factors involved
in an attempt to do better work with clients in understanding the full breadth
of issues surrounding a problem with low self esteem. A better informed
practice will aid social workers in competently assessing situations and
providing higher quality care to clients, which is required of social work
professionals (according to the NASW Code of Ethics).
iii. Research – The outcome or finding of this study could raise a flag to the
roots of emotional health concerns, such as low self esteem in children, and
support further research efforts to locate more profound environmental
concerns to protect this vulnerable population. Gaining the basic
understanding that this fist study may provide may open doors for further
research to explore the complex connection of child-father relationships and
the meaning they may have on the overall well-being of the family system.
iv. Policy – support for policies surrounding reunification of the family can be
strengthened by any results that point toward better social and mental health
of children if their fathers are present. Also, further programs can be created
that would support fathers in gaining better parenting skills to assist in more
healthy family functioning.
II. Main Points
a. Definition of father absence –
1. Paternal absence or father absence can be defined as “families
where a biological, adoptive, or stepfather does not live in the
same household as the children” (Nock & Einolf, 2008). This
 4

absence can be due to death, divorce, career demands (military

service for example), or separation.
2. Fathers can be either fully or partially absent
a. Fully absent fathers- due to death, incarceration, or
abandonment.
b. Partially absent- life in a separate household due to divorce,
separation, or were never married to the mother yet
maintain contact with the child.
3. Definition of a responsible father: (U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, 1998).
a. He waits to make a baby until he is prepared emotionally
and financially to support a child
b. He establishes legal paternity
c. He actively shares the continuing emotional and physical
care of their child, from pregnancy onwards
d. He shares the continual financial support of their child,
from pregnancy onwards
4. “But even when fathers live with their children, they may not be
fulfilling their responsibilities as a parent. For example, fathers can
be ‘technically present but functionally absent’”. (LaRossa &
LaRossa, 1989).
5. About 40 percent of children in father-absent homes have not seen
their father at all during the past year; 26 percent of absent fathers
live in a different state than their children; and 50 percent of
children living absent their father have never set foot in their
father's home (National Fatherhood Initiative, 2004, as cited in
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2009).
ii. How did it come about (historically)
1. Increase in children born to unmarried mothers
a. Compared to children born within marriage, children born
to cohabiting parents are three times as likely to experience
father absence, and children born to unmarried, non-
cohabiting parents are four times as likely to live in a
father-absent home (US Department of Health and Human
Services, 2009; Wineburgh, ).
b. High divorce rate
c. Increase in single women who chose to have a child
through adoption or artificial insemination
2. “Adults now marry later or forgo conventional marriages for
cohabitation or other non traditional family formations” which
usually result in higher prevalence of births to single women
(about 34 percent of births) and higher rates of divorce.
(Fatherhood Initiative, 2008)
3. Pressure on fathers to be sole financial providers may cause lower
income men or teenage fathers to flee situation
 5

4. Individuals who are in poverty value marriage and aspire to marry.

However, many face barriers in selecting partners with “adequate
social and economic resources” (Kids Count, 2009, p. 10)
a. Barriers to marriage of low income men: low educational
achievement, substance abuse, mental health concerns, high
rates of incarceration (Kids Count, 2009)
5. “43 percent of first marriages dissolve within fifteen years; about
60 percent of divorcing couples have children; and approximately
one million children each year experience the divorce of their
parents”. (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2009)
iii. Implications for the family (who is effected and how)
1. “Children raised by engaged fathers.. demonstrate ‘a greater ability
to take initiative and gain self control’” (Pruett, 1987)
2. “Children are more likely to have strong coping and adaptation
skills, stay in school longer, have longer lasting relationships”
(Pruett, 1987)
3. “A 26 year longitudinal study concluded that the most important
childhood factor in empathy is paternal involvement” (Pleck,
1997)
4. “Children are at greater risk for adverse consequences when born
into single parent setting because of social, emotional, and
financial resources available to them” (McLanahan, 1995)
5. “In 1996, young children living with unmarried mothers were five
times as likely to be poor and 10 times as likely to be extremely
poor”. (National Center for Children in Poverty, 1996).
a. Children are more likely to be in poverty if they are from
single family homes because of the potential for only one
wage earner.
b. In RI in 2007, 78 percent of children living in poverty we
living in single parent families. (KidsCount, 2009)
6. “Children from father absent homes are more likely to experience
emotional disorders and depression” (Amato, 1991).
iv. Prevalence in United States and RI (numbers) – Statistics retrieved from
KIDSCOUNT, 2009
1. 2009- Children in RI living in homes- 228,391
a. Children living in single parent homes- 67, 978
b. Percent total- 30%
b. Self esteem-
i. Definition: “most broad and frequently cited definition of self-esteem within
psychology is Rosenberg's (1965), who described it as a favorable or
unfavorable attitude toward the self” (Adler & Stewart, 2004)
1. “Self-esteem also can be defined as feelings of capability
combined with feelings of being loved” (Sheslow, 2008)
2. Can lead to poor mental -- “Mental health in childhood and
adolescence is defined as the achievement of expected
developmental, cognitive, social and emotional milestones and by
 6

secure attachments, satisfying social relationships and effective

coping skills” (KIDS COUNT, 2009, p. 54)
ii. Meaning for children and age range involved (3-5 years old)
1. Children with high self esteem:
a. Act independently, assume responsibility, take pride in
their accomplishments, tolerate frustration, handle peer
pressure appropriately, attempt new tasks and challenges,
handle positive and negative emotions, offer assistance to
others (U.S. Dept of Health and Human Services (2002)
b. Use coping mechanisms that are healthy, appropriate, and
lead to mastery and growth. (Brooks, 2008).
2. Children with a healthy sense of self-esteem feel that the important
adults in their lives accept them, care about them, and would go
out of their way to ensure that they are safe and well. They feel
that those adults would be upset if anything happened to them and
would miss them if they were separated. (Katz, 1996)
a. The foundations of self-esteem are laid early in life when
infants develop attachments with the adults who are
responsible for them (Katz, 1996)
b. As young children learn to trust their parents and others
who care for them to satisfy their basic needs, they
gradually feel wanted, valued, and loved (Katz, 1996)
iii. Risks involved with children with low self esteem
1. People with low self esteem are “depicted as uncertain and
confused about themselves, oriented toward avoiding risk and
potential loss, shy, modest, submitting readily to other peoples
influence, and lacking confidence in themselves.” (Baumeister,
Bush & Campbell, 2000)
2. “exhibit a low tolerance for frustration, giving up easily or waiting
for somebody else to take over. They tend to be overly critical of
and easily disappointed in themselves. Kids with low self-esteem
see temporary setbacks as permanent, intolerable conditions, and a
sense of pessimism predominates” (Sheslow, 2008)
iv. Implications for later in life
1. “Aggression and antisocial behavior are motivated by feelings of
inferiority rooted in early childhood experiences of rejection and
humiliation.” (Horney, 1950 & Adler, 1956 as cited in Donnellan,
Trzesniewski, Robins, Moffitt, & Caspi, 2005, p. 328)
2. “Individuals protect themselves against feelings of inferiority and
shame by externalizing blame for their failures, which leads to
feelings of hostility and anger toward other people.” (Donnellan,
Trzesniewski, Robins, Moffitt, & Caspi, 2005, p. 328)
3. “Depletions in self-esteem are directly associated with increases in
depressive symptoms over time” (Roberts, Gotlib & Kassel, 1996)
4. “Self-esteem has a strong relation to happiness” (Baumeister,
Campbell, Krueger & Vohs, 2003)
 7

c. Economically disadvantaged children- Children in poverty

i. Definition- percentage of children under the age of 18 who are living in
households with incomes below the poverty threshold, as defined by the US
Census Bureau. (Kids Count, 2009)
1. 2009 poverty threshold for family of three with two children
(single parent home)- $18,310
2. 2009 poverty threshold for family of four with two children-
$22,050 (US Dept of HHS, 2009)
ii. How this came about (historically) in RI
1. The method for calculating the poverty threshold has not been
adjusted since its development in the 1960’s. Although prices on
housing, child care, transportation, and medical care (Kids Count,
2009)
2. “According to the 2008 RI Standard of Need, developed by the
Poverty Institute, a single parent family with two children who
have an annual income of $30,800 (175% of the federal poverty
level), along with subsidized child and health care would still fall
short of paying for basic needs by $48 a month” (KIDSCOUNT,
2009).
iii. Implications for children and families
1. “Children who live in poverty for an extended period of time,
especially those while in early childhood, are more likely to have
health and behavioral concerns, have difficulty in school, become
teen parents, and be unemployed as adults” (Moore & Redd,
2002).
2. “Increased exposure to risk factors associated with poverty
interferes with young children’s emotional and intellectual
development. Risk factors associated with poverty include:
inadequate nutrition, environmental toxins, maternal depression,
trauma and abuse, lower quality childcare and parental substance
abuse” (National Center for Children in Poverty, 2002).
iv. Prevalence in US and/or RI
1. Black and Hispanic children in RI and nationally are more likely to
experience poverty as compared to white children (Fass &
Cauthen, 2008)
2. Children under age 6 tend to be at higher risk of living in poverty
because their parents tend to be younger and have less work
experience (Henry, Werschkul, & Rao, 2003).
3. Highest prevalence of single parent homes- Central Falls (48
percent). (KIDS COUNT, 2009)
a. Central Falls also has the lowest median family income in
RI (1999) for families with children under the age of 18-
$22,008 (KIDS COUNT, 2009, p. 26)
III. Opposing Points: Children who function normally without father presence
a. When father absence is not viewed as a stigma
 8

i. The stigma that children experience when they are members of father absent
households involves illegitimacy, divorce, and abandonment which can be
destructive to a child’s development. However in locations and communities
where father absence is the norm, these stigmas are not present and father
absence does not have the same impact on these families. Places where
father absence is high, such as among blacks in the United States, the
Caribbean, Brazil, and the Caribbean coast of Central America there is no
stigma and thus no negative impact. (Austin, 1989, as cited in Coleman,
1996, p. 124)
1. “father absence has a negative impact on achievement only among
groups where middle-class values are the accepted norm”
(Heatherington, 1983, as cited in Coleman, 1996, p. 124)
2. “Several studies have shown similar results among Black children
researched in housing projects. Results failed to show that this
population of children who had fathers who were absent achieved
lower in regards to academic achievement as compared to peers
from father present homes” (Herzog & Sudia, 1973, and
Wasserman, 1972, as cited in Coleman, 1996)
3. “Among Black children in inner city settings, the absence of
fathers did not have a significant effect on sex role development.
However, a surrogate male adult was usually present in place of
the biological father” (Heatherington, 1983, as cited in Coleman,
1996)
ii. Benefits of Maternal presence
1. “Strong family networks among African American children are
prevalent and provide friendship groups and access to community
support. Financial assistance and support are frequently
exchanged and the presence of the maternal grandmother is
common” (Coleman, 1996, p. 125)
b. Benefits of presence of other adult figures: Gay Couples
i. “Responsible fathering can occur within a variety of family structures” as
neither the mother or the father are essential to child development.
“Heterosexual marriage is not the only social context where responsible
fathering can occur” (Silverstein & Auerbach, 1999)
ii. For children raised with an all-female parental team without a male present
in the household, “the female couple tend to be more involved in the
children’s lives and is in greater harmony in terms of parenting approaches”
(NARTH, 2008)
iii. “Data on gay fathering couples have convinced us that neither a mother nor
a father is essential”; “Children need at least one responsible caretaking
adult who has a positive emotional connection to them, and with whom they
have a consistent relationship” (Silverstein & Auerbach, 1999)
1. Gay and lesbian parents can create a positive family context
2. “Neither the sex of the adult(s) nor the biological relationship to
the child has emerged as a significant variable in predicting
positive development”. The strongest indicators instead are
 9

stability of the emotional connection and predictability of the care

taking relationship for positive child adjustment (Silverstein &
Auerbach, 1999)
3. “Parenting roles are interchangeable” and “neither mothers nor
fathers are unique or essential” to healthy child development and
adjustment.
iv. “Children raised by lesbians without a male figure or father present are just
as well adjusted socially as children with fathers” (Belkin, 2009; Grohol,
2009; NARTH, 2008).
1. “Girls raised by lesbians are more likely to have high aspirations
for professional careers like doctors or lawyers compared to girls
raised by heterosexual partners who more frequently want to be
teachers or mothers”. (Belkin, 2009; Grohol, 2009)
2. “Boys raised by lesbians show to be less aggressive and more
nurturing than boys raised in heterosexual families” (Belkin, 2009)
v. The power of one: coach, teacher, role model: “The potency of the power of
[one person who can make a difference] suggests that the presence of a
father is not as important as the importance of an individual who fills this
role and all that it engenders.” (Coleman, 1996, p. 125)
vi. Prevalence in US
1. 115,772 American same sex couples
2. 1 in 3 female same sex couples are raising children (Belkin, 2009)
c. Resiliency among children without fathers
i. Definition of resilience:
ii. “Parentification refers to children or adolescents assuming adult roles before
they are emotionally or developmentally ready to manage those roles
successfully” (Stein, Riedel & Rotheram-Borus, 1999)
iii. Examples of positive outcomes
IV. Hypothesis:
a. Restatement of the Problem
b. Research Question/ Hypothesis: Disadvantaged children who do not have fathers
present will be at risk for lower levels of self-esteem.
V. Methodology
a. Sample
i. Type: Convenience sampling
ii. How Selected: participant pool comes from families willing to participate
who are enrolled in a governmentally subsidized preschool and social
service agency in an urban New England setting.
iii. Number: 115 children, ages 3-5 participated in the study
b. Data Gathering
i. Method: data will be gathered from children enrolled in a governmentally
subsidized preschool and case management program in various towns in
Rhode Island. Participants will be chosen though convenience sampling by
their ease of accessibility and willingness to participate.
ii. Tools: The Devereux Early Childhood Assessment questionnaire was
administered and scored assessing the attachment, self-control, initiative and
 10

behavior levels of each child. Data regarding demographics and levels of

paternal presence were collected using agency files of each child and though
interviews with knowledgeable family case managers.
iii. Variables: For children- age, race, gender, father absence or presence,
number of years of father absence or presence, male figure present in the
home (if not the biological father), siblings, age of siblings, family income,
self esteem rating.
c. Data Analysis: To determine possible relationship, this information was
synthesized into charts and analyzed using non-parametric correlations (Mann
Whitney Test and Spearman’s r).
d. Findings/ Results: Results showed that there was no significance between self-
esteem ratings and paternal absence or presence.
VI. Conclusion
a. Implications for: (found in problem formulation)
i. Social work practice - Understanding any possible correlation between self
esteem and father absence can inform social workers of risk factors involved
in an attempt to do better work with clients in understanding the full breadth
of issues surrounding a problem with low self esteem. A better informed
practice will aid social workers in competently assessing situations and
providing higher quality care to clients, which is required of social work
professionals (according to the NASW Code of Ethics).
ii. Research-
1. Due to the sample size of 115 children, the resulting data cannot be
generalized to the grater population of children in early childhood.
The sample included participants of both urban and suburban
locations in Rhode Island with family incomes qualifying the child
as “low-income”. To yield more generalizable statistics, an
increased sample size would be desirable including participants
from various regions of the country, and a more racially diverse
backgrounds.
2. The use of the DECA questionnaire may have also proven to
hinder results of the study. The validity for the instrument at rating
self-esteem is in question. In future studies, utilizing a tool that
more directly assesses the factors of self-esteem would be helpful
in establishing more valid data.
iii. Policy - Support for policies surrounding reunification of the family can be
strengthened by any results that point toward better social and mental health
of children if their fathers are present. Also, further programs can be created
that would support fathers in gaining better parenting skills to assist in more
healthy family functioning
 11

INTRODUCTION
Economically disadvantaged children who do not have fathers present have shown to

have lower levels of self esteem as compared to peers who do have fathers present (Pruett,

1987; Wineburgh, 2000; Glennon, 2002; Nock & Einolf, 2008; Beaty, 1995). Modern society

has given rise to a number of varying family system shifts in recent years. An “intact” family,

one in which both mother and father are present, is no longer the norm as alternative family

structures have become more prevalent (Beaty, 1995). One major alternative family structure

that continues to increase is that of paternal absence. Paternal absence or father absence can be

defined as “families where a biological, adoptive, or stepfather does not live in the same

household as the children” (Nock & Einolf, 2008). This absence can be due to death, divorce,

career demands (military service for example), or separation. In these instances, the caregiver

and guardian most often becomes the mother and results in a female-headed family. Problems

occur when a child must grow and develop in an environment lacking paternal supports where

he or she may harbor feelings of shame, doubt, and blame for the loss of the father in the home

(What it means to be a father, 2007). These troubling feelings have shown to manifest into

psychological and behavioral issues such as depression or developmental deficits if not

properly addressed (Wineburgh, 2000). For children who undergo a loss of paternal presence

before the age of five, the effects have been characterized as profound and long-term (Beaty,

1995). Furthermore, children who grow up living with never-married mothers are more likely

to have been treated for emotional problems (Remez, 1992). The complex string of emotions

surrounding the loss of paternal supports in a child’s life has been termed “father hunger”,

where a child “experiences longing and desire for a male role model and attention” (Herzgog,

1982, p. 165). Further feelings of rejection occur when subsequent males cannot fulfill the
 12

child’s emotional needs sufficiently which can result in lowered self esteem and self worth

(Wineburgh, 2000). It has been proven that “fathers provide both economic and social capital

to children that affects school-related behavior and academic achievement, career

development, peer relationships, self esteem, and adult outcomes such as achievement, marital

happiness, and strength of social networks” (Krampe & Newton, 2006, p. 160). Due to the

previous research conducted surrounding the effects of children living in fatherless homes, this

study will address the levels of self esteem and security in children with absent fathers. Being

able to identify a correlation between the two variables of absent fathers and self esteem of

children would be important in understanding key links to emotional well being and health of

children.

Father absence has risen greatly over the past four decades. Between 1960 and 2006,

“the number of children living without fathers in single-mother homes grew from 8 percent to

23.3 percent, while 34 percent of children currently do not live with their biological fathers”

(U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2007 as cited in Nock & Einolf, 2008, p. 3). According to the

2005 U.S. Census Bureau “there are approximately 13.6 million single parents in the United

States, and those parents are responsible for raising 21.2 million children” (U.S. Census

Bureau, 2007). Of these families, 84 percent are custodial mothers (U.S. Census Bureau,

2007). In addition, approximately half of divorces involve families with at least one child,

which affects about one million children a year (Fields, 2003).

With attention to the aforementioned emotional burdens that have been established with

children from absent father homes, the current number of children effected is overwhelming.

Understanding any possible correlation between self esteem and father absence can inform social

workers of risk factors involved in an attempt to do better work with clients in understanding the
 13

full breadth of issues surrounding a problem with low self esteem. A better informed practice

will aid social workers in competently assessing situations and providing higher quality care to

clients, which is required of social work professionals. In response, informed treatment

recommendations can be made with children of father absent families to safeguard against

potential self blame, lessening of self esteem, behavioral problems, or other negative emotional

effects that have been previously studied. This information can be used to help maintain a

healthy emotional environment for children in this population as they are vulnerable due to their

inability to advocate for themselves and draw attention to this potential issue. Feelings of self

esteem and self worth are vital to the healthy development of a child. In maintaining the

objectives of National Association of Social Workers, protecting and advocating for vulnerable

populations is essential for proper growth and development of society.

The outcome or finding of this study could raise a flag to the roots of emotional health

concerns, such as low self esteem in children, and support further research efforts to locate more

profound environmental concerns to protect this vulnerable population. Gaining the basic

understanding that this first study may provide may open doors for further research to explore

the complex connection of child-father relationships and the meaning they may have on the

overall well-being of the family system.

Support for policies surrounding reunification of the family can be strengthened by any

results that point toward better social and mental health of children if their fathers are present.

Also, further, higher quality programs can be created that would support fathers in gaining better

parenting skills to assist in more healthy family functioning.

 14

LITERATURE REVIEW

Father Absence

The family structure of a home with father absence can be operationalized as a family

where the father is not present in the same household as the children (Nock & Einolf, 2008). A

partial absence of a father has been termed for a living situation where the father may live in a

separate household due to divorce, separation, or otherwise, yet still maintains frequent contact

with the child (KIDS COUNT, 2009). A father who lacks contact with a child due to death,

incarceration, or abandonment is termed as fully absent (KIDS COUNT, 2009). The prevalence

of partial absence is alarmingly frequent, as nationally it has been cited that approximately 40

percent of children in father absent homes have not seen their biological fathers in the past year,

while another 50 percent of children in father absent homes have never entered the actual home

of their father (National Fatherhood Initiative, 2004, as cited in U.S. Department of Health and

Human Services, 2009). Even with a father’s frequent contact, the quality of the physical

attendance may not be measured as being responsibly present in the child life. Fathers who

cannot fulfill certain responsibilities as a parent can be considered “physically present but

technically absent” (LaRossa & LaRossa, 1989). A responsible father, as defined by the U.S.

Department of Health and Human Services, “waits to make a baby until he is prepared

emotionally and financially, establishes legal paternity, actively shares the continuing emotional

and physical care of the child, and shares continual financial support of the child from pregnancy

onward” (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1998, as cited in Children’s Trust

Fund, 2004).

The incidence of homes lacking paternal presence, as aforementioned, has grown

exponentially in recent history. Nationally, in 2005, 12.9 million families consisted of single
 15

parents raising one or more children (U.S. Census Bureau, 2006). Of these families, 10.4 million

were single mothers (U.S. Census Bureau, 2006). Nationally, this accounted for more than 21

million children living in single parent homes (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,

2009). Rhode Island families are no exception to this phenomenon. Of the 228,391 Rhode

Island children, 67,978 are living in single parent homes, which is a total of 30 percent of

children state wide (KIDS COUNT, 2009).

This increase in absent fathers can also be attributed to many environmental factors.

Since the 1950’s, there has been a steady increase in the number of children born to unmarried

mothers (Wineburgh, 2000). Children who are born into family structures where the mother is

unwed yet cohabitates with the child’s father are three times more likely to experience father

absence, while children born to unwed, non-cohabitating parents are four times as likely to

experience father absence during their childhood (U.S. Department of Health and Human

Services, 2009). The prevalence of adults marrying later in life or forgoing marriage by opting

for cohabitation has risen, which again results in higher prevalence of births to single women, at

about 34 percent (Nock & Einolf, 2008). Furthermore, a high divorce rate (of 5.4 percent in

2005) leaves many families with children involved in custodial agreements where mothers are

more frequently granted guardianship (U.S. Census Bureau, 2005). The stress and painful

emotions that accompany divorce may at times be a factor in alienating a father from his children

(What It Means to be a Father, 2007). Also, 43 percent of first marriages have been cited to

result in divorce within the first 15 years. Of these divorces, 60 percent involve children, the

majority of which are under the age of 18 (U.S. Department of Health and Humans Services). In

the latter part of the 20th century, popularity has grown with single women who chose to adopt a

child or become pregnant through artificial insemination (Wineburgh, 2000). Another factor is
 16

the intense pressure that fathers may feel assuming the role as the child’s main source of

financial support. Fathers may harbor false ideas about this role and believe that his only

parental responsibility is monetary. A father feeling that he may not be able to meet the societal

expectations of this financially centered role may flee the situation, especially if he already is of

low income status (What It Means to be a Father, 2007). However, this is not to say that

individuals in poverty do no value marriage and commitment, as they aspire to marriage at the

same rate as the rest of the American population (KIDS COUNT, 2009). Although, individuals

in poverty have shown to have barriers to marriage of low income men due to low educational

achievement, substance abuse, mental health concerns, and high rate of incarceration (KIDS

COUNT, 2009).

For children who grow in families where the father is not present, the implications can be

severe to their mental and emotional health. Children who are born into father absent homes are

at greater risk for undesirable outcomes due to the lacking social, emotional, and financial

resources that are not present (McLanahan, 1995). For children who have constant contact with

their fathers in a responsible and appropriate manner, the ability to take initiative and gain self

control is present, while they also exhibit greater coping and adaptation skills (Pruett, 1987).

Furthermore, children also are better equipped to handle emotional, stressful situations and

empathy if they have had an involved father (Pleck, 1997). Further research has yielded that

children with fathers present do better in school, are less prone to violence, and have better

mental health such as self esteem and self confidence (Children’s Trust Fund, 2004; What It

Means to be a Father, 2007).

 17

Self-Esteem

The most accurate definition of self-esteem has been debated by psychologists, as it

covers a wide range of emotions and behaviors. Rosenburg (1965) provided the most widely

used, yet broad, definition of self-esteem, which describes it as “a favorable or unfavorable

attitude toward the self” (Rosenburg, 1965, as cited in Adler & Stewart, 2004). Further

definitions have amended this to include additions of attitudes toward capabilities and feelings of

love understood by the individual (Sheslow, 2008). The importance of such attitudes toward the

self can be crucial links to mental health conditions involving “social and emotional milestones

made my making secure attachments, satisfying social relationships, and effective coping skills”

(KIDS COUNT, 2009, p. 54). These negative attitudes toward the self are detrimental to the

functioning and achievement of social emotional development in all stages of life (Sheslow,

2008).

Self-esteem in early childhood is of extreme importance as it cultivates healthy attitudes

surrounding foundational learning and experiences. Self-esteem has shown to have a strong

relation to overall happiness (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger & Vohs, 2003). Children with

high levels of self-esteem have shown to exhibit many healthy qualities that work to advance

their social, emotional, and academic standings. Such behaviors of children with high self-

esteem include taking responsibility for one’s own actions, acting independently, taking pride in

one’s accomplishments, tolerating frustration, handling peer pressure appropriately, attempting

new tasks and challenges, and offering assistance to others (U.S. Dept of Health and Human

Services, 2002). Appropriate use of such coping mechanisms in early childhood has shown to

lead to growth and mastery of milestones (Brooks, 2008). These foundations begin in infancy as

children develop strong attachments for the individuals who care for them, as they become their
 18

natural supporters of life (Katz, 1996). From this beginning bond, children develop trust for

individuals that are responsible for their healthy cultivation and gradually feelings of being

wanted and valued emerge. In addition, children with high self-esteem are more likely to have

an understanding that adults that are important to them (especially parents) accept them, care

about their well-being, and would actively ensure their safety (Katz, 1996). Children desire the

assurance that these important adults would miss them or become upset if they were separated at

the same rate that the child would long for the adult (Katz, 1996).

The risks associated with enduring low levels of self-esteem are broad and differ

situationally. Many people with self-esteem deficiencies may be “depicted as uncertain and

confused about themselves, oriented toward avoiding risk and potential loss, shy, modest,

submitting readily to other peoples influence, and lacking confidence in themselves”

(Baumeister, Bush & Campbell, 2000, p. 27). The associated effects of poor self-attitudes may

also include a tendency to be overly critical of the self and works produced and a propensity to

give up easily on tasks that may not prove to be outside of the individual’s capacity (Sheslow,

2008). In such cases, individuals with low self-esteem understand “temporary setbacks as

permanent and intolerable conditions” which lead to an attitude of pessimism (Sheslow, 2008).

The effects of low self-esteem in childhood appears to be an enduring phenomenon, as

the consequences may manifest into further social, emotional, and behavioral concerns in later

stages of life. Emotionally, lowered self-esteem has been directly linked to outcomes of

depressive symptoms over time (Roberts, Gotlib & Kassel, 1996). Also, lowered self-esteem is

linked to feelings of inferiority and shame which can be externalized by blaming others and

result in “feelings of hostility and anger toward others” whom are deemed responsible

(Donnellan, Trzesniewski, Robins, Moffitt, & Caspi, 2005, p. 328). Feelings of inferiority
 19

caused by rejection and humiliation that are built in early childhood experiences at times can

result in aggression and antisocial behaviors (Horney, 1950 & Adler, 1956 as cited in Donnellan,

Trzesniewski, Robins, Moffitt, & Caspi, 2005, p. 328).

Economically Disadvantaged Children

The issue of poverty directly affects individuals in early childhood as they are of a

vulnerable population and lack the ability to provide for themselves if adults are incapable of

doing so. Economically disadvantaged children are the “percentage of children under the age of

18 who are living in households with incomes below the poverty threshold”, as defined by the

U.S. Census Bureau (KIDS COUNT, 2009). The federal poverty threshold maintains the income

that families must earn before they are eligible for many governmentally funded welfare benefits.

In 2009, the poverty threshold for a family of three in a single parent home was set at $18,310

and the threshold for a family of four with two dependent children was $22,050 (U.S.

Department of Health and Human Services, 2009).

The use of a measurement for the federal poverty threshold has introduced many conflicts

in evaluating a family’s needs based on a standardized assessment, which in turn may be a root

to the problem of poverty in the United States. A main concern is that this method of calculation

has not been adjusted since its initial development in 1963-1964 by Mollie Orshanski as part of

the Social Security Administration’s effort to accurately measure the nation’s state of poverty.

The measurements were based on the cheapest food plans as established by the Department of

Agriculture. More than 40 years later, this tool is in continued use although the prices of

childcare, housing, transportation, and medical care have inflated over time (KIDS COUNT,

2009). The inaccuracy of this tool has been studied by the Poverty Institute of Rhode Island,

which has developed a 2008 Standard of Need report. This study revealed that a three-member
 20

family earning 175% of the federal poverty threshold ($30,800 annually) will still fall short of

affording basic needs by $48 per month (KIDS COUNT, 2009). This tool thus proves to be an

inaccurate measure off the state of economic need of individuals, which leads to various

sacrifices and deprivations the family must endure.

The effects of poverty on children cover a wide expanse of functioning and need. Risk

factors associated with children in poverty include inadequate nutrition, maternal depression,

trauma and abuse, and parental substance abuse (National Center for Children in Poverty, 2002).

Parents in poverty frequently lack the knowledge of available resources for health care and

insurance due to isolation, which impacts the health of a child as they do not receive frequent

check-ups from a physician or dentist. Children who do not receive proper preventative care will

be more likely to endure illnesses that can become life long problems, such as ear infections

leading to deafness (North Carolina Public Health, 2009). Furthermore, children who live in

poverty are more likely to have health and behavioral concerns, difficulty in school, become teen

parents, and become unemployed as adults (Moore & Redd, 2002). These factors interfere with a

child’s social and emotional developments, which are crucial in the years of early childhood in

forming a foundation for further growth.

Children without fathers tend to be included in the statistics of families that fall below the

poverty level. This can be attributed to many factors, especially the loss of income that occurs

due to the loss of an adult to contribute to the family finances.

OPPOSING POINTS

Absence of stigma and child development

Although much evidence has been cited supporting the positive impact of father presence

upon children’s functioning, specific instances and situations can yield results that are not
 21

concurrent with the previous data. Children may still function normally without father presence

under conditions where father absence is not viewed as veering from the normal family structure

(Coleman, 1996). The stigma, or mark of social disgrace, that at times accompanies the lack of a

father in a family can produce negative experiences for the child which can be destructive to the

child’s development. However, in communities and locations where father absence is so

prevalent that it becomes the norm, these stigmas are not attached to this family structure and the

family does not experience the same social impact (Coleman, 1996). The places where father

absence lacks such a stigma include communities of poor Blacks in the United States, the

Caribbean, Brazil, and the Caribbean coast of Central America (Austin, 1989, as cited in

Coleman, 1996). In these situations “father absence has a negative impact on achievement only

among groups where middle-class values are the accepted norm” (Heatherington, 1983, as cited

in Coleman, 1996, p. 124). Black children in United States housing projects have illustrated

similar results where children who had fathers who were absent did not test lower in academic

achievement or social functioning as compared to their peers who had fathers who were present

(Herzgog & Sudia, 1973; Wasserman, 1972, as cited in Coleman 1996). Furthermore, in sex role

development, Black children residing in inner city settings did not show that father absence was

a factor, but in many cases these family structures included an older male figure in place of the

biological father (Heatherington, 1983, as cited in Coleman, 1996).

Benefits of non-biological present adults: Gay Parenting

Child development has proven to advance normally in family structures where neither

parent is male, such of a family consisting of lesbian parents. “Responsible parenting can occur

within a variety of family structures” as neither the mother nor the father are essential to child

development because “heterosexual marriage is not the only social context where responsible
 22

parenting can occur” (Silverstein & Auerbach, 1999). Neither a mother nor the father is essential

as long as children have at least one responsible, dependable, caring guardian who has a positive

emotional connection and a consistent relationship (Silverstein & Auerbach, 1999). The sex of

neither of the parents “has emerged as a significant variable” in predicting positive child

development (Silverstein & Auerbach, 1999). However, instead, the strongest indicators for

positive child adjustment have been shown to be an emotional connection and predictability of

the care taker relationship (Silverstein & Auerbach, 1999). In this way, parenting roles can be

interchangeable where neither the mother nor the father are unique or necessary to healthy

development and adjustment as gay and lesbian parents can create positive family unit.

Children raised by lesbians without a male figure or father present are just as well

adjusted socially and emotionally as children with fathers present (Belkin, 2009; Grohol, 2009;

NARTH, 2008). An all female parenting system raising children, without the assistance of

males, can tend to “be more involved in the children’s lives” and can be in “greater harmony in

terms of parenting approaches” (NARTH, 2008). Females raised by lesbians are more likely to

have high aspirations for professional careers such as doctors or lawyers compared to girls raised

by heterosexual partners who more frequently want to be teachers or mothers (Belkin, 2009;

Grohol, 2009). Males raised by lesbians show less aggressive tendencies and more nurturing

characteristics than males raised by heterosexual partners. The positive outcomes of these

children that are reared without biological or surrogate male figures illustrate that family

contexts of father absence can yield positive results for children.

This type of family context is growing nationally due to greater social acceptance and

emerging laws that protect the rights of lesbian and gay partners and their children. Currently in
 23

the United States there are 115,772 same sex couples. Of these couples, 1 in 3 are female

couples raising one or more children (Belkin, 2009).

The power of positive adult influences

Although many children lack fathers in their family context, strong family networks

provide a positive environment for growth and success. Strong family networks among Black

children are common and provide support systems and friendship groups that provide access to

resources and community reinforcement. In Black families, the rearing of children often

includes the maternal grandmother as a consistent care taker. The extended family often

provides financial support and assistance which can negate potential losses that father absence

may encourage (Coleman, 1996). Furthermore, positive male influences can come from adults

outside of the family system such as coaches, teachers, or childcare providers. The strength of

the power these individuals has shown that the presence of a father is not as vital as “the

importance of an individual who fills this role and all that it engenders” (Coleman, 1996, p.125).

Older male siblings also have the same positive effect on younger siblings if responsibility, care,

and consistency are present, just as with any adult in a child’s life.

HYPOTHESIS

The increasing nature of father absence has brought attention to the consequences of this

multidimensional phenomenon. Due to the various issues that compound responsible fatherhood

practices, fathers experience barriers to fulfilling these parental duties and at times lack the

ability to participate in the lives of their children. Furthermore, societal norms play a part in the

social education of males as to what their paternal role entails. The factor of economic scarcity

enters as resources may already be lacking for these families, and the absence of a paternal
 24

resource impact the family system on social, emotional, and economic levels. The consequences

for improper male attachment and attention that children endure have shown to have serious

detrimental effects on self esteem and social functioning, especially if this occurs in infancy and

early childhood during crucial years of social-emotional development.

However, further research has found contradictory results in attention to lesbian parenting

and the typical development of children. This information has yielded results that the gender of

the parents may not be the most critical variable, but the quality of the relationship in terms of

predictability and permanency could prove to be of higher importance in terms of childhood

development. Furthermore, both male and female role models, as surrogates to absent paternal

roles, have again shown to provide a child with the appropriate social and emotional experiences

to encourage well-adjusted growth.

This study will seek to uncover information regarding the self-esteem ratings of children

with fathers categorized as absent from economically disadvantaged homes. In regards to

overwhelming data on this subject, it is hypothesized that children from economically

disadvantaged homes will have lower levels of self-esteem if the father is absent from the home.

Absent in this study will be in the case of fully absent, or a father who lacks contact with a child

due to death, incarceration, or abandonment (KIDS COUNT, 2009). The economic levels will

be judged from the U.S Department of Health and Human Services 2009 Poverty Guidelines.

METHODOLOGY

This study was conducted using convenience sampling. The participant pool came from

children who are enrolled in a governmentally subsidized pre-school and social service agency

located in two semi-urban towns in Rhode Island. Data was gathered from 115 children enrolled

in the classrooms of the aforementioned agency, which contain children from 3 to 5 years of age.
 25

Parents of the children were notified and given informed consent forms prior to reviewing child

files and granted the opportunity to withhold information (see Appendix A).

Children’s levels of self-esteem were rated using The Devereux Early Childhood

Assessment tool (henceforth referred to as DECA). The DECA meets professional standards for

assessment instruments established by the American Psychological Association and the National

Association for the Education of Young Children. Thirty-seven hypothetical situations are

assessed by the raters (completed by parents and by teachers) on a five point Likert-like scale

with options of “Never”, “Rarely”, “Occasionally”, “Frequently”, and “Vey Frequently”.

Samples of questions asked include “How often does your child fail to show joy or gladness at a

happy occasion?”, “How often does your child make decisions for him/herself?” and “How often

does you child say positive/optimistic things about the future?” (in compliance with the

copyrighted nature of the DECA questionnaire, a copy of the assessment tool cannot be

replicated and presented in this study). The DECA questionnaire assesses a child’s social and

emotional health as well as skills in adaptation and resilience. The concept of self-esteem, as

defined as an attitude toward one’s own capabilities or a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward

one’s self, as a compounded issue concerns these levels of functioning in early childhood as a

means of measuring these attitudes. The rating provides a composite score of initiative (“child’s

ability to use independent thought and action to meet his or her needs”), self control (“child's

ability to experience a range of feelings and express them using the words and actions that

society considers appropriate”) and attachment (“measure of a mutual, strong, and long-lasting

relationship between a child and significant adults”) (Devereux, 2010). These scores together

function as an assessment of the individual’s attitude of capabilities and toward the self, thus

yielding a self-esteem rating. The DECA has been assessed as a highly reliable instrument as
 26

each of the alpha coefficients for the protective factor scales meets or exceeds the .80 “desirable

standard” (Devereux, 2010).

Children’s family income will be rated according to documentation available in the

child’s files regarding income eligibility for the agency’s programs. Information regarding

paternal levels of involvement and level presence will be gathered through verification with

knowledgeable and informed family case managers. The variables regarding children

demographics include age, race, gender, father absence or presence, male figure present in the

home (if not the biological father), siblings, age of siblings, and family income (see Appendix

B).

Demographics

Of the participants studied, 31.3% were 3 years of age, 61.7% were 4 years of age, and

7% were 5 years of age. In regards to the gender distribution of children sampled, 61.7% were

male and 38.3% were female. In terms of racial backgrounds, 57.4% identified as “White alone”,

13% as “Black or African American”, 11.3% as “Hispanic or Latino”, 11.3% as children of

“Two or more races”, 3.5% identified as “Other”, and 2.6% as “Asian”. According to the child’s

approximate annual family income, 91.3% of participants were below the 2009 federal poverty

threshold, while the remaining participants scored no more than 200% of the federal poverty

level.

The family make up of the children studied consisted of 50.4% of participants that had

fathers who lived in the home and 49.6% of participants did not have fathers present in the home.

Of the children who do not have fathers who live in the home, 45.6% have frequent contact with

their fathers, while 54.4% do not have frequent contact.

 27

The majority of all children sampled were rated as “Typical” in areas of development

such as initiative, behavior, attachment, and self-control by both the child’s parent and the

child’s teacher. Ratings regarding the participants’ behavior were the only variable of the

developmental set to reach higher “Concerning” levels, as reported by 27.5% of parents.

Data Analysis

This data was analyzed by first looking at Spearman’s r for non-parametric correlations.

When correlating the resulting data from whether the child’s father lives in the home or not, and

the results of child’s self-esteem from the DECA questionnaires, no significance was found at r=

.362.

Table 1: Spearman’s r for Non Parametric Correlations: Father Presence

DECA Self-Esteem Result – DECA Self-Esteem Result –

Parent Rating Teacher Rating

“Does the biological, Correlation Coefficient: -.054 Correlation Coefficient: -.086

adoptive, or step father of the Sig. (2 tailed): .569 Sig. (2 tailed): .362
child live in the home?” N: 115 N: 115

Similar results were calculated for further variables of male involvement such as

frequency of paternal contact, incidence of other male adults living in the child’s home,

incidence of male siblings in the home with regards to both number of siblings, and age. For

frequency of contact r=.642 for the parent rating of the child’s self-esteem and r= .422 for the

teacher’s rating. In regards to the presence of another male adult in the home, r=.219 for parent’s

DECA results, and r= .124 for teacher’s ratings. The presence of male siblings produced the

results of r=.331 for the parent DECA rating, and r=.452 for the teacher’s rating.

Table 2: Spearman’s r for Non Parametric Correlations: Other Potentially Influential Factors

DECA Self-Esteem Result – DECA Self-Esteem Result –

 28

Parent Rating Teacher Rating

“If the biological, adoptive, or Correlation Coefficient: .044 Correlation Coefficient: .076
step father does not live in the Sig. (2 tailed): .642 Sig. (2 tailed): .422
home, does the child have N: 115 N: 115
frequent contact with him?”

“Other than the biological, Correlation Coefficient: .115 Correlation Coefficient: .144
adoptive, or step father, is Sig. (2 tailed): .219 Sig. (2 tailed): .124
there another male adult living N: 115 N: 115
in the home?”

Presence of male siblings in Correlation Coefficient: .091 Correlation Coefficient: .071

the home Sig. (2 tailed): .331 Sig. (2 tailed): .452
N: 115 N: 115

Further non-parametric tests were run, such as the Mann-Whitney Test, which also

concluded that the variables did not show significance. Again the DECA ratings of parents and

teachers were scored against the grouping variables representing paternal presence.

Table 3: Mann Whitney Test – Father Presence

DECA Self-Esteem DECA Self-Esteem

Result – Parent Rating Result – Teacher Rating

“Does the biological, Mann Whitney U: 1552.000 1497.000

adoptive, or step Wilcoxon W 3205.000 3150.000
father of the child live Z -5.73 -.917
in the home?” Asymp. Sig. (2 tailed) .556 .359

Very similar results were found again when analyzing other factors of male involvement

and the subsequent self-esteem ratings of participants. Factors of incidence of other male adults

living in the child’s home and incidence of male siblings in the home with regards to both

number of siblings, and age were analyzed. From these variables, no significance was resulting.

Table 4: Mann Whitney Test – Father Presence

DECA Self-Esteem DECA Self-Esteem

Result – Parent Rating Result – Teacher Rating
 29

Presence of male siblings Mann Whitney U: 1454.000 1497.000

in the home Wilcoxon W 2729.000 2772.500
Z -.976 -.756
Asymp. Sig. (2 tailed) .329 .450

“Other than the biological, Mann Whitney U: 941.500 901.000

adoptive, or step father, is Wilcoxon W 1266.500 1226.000
there another male adult Z -1.188 -1.519
living in the home?” Asymp. Sig. (2 tailed) .235 .129

Findings

The results of this study concluded that in regards to the DECA assessment of child self-

esteem and the various factors of paternal presence, there was not any significance between these

two variables. In the case of the parent’s ratings of child self-esteem and the teacher’s ratings,

the results remained to present no significance to paternal involvement. The two variables of

self-esteem and paternal presence or absence did not correlate with one another to refute the

study’s hypothesis that the child’s would have lower self esteem if the there was not paternal

presence (and there would be higher levels of self-esteem if there was paternal presence).

CONCLUSION

Father absence is a highly charged topic in the debate surrounding its relation to the

social and emotional development of children in early childhood. As previous studies have

shown, damages to development in early years of life can solidify and be maintained in later

years, severely impacting a child’s chances of success. Low self-esteem and further emotional

maladjustments have previously been studied with their relation to unpredictable patenting

patterns and instability of kinship connections. This is further related to economically

disadvantaged families as they experience stress to family bonds as financial responsibilities of

the father are heightened. Inversely, children that are reared in settings with responsible,
 30

predictable adults have revealed comparable levels of resilience and typical social-emotional

development, despite the gender of the adults involved. Understanding the roles that father’s

play in these developmental areas provides information regarding interventions necessary to

ensure that children are provided with the opportunities for healthy emotional growth. It was

hypothesized that economically disadvantaged children (ages 3-5) who do not have fathers that

live in their homes or have frequent contact will have lower ratings of self-esteem, as tested

using the Devereux Early Childhood Assessment. However, with the data collected, similar

results were not evident in comparison to the aforementioned studies. The results instead

exhibited no significance between the factors of parent and teacher rating of self-esteem when

analyzed with factors of the father living in the home, another male adult present in the home,

male siblings in the home (regardless of age), and if the child has frequent contact with the

father.

Implications for Social Work Practice

An interesting finding from data collected in this study proved to combat the myth that

children in low-income homes primarily are members or female-headed households where the

father does not contribute. However, information retrieved has shown that in this population,

while over 90% of children were below the federal poverty level, 50.4% of fathers resided in the

home with the children. This data can be used to inform individuals of the misconception about

the ignorant prejudices regarding “dead-beat dads”, where fathers are thought to abandon their

family and neglect parental roles. Eliminating this misconception can help to built a positive

regard for fathers in this field, further empowering them to maintain their responsible practices

as a father and caregiver.

 31

Although results did not provide data on the relationship between father presence and

child self-esteem, the social work profession is still responsible for promoting human

relationships as the basis for supportive and predictable family structures. Best practices to

include fathers in child welfare agencies would involve a multifaceted approach to shift agency

culture and practices to a more holistic view of the family. As research in this area is fragmented

and can provide contradictory results, the importance becomes unclear to professionals working

in this field. The sizes of caseloads are often too large for an individual social worker to

adequately assess each case and understand complex structures of the family systems. When the

caseloads are too large and social workers are over extended, good work cannot be accomplished

with the family in attending to all family needs and having the time to reach out to family

members, such as fathers, that may not be easily located or easily engaged in the process. In an

attempt to correct this disparity in treatment of fathers, social workers must cultivate more

efficient organizational skills to find time to reach out and engage fathers as an important factor

in the success of the children represented. Supervisors also must understand this as a standard of

practice and encourage their co-workers to use such practices in the promotion of the dignity and

rights of this population.

Furthermore, in addressing the issue of poor practices in involving fathers, education and

training must focus more on the promotion of positive, strength based views of the father as a

means of eradicating harmful stereotypes from agency culture. Social workers must understand

the vitalness of the father in the promotion of human relationships and the rights of fathers to be

included (as a part of social justice). In doing so, one must engage in a comprehensive

assessment of family systems that include the strengths and needs of all family members. As the

National Association of Social Workers calls for “social workers continually strive to increase
 32

their professional knowledge and skills and to apply them in practice”, gaining an appreciation

for the significance of male involvement would result in more masterful work with individuals,

groups, and families (NASW, 2008).

Implications for Social Work Research

Due to the sample size of 115 children, the resulting data cannot be generalized to the

grater population of children in early childhood. The sample included participants of both urban

and suburban locations in Rhode Island with family incomes qualifying the child as “low-

income”. To yield more generalizable statistics, an increased sample size would be desirable

including participants from various regions of the country, and a more racially diverse

backgrounds.

This study was also limited in the ways of data collection. Questionnaires collected

quantitative data on the level of paternal involvement based only on numerical counts of time

spent with the child. Several case managers interviewed for this data questioned this method as

yielding appropriate information. It has been suggested that in future research, information

regarding the quality of time spent between fathers and their children be recorded as a qualitative

section. This information will provide results of active play, attention, and appropriateness of

interactions between father and child to gain further insight into the beneficial nature of parent-

child contact and ways to improve such contact.

The use of the DECA questionnaire may have also proven to hinder results of the study.

The validity for the instrument at rating self-esteem is in question. In future studies, utilizing a

tool that more directly assesses the factors of self-esteem would be helpful in establishing more

valid data.
 33

Implications for Social Policy

Creating services and programs to address the needs and vulnerabilities of the father

would be fundamental in understanding the complexity of the issue from the father’s perspective.

Again, although this study did not result in data to support the hypothesis that father absence

negatively effect’s child self-esteem, the acceptance of fathers in legislation is a crucial part of

social justice for this population. This approach would involve policies and protocol in

individual agencies and in larger federal bodies to embrace the importance of paternal

involvement and create mandated procedure to ensure this population be given equal attention

and respect. Regardless of the information provided with the use of this study, social work, as a

holistic method of intervention, must include all levels of family contribution therefore

embracing both the mother and the father of children in social service agencies. Policies that

incorporate both highly influential members of the family will serve to provide a more

comprehensive assessment of kinship functioning. In adherence to the National Association of

Social Work Code of Ethics, it is vital that social workers advocate for policy that uphold the

importance of human relationships they “seek to strengthen relationships among people in a

purposeful effort to promote, restore, maintain, and enhance the wellbeing of individuals,

families, social groups, organizations, and communities” (NASW, 1996). As attitudes and beliefs

are altered, respect and trust can develop and guide future work in the direction of celebrating the

vital role of the father in the formation of policy and protocol, rather remaining ignorant to its

relevance.
 34

Appendix A

Informed Consent for Social Work Research Participation

Dear Participant,

I am a senior social work major at Providence College and I have been working as an intern at
[agency name removed for confidentiality] since January 2009. For my senior thesis I will be
conducting research regarding self-esteem and family structure of children ages 3-5. A study
will be conducted using data already recorded in your child’s file. The information recorded will
be entirely anonymous. No identifying information regarding your child, family, or agency will
be revealed in any way in the subsequent research findings.

There are not anticipated risks involved in your family or your child’s participation in this study.
The benefits will involve a deeper understanding of child self-esteem that can be used to inform
the social work profession in establishing more effective policies, practices, and further research.
Upon completion of this study, your family may request the results through contacting the
researcher.
If you would not like data from your child’s file to be used in this anonymous study, please leave
a message at [contact information removed] and state your child’s full name and classroom. I
appreciate your compliance and if you have any questions regarding the nature of the study
please contact me at the same number as above.

Thank you,

Casey Kevorkian
Providence College
Department of Social Work
 35

Appendix B

Self-Esteem and Paternal Involvement Questionnaire

Section I: Demographics

1. Age of child when DECA was administered: circle one   
1  2  3  4  5 
2. Gender:   Male    Female 
3. Race of child: check one 
__White (alone)        __Black or African American 
__Hispanic or Latino      __Two or more races 
__American Indian or Alaskan Native  __Unknown 
__Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander  __Other:____________ 
__Asian       
4. Number of male siblings in the home: circle one 
1  2  3  4 +  no sibling 
5. Age of male siblings in the home: circle all that apply 
Infant             2‐5     6‐10        11‐15    16+         no sibling 
6. Annual Family income: 
___No income    ___$15,001‐20,000 
___ Unknown    ___$20,001‐25,000 
___$1‐ 5,000    ___$25,001‐ 30,000 
___$5,001‐10,000  ___$30,001‐35,000 
___$10,001‐15,000   ___$35,001+ 
 
7. Is the income of the family considered below the 2010 federal poverty level? 
___Yes    ___No    ___Unknown 
8. Does the biological, adoptive, or step father of the child live in the home? 
____Yes    ____No    ____Unknown 
9. If the biological, adoptive, or step father does not live in the home, does the child have 
frequent contact with him?  Frequent is defined as contact on a weekly basis.  Contact can be either 
meeting in person or via telephone. 
___Yes, there is frequent contact 
___No, there is not frequent contact   
___Unknown frequency of contact 
___This question does not apply/I answered YES to question #8 
10. Other than the biological, adoptive, or stepfather, is there another male adult living in the 
home? Examples include but are not limited to uncle, grandfather, boyfriend of mother, friend of the 
family, etc. 
___Yes, there is another male adult in the home
___No, there is not another male adult in the home
___Unknown
 36

Section II: DECA Results

Parent/Guardian Assessment Date: Teacher Assessment Date:

Strength Typical Concern Strength Typical Concern
Initiative Initiative
Attachment Attachment
Self-Control Self-Control
Behavior Behavior

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