PMF Geo Full

Youtube: https://goo.gl/KLq9pu PMFIAS.COM Notes PDF: https://goo.
gl/w3rq80
Geomorphology Continent – Arc Convergence or New

Guinea Convergence ..............................54
Orogeny ................................................54
Interior Of The Earth...........................11
Types of Mountains - Classification of
Seismic waves .......................................12 Mountains ............................................54
Page
Propagation of Earthquake Waves .........14 ‘Fold’ in geology .....................................57
Earth’s Layers ......................................16 |1
‘Fault’ in Geology ...................................57
Earth’s Chemical Composition ...............18 Fold Mountains .....................................56
Composition of Earth’s Crust.................18 Block Mountains ...................................59
Earth Movements ................................18 Volcanic mountains ...............................60
Geomorphic processes ...........................19 Residual mountains ..............................60
Endogenetic Movements ........................20 Significance of mountains......................60
Earth Movements - Exogenetic Forces ...22 Divergent boundary .............................61
Weathering ...........................................22 Evolution – Formation of Rift Lakes, Seas
Continental Drift Theory - Tectonics..26 and Oceans ...........................................62
Continental Drift Theory (Alfred Wegener, Rift valley lakes .....................................63
1922) ....................................................26 East African Rift Valley .......................64
Convectional Current Theory - Tectonics Great Rift Valley ....................................65
.............................................................31
Transcurrent boundary or transform edge
Paleomagnetism ..................................32 .............................................................66
Concept of Sea Floor Spreading ..........33 Important mountain ranges ................66
Plate Tectonics ....................................35 Andes ....................................................66
Plate Tectonics - Interaction of Plates ....37 Rocky Mountains ..................................67
Evidence in Support of Plate Tectonics ..39 Great Dividing Range.............................67
Significance of Plate Tectonics ...............39 Ural Mountains .....................................68
Movement Of The Indian Plate ...............39 Atlas Mountains ....................................68
Comparison: Continental Drift – See Transantarctic Mountains .....................69
Floor Spreading – Plate Tectonics.......41
Appalachian Mountains .........................69
Ocean - Ocean Convergence or The
Himalayas .............................................69
Island - Arc Convergence.....................43
Alps.......................................................70
Continent - Ocean Convergence Or The
Cordilleran Convergence .....................47 Mountain ranges By height....................71
Continent - Continent Convergence or Highest mountain peaks of the world .....71
The Himalayan Convergence ...............49 Volcanism ............................................72
Volcanism and Earthquakes in Continent Causes of Volcanism .............................72
- Continent Convergence .......................50
Lava types in Volcanism ........................73
Formation of Himalayans and Tibet .......51
Destructive Effects of Volcanoes ............73
Evidences for the rising Himalayas ........53
Positive Effects of Volcanoes ..................74
Formation of Alps, Urals, Appalachians
Geysers and Hot Springs .......................74
and the Atlas mountains .......................53
https://t.me/civilservices
Youtube: https://goo.gl/KLq9pu PMFIAS.COM Notes PDF: https://goo.gl/w3rq80
Distribution of Volcanoes across the World Fluvial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion
.............................................................75 ...........................................................103
The Distribution of Earthquakes............77 Fluvial Erosional Landforms ................103
Volcanos in India...................................77 Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ..........108
Extinct, Dormant and Active volcanoes ..78 Fluvial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion Page
Some significant Volcanic Eruptions ......78 ...........................................................109
|2
Volcanic Landforms ...............................79 Fluvial Depositional Landforms ...........109
Extrusive Volcanic Landforms ...............79 Karst Landforms and Cycle of Erosion .111
Intrusive Volcanic Landforms ................80 Marine Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

...........................................................112
Exhalative (vapor or fumes) ...................82
Marine Erosional Landforms................114
Effusive (Lava outpouring) .....................83
Marine Depositional Landforms ...........114
Explosive (Violent ejection of solid
material)................................................83 Coastlines ...........................................115
Subaqueous Volcanism .........................84 Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ..........117
Eruptive Volcanism Types .....................84 Glacial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

...........................................................117
Hotspot Volcanism ................................85
Glacial Depositional Landforms ...........118
Reunion Hotspot Volcanism...................86
Glacial Cycle of Erosion .......................119
Distribution of Hotspot Volcanism .........87
Arid Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ...119
Earthquakes .........................................87
Erosional Arid Landforms ....................119
Causes of Earthquakes ..........................88
Arid Depositional Landforms ...............122
Seismic Waves or Earthquake Waves .....89
Lakes ..................................................124
Earthquakes based on the depth of Focus
.............................................................90 Lakes and Man ....................................127
Distribution of Earthquakes ..................90 Important Lakes on Earth ...................127
Effects of Earthquakes ..........................91 Plateau ...............................................130
Tsunami ...............................................91 Plateau Formation ...............................131

2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami .................95 Plateau Types ......................................132
Occurrence............................................95 Major plateaus of the World .................132
Shifts in Geography ...............................96 Climatology

Warning Systems ..................................96
India’s preparedness .............................97 Latitudes and Longitudes ..................135
Rocks ...................................................97 Latitude ..............................................135
Different kinds of rocks .........................97 Longitude ............................................136
Sedimentary Rocks ................................99 Indian Standard Time ..........................139
Metamorphic Rocks .............................100 Motions of the earth: Rotation and
Rock cycle ...........................................102 Revolution ...........................................140
Some Rock-Forming Minerals ..............102 Rotation of Earth .................................141
Landforms and Cycle of Erosion .......103 Revolution ...........................................142
Atmosphere........................................144 Secondary or Periodic Winds ...............181

Role of Earth’s Atmosphere..................144 Tertiary or Local Winds........................182
Composition of Atmosphere .................145 Water Cycle - Hydrological cycle ......184
Major Greenhouse Gases .....................147 Water Vapour in Atmosphere ...............184
Structure of Atmosphere .....................147 Humidity .............................................185 Page
Temperature Distribution on Earth ..149 Evaporation .........................................186 | 3
Factors Affecting Temperature Condensation ......................................187
Distribution.........................................150 Forms of Condensation........................188
Latitudinal Heat Balance .....................152 Smog ..................................................192
Heat Budget ........................................152 Sulfurous smog ...................................192
The Mean Annual Temperature Photochemical smog ............................192
Distribution.........................................153
Effects of Smog ....................................193
Seasonal Temperature Distribution .....154
Precipitation ......................................194
Lapse Rate .........................................157
Types of Rainfall ..................................195
Adiabatic Lapse rate ............................158
World Distribution of Rainfall ..............196
Latent Heat of Condensation ...............162
Thunderstorm ....................................197
Vertical Distribution of Temperature ....162
Types of Thunderstorms ......................199
Temperature Anomaly .........................163
Lightning and thunder ........................201
Temperature Inversion ......................163
Tornado...............................................204
Types of Temperature Inversion ...........163
Geostrophic Wind ................................205
Economic Implications of Temperature
Inversion .............................................165 Jet streams ........................................206
Pressure Systems...............................166 Permanent jet streams.........................209
Air Pressure ........................................166 Temporary jet streams .........................210
Equatorial Low Pressure Belt or Influence of Jet Streams on Weather ...210
‘Doldrums’...........................................167 Jet Streams and Weather in Temperate
Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt or Horse Regions ...............................................211
Latitudes .............................................169 Jet Streams and Aviation.....................212
Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt................171 Air Masses ..........................................212
Polar High Pressure Belt ......................171 Classification of Air Masses .................213
Pressure belts in July ..........................171 Fronts ................................................214
Pressure belts in January ....................173 Classification of Fronts ........................215
Factors Controlling Pressure Systems ..173 Tropical Cyclones ..............................218
Factors affecting Wind Movement ........173 Conditions Favourable for Tropical
More about Coriolis effect ....................176 Cyclone Formation ..............................219
General circulation of the atmosphere Origin and Development of Tropical
...........................................................177 Cyclones..............................................221
Classification of Winds ........................180 Structure of a tropical cyclone .............223
Primary or Prevailing Winds ................180 Categories of Tropical Cyclones............225
Favorite Breeding Grounds for Tropical Tropical Cyclone ..................................236

Cyclones..............................................225 Temperate Cyclone ............................236
Characteristics of Tropical Cyclones ....226 Polar Vortex .......................................238
Warning of Tropical Cyclones...............226 Polar Vortex Cold Wave .......................238
What is a Storm Surge? .......................227 Ozone Hole [Ozone Depletion at South Page
Why do 'tropical cyclones' winds rotate Pole] ....................................................239
|4
counter-clockwise (clockwise) in the Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs) .......240
Northern (Southern) Hemisphere? .......228
El Nino ...............................................241
Why there are fewer cyclones over the
Arabian Sea as compared to the Bay of El Nino Southern Oscillation [ENSO] ...244
Bengal? ...............................................228 Indian Ocean Dipole effect (Not every El
Why there are very few Tropical Cyclones Nino year is same in India) ..................245
during southwest monsoon season? ....228 The El Niño Modoki .............................246
What are the causes of disaster during La Nina ...............................................246
cyclone? ..............................................229
Mains 2013: Naming of Cyclones .........229 Climatic Regions
Polar or Arctic Cyclones .......................230
Koeppen’s scheme Of Classification Of
Maximum Sustained Wind ..................230
Climate ..............................................247
Low Pressure, Depression and Cyclone 230
Group A : Tropical Humid Climates .....249
Central Dense Overcast (CDO) .............231
Tropical Wet Climate (Af) .....................250
Annual frequency of Cyclones over the
Group A : Tropical Humid Climates .....255
Indian Seas .........................................231
Tropical Monsoon Climate ................255
States Vulnerable to Cyclones .............231
Tropical Marine Climate ......................257
Which sector of the cyclone experiences
strongest winds? .................................231 Tropical Monsoon Forests ....................257
What is the normal movement of a Population and Economy in Monsoon
Tropical Cyclone? ................................232 Climate ...............................................258
What is the role of upper tropospheric Savanna Climate or Tropical Wet and
westerly trough ? .................................232 Dry Climate or Sudan Climate ..........260
What is 4-stage warning system for Distribution of Savanna Climate ..........260
Tropical Cyclones?...............................232 Savanna Climate .................................261
Modifying cyclones? .............................232 Natural Vegetation of Savanna Climate 262
How are Tropical Cyclones monitored by Life and Economy in the Savanna ........262
IMD? ...................................................233
B: Desert Climate ..............................263
Temperate Cyclones or Extra Tropical
Cyclones or Mid-Latitude Cyclones or Hot Desert Climate ..............................263
Frontal Cyclones .................................233 Mid-Latitude Desert Climate ................264
Origin and Development of Temperate Desert Climate ....................................264
Cyclones..............................................233 Life in the Deserts ...............................266
Characteristics of Temperate Cyclones.235 Steppe Climate or Temperate
Tropical Cyclones and Temperate Cyclones Continental Climate or Temperate
Comparison .........................................236 Grassland Climate .............................267
Steppe Climate ....................................268 Tundra Climate or Polar Climate or Arctic

Natural Vegetation of Steppe Climate ...269 Climate ...............................................291
Economic Development of Steppes .......269 Tundra Climate ..................................292
Maps: Savanna Grasslands and Steppe Natural Vegetation - Tundra Climate ...292
Grasslands ..........................................270 Recent Development of the Arctic Region Page
Mediterranean Climate or Warm ...........................................................292
|5
Temperate Western Margin Climate or
Warm Temperate West Coast Climate
Oceanography
...........................................................271
Mediterranean Climate ........................272 Ocean Relief.......................................292
Local winds of the Mediterranean Climate Continental Shelf.................................293
...........................................................273 Continental Slope ................................294
Natural Vegetation in the Mediterranean Continental Rise ..................................295
Climate ...............................................273
Deep Sea Plain or Abyssal Plain ...........295
Agriculture in the Mediterranean Climate
Oceanic Deeps or Trenches..................295
...........................................................274
Mid-Oceanic Ridges or Submarine Ridges
Warm Temperate Eastern Margin
...........................................................295
Climate ..............................................275
Abyssal Hills .......................................296
Variations of Warm Temperate Eastern
Margin Climate ....................................277 Submarine Canyons ............................296
Natural Vegetation...............................278 Atoll ....................................................297
Economic Development .......................278 Bank, Shoal and Reef ..........................297
British Type Climate .........................279 Significance of Study of Oceanic Relief .297
Distribution of British Type Climate ....280 Marginal Seas .....................................298
British Type Climate ............................280 Marginal seas of the world ...................298
Natural Vegetation in British Type Climate Human Impact on marginal seas .........299
...........................................................281 Phytoplankton Bloom (Algal Bloom) in
Economy in British Type Climate .........281 Marginal Seas......................................299
Taiga Climate or Boreal Climate .......284 Biomass Production and Primary
Productivity .........................................299
Taiga Climate ......................................284
Water Circulation in Marginal Seas .....300
Natural Vegetation of Taiga Climate .....285
Bays, gulfs, and Straits .......................300
Economic Development of Taiga Region
...........................................................286 The Pacific Ocean ..............................302
Laurentian Climate or Cool Temperate The Atlantic Ocean ............................303
Eastern Marine Climate .......................287 The Indian Ocean ..............................305
Laurentian Climate ............................288 Ocean Movements .............................307
Natural Vegetation - Laurentian Climate Ocean currents....................................307
...........................................................289
Primary Forces Responsible For Ocean
Economic Development – Laurentian Currents .............................................307
Climate ...............................................289
Secondary Forces Responsible For Ocean
Currents .............................................308
Types of Ocean Currents .....................308 Symbiotic Relationship Between Corals

General Characteristics of Ocean Currents And ZOOXANTHELLAE........................337
...........................................................308 Coral Bleaching or Coral Reef Bleaching
Effects of Ocean Currents ....................309 ...........................................................337
Desert Formation and Ocean Currents 310 Ecological Causes of Coral Bleaching ...338
Page
Temperature Distribution of Oceans 311 Spatial and temporal range of coral reef
bleaching ............................................339 | 6
Factors Affecting Temperature
Distribution of Oceans.........................312 Bleaching may also be Beneficial .........340
Vertical Temperature Distribution of Ocean Deposits ..................................340

Oceans ................................................313 Marine/Resources and their Utilisation
Horizontal Temperature Distribution of ...........................................................345
Oceans ................................................315
Indian Geography
Range of Ocean Temperature ...............316
Pacific Ocean Currents ........................316
India As A Geographical Unit ............354
Phytoplankton and Fishing ..................318
Rock System Based on Geological
Atlantic Ocean Currents ......................319 History Of India .................................357
Sargasso Sea .......................................322 Archaean Rock System (Pre-Cambrian
Indian Ocean Currents ........................323 Rocks) .................................................358
Ocean Salinity .....................................325 Dravidian Rock System (Palaeozoic) .....359
Horizontal distribution of salinity ........326 Aryan Rock System .............................360
Vertical Distribution of Salinity............327 Major Physical Divisions of India ......361
Questions ............................................328 Division of the Himalayas ....................362
Tides ..................................................328 Himalayan Ranges .............................362
Tidal Bulge - Why there are two tidal Middle or the Lesser Himalaya .............363
bulges? - Why is there a tidal bulge on the The Great Himalaya .............................364
other side? ..........................................328
The Trans Himalayas ...........................365
Factors Controlling the Nature and
Purvanchal or Eastern Hills .................365
Magnitude of Tides ..............................329
Syntaxial Bends of the Himalayas ........367
Types of Tides......................................329
Himalayas – Regional Divisions ...........368
Importance of Tides .............................331
Important Valleys in Himalayas ...........369
Characteristics of Tides .......................332
Snow in Himalayas - Snowline .............370
Tidal bore ............................................332
Glaciers in Himalayas ..........................370
Coral Reefs .........................................334
Significance of the Himalayas ..............371
Coral Reef Relief Features ....................334
Major Passes in India and Indian Sub-
Development Of Major Coral Reef Types
continent ...........................................373
...........................................................336
Main Passes of the Himalayas..............373
Ideal Conditions for Coral Growth........336
Formation of Indo – Gangetic –
Distribution of Coral Reefs...................337
Brahmaputra Plain.............................376
Corals and Zooxanthellae ....................337
Features of Indo – Gangetic – Left Bank Tributaries of The Ganga River

Brahmaputra Plain ..............................378 ...........................................................413
Geomorphological features of Indo – Brahmaputra River System .................415
Gangetic – Brahmaputra Plain .............379 Peninsular River System or Peninsular
Regional Divisions of the Great Plains ..380 Drainage .............................................416
Page
Significance of the Plain ......................382 Evolution of the Peninsular Drainage...416
|7
Peninsular Plateau .............................382 Peninsular River Systems ....................417
Minor Plateaus in the Peninsular Plateau Himalayan River System vs. Peninsular
...........................................................382 River System .......................................417
Deccan Plateau ...................................385 East Flowing Peninsular Rivers............418
Hill Ranges of the Peninsular Plateau ..386 Mahanadi River ...................................418
Coastline of India – Indian Coastline ....390 Godavari River.....................................420
Coastlines ..........................................391 Krishna River ......................................421
Western Coastal Plains of India ...........391 Cauvery River ......................................422
Eastern Coastal Plains of India ............392 Subarnarekha .....................................428
Significance of the Coastal Plains ........393 West Flowing Rivers of The Peninsular
Indian Islands ....................................393 India ...................................................429
Andaman and Nicobar islands .............394 Estuary ...............................................429
Lakshadweep Islands ..........................394 Narmada River ....................................430
New Moore Island ................................395 Tapti River...........................................431
Drainage basin ....................................396 Sabarmati River ..................................433
Drainage patterns ..............................398 Mahi River ...........................................433
Discordant drainage patterns ..............398 Luni River ...........................................434
Concordant Drainage Patterns .............399 West flowing Rivers of the Sahyadris

(Western Ghats)...................................434
Contribution of Water by Various Rivers
...........................................................401 Ghaggar River – Inland Drainage .........438
Classification of Drainage Systems of India Usability of Rivers ...............................438

...........................................................401 Indian Monsoons ...............................439
Major River System or Drainage Mechanism of Indian Monsoons ..........440
Systems in India ................................404 Indian Monsoons – Classical Theory: Sir
Himalayan River Systems ....................404 Edmund Halley’s Theory ......................440
Indus River System .............................405 Indian Monsoons – Modern theory: Air
Indus River..........................................406 Mass Theory ........................................440
Major Tributaries of Indus River ..........407 Indian Monsoon Mechanism – Jet Stream
Theory .................................................441
Indus water treaty ...............................408
Indian Monsoon Mechanism – Role of Sub-
Ganga River System ............................409 Tropical Jet Stream (STJ) ....................442
Ganga River ........................................410 Indian Monsoons – Role of Tropical
Right Bank Tributaries of The Ganga ...411 Easterly Jet (TEJ) [African Easterly Jet]
...........................................................444
Indian Monsoons – Role of Tibet ..........445 Major Soil Groups of India ...................492
Indian Monsoons – Role of Somali Jet ..446 Alluvial Soils .......................................493
Indian Monsoons – Role of Indian Ocean Black Soils ..........................................495
Dipole .................................................447 Red Soils .............................................495
How Jet Streams affect the Monsoons in Laterite – Lateritic Soils .......................496 Page
the Indian Sub-Continent? ..................448
Forest – Mountain Soils .......................497 | 8
Projects to understand monsoons ........449
Arid – Desert Soils ...............................497
Western Disturbances ........................455
Saline – Alkaline Soils .........................498
Cloudburst in Jammu and Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand..........456 Peaty – Marshy Soils............................499
What type of Climate Does India Have? 458 Characteristics of Indian Soils .............499
Features of Indian Climate ..................458 Problems Of Indian Soils .....................499
Factors Influencing Indian Climate ......459 Soil Degradation ................................499
Indian Climate – Seasons ..................461 Soil Erosion .........................................500
Winter Season in India ........................462 Extent Of Soil Erosion In India ............501
Summer Season in India .....................463 Factors affecting Soil Erosion ..............502
Rainy Season – South West Monsoon Effects of Soil Erosion ..........................502
Season ................................................469 Deforestation .......................................502
North East Monsoon Season – Retreating Overgrazing .........................................503
Monsoon Season .................................473 Faulty Methods of Agriculture .............503
Annual Rainfall [South West Monsoons + Soil Salinity and Soil Alkalinity ............504
Retreating Monsoons] ..........................476
Desertification .....................................505
Climatic Regions of India ..................477
Waterlogging .......................................505
Stamp's Classification of Climatic Regions
of India................................................477 Soil Conservation ..............................506
Koeppen’s Classification of Climatic Factors that influence the location of Iron
Regions of India ...................................478 and Steel industry ...............................508
Natural Vegetation of India ..................481 Economic Geography
Classification Of Natural Vegetation of
India ...................................................482
Iron Ore – Raw Material ......................508
Moist Tropical Forests .........................483
Iron Ore Distribution Across the World 511
Dry Tropical Forests ............................485
Types of Iron Ore .................................514
Montane Sub-Tropical Forests .............486
Iron Ore Distribution in India ..............514
Montane Temperate Forests.................487
Coal ....................................................516
Alpine Forests .....................................488
Formation of Coal ................................517
Soil .....................................................488
Peat, Lignite, Bituminous & Anthracite
Soil Types – Sandy-Clayey-Loamy ........488 Coal ....................................................518
Soil Profile – Soil Horizon .....................489 Distribution of Coal in India ................519
Factors that influence soil formation in Gondwana Coal ...................................519
Indian Conditions ................................490
Distribution of Gondwana Coal in India Coalbed Methane.................................546

...........................................................519 Coalbed Methane in India ....................546
Tertiary Coal .......................................524 Shale Gas – Shale Gas Formation ........546
Tertiary Coal – Lignite..........................525 Shale Gas Reserves Across the World ..547
Tertiary Coal – Peat .............................525 Shale Gas Reserves in India.................547 Page
Problems of Coal Mining in India .........525 Extraction of Shale Gas .......................547 | 9
Coking Coal vs. Non-Coking Coal.........526 Problems Associated With Shale Gas
Coal Reserves in India by State ............526 Exploitation .........................................550
Coal Production in India by State ........526 Shale Gas Extraction Issues in India - If
India’s Coal Imports and Exports .........527 US can then why can’t India? ..............550
Major Coalfields in India ......................527 Shale Gas: Low Potential, High Risk and a
Better Alternative ................................550
Distribution of Coal across the World ..528
Bauxite ...............................................552
Global Coal Reserves ...........................528
Bauxite Distribution in India ...............552
Top Producers and Consumers of Coal in
the World ............................................529 Bauxite Distribution – World ...............553
Distribution of Coal in USA .................529 Lead....................................................553
Distribution of Coal in China ...............529 Zinc ....................................................553
Petroleum and Mineral Oil ................530 Distribution of Lead and Zinc ores - India
and World ...........................................553
Formation of Petroleum and Mineral Oil
...........................................................530 Tungsten .............................................554
Distribution of Petroleum and Mineral Oil Pyrites .................................................554

in India ...............................................531 Gold Reserves in India.......................555
On-shore Oil Production In India .........532 Gold Distribution Across the World .....556
Off-Shore Production in India ..............532 Silver Distribution – India & World ......557
Petroleum Refining ..............................534 Manganese .........................................557
Share of Oil in Power Generation .........535 Manganese Ore Distribution in India ...557
India’s Oil Imports ...............................535 State wise reserves of Manganese ........558
Petroleum and Mineral Oil - World Export of Manganese ...........................559
distribution .........................................536 World Manganese Ore Distribution ......559
Natural gas .........................................540 Chromite ............................................559
World Distribution of Natural Gas .......541 Chromite Ore Distribution In India ......560
OPEC – Organization of Petroleum Chromite Ore Distribution Across the
Exporting Countries ............................541 World ..................................................560
Distribution of Natural Gas in India.....541 Copper ................................................561
Petroleum and Gas Value Chain ..........544 Copper Reserves in India .....................561
Upstream Sector..................................544 Major Copper Reserves Across the World
Midstream sector .................................544 ...........................................................562
Downstream sector ..............................545 Nickel ..................................................562
Unconventional Gas Reservoirs ...........545 Graphite ..............................................563
Major Producers of Graphite – India &

World ..................................................564
Diamonds ...........................................564
Differences Between Graphite and
Diamond .............................................566
Page
Mica ...................................................566
| 10
Limestone............................................567
Dolomite..............................................568
Asbestos ..............................................569
Magnesite ............................................569
Kyanite................................................569
Sillimanite ...........................................570
Gypsum ..............................................570
Salt .....................................................570
Conservation of Mineral Resources ......570
Nuclear fission ...................................571
Nuclear Reactor ...................................572
Types of Nuclear Reactors....................574
Light-water reactor (LWR) ....................575
Pressurized Heavy-Water Reactor (PHWR)
...........................................................577
Atomic Minerals ..................................578
Uranium .............................................578
Uranium in India .................................579
Nuclear Power Plants in India ..............579
Thorium ..............................................581
India's Three-Stage Nuclear Power
Programme.........................................583
What Hinders Deployment of Thorium-
Fuelled Reactors In India? ...................585
Solution to India’s Fissile Shortage
Problem – Procuring Fissile Material
Plutonium ...........................................586
Geomorphology  Meteors: Meteors and Earth are solar

system objects that are born from the
Interior Of The Earth same nebular cloud. Thus they are likely
to have a similar internal structure.
 The configuration of the surface of the  Gravitation: The gravitation force (g) is
earth is largely a product of the processes not the same at different latitudes on the
Page
operating in the interior of the earth. surface. It is greater near the poles and
 Exogenic as well as endogenic processes less at the equator. This is because of the | 11
are constantly shaping the landscape. distance from the center at the equator
being greater than that at the poles.
Why know about earth’s interior  The gravity values also differ according to
the mass of material. The uneven
Understanding of the earth's interior is distribution of mass of material within the
essential to understand the nature of earth influences this value. Such a
changes that take place over and below difference is called gravity anomaly.
the earth's surface. Gravity anomalies give us information
about the distribution of mass of the
 To understand geophysical phenomenon material in the crust of the earth.
like volcanism, earthquakes etc..  Magnetic field: The geodynamo effect
 To understand the internal structure of helps scientists understand what's
various solar system objects happening inside the Earth's core. Shifts
 To understand the evolution and present in the magnetic field also provide clues to
composition of atmosphere the inaccessible iron core. But their
 Future deep-sea mineral exploration etc. source remains a mystery.
Sources of information about the Not important for exam. But if you are a
interior science enthusiast and if you want to know
more…
Direct Sources
What causes the magnetic field of
 Deep earth mining and drilling reveals the earth?
nature of rocks deep down the surface.
[Mponeng gold mine and TauTona gold  Our planet’s magnetic field is believed to
mine in South Africa are deepest mines be generated deep down in the Earth’s
reaching to a depth of 3.9 km. And the core.
deepest drilling is about 12 km deep]  Nobody has ever taken the mythical
 Volcanic eruption forms another source journey to the centre of the Earth, but by
of obtaining direct information. studying the way shockwaves from
earthquakes travel through the planet,
Mponeng mine physicists have been able to work out its
likely structure.
 South Africa
 Right at the heart of the Earth is a solid
 Deepest mine
inner core, two thirds of the size of the
 Gold mine
Moon and composed primarily of iron. At a
 Deapth: 2.4 miles (3.9 km)
hellish 5,700°C, this iron is as hot as the
Indirect Sources Sun’s surface, but the crushing pressure
caused by gravity prevents it from
 Depth: With depth, pressure and density becoming liquid.
increases and hence temperature. This is  Surrounding this is the outer core, a
mainly due to gravitation. 2,000 km thick layer of iron, nickel, and
small quantities of other metals. Lower
pressure than the inner core means the Evidence From The Meteorites
metal here is fluid.
 Differences in temperature, pressure and  When they fall to earth, their outer layer is
composition within the outer core cause burnt during their fall due to extreme
convection currents in the molten metal as friction and the inner core is exposed.
cool, dense matter sinks whilst warm, less
Page
dense matter rises. The Coriolis force,
resulting from the Earth’s spin, also | 12
causes swirling whirlpools.
 This flow of liquid iron generates electric
currents, which in turn produce magnetic
fields. Charged metals passing through
these fields go on to create electric
currents of their own, and so the cycle
continues. This self-sustaining loop is
known as the geodynamo.
 The spiraling caused by the Coriolis force
means that separate magnetic fields
created are roughly aligned in the same  The heavy material composition of their
direction, their combined effect adding up cores confirms the similar composition of
to produce one vast magnetic field
engulfing the planet.
Some sources explained in detail
High Levels of Temperature and

Pressure Downwards
the inner core of the earth, as both evolved
from the same star system in the remote
past.
 The most important indirect source is
seismic activity. The major understanding
of the earth’s internal structure is mainly
from the study of seismic waves.
Seismic waves
 The study of seismic waves provides a

complete picture of the layered interior.
What causes earthquakes?
 Abrupt release of energy along a fault

 Volcanic eruptions and existence of hot causes earthquake waves.
springs, geysers etc. point to an interior  A fault is a sharp break in the crustal rock
which is very hot. layer.
 The high temperatures are attributed to  Rocks along a fault tend to move in
automatic disintegration of the opposite directions. But the friction
radioactive substances. exerted by the overlying rock strata
 Gravitation and the diameter of the earth prevents the movement of rock layer. With
helps in estimating pressures deep inside. time pressure builds up.
 Under intense pressure, the rock layer, at

certain point, overcomes the friction
offered by the overlying layer and
undergoes an abrupt movement
generating shockwaves.
 This causes a release of energy, and the
Page
energy waves travel in all directions.
 The point where the energy is released is | 13
called the focus of an earthquake, 1. the 'P' waves or primary waves
alternatively, it is called the hypocentre. (longitudinal nature),
 The energy waves travelling in different 2. secondary waves or 'S' waves
directions reach the surface. The point on (transverse in nature) while the
the surface, nearest to the focus, is called 3. surface waves are long or ‘L’ waves.
epicentre. It is the first one to experience  The velocity and direction of the
the waves. It is a point directly above the earthquake waves undergo changes when
focus. the medium through which they are
travelling changes.
Earthquake Waves  When an earthquake or underground
nuclear test sends shock waves through
 All natural earthquakes take place in the
the Earth, the cooler areas, which
lithosphere (depth up to 200 km from the
generally are rigid, transmit these waves
surface of the earth).
at a higher velocity than the hotter areas.
 An instrument called ‘seismograph’
records the waves reaching the surface. Primary Waves (P waves)
 Earthquake waves are basically of two
types — body waves and surface waves.  Also called as the longitudinal or
 Body waves are generated due to the compressional waves.
release of energy at the focus and move  Particles of the medium vibrate along the
in all directions travelling through the direction of propagation of the wave.
body of the earth. Hence, the name body  P-waves move faster and are the first to
waves. arrive at the surface.
 The body waves interact with the  These waves are of high frequency.
surface rocks and generate new set of  They can travel in all mediums.
waves called surface waves. These waves  Velocity of P waves in Solids > Liquids >
move along the surface. Gases
 The velocity of waves changes as they
 Their velocity depends on shear strength
travel through materials with different
or elasticity of the material.
elasticity (stiffness) (Generally density with
few exceptions). The more elastic the [We usually say that the speed of sound
material is, the higher is the velocity. waves depends on density. But there are
Their direction also changes as they reflect few exceptions. For example: Mercury
or refract when coming across materials (liquid metal) has density greater than
with different densities. Iron but speed of sound in mercury is
 There are two types of body waves. They lesser compared to that in iron. This is
are called P and S-waves. because the shear strength of mercury is
very low (this is why mercury is liquid)
Behavior of Earthquake Waves
compared to that of iron.]
 The earthquake waves are measured with  The shadow zone for ‘P’ waves is an area
the help of a seismograph and are of three that corresponds to an angle between 1030
types— and 1420
FREE BOOKS, NOTES & VIDEOS FOR CIVILSERVICES
EBOOKS & UPSC PRELIMS USPC MAINS VIDEO FOR DAILY

MAGZINES MATERIALS MATERIALS CIVILSERVICES NEWSAPERS
SECUREIAS UPSC PRELIMS UPSC MAINS DELHI CIVILSERVICES

TESTSERIES TESTSERIES STUDENTS BOOKS
OPTIONAL SUBJECTS BOOKS, STATE PCS, SSC, BANKING

TEST SERIES, VIDEOS & NOTES BOOKS, TESTS VIDEOS & NOTES
1.GEOGRAPHY 1.UPPSC 2.SSC 3.MPSC
2.HISTORY 4.IBPS 5.RAS & RPSC
3.MATHEMATICS ENGINEERING BOOKS & MATERIAL
4. SOCIOLOGY 1. IES 2. GATE 3. IFoS
5.PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION 4. COMPUTER SCIENCE
6. POLITICAL SCIENCE 5. MECHINICAL ENGINEERING
7. ECONOMICS OTHER TELEGRAM CHANNELS
8 PHYSICS 1 GOVERNMENT JOBS
9 COMMERCE ACCOUNTANCY 2 LEARN YOGA & MEDITATION
10 ANTHROPOLOGY 3 LEARN ENGLISH
11 LAW 4 BEST DELAS & OFFERS
12 PHILOSOPHY 5 IAS HINDI BOOKS
13 CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTANCY 6 PDFs FOR ALL EXAMS
14 MEDICAL SCIENCE 7. WORLD DIGITAL LIBIRARY
1.CHENNAI STUDENTS 2.BANGLORE STUDENTS 3. CURRENT AFFAIRS
CONTACT FOR ADVERTISEMENT IN ABOVE CHANNLES
ADMIN1: ADMIN2:
 Generally affect the surface of the Earth

only and die out at smaller depth.
 Develop in the immediate neighborhood of
the epicenter.
 They cause displacement of rocks, and
hence, the collapse of structures occurs. Page
 These waves are responsible for most the
destructive force of earthquake. | 14
 Recoded last on the seismograph.
 This gives clues about Solid inner core
Secondary Waves (S waves)
 Also called as transverse or distortional

waves.
 Analogous to water ripples or light waves.
 S-waves arrive at the surface with some
time lag.
 A secondary wave cannot pass through
liquids or gases.
 These waves are of high frequency waves.
 Travel at varying velocities (proportional
to shear strength) through the solid part
of the Earth's crust, mantle.
 The shadow zone of 'S' waves extends
almost halfway around the globe from the
earthquake's focus.
 The shadow zone for ‘S’ waves is an area
that corresponds to an angle between 1030
and 1800
 This observation led to the discovery of
liquid outer core. Since S waves cannot
travel through liquid, they do not pass
through the liquid outer core.
Surface Waves (L waves)

Propagation of Earthquake Waves
 Also called as long period waves.
 They are low frequency, long  Different types of earthquake waves travel
wavelength, and transverse vibration. in different manners. As they move or
propagate, they cause vibration in the
body of the rocks through which they  Other two waves vibrate perpendicular to
pass. the direction of propagation.
 P-waves vibrate parallel to the direction of  The direction of vibrations of S-waves is
the wave. This exerts pressure on the perpendicular to the wave direction in the
material in the direction of the vertical plane. Hence, they create troughs
propagation. and crests in the material through which
Page
 As a result, it creates density differences they pass.
in the material leading to stretching and | 15
squeezing of the material. Emergence of Shadow Zone
 Earthquake waves get recorded in The entire zone beyond 105 ° does not
seismographs located at far off locations. receive S-waves.
 However, there exist some specific areas  The shadow zone of S-wave is much larger
where the waves are not reported. Such a than that of the P-waves. The shadow zone
zone is called the ‘shadow zone’. of P-waves appears as a band around the
 The study of different events reveals that earth between 105 ° and 145 ° away from
for each earthquake, there exists an the epicenter.
altogether different shadow zone. Figure  The shadow zone of S-waves is not only
3.2 (a) and (b) show the shadow zones of P larger in extent but it is also a little over
and S-waves. 40 per cent of the earth surface.
 It was observed that seismographs located
at any distance within 105 ° from the But how these properties of ‘P’ and ‘S’
epicenter, recorded the arrival of both P waves help in determining the earth’s
and S-waves. interior?
 However, the seismographs located
beyond 145 ° from epicenter, record the  Reflection causes waves to rebound
arrival of P-waves, but not that of S-waves. whereas refraction makes waves move in
 Thus, a zone between 105 ° and 145 ° different directions.
from epicenter was identified as the  The variations in the direction of waves
shadow zone for both the types of waves. are inferred with the help of their record
on seismograph.
 Change in densities greatly varies the  Liquids do not have the same shear
wave velocity. strength: that is why, if you take a glass of
 By observing the changes in velocity, the water and suddenly remove the glass, the
density of the earth as a whole can be water will not keep its glass shape and will
estimated. just flow away.
 By the observing the changes in direction  In fact, it is just a matter of rigidity: S-
Page
of the waves (emergence of shadow zones), waves need a medium rigid enough to
different layers can be identified. propagate. Hence, S-waves do not | 16
propagate through liquids.
Not important for exam. But if you are a
science enthusiast and if you want to know Earth’s Layers
more…
 Earth’s layers are identified by studying
Why does sound wave travel faster in a various direct and indirect sources [we
denser medium whereas light travels studied this in previous post].
slower?  The structure of the earth's interior is
made up of several concentric layers.
 Sound is a mechanical wave and travels
 Broadly three layers can be identified—
by compression and rarefaction of the
crust, mantle and the core.
medium.
 Its velocity in an elastic medium is Earth’s Layers based on chemical
proportional to the square root of Tension properties
in the medium.
 A higher density leads to more elasticity in (1) crust,
the medium and hence the ease by which (2) mantle, and
compression and rarefaction can take (3) core.
place. This way the velocity of sound
increases by increase in density.
 Light on the other hand is a transverse
electromagnetic wave.
 It does not depend on the elastic property
of the medium in which it travels.
 Its velocity in a medium is determined by
the electromagnetic (e.g. dielectric)
properties of the medium.
 Effective path length on the other hand is
increased by an increase in the density
and hence it leads to higher refractive
index and lower velocity.
Earth’s Layers - The Crust
Why S-waves cannot travel through
liquids?  Crust is the outer thin layer with a total
thickness normally between 30-50 km.
 S-waves are shear waves, which move  The thickness of the crust varies under
particles perpendicularly to their direction the oceanic and continental areas.
of propagation.  Oceanic crust is thinner (5-30 km thick)
 They can propagate through solid rocks as compared to the continental crust (50-
because these rocks have enough shear 70 km thick).
strength.  The continental crust is thicker in the
 The shear strength is one of the forces areas of major mountain systems. It is as
that hold the rock together, and prevent it much as 70 -100 km thick in the
from falling into pieces. Himalayan region.
 It forms 0.5-1.0 per cent of the earth’s

volume.
Page
| 17
 Mohorovicic (Moho) discontinuity forms  The outer covering of the crust is of

the boundary between crust and sedimentary material (granitic rocks) and
asthenosphere [asthenosphere is a part of below that lie crystalline, igneous and
mantle].
metamorphic rocks which are acidic in  It is composed of nickel and iron [nife].
nature.
 The lower layer of the crust consists of
 The outer core is liquid while the
basaltic and ultra-basic rocks. inner core is solid.
 The continents are composed of lighter  A zone of mixed heavy metals + silicates
silicates—silica + aluminium (also called separates the core from outer layers. Page
‘sial’) while the oceans have the heavier
silicates—silica + magnesium (also called Earth’s Layers - Seismic Discontinuities | 18
‘sima’).
 Mohorovicic Discontinuity (Moho) -
Earth’s Layers - Mantle separates the crust from the mantle, its
average depth being about 35 km.
 The mantle extends from Moho’s  A soft asthenosphere (highly viscous,
discontinuity (35 km) to a depth of 2,900 mechanically weak and ductile). It’s a part
km (Moho-Discontinuity to the outer of mantle.
core).
 Gutenberg Discontinuity - lies between
 The crust and the uppermost part of the the mantle and the outer core. Below
mantle are called lithosphere. Its 2900 km from earth’s surface.
thickness ranges from 10-200 km.
 The lower mantle extends beyond the Earth’s Chemical Composition
asthenosphere. It is in solid state.
 The density of mantle varies between 2.9
and 3.3.
 The density ranges from 3.3 to 5.7 in the
lower part.
 It is composed of solid rock and magma.
 It forms 83 per cent of the earth's volume.
 The outer layer of the mantle is partly
simatic while the inner layer is composed
of wholly simatic ultra-basic rocks.
Earth’s Layers - Asthenosphere

Composition of Earth’s Crust
 The upper portion of the mantle is called
asthenosphere.
 The word astheno means weak.
 It is considered to be extending up to 400
km.
 It is the main source of magma that finds
its way to the surface during volcanic
eruptions. It has a density higher than the
crust’s.
Earth’s Layers - Core
 Lies between 2900 km and 6400 km

below the earth's surface.
 Accounts for 16 per cent of the earth's
Earth Movements
volume.
 Core has the heaviest mineral materials of
highest density.
1. The heat generated by the radioactive

elements in earth's interior.
2. Movement of the crustal plates due to
tectogenesis.
3. Forces generated by rotation of the
earth.
Page
4. Climatic factors like winds,
precipitation, pressure belts etc. | 19
 Isostacy ==> According to this concepts,
blocks of the earth's crust, because of
variations in density would rise to different
 Our earth is undergoing deformations
levels and appear on the surface as
imperceptibly [so slight, gradual, or subtle
mountains, plateau, plains or ocean
as not to be perceived] but continuously.
basins
 These deformations are caused by the
 Tectonic ==> relating to the structure of
movements generated by various factors
the earth's crust and the large-scale
like
processes which take place within it.
Geomorphic processes earth surface are known as geomorphic

processes.
 Geomorphic == relating to the form of the  Diastrophism and volcanism are
landscape and other natural features of endogenic geomorphic processes.
the earth's surface.  Weathering, mass wasting, erosion and
 The endogenic and exogenic forces deposition are exogenic geomorphic
causing physical and chemical changes on processes.
 Geomorphic agent == mobile medium (like  Through the processes of orogeny,

running water, moving ice masses, wind, epeirogeny, earthquakes and plate
waves and currents etc.) which removes, tectonics, there can be faulting and
transports and deposits earth materials. fracturing of the crust. All these processes
cause pressure, volume and temperature
Endogenetic Movements (PVT) changes which in turn induce Page
metamorphism of rocks.
 The interaction of matter and temperature | 20
generates these forces or movements Epeirogenic or continent forming
inside the earth's crust. The earth movements
movements are mainly of two types:
diastrophism and the sudden  In geology, Epeirogenic movement refers to
movements. upheavals or depressions of land
 The energy emanating from within the exhibiting long wavelengths
earth is the main force behind endogenic [undulations] and little folding.
geomorphic processes.  The broad central parts of continents are
 This energy is mostly generated by called cratons, and are subject to
radioactivity, rotational and tidal epeirogeny.
friction and primordial heat from the  The movement is caused by a set of forces
origin of the earth. This energy due to acting along an Earth radius, such as
geothermal gradients and heat flow from those contributing to Isostacy and
within induces diastrophism and Faulting in the lithosphere
volcanism in the lithosphere.  Epeirogenic or continent forming
movements act along the radius of the
Diastrophism earth; therefore, they are also called
radial movements. Their direction may be
 Diastrophism is the general term applied towards (subsidence) or away (uplift)
to slow bending, folding, warping and from the center. The results of such
fracturing. movements may be clearly defined in the
 Wrap == make or become bent or twisted relief.
out of shape, typically from the action of
heat or damp; make abnormal; distort. Uplift
 All processes that move, elevate or build
up portions of the earth’s crust come  Raised beaches, elevated wave-cut
under diastrophism. They include: terraces, sea caves and fossiliferous beds
1. orogenic processes involving mountain above sea level are evidences of uplift.
building through severe folding and
affecting long and narrow belts of the
earth’s crust;
2. epeirogenic processes involving uplift or
warping of large parts of the earth’s crust;
3. earthquakes involving local relatively
minor movements;
4. plate tectonics involving horizontal
movements of crustal plates.
 In the process of orogeny, the crust is
severely deformed into folds. Due to
epeirogeny, there may be simple
deformation. Orogeny is a mountain
building process whereas epeirogeny is
continental building process.
 Raised beaches, some of them elevated as  Orogenic or the mountain-forming

much as 15 m to 30 m above the present movements act tangentially to the earth
sea level, occur at several places along the surface, as in plate tectonics.
Kathiawar, Nellore, and Thirunelveli  Tensions produces fissures (since this
coasts. type of force acts away from a point in two
 Several places which were on the sea some directions) and compression produces Page
centuries ago are now a few miles inland. folds (because this type of force acts
For example, Coringa near the mouth of towards a point from two or more | 21
the Godavari, Kaveripattinam in the directions). In the landforms so produced,
Kaveri delta and Korkai on the coast of the structurally identifiable units are
Thirunelveli, were all flourishing sea difficult to recognise.
ports about 1,000 to 2,000 years ago.  In general, diastrophic forces which have
uplifted lands have predominated over
Subsidence forces which have lowered them.
 Submerged forests and valleys as well as
buildings are evidences of subsidence.
 In 1819, a part of the Rann of Kachchh
was submerged as a result of an
earthquake.
 Presence of peat and lignite beds below
the sea level in Thirunelveli and the
Sunderbans is an example of subsidence.
 The Andamans and Nicobars have been
isolated from the Arakan coast by
submergence of the intervening land.
Sudden Movements
 These movements cause considerable

deformation over a short span of time, and
may be of two types.
Earthquake
 On the east side of Bombay island, trees
have been found embedded in mud about  It occurs when the surplus accumulated
4 m below low water mark. A similar stress in rocks in the earth's interior is
submerged forest has also been noticed on relieved through the weak zones over
the Thirunelveli coast in Tamil Nadu. the earth's surface in form of kinetic
 A large part of the Gulf of Mannar and energy of wave motion causing vibrations
Palk Strait is very shallow and has been (at times devastating) on the earth's
submerged in geologically recent times. A surface. Such movements may result in
part of the former town of Mahabalipuram uplift in coastal areas.
near Chennai (Madras) is submerged in  An earthquake in Chile (1822) caused a
the sea. one-metre uplift in coastal areas.
 An earthquake in New Zealand (1885)
Orogenic or the mountain-forming
caused an uplift of upto 3 metres in some
movements
areas while some areas in Japan (1891) development of stresses in the body of the
subsided by 6 metres after an earthquake. earth materials.
 Earthquakes may cause change in  Temperature and precipitation are the two
contours, change in river courses, important climatic elements that control
'tsunamis' (seismic waves created in sea various processes by inducing stress in
by an earthquake, as they are called in earth materials. Page
Japan) which may cause shoreline
changes, spectacular glacial surges (as in Denudation | 22
Alaska), landslides, soil creeps, mass
wasting etc.  All the exogenic geomorphic processes are
covered under a general term, denudation.
Volcanoes  The word ‘denude’ means to strip off or to
uncover.
 Volcanism includes the movement of  Weathering, mass wasting/movements,
molten rock (magma) onto or toward the erosion and transportation are included
earth’s surface and also formation of many in denudation.
intrusive and extrusive volcanic forms.
 A volcano is formed when the molten
magma in the earth's interior escapes
through the crust by vents and fissures in
the crust, accompanied by steam, gases
(hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide,
hydrogen chloride, carbon dioxide etc.)
and pyroclastic material. Depending on
chemical composition and viscosity of the
lava, a volcano may take various forms.
 Pyroclastic ==> adjective of or denoting
rock fragments or ash erupted by a
volcano, especially as a hot, dense,  Denudation mainly depends on rock type
destructive flow. and its structure that includes folds,
faults, orientation and inclination of beds,
Earth Movements - Exogenetic Forces presence or absence of joints, bedding
planes, hardness or softness of
 Exogenic (Exogenetic) processes are a constituent minerals, chemical
direct result of stress induced in earth susceptibility of mineral constituents; the
materials due to various forces that come permeability or impermeability etc.
into existence due to sun’s heat.  The effects of most of the exogenic
 Force applied per unit area is called geomorphic processes are small and slow
stress. Stress is produced in a solid by but will in the long run affect the rocks
pushing or pulling. severely due to continued fatigue.
 Forces acting along the faces of earth
materials are shear stresses (separating WEATHERING
forces). It is this stress that breaks rocks
and other earth materials.  Weathering is defined as mechanical
disintegration and chemical
 Earth materials become subjected to
decomposition of rocks through the
molecular stresses caused due to
actions of various elements of weather
temperature changes.
and climate.
 Chemical processes normally lead to
 As very little or no motion of materials
loosening of bonds between grains.
takes place in weathering, it is an in-situ
 Thus, the basic reason that leads to
or on-site process.
weathering, erosion and deposition is
 There are three major groups of weathering through exfoliation and

weathering processes: (i) chemical; (ii) granular disintegration.
physical or mechanical; (iii) biological
weathering processes. Oxidation and Reduction
Chemical Weathering Processes  In weathering, oxidation means a

combination of a mineral with oxygen to Page
 A group of weathering processes viz; form oxides (rusting in case of iron) or | 23
solution, carbonation, hydration, oxidation hydroxides. Red soils appear red due to
and reduction act on the rocks to the presence of iron oxides.
decompose, dissolve or reduce them to a  Oxidation occurs where there is ready
fine state. access to the atmosphere and water.
 Water and air (oxygen and carbon dioxide)  The minerals most commonly involved in
along with heat speed up all chemical this process are iron, manganese, sulphur
reactions. etc.
 When oxidized minerals are placed in an
Solution environment where oxygen is absent,
reduction takes place.
 When something is dissolved in water or
 Such conditions exist usually below the
acids, the water or acid with dissolved
water table, in areas of stagnant water and
contents is called solution.
waterlogged ground.
 On coming in contact with water many
 Red colour of iron upon reduction turns to
solids disintegrate. Soluble rock forming
greenish or bluish grey.
minerals like nitrates, sulphates, and
potassium etc. are affected by this These weathering processes are
process. interrelated. Hydration, carbonation and
 So, these minerals are easily leached out oxidation go hand in hand and hasten the
without leaving any residue in rainy weathering process.
climates and accumulate in dry regions.
Biological activity and weathering
Carbonation
 Biological weathering is removal of
 Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate minerals and ions from the weathering
and bicarbonate with minerals. environment and physical changes due to
 Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and growth or movement of organisms.
soil air is absorbed by water, to form  Burrowing and wedging by organisms like
carbonic acid that acts as a weak acid on earthworms, rodents etc., help in exposing
various minerals. the new surfaces to chemical attack and
assists in the penetration of moisture and
Hydration
air.
 Hydration is the chemical addition of  Human beings by disturbing vegetation,
water. ploughing and cultivating soils, also help
in mixing and creating new contacts
 Minerals take up water and expand; this
between air, water and minerals in the
expansion causes an increase in the
earth materials.
volume of the material itself or rock.
 Decaying plant and animal matter help in
 This process is reversible and long,
the production of humic, carbonic and
continued repetition of this process causes
other acids which enhance decay and
fatigue in the rocks and may lead to their
solubility of some elements.
disintegration.
 The volume changes in minerals due to
hydration will also help in physical
 Algae utilise mineral nutrients for growth  With rise in temperature, every mineral
and help in concentration of iron and expands and pushes against its neighbor
manganese oxides. and as temperature falls, a corresponding
 Plant roots exert a tremendous pressure contraction takes place.
on the earth materials mechanically  Because of diurnal changes in the
breaking them apart. temperatures, this internal movement Page
among the mineral grains takes place
Physical Weathering Processes regularly. | 24
 This process is most effective in dry
 Physical or mechanical weathering climates and high elevations where
processes depend on some applied forces diurnal temperature changes are drastic.
like (i) gravitational forces (ii) expansion
 The surface layers of the rocks tend to
forces due to temperature changes, crystal
expand more than the rock at depth and
growth or animal activity; (iii) water
this leads to the formation of stress within
pressures controlled by wetting and drying
the rock resulting in heaving and
cycles.
fracturing parallel to the surface.
Unloading and Expansion  Exfoliation results in smooth rounded
surfaces in rocks.
 Removal of overlying rock load because of
continued erosion causes vertical pressure
release with the result that the upper
layers of the rock expand producing
disintegration of rock masses.
 In areas of curved ground surface, arched
fractures tend to produce massive sheets
or exfoliation slabs of rock.
Granular Disintegration
 Rocks composed of coarse mineral grains

commonly fall apart grain by grain or
undergo granular disintegration.
Block Separation
 This type of disintegration takes place in

rocks with numerous joints acquired by
mountain-making pressures or by
shrinkage due to cooling.
 This type of disintegration in rocks can be
achieved by comparatively weaker forces.
Exfoliation - Temperature Changes and

Expansion
Shattering Mass Wasting
 A huge rock may undergo disintegration  Since gravity exerts its force on all matter,
along weak zones to produce highly both bedrock and the products of
angular pieces with sharp corners and weathering tend to slide, roll, flow or creep
edges through the process of shattering. down all slopes in different types of earth
Page
and rock movements grouped under the
term ‘mass wasting’. | 25
Freezing, Thawing and Frost Wedging
 During the warm season, the water

penetrates the pore spaces or fractures in Effects of Weathering
rocks.
 During the cold season, the water freezes  Weathering and erosion tend to level down
into ice and its volume expands as a the irregularities of landforms and create a
result. peneplane.
 This exerts tremendous pressure on rock  The strong wind erosion leaves behind
walls to tear apart even where the rocks whale-back shaped rocks in arid
are massive. landscape. These are called inselberg or
 Frost weathering occurs due to growth of ruware.
ice within pores and cracks of rocks
during repeated cycles of freezing and
melting.
Salt Weathering
 Salts in rocks expand due to thermal

action, hydration and crystallisation.
 Many salts like calcium, sodium,
magnesium, potassium and barium have a
tendency to expand.
 High temperature ranges in deserts favour
such salt expansion.
 Salt crystals in near-surface pores cause
splitting of individual grains within rocks,
which eventually fall off. This process of
falling off of individual grains may result
in granular disintegration or granular
foliation.
 Sometimes a solid layer of chemical  These important discoveries led to the

residue covers a soft rock. Sometimes, theory of Plate Tectonics.
differential weathering of soft strata
exposes the domelike hard rock masses, Plate Tectonics
called tors. Tors are a common feature of
South Indian landscape.  Plate tectonics is the large scale movement
of lithospheric plates due to forces Page
Weathering and Erosion emanating from earth’s interior. | 26
 Prior to the theory of ‘Plate Tectonics’,
 Lead to simultaneous process of there were other theories like ‘Continental
‘degradation' and ‘aggradation'. Drift Theory’ and ‘See Floor Spreading
 Erosion is a mobile process while Theory’ which tried to explain the large
weathering is a static process scale movements on earth’s surface.
[disintegrated material do not involve any  In this post, we will study about
motion except the falling down under force ‘Continental Drift Theory’.
of gravity].
Important theories
Significance of weathering
1. Polar wandering (Similar to Continental
 Weathering is the first step in formation of Drift Theory)
soils. 2. Continental Drift Theory (CDT)
 Weathering of rocks and deposits helps in 3. Convectional Current Theory (CCT)
the enrichment and concentrations of 4. Sea Floor Spreading Theory (SFST)
certain valuable ores of iron, manganese, 5. Plate Tectonics (PT)
aluminium, copper etc.  Polar wandering is the relative movement
 Weathering helps in soil enrichment. of the earth's crust and upper mantle with
 Without weathering, the concentration of respect to the rotational poles of the earth.
the same valuable material may not be  Continental drift refers to the movement of
sufficient and economically viable to the continents relative to each other.
exploit, process and refine. This is what is  Convectional current theory forms the
called enrichment. basis of SFST and PT.
 Sea floor spreading describes the
Another important process in Exogenetic movement of oceanic plates relative to
movements is erosion. We will study about one another.
erosion in Indian Geography.  Plate tectonics is simply the movement of
Continental Drift Theory - Tectonics crustal plates relative to each other.
Continental Drift Theory (Alfred

 Tectonics == Large scale movement of Wegener, 1922)
lithospheric plates.
Introduction  This theory was suggested by Alfred

Wegener in 1920’s.
 During WW II, scientists discovered that  According to Wegener’s Continental Drift
the ocean floor was not a flat surface but Theory, there existed one big landmass
had some unique relief features like which he called Pangaea which was
ridges, trenches, seamounts, shoals etc. covered by one big ocean called
 The most important discoveries were Panthalassa.
ridges and trenches which gave insights  A sea called Tethys divided the Pangaea
into natural boundaries between various into two huge landmasses: Laurentia
lithospheric plates (sometime called as (Laurasia) to the north and
crustal plates or tectonic plates) Gondwanaland to the south of Tethys.
Page
| 27
Page
| 28
 Drift started around 200 million years 1. equator wards due to the interaction of
ago (Mesozoic Era), and the continents forces of gravity, pole-fleeing force and
began to break up and drift away from one buoyancy (ship floats in water due to
another. buoyant force offered by water), and
2. westwards due to tidal currents because
Force for Continental Drift of the earth’s motion (earth rotates form
west to east, so tidal currents act from
The drift was in two directions- east to west. Watch video for better
understanding).
 Wegener suggested that tidal force also  North and South America on one side and
played a major role. Africa and Europe on the other fit along
 The polar-fleeing force relates to the the mid-Atlantic ridge.
rotation of the earth. You are aware of the
fact that the earth is not a perfect sphere;
it has a bulge at the equator. This bulge is Page
due to the rotation of the earth. [Greater
Centrifugal force at the equator. | 29
Centrifugal force increases as we move
from poles towards equator. This increase
in centrifugal force has led to pole fleeing].
 Tidal force is due to the attraction of the
moon and the sun that develops tides in
oceanic waters.
 Wegener believed that these forces would
 The Caledonian and Hercynian
become effective when applied over many
mountains of Europe and the
million years.
Appalachians of USA seem to be one
 According to Wegener, the drift is still
continuous series.
continuing.
Evidence in support of Continental

Drift
Apparent Affinity of Physical Features
 South America and Africa seem to fit in

with each other, especially, the bulge of
Brazil fits into the Gulf of Guinea.
 Greenland seems to fit in well with
Ellesmere and Baffin islands. Criticism
 The east coast of India, Madagascar and
Africa seem to have been joined.

 Coastlines are a temporary feature and are

liable to change.
 Several other combinations of fitting in of
landforms could be attempted.
 Continental Drift Theory shifts India's
position too much to the south, distorting Page
its relation with the Mediterranean Sea
and the Alps. | 30
 The mountains do not always exhibit
geological affinity.
Causes of Drift
 The belt of ancient rocks of 2,000 million
 Gravity of the earth, buoyancy of the seas years from Brazil coast matches with
and the tidal currents were given as the those from western Africa.
main factors causing the drift, by
Criticism
Wegener.
 Rocks of same age and similar
Criticism
characteristics are found in other parts of
 This is illogical because for these factors to the world too.
be able to cause a drift of such a
Tillite deposits
magnitude, they will have to be millions of
times stronger.  It is the sedimentary rock formed out of
Polar wandering (Shifting of Poles) deposits of glaciers. The Gondwana
system of sediments from India is known
 The poles drifted constantly. to have its counter parts in six different
landmasses of the Southern Hemisphere.
Criticism  At the base the system has thick Tillite
indicating extensive and prolonged
 Poles may have shifted, not necessarily the glaciation. Counter parts of this
continents (don’t think deep). succession are found in Africa, Falkland
Botanical Evidence Island, Madagascar, Antarctica and
Australia besides India.
 Presence of glossopteris vegetation in  Overall resemblance of the Gondwana type
carboniferous rocks of India, Australia, sediments clearly demonstrates that these
South Africa, Falkland Islands (Overseas landmasses had remarkably similar
territory of UK), Antarctica, etc. can be histories.
explained on the basis of the fact that  The glacial Tillite provides unambiguous
parts were linked in the past. evidence of palaeoclimates and also of
drifting of continents.
Criticism
Placer Deposits
 Such vegetation is also found in the
northern parts like Afghanistan, Iran and  Rich placer deposits of gold are found on
Siberia. the Ghana coast (West Africa) but the
 Similar vegetation found in unrelated source (gold bearing veins) are in Brazil
parts of the world. and it is obvious that the gold deposits of
the Ghana are derived from the Brazil
Rocks of Same Age Across the Oceans plateau when the two continents lay side
by side.
Distribution of Fossils Mapping of the Ocean Floor
 The observations that Lemurs occur in  Detailed research during World Wars
India, Madagascar and Africa led some to revealed that the ocean floor is not just a
consider a contiguous landmass vast plain but it is full of relief with
“Lemuria” linking these three landmasses. mountain ranges, deep trenches etc..
Page
 Mesosaurus was a small reptile adapted  The mid-oceanic ridges were found to be
to shallow brackish water. The skeletons most active in terms of volcanic eruptions. | 31
of these are found only in South Africa  The dating of the rocks from the oceanic
and Iraver formations of Brazil. The two crust revealed the fact that the latter is
localities presently are 4,800 km apart much younger than the continental areas
with an ocean in between them. (Rocks on ocean floor are much
younger than those on the continents).
Drawbacks of Continental Drift Theory  Rocks on either side of the crest of oceanic
ridges and having equidistant locations
 Wegener failed to explain why the drift
from the crest were found to have
began only in Mesozoic era and not
remarkable similarities both in terms of
before.
their constituents and their age.
 The theory doesn’t take oceans into
consideration. Distribution of Earthquakes and
 Proofs heavily depend on assumptions Volcanoes
and are very general in nature.
 Forces like buoyancy, tidal currents and  Volcanism and associated earthquakes at
gravity are too weak to be able to move plate margins are a direct consequence of
continents. convection currents in the mantle.
 Modern theories (PT) accept the existence  Dots in the central parts of the Atlantic
of Pangaea and related landmasses but Ocean and other oceans are almost
give a very different explanation to the parallel to the coastlines.
causes of drift.  In general, the foci of the earthquake in
the areas of mid-oceanic ridges are at
In this post we will study about a very shallow depths whereas along the Alpine-
important concept called See Floor Himalayan belt as well as the rim of the
Spreading. Before jumping directly into Pacific, the earthquakes are deep-seated
the concept of See Floor Spreading, we ones (deep focus earthquakes are more
must understand some basic concepts destructive).
that form the corner stones for the  The map of volcanoes also shows a similar
concept of See Floor Spreading. These pattern. The rim of the Pacific is also
corner stones are Convectional Current called rim of fire due to the existence of
Theory and Paleomagnetism. active volcanoes in this area.
Convectional Current Theory - These observations (ocean floor and the
Tectonics distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes)
led to the theory of See Floor Spreading.
 Arthur Holmes in 1930s discussed the
possibility of convection currents in the Convectional Current Theory is the soul of
mantle. See Floor Spreading theory.
 These currents are generated due to
radioactive elements causing thermal
differences in mantle.
Page
| 32
Convectional Current Theory sea floor and wherever the failing limbs
meet, trenches are formed.
Paleomagnetism
 It is the study of the record of the Earth's

magnetic field in rocks, sediment etc..
Why do we need to study this concept?
 Paleomagnetic rocks on either side of the

submarine ridges provide the most
important evidence to the concept of Sea
Floor Spreading (next post).
Paleo == Rocks; Paleomagnetism ==

magnetism in rocks.
 According to this theory, the intense heat
generated by radioactive substances in the  Certain minerals in rocks lock-in a record
mantle (100-2900 km below the earth of the direction and intensity of the
surface) seeks a path to escape, and gives magnetic field when they form.
rise to the formation of convention  This record provides information on the
currents in the mantle. past behavior of Earth's magnetic field
 Wherever rising limbs of these currents and the past location of tectonic plates.
meet, oceanic ridges are formed on the
 Paleomagnetists led the revival of the How could this be?

continental drift hypothesis and its
transformation into plate tectonics.
 Paleomagnetic studies of rocks and ocean
sediment have demonstrated that the
orientation of the earth's magnetic field Page
has frequently alternated over geologic
time. | 33
 Periods of "normal" polarity (i.e., when the
north-seeking end of the compass needle
points toward the present north magnetic
pole, as it does today) have alternated with
periods of "reversed" polarity (when the
north-seeking end of the compass needle
points southward)[I have explained this in
detail in the video].
 As today's magnetic field is close to the
earth's rotational axis, continental drift
could be tested by ascertaining the
magnetic characteristics of ancient rocks.
Paleomagnetism: Strong evidence of

See Floor Spreading and Plate
Tectonics
 These oceanic ridges were actually
 Some of the strongest evidence in support boundaries with tectonic plates pulling
of the theory of see floor spreading and apart.
plate tectonics comes from studying the  This movement of the plates allowed the
magnetic fields surrounding oceanic magma to rise up and harden into new
ridges. rock.
 Rocks formed from this underwater  As the new rock was formed near the
volcanic activity were mainly basalt, which ridge, older rock, which formed millions of
is low silica, iron-rich, volcanic rock years ago when the magnetic field was
that makes up most of the ocean floor. reversed, got pushed farther away,
 Basalt contains magnetic minerals and as resulting in this magnetic striping.
the rock is solidifying, these minerals  Rising magma assumes the polarity of
align themselves in the direction of the Earth’s geomagnetic field before it
magnetic field. solidifies into oceanic crust.
 This basically locks in a record of which  At spreading centres, this crust is
way the magnetic field was positioned at separated into parallel bands of rock by
the time that part of the ocean floor was successive waves of emergent magma.
created.  When Earth’s geomagnetic field undergoes
 Paleomagnetists [scientists who study past a reversal, the change in polarity is
magnetic fields], took a look at the ocean recorded in the magma, which contributes
floor going out away from oceanic ridges to the alternating pattern of magnetic
(either side of the oceanic ridges), they striping on the seafloor.
found magnetic stripes that were flipped
Concept of Sea Floor Spreading
so that one stripe would be normal
polarity and the next reversed.
Page
| 34
 The idea that the seafloor itself moves (and  Older rocks will be found farther away
carries the continents with it) as it from the spreading zone while younger
expands from a central axis was proposed rocks will be found nearer to the
by Harry Hess. spreading zone.
 According to this theory, the intense heat
generated by radioactive substances in the Evidences
mantle (100-2900 km below the earth
surface) seeks a path to escape, and gives  The mapping of the ocean floor and
rise to the formation of convention Paleomagnetic studies of rocks from
currents in the mantle. oceanic regions revealed the following
facts :
 Wherever rising limbs of these currents
1. Volcanic eruptions are common all
meet, oceanic ridges are formed on the sea
along the midoceanic ridges and they
floor and wherever the failing limbs meet,
bring huge amounts of lava to the
trenches are formed.
surface in this area.
 Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs
2. The rocks equidistant on either sides of
at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic
the crest of mid-oceanic ridges show
crust is formed through volcanic activity
remarkable similarities
and then gradually moves away from the
3. Rocks closer to the mid-oceanic ridges
ridge.
are normal polarity and are the
 Seafloor spreading helps explain
youngest.
continental drift in the theory of plate
4. The age of the rocks increases as one
tectonics. When oceanic plates diverge,
moves away from the crest.
tensional stress causes fractures to occur
5. The deep trenches have deep-seated
in the lithosphere.
earthquake occurrences while in the
 Basaltic magma rises up the fractures and midoceanic ridge areas, the quake foci
cools on the ocean floor to form new sea have shallow depths.
floor.
 It was on the basis of the continental drift minor plates to major plates,
theory, theory of sea floor spreading, that continental plates (Arabian plate) to
the theory of Plate Tectonics was oceanic plates (Pacific plate), sometime a
formulated—first outlined by Morgan in combination of both continental and
1968. oceanic plates (Indo-Australian plate).
 So, next post will be a detailed explanation  The movement of these crustal plates Page
on Plate Tectonics. causes the formation of various landforms
and is the principal cause of all earth | 35
In this post we will study about one of the movements.
most important concept of geomorphology
called Plate Tectonics. This is the third Rates of Plate Movement
post in ‘Tectonics’ after ‘Continental Drift
Theory’ and ‘See Floor Spreading Theory’.  The Arctic Ridge has the slowest rate (less
than 2.5 cm/yr), and the East Pacific Rise
Plate Tectonics in the South Pacific [about 3,400 km west
of Chile], has the fastest rate (more than
 In 1967, McKenzie and Parker suggested 15 cm/yr).
the theory of plate tectonics. The theory  Indian plate’s movement during its
was later outlined by Morgan in 1968. journey from south to equator was one of
 By then, the ‘continental drift theory’ was the fastest plate movements.
completely discarded with the emergence
of ‘convectional current theory’ and ‘see Major tectonic plates
floor spreading theory’.
 Both ‘convectional current theory’ and ‘see 1. Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic
floor spreading’ paved the way for the plate
Theory of Plate Tectonics. 2. North American plate
3. South American plate
Theory 4. Pacific plate
5. India-Australia-New Zealand plate
 According to the theory of plate tectonics, 6. Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor plate
the earth’s lithosphere is broken into 7. Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate
distinct plates which are floating on a
ductile layer called asthenosphere Minor tectonic plates
(upper mantle). Plates move horizontally
over the asthenosphere as rigid units. 1. Cocos plate: Between Central America and
 The lithosphere includes the crust and Pacific plate
top mantle with its thickness range 2. Nazca plate: Between South America and
varying between 5-100 km in oceanic Pacific plate
parts and about 200 km in the continental 3. Arabian plate: Mostly the Saudi Arabian
areas. landmass
4. Philippine plate: Between the Asiatic and
 The oceanic plates contain mainly the
Pacific plate
Simatic crust and are relatively thinner,
5. Caroline plate: Between the Philippine and
while the continental plates contain Sialic
Indian plate (North of New Guinea)
material and are relatively thicker.
 Lithospheric plates (sometimes called
crustal plates, tectonic plates) vary from
Page
| 36
Page
| 37
6. Fuji plate: North-east of Australia. See Floor Spreading). This cycle is

7. Turkish plate, repeated over and over to generate what
8. Aegean plate (Mediterranean region), scientists call a convection cell or
9. Caribbean plate, convective flow.
10. Juan de Fuca plate (between Pacific  Heat within the earth comes from two
and North American plates) main sources: radioactive decay and
11. Iranian plate. residual heat. Arthur Holmes first
considered this idea in the 1930s, which
There are many more minor plates other later influenced Harry Hess’ thinking
than the above mentioned plates. Most of about seafloor spreading.
the these minor plates were formed due to
stress created by converging major plates. Plate Tectonics - Interaction of Plates
Example: the Mediterranean Sea is divided
into numerous minor plates due to the  Major geomorphological features such as
compressive force exerted by Eurasian and fold and block mountains, mid-oceanic
African plates. ridges, trenches, volcanism, earthquakes
etc. are a direct consequence of interaction
The figure below shows the changes in between various lithospheric plates.
landform with time due to the interaction  There are three ways in which the plates
of various plates. interact with each other.
Force for the Plate Movement Divergence forming Divergent Edge or
the Constructive Edge
 The slow movement of hot, softened
mantle that lies below the rigid plates is  As the name itself suggests, in this kind of
the driving force behind the plate interaction, the plates diverge [move away
movement. from each other].
 The heated material rises to the surface,  Mid-oceanic ridges are formed due to this
spreads and begins to cool, and then sinks kind of interaction. Here, the basaltic
back into deeper depths (convection magma erupts and moves apart (see floor
currents – explained in the previous post – spreading).
Page
| 38
 The best-known example of divergent

boundaries is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. At
the mid-oceanic ridge in Atlantic ocean,
the American Plate(s) is/are separated
from the Eurasian and African Plates.
Convergence forming Convergent Edge

or Destructive Edge
 In this kind of interaction, two lithospheric

plates collide against each other (in detail
in the next post).
 The zone of collision may undergo
crumpling and folding and folded
mountains may emerge.
 This is an orogenic collision. Himalayan
Boundary Fault is one such example.
 On continents, East African Rift Valley is  When one of the plates is an oceanic plate,
the most important geomorphological it gets embedded in the softer
feature formed due to divergence of asthenosphere of the continental plate
African and Somali plates. and as a result, trenches are formed at
 Such edges are sites of earth crust the zone of subduction.
formation (hence constructive) and  The subducted material gets heated, up
volcanic earth forms are common along and is thrown out forming volcanic islands
such edges. and dynamic equilibrium is achieved
 Earthquakes (shallow focus) are common  There are mainly three ways in which
along divergent edges. convergence can occur.
 The sites where the plates move away from 1. between an oceanic and continental
each other are called spreading sites. plate;
2. between two oceanic plates; and upwelling of magmatic material from the
3. between two continental plates. mantle.
 In trenches, where subduction has taken
Transcurrent Edge or Conservative place (convergent edge), the value of
Edge or Transform Fault gravitational constant ‘g’ is less. This
indicates a loss of material. For instance, Page
 Formed when two plates move past each gravity measurements around the
other. Indonesian islands have indicated that | 39
 In this kind of interaction, two plates grind large gravity anomalies are associated with
against each other and there is no the oceanic trench bordering Indonesia.
creation or destruction of landform but  The fact that all plate boundary regions
only deformation of the existing landform. are areas of earthquake and volcanic
[Crust is neither produced nor destroyed disturbances goes to prove the theory of
as the plates slide horizontally past each plate tectonics.
other].
 In oceans, transform faults are the planes Significance of Plate Tectonics
of separation generally perpendicular to
the midoceanic ridges.  For the earth scientists, it is a
 San Andreas Fault along the western coast fundamental principle for study. For
of USA is the best example for a physical geographers, this approach is an
transcurrent edge on continents. aid in interpretation of landforms.
 New minerals are thrown up from the core
Evidence in Support of Plate Tectonics with the magmatic eruptions.
Economically valuable minerals like
 Evidences for both See Floor Spreading copper and uranium are found more
and Plate tectonics are complimentary frequently near the plate boundaries.
(almost same evidences).  On the basis of present knowledge of
 Paleomagnetic rocks are the most crustal plate movement, the shape of
important evidence. The orientation of iron landmasses in future can be guessed. For
grains on older rocks shows an orientation instance, if the present trends continue,
which points to the existence of the South North and South America will separate. A
Pole, once upon a time, somewhere piece of land will separate from the east
between the present-day Africa and coast of Africa. Australia will move closer
Antarctica (Paleomagnetism). to Asia.
 Older rocks form the continents while
younger rocks are present on the ocean Movement Of The Indian Plate
floor. On continents, rocks of upto 3.5
billion years old can be found while the  The Indian plate includes Peninsular India
oldest rock found on the ocean floor is not and the Australian continental portions.
more than 75 million years old (western
part of Pacific floor). As we move, towards Indian Plate Boundaries
ridges, still younger rocks appear. This
points to an effective spread of sea floor  The subduction zone along the Himalayas
(See floor spreading is almost similar to forms the northern plate boundary in the
plate tectonics except that it examines the form of continent — continent
interaction between oceanic plates only) convergence.
along oceanic ridges which are also the  In the east, it extends through Rakinyoma
plate margins. Mountains (Arakan Yoma) of Myanmar
 The normal temperature gradient on the towards the island arc along the Java
sea floor is 9.4°C/300 m but near the Trench. The eastern margin is a spreading
ridges it becomes higher, indicating an
site lying to the east of Australia in the

form of an oceanic ridge in SW Pacific.
 The Western margin follows Kirthar
Mountain of Pakistan. It further extends
along the Makrana coast (Pakistan and
Iranian coasts) and joins the spreading Page
site from the Red Sea rift (Red Sea rift is
formed due to divergence of Somali | 40
plate and Arabian plate) southeastward
along the Chagos Archipelago (Formed
due to hotspot volcanism).
 The boundary between India and the
Antarctic plate is also marked by oceanic
ridge (divergent boundary) running in
roughly W-E direction and merging into
the spreading site, a little south of New
Zealand.
Movement
 India was a large island situated off the

Australian coast, in a vast ocean.
 The Tethys Sea separated it from the
Asian continent till about 225 million
years ago.
 India is supposed to have started her
northward journey about 200 million
years ago at the time when Pangaea
broke.
 India collided with Asia about 40-50
million years ago causing rapid uplift of
the Himalayas.
 The positions of India since about 71  Note that the subcontinent was still close
million years till the present are shown in to the equator. From 40 million years ago
the Figure. It also shows the position of and thereafter, the event of formation of
the Indian subcontinent and the Eurasian the Himalayas took place.
plate.  Scientists believe that the process is still
 About 140 million years before the continuing and the height of the
present, the subcontinent was located as Himalayas is rising even to this date.
south as 50◦ S. latitude. The two major In short
plates were separated by the Tethys Sea
and the Tibetan block was closer to the  Around 220 million years ago, around the
Asiatic landmass. time that Pangea was breaking apart,
 During the movement of the Indian plate India started to move northwards.
towards the Asiatic plate, a major event  It travelled some 6,000 kilometres before it
that occurred was the outpouring of lava finally collided with Asia around 40 to 50
and formation of the Deccan Traps. This million years ago.
started somewhere around 60 million  Then, part of the Indian landmass began
years ago and continued for a long period to go beneath the Asian plate, moving the
of time.
Asian landmass up, which resulted in the  The continued growth in the Himalayas is
rise of the Himalayas. likely due to the Indian tectonic plate still
 It’s thought that India’s coastline was moving slowly but surely northward. We
denser and more firmly attached to the know the plate is still moving in part
seabed, which is why Asia’s softer soil was because of the frequent earthquakes in
pushed up rather than the other way the region. Page
around.
 The mountain range grew very rapidly in Comparison: Continental Drift – See | 41
comparison to most mountain ranges, and Floor Spreading – Plate Tectonics
it’s actually still growing today.
Continental Drift See Floor Spreading Plate Tectonics
Explained Alfred Wegener in Arthur Holmes In 1967, McKenzie and
by 1920s explains Convectional Parker suggested the
Current Theory in theory of plate tectonics.
1930s. The theory was later
Based on convectional outlined by Morgan in
current theory, Harry 1968
Hess explains See Floor
Spreading in 1940s
Theory Explains Movement of Explains Movement of Explains Movement of
Continents only Oceanic Plates only Lithospheric plates that
include both continents
and oceans.
Forces for Buoyancy, gravity, pole Convection currents in Convection currents in
movement fleeing force, tidal the mantle drag crustal the mantle drag crustal
currents, tides, plates plates
Evidences Apparent affinity of Ocean bottom relief, Ocean bottom relief,
physical features, Paleomagnetic rocks, Paleomagnetic rocks,
botanical evidence, distribution of distribution of
fossil evidence, Tillite earthquakes and earthquakes and
deposits, placer volcanoes etc. volcanoes, gravitational
deposits, rocks of same anomalies at trenches,
age across different etc.
continents etc.
Drawbacks Too general with silly Doesn’t explain the
and sometimes illogical movement of ---------------------
evidences. continental plates
Acceptance Totally discarded Not complete Most widely accepted
Usefulness Helped in the evolution Helped in the evolution Helped understand
of convectional current of plate tectonics theory various geographical
theory and see floor features.
spreading theory
Multiple choice questions. 2. Which one of the following is not a minor
plate?
1. Polar fleeing force relates to: 1) Nazca
1) Revolution of the Earth 2) Philippines
2) Rotation of the earth 3) Arabia
3) Gravitation 4) Antarctica
4) Tides
3. Which one of the following facts was not 4. What was the location of the Indian
considered by those while discussing the landmass during the formation of the
concept of sea floor spreading? Deccan Traps?
1) Volcanic activity along the mid-oceanic
ridges. Answer in about 150 words
2) Stripes of normal and reverse magnetic
field observed in rocks of ocean floor. 1. What are the evidences in support of the Page
3) Distribution of fossils in different continental drift theory? | 42
continents. 2. Bring about the basic difference between
4) Age of rocks from the ocean floor. the drift theory and Plate tectonics.
4. Which one of the following is the type of 3. What were the major post-drift discoveries
plate boundary of the Indian plate along that rejuvenated the interest of scientists
the Himalayan mountains? in the study of distribution of oceans and
1) Ocean-continent convergence continents?
2) Divergent boundary In this post we will study about Ocean -
3) Transform boundary Ocean Convergence. Understanding
4) Continent-continent convergence Ocean - Ocean Convergence helps us in
Answer in about 30 words. understanding the formation of
Japanese Island Arc, formation of
1. What were the forces suggested by Indonesian Archipelago, formation of
Wegener for the movement of the Philippine Island Arc and formation of
continents? Caribbean Islands.
2. How are the convectional currents in the Previous mains question: “Explain the
mantle initiated and maintained? formation of thousands of islands in
3. What is the major difference between the Indonesian and Philippines archipelagos.”
transform boundary and the convergent or
divergent boundaries of plates? In the previous post, we have studied
about Plate Tectonics, Interaction of
plates – Convergence, Divergence etc.
In convergence there are subtypes namely: 3. Collision of continental plates or

continent - continent convergence.
1. Collision of oceanic plates or ocean - 4. Collision of continent and arc or
ocean convergence. continent - arc convergence.
2. Collision of continental and oceanic
plates or ocean - continent
convergence.
In this post we will stick to Ocean – Ocean

Convergence. Remaining types will be
explained in future posts.
Basics
Ocean - Ocean Convergence or The Page

Island - Arc Convergence | 43
 In Ocean - Ocean Convergence, a denser

oceanic plate subducts below a less
denser oceanic plate forming a trench
along the boundary.  After reaching a depth of about 100 km,
plates melt. Magma (metamorphosed
[We have studies in the previous post on sediments and the melted part of the
See Floor Spreading how convectional subducting plate) has lower density and
currents in the mantle drive the is at high pressure. It rises upwards due
lithospheric plates] to the buoyant force offered by
surrounding denser medium. The magma
 As the ocean floor crust (oceanic plate) flows out, sometimes violently to the
loaded with sediments subducts into the surface.
softer asthenosphere, the rocks on the  A continuous upward movement of
continental side in the subduction zone magma creates constant volcanic
become metamorphosed under high eruptions at the ocean floor.
pressure and temperature.  Constant volcanism above the subduction
zone creates layers of rocks. As this
process continues for millions of years, a
volcanic landform is created which in
some cases rises above the ocean waters.
 Such volcanic landforms all along the
boundary form a chain of volcanic islands
which are collectively called as Island Arcs
(Indonesian Island Arc or Indonesian
Archipelago, Philippine Island Arc,
Japanese Island Arc etc.).
 Orogenesis sets in motion the process of
building continental crust by replacing
oceanic crust (this happens at a much
later stage. For example, new islands are
born around Japan in every few years.
After some million years Japan will be a
single landmass because continental crust
formation is constantly replacing the
oceanic crust [more and more volcanism
creates much bigger landform]).
This explanation is common for all the

island arc formations due to ocean - ocean
convergence. In addition, we only need to
know the plates involved with respect to
each island formation.
[The extreme southeastern portion of the

Eurasian plate, which is a part of
Southeast Asia, is a continental shelf.
The region is called the Sunda Shelf. The
Sunda Shelf and its islands is known as
the Sundaland block of the Eurasian
Page
plate].
| 44
 Philippine Island Arc system is formed due
to subduction of Philippine Sea plate
under Sunda Plate (part of Eurasian
Plate). The trench formed here is called
Philippine Trench.
Formation of Indonesian Archipelago
 In case of Indonesian Archipelago, Indo-

Australian plate subducts below Sunda
Plate (part of Eurasian Plate). The trench
formed here is called Sunda trench (Java
Trench is a major section of Sunda
trench).
Formation of Caribbean Islands
Formation of Philippine Island Arc

System
 For the study of the formation of the

Philippine islands, the most important of
the major plates are: the Sunda Plate
(major continental shelf of Eurasian plate)  Formation of Caribbean Islands is also
and the Philippine Sea plate. similar but here the plate interaction is
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/c complex due to the involvement of many
ommons/b/b4/Plate_tectonics_map.gif minor plates.
 North American Plate subducts under
the Caribbean plate and forms the Puerto
Rico Trench. There is trough formation on

the other side as well.
Formation of Japanese Island Arc
 Japan's volcanoes are part of three

volcanic arcs. Page
 The arcs meet at a triple junction on the | 45
island of Honshu.
 Northern arc is formed due to the Archipelago: an extensive group of
subduction of the Pacific Plate under the islands. [All the above mentioned ones and
Eurasian Plate. The trench formed is + few more]
Japan Trench.
 Central arc is formed due to the Island arc: narrow chain of islands which
subduction of the Pacific Plate under the are volcanic in origin. Island arc is usually
Philippine Plate (island formation is not curved. The convex side will have a trench
significant along this arc). The trench if it’s an oceanic arc. Japan, Philippines,
formed is Izu Trench. Hawaii etc. are oceanic arcs. Cascade
 Southern Arc is formed due to the range, Western Chile range etc. are
subduction of the Philippine Plate under examples of continental arcs.
the Eurasian Plate. The trench formed is
Model Answer [May not be ideal, there
Ryukyu Trench.
is always scope for optimization] [I
followed the formula 20 marks = 200
words]
 Indonesian archipelago and Philippine

archipelago are located along the plate
margins. Both the archipelagoes were
formed due to ocean – ocean
convergence.
 Indonesian archipelago was formed due to
convergence between Sunda oceanic plate
(part of Eurasian plate) and Indo –
Australian plate whereas Philippine
archipelago was formed due to
convergence between Sunda oceanic plate
 Japanese island arc was very close to the and Philippine Sea plate. [if you can’t
mainland. remember names, you should avoid these
 The force exerted by the Pacific plate and kind of points]
the Philippine plate tilted the arc towards  In ocean – ocean convergence, two oceanic
its east giving rise to the Sea of Japan. plates converge or collide. The denser
plate subducts into the asthenosphere
Explain the formation of thousands of below the convergence zone and forms a
islands in Indonesian and Philippines trench at the surface. This region below
archipelagos the convergence zone is called the zone of
subduction.
[20 marks - Mains 2014]
 In the zone of subduction, due to high
I suggest you to rely on mrunal.org answer temperature and pressure, the rocks
key to know how to write an answer. undergo metamorphosis and the
sediments in the oceanic plate melt to Related question

form magma.
 The magma being lighter moves upwards. In spite of extensive volcanism, there is
It is at high pressure due to the buoyant no island formation along the divergent
force offered by the surrounding denser boundary (mid oceanic ridge)
medium. At the surface magma escapes
in the form of volcanic eruptions.  Basaltic magma flows out along the Page
divergent edge (Fissure type volcano). | 46
 The magma solidifies creating a volcanic
layer. Subsequent volcanism builds layer  Basaltic magma = less silica = less
over layer and a volcanic mountain if viscosity = flows over a large distance and
formed. Such mountains are formed all hence causes see floor spreading but not
along the converging edge above the less volcanic islands.
denser plate.  On the other hand, along convergent
 Over time the mountains merge and boundary, andesitic or acidic magma flows
oceanic crust gets transformed into out.
continental crust.  Andesitic or acidic magma = more silica
 And this is how Indonesian archipelago content = higher viscosity = doesn’t move
and Philippine archipelago are formed. quick and also solidifies quickly. This
helps in building layer over layer in a
[Figure must for this answer] narrow region = huge volcanic mountain.
[211 words] [you can always optimize an In this post we will study about Continent
answer by addition or deletion] [I tried my - Ocean Convergence. Understanding
best to keep this answer relevant] [If you Continent - Ocean Convergence is
have a better answer, write it in the important to understand the Fromation
comments] of The Rockies, the Formation of the
Andes and other similar fold mountain
If asked for 10 marks = 100 words. systems.
 Indonesian and Philippine archipelagos We have studied in See Floor
are formed due to ocean – ocean Spreading how convectional currents in
convergence. the mantle drive the lithospheric
 In ocean – ocean convergence, the denser plates. Rising vertical limbs of the
plate subducts into the asthenosphere. convection currents in the mantle create a
This region below the convergence zone is divergent plate boundary and falling limbs
called the zone of subduction. create a convergent plate boundary.
 In the zone of subduction the rocks
undergo metamorphosis and the In convergence there are sub-types
sediments in the oceanic plate melt to namely:
form magma.
1. Collision of oceanic plates or ocean -
 At the surface magma escapes in the form ocean convergence. [Explained in the
of volcanic eruptions. previous post]
 constant volcanism builds layer over layer 2. Collision of continental and oceanic plates
and a volcanic mountain if formed. or ocean - continent convergence [This
 Such mountains are formed all along the post].
converging edge. 3. Collision of continental plates or continent
 Over time the mountains merge and - continent convergence [Next Post].
oceanic crust gets transformed into 4. Collision of continent and arc or continent
continental crust. - arc convergence [Next Post].
 And this is how Indonesian archipelago
and Philippine archipelago are formed.
In all types of convergence, denser plate [Arc: narrow chain of volcanic islands or
subducts and the less denser plate is mountains.
either up thrust or folded or both [up
thrust and folded]. Island arc: A narrow chain of volcanic
islands. Island arc is usually curved. The
Continent - Ocean Convergence Or The convex side will have a trench if it’s an
Cordilleran Convergence oceanic arc. Japan, Philippines, Hawaii Page
(hotspot island arc) etc. are oceanic arcs. | 47
 Continent - Ocean Convergence is also They are formed due to ocean - ocean
called Cordilleran Convergence because convergence.
this kind of convergence gives rise to
extensive mountain systems. A cordillera Continental arc: A narrow chain of
is an extensive chain of mountains or volcanic mountains on continents.
mountain ranges. Some mountain chains Cascade range (parallel to Rockies),
in North America and South America are Western Chile range (parallel to Andes)
called cordilleras. etc. are examples of continental arcs. They
 Continent - Ocean Convergence is similar are formed due to continent - ocean
to ocean - ocean convergence. One convergence]
important difference is that in continent -  Continental margins are filled with thick
ocean convergence mountains are formed geoclinal sediments brought by the rivers.
instead of islands. As a result of convergence, the buoyant
 When oceanic and continental plates granite [geoclinal sediments] of the
collide or converge, the oceanic plate continental crust overrides (is placed
(denser plate) subducts or plunges below above) the oceanic crust [continental crust
the continental plate (less denser plate) in up thrust by the oceanic crust]. As a
forming a trench along the boundary. The result the edge of the deformed
trenches formed here are not as deep as continental margin is thrust above sea
those formed in ocean - ocean level.
convergence.  The advancing oceanic plate adds more
 As the ocean floor crust (oceanic plate) compressive stress on the up thrust
loaded with sediments subducts into the continental margin and leads to its
softer asthenosphere, the rocks on the folding creating a fold mountain system.
continental side in the subduction zone  In some cases, the advancing oceanic
become metamorphosed under high plate compresses the continental arc
pressure and temperature. (orogenic belt) leading to its folding
 After reaching a certain depth, plates melt. (Rockies and Andes).
Magma (metamorphosed sediments and
the melted part of the subducting plate) [As the oceanic plate subducts, the
has lower density and is at high pressure. sediments brought by it accumulates in
It rises upwards due to the buoyant force the trench region. These accumulated
offered by surrounding denser medium. sediments are called as accretionary
The magma flows out, sometimes violently wedge. The accretionary wedge is
to the surface. compressed into the continental margin
 A continuous upward movement of leading to crustal shortening.
magma creates constant volcanic
eruptions at the surface of the continental Convergence == Crustal Shortening
plate along the margin.
Divergence == Crustal Widening
 Such volcanic eruptions all along the
boundary form a chain of volcanic
mountains which are collectively called as
continental arc.
Crustal Shortening at one place is wedge folded the volcanic mountain,

compensated by Crustal Widening in some raising the mountains significantly.
other place]  The folding process in Andes is still
continuing and the mountains are
 With the formation of the orogenic belt constantly rising.
(fold mountain belt), resistance builds up  Volcanism is still active. Ojos del Salado Page
which effectively stops convergence. Thus, active volcano on the Argentina – Chile
the subduction zone progresses seaward. border is the highest active volcano on | 48
 With the culmination of compression, earth at 6,893 m. (Olympus Mons on
erosion continues to denude mountains. Mars is the highest volcano in the solar
This results in isostatic adjustment which system. It is 26 – 27 km high)
causes ultimate exposure of the roots of  Mount Aconcagua (6,960 m, Argentina),
mountains. the highest peak outside Himalayas and
 Examples are found in the Rockies, the highest peak in the western
deformed in late Mesozoic and early hemisphere is an extinct volcano.
Tertiary period, and the Andes, where the
deformation begun in the Tertiary Period
is still going on.
Formation of the Andes - Continent -

Ocean Convergence
 The Andes are formed due to convergence

between Nazca plate (oceanic plate) and
the South American plate (continental
plate). Peru – Chile trench is formed due
to subduction of Nazca plate.
 Andes are a continental arc (narrow,
continental volcanic chain) formed due to Formation of the Rockies - Continent -
the volcanism above the subduction zone. Ocean Convergence
The pressure offered by the accretionary
 The North American plate (continental
plate) moved west wards while the Juan
de Fuca plate (minor oceanic plate) and
the Pacific plate (major oceanic plate)
moved eastwards. The convergence gave
rise to a series of parallel mountain
ranges.
 Unlike the Andes, the Rockies are formed
at a distance from the continental margin
due to the less steep subduction by the
oceanic plates.
 Trenching is less conspicuous as the
boundary is filled with accretionary wedge
and there are a series of fault zones that
makes the landforms a bit different from
Andes.
Wadati - Benioff zone: Earthquakes In this post we will study about Continent
along Convergent boundary - Continent Convergence. Understanding
Continent - Continent Convergence is
 A Wadati–Benioff zone is a zone of important to understand the Formation of
seismicity corresponding with the down- the Himalayas, the Alps, the Urals and the
going slab in a subduction zone (the Atlas mountains.
Page
intensity of earthquakes increases with
depth of subduction). We have studied in See Floor | 49
 Differential motion along the zone Spreading how convectional currents in
produces numerous earthquakes, the foci the mantle drive the lithospheric
of which may be as deep as about 670 plates. Rising vertical limbs of the
kilometres. convection currents in the mantle create a
 Wadati–Benioff zone earthquakes develop divergent plate boundary and falling limbs
beneath volcanic island arcs and create a convergent plate boundary.
continental margins above active In convergence there are sub-types
subduction zones. namely:
 They can be produced by slip along the
subduction thrust fault or slip on faults 1. Collision of oceanic plates or ocean -
within the down going plate. ocean convergence. [Explained in the
 Most disastrous earthquakes are deep previous posts]
seated ones or deep focus earthquakes. 2. Collision of continental and oceanic plates
Such earthquakes are common around or ocean - continent convergence
the subduction zone. [Explained in the previous post].
3. Collision of continental plates or continent
- continent convergence [This Post].
4. Collision of continent and arc or continent
- arc convergence [This Post].
In all types of convergence, denser plate

subducts and the less denser plate is
either up thrust or folded or both [up
thrust and folded].
Continent - Continent Convergence or

The Himalayan Convergence
 In ocean – ocean convergence and

continent – ocean convergence, at least
one of the plates is denser and hence
the subduction zone is quite deep [few
hundred kilometers].
 At continental – continental convergent
margins, due to lower density, both of the
continental crustal plates are too light [too
Chile, Japan, Himalayan belt see high buoyant] to be carried downward
intensity disastrous earthquakes due to (subduct) into a trench. In most cases,
the subduction process. neither plate subducts or even if one of the
plates subducts, the subduction zone will
We will study about the formation of not go deeper than 40 – 50 km.
Himalayas in the next post.  The two plates converge, buckle up [The
subduction of the continental crust is not
possible beyond 40 km because of the by isostatic adjustment.

normal buoyancy of the continental crust.  As two massive continents weld, a single
Thus, the fragments of oceanic crust are large continental mass joined by a
plastered against the plates causing mountain range is produced.
welding of two plates known as suture  Examples: The Himalayas, Alps, Urals,
zone. Example: The- Indus-Tsangpo Appalachians and the Atlas mountains. Page
suture zone], fold, and fault.
 Geoclinal sediments are found along the Volcanism and Earthquakes in | 50
continental margins. As the continental Continent - Continent Convergence
plates converge, the ocean basin
(geosynclinical basin) is squeezed between
the two converging plates. Huge slivers of
rock, many kilometers wide are thrust on
top of one another, forming a towering
mountain ranges.
 With the building up of resistance,
convergence comes to an end. The
mountain belt erodes and this is followed
 Oceanic crust is only 5 – 30 km thick. But Formation of Himalayans and Tibet

the continental crust is 50 – 70 km thick.
Magma cannot penetrate this thick crust,  The Himalayan mountains are also known
so there are no volcanoes, although the as the Himadri, Himavan or Himachal.
magma stays in the crust.  The Himalayas are a part of Alpine
 Metamorphic rocks are common because mountain Chain. Page
of the stress the continental crust  The Himalayas are the youngest
experiences. mountain chain in the world. | 51
 With enormous slabs of crust smashing
together, continent – continent collisions Indo-Australian Plate
bring on numerous and large
 Indo – Australian plate  Indian plate +
earthquakes. [Earth Quakes in
Australian plate + Some parts of Indian
Himalayan and North Indian Region]
Ocean.
Convergent boundary = More deep focus
earthquakes. Example: Kachchh region,
Himalayan region.
Indo – Australian Plate boundary process is still continuing (India is moving

northwards at the rate of about five cm
 North ==> Himalayas per year and crashing into rest of the
 East ==> Purvanchal, Rakinyoma Asia).
Mountains, Arakan coast, Andaman &  And the folded sediments, after a lot of
Nicobar islands and Java Trench, South erosional activity, appear as present day Page
western Pacific plate. Himalayas.
 West ==> Suleiman and Kirthar ranges,  Tibetan plateau was formed due to up | 52
Makrana coast, western margin of Red Sea thrusting of the Eurasian Plate. And the
rift, Spreading site between Indio – Indo-Gangetic plain was formed due to
Australian plate and African plate consolidation of alluvium brought down by
 South ==> Spreading site between Indio – the rivers flowing from Himalayas.
Australian plate and Antarctic plate  The curved shape of the Himalayas convex
Explain the formation of Himalayas to the south, is attributed to the
maximum push offered at two ends of the
 Himalayan mountains have come out of a Indian Peninsula during its northward
great geosyncline called the Tethys Sea drift.
and that the uplift has taken place in  Himalayas do not comprise a single range
different phases. but a series of at least three ranges
 During Permian Period (250) million running more or less parallel to one
years ago, there was a super continent another.
known as Pangaea.  Therefore, the Himalayas are supposed to
 Its northern part consisted of the present have emerged out of the Himalayan
day North America and Eurasia (Europe Geosyncline i.e. the Tethys Sea in three
and Asia) which was called Laurasia or different phases following one after the
Angaraland or Laurentia. other.
 The southern part of Pangaea consisted of  The first phase commenced about 50-40
present day South America, Africa, South million years ago, when the Great
India, Australia and Antarctica. This Himalayas were formed. The formation of
landmass was called Gondwanaland. the Great Himalayas was completed about
 In between Laurasia and Gondwanaland, 30 million years ago.
there was a long, narrow and shallow sea  The second phase took place about 25 to
known as the Tethys Sea (All this was 30 million years ago when the Middle
explained in detail in Continental Drift Himalayas were formed.
Theory).  The Shiwaliks were formed in the last
 There were many rivers which were phase of the Himalayan orogeny — say
flowing into the Tethys Sea (Older than about two million to twenty million years
Himalayas. We will see this in detail while ago.
studying Antecedent and Subsequent  Some of the fossil formations found in the
Drainage). Shiwalik hills are also available in the
 Sediments were brought by these rivers Tibet plateau. It indicates that the past
and were deposited on the floor of the climate of the Tibet plateau was somewhat
Tethys Sea. similar to the climate of the Shiwalik hills.
 These sediments were subjected to  There are evidences to show that the
powerful compression due to the process of uplift of the Himalayas is not
northward movement of the Indian Plate. yet complete and they are still rising.
This resulted in the folding of sediments.  [Recent studies have shown that
 Once the Indian plate started plunging convergence of the Indian plate and the
below the Eurasian plate, these sediments Asian plate has caused a crustal
were further folded and raised. This shortening of about 500 km in the
Himalayan region. This shortening has Landmass is rising keep the rivers in
been compensated by sea floor spreading youth stage since a long time.
along the oceanic ridge in the Indian
Ocean] Formation of Alps, Urals, Appalachians
and the Atlas mountains
Formation of Himalayas in Short
 The formation of each of these mountains Page
 Pangea’s breakup starts in Permian is similar to the formation of the | 53
period [225 million years ago]. Himalayas.
 India started her northward journey about  Alps are young fold mountains which were
200 million years ago. formed due to collision between African
 It travelled some 6,000 kilometres before it Plate and the Eurasian Plate.
finally collided with Asia.  Atlas mountains are also young folded
 India collided with Asia about 40-50 mountains which are still in the process of
million years ago. formation. They are also formed due to
 Convergent boundary gave rise to collision between African Plate and the
Himalayas 40 – 50 million years ago Eurasian Plate.
[Tertiary Period] [Formation of Deccan
 Urals are very old fold mountains which
Traps began 70-60 million years ago]
were formed even before the breakup of
 Scientists believe that the process is still
Pangaea. They were formed due to
continuing and the height of the
collision between Europe and Asia.
Himalayas is rising even to this date.
 Appalachians are also very old fold
Evidences for the rising Himalayas mountains which were formed even before
the breakup of Pangaea. They were formed
 Today’s satellites that use high precision due to collision between North America
atomic clocks can measure accurately and Europe.
even a small rise of one cm. The heights of
Mains Question on Fold Mountains
various places as determined by satellites
indicate that the Himalayas rise by few
Why are the world’s fold mountain
centimeters every year. The present rate of
systems located along the margins of
uplift of the Himalayas has been
continents? Bring out the association
calculated at 5 to 10 cm per year.
between the global distribution of Fold
 Due to uplifting, lakes in Tibet are Mountains and the earthquakes and
desiccated (lose water) keeping the gravel volcanoes.
terraces at much higher levels above the
present water level. This could be possible Why fold mountains at continental
only in the event of uplift of the region. margin?
 The frequent tectonic activity (occurrence
of earthquakes) in the Himalayan region  Fold mountains are formed due to
shows that the Indian plate is moving convergence between two continental
further northwards and plunging into plates (Himalayas) or between an oceanic
Eurasian plate. This means that the and a continental plate (Rockies.
Himalayas are still being raised due to Explained in previous post).
compression and have not yet attained  In Continent – Continent (C-C)
isostatic equilibrium. convergence, oceanic sediments are
 The Himalayan rivers are in their youthful squeezed and up thrust between the
stage and have been rejuvenated [make or plates and these squeezed sediments
cause to appear younger or more vital] in recent appear as fold mountains along the plate
times. This shows that the Himalayan margins.
 In Continent – Ocean (C-O) convergence,  New Guinea came into being about 20
the continental volcanic arc formed along million years ago as a result of continent –
the continental plate margin is arc collision.
compressed and is uplifted by the colliding  The continental plate pushes the island
oceanic plate giving rise to fold mountains arc towards the oceanic crust. The oceanic
along the continental plate margin. plate plunges under the island arc. Page
 A trench occurs on the ocean side of the
Association island arc and, ultimately, the continental | 54
 In both C-C convergence and C-O margin is firmly welded against the island
convergence, there is formation of fold arc.
mountains and frequent occurrence of In this post we will study about different
earthquakes. Types of Mountains which are classified
 This is because of sudden release of based on various factors.
friction between the subducting plate and
up thrust plate. In C-C convergence, the Orogeny
denser plate pushes in to the less denser
plate creating a fault zone along the  Orogeny (Geology) is a process in which a
margin. Further collision leads to sudden section of the earth's crust is folded and
release of energy along this fault zone deformed by lateral compression to form
generating disastrous earthquakes a mountain range.
(Himalayan Region).  Orogenic movements are ‘Tectonic
 In C-O regions the subducting oceanic movements’ of the earth which involve the
plate grinds against the surrounding folding of sediments, faulting and
denser medium producing mostly deep metamorphism [Geology (of rock) that has
focus earthquakes. undergone transformation by heat,
 Volcanism is observed only in C-O pressure, or other natural agencies].
convergence and is almost absent in C-C
convergence. This is because of the thick Formation of Fold Mountains already
continental crust in C-C convergence explained in Continent – Ocean
which prevents the outflow of magma. Convergence – Formation of Andes,
Magma lies stocked within the crust. Rockies and Continent – Continent
 In C-O convergence, metamorphosed Convergence: Formation of Himalayas
sediments and melting of the subducting Types of Mountains - Classification of
plate form magma which escapes to the Mountains
surface through the less thicker
continental crust. On the basis of location
Continent – Arc Convergence or New Continental mountains
Guinea Convergence
Coastal mountains
 the Rockies,
 the Appalachians,
 the Alpine mountain chains,
 the Western Ghats and
 the Eastern Ghats (India);
Inland mountains
 the Vosges and the Black Forest (Europe),
 the Kunlun, Tienshan, Altai mountains of  the Himalayas, the Satpura, and the
Asia, Maikal of India.
 the Urals of Russia, the Aravallis,
Page
| 55
Oceanic mountains  Some of the examples are Laurentian

mountains, Algoman mountains etc..
 Oceanic mountains are found on
continental shelves and ocean floors.
 If the height of the mountains is
considered from the ocean floor, Mauna
Kea (9140) would be the highest
mountain.
On the basis of period of origin
 A total of nine orogenic or mountain

building movements have taken place so
far.
 Some of them occurred in Pre-Cambrian Caledonian mountains
times between 600-3,500 million years
 They originated due to the great
ago.
mountain-building movements and
 The three more recent orogenies are the
associated tectonic movements of the late
Caledonian, Hercynian and Alpine.
Silurian and early Devonian periods.
Precambrian mountains  Caledonian mountains came into
existence between approximately 430
 They belong to the Pre-Cambrian period, a million years and 380 million years ago.
period that extended for more than 4  Examples are the Appalachians,
billion years. Aravallis, Mahadeo etc.
 The rocks have been subjected to
upheaval, denudation and Hercynian mountains
metamorphosis. So the remnants appear
as ‘residual mountains’.
 These mountains originated during the  Circum-erosional or Relict or Residual

upper Carboniferous to Permian Period in mountains (Aravalis in India, Urals in
Europe. Russia etc.) are the remnants of old fold
 Hercynian mountains came into existence mountains derived as a result of
between approximately 340 million ears denudation [strip of covering or
and 225 million years ago. possessions; make bare]. Page
 Some examples are the mountains of
Vosges and Black Forest, Altai, Tien Based on the formation process | 56
Shan mountains of Asia, Ural
 Fold mountains
Mountains etc.
 Block mountains
Alpine system  Volcanic mountains
 Has its origin in the Tertiary Period which These will be explained in detail in the
consists of the Palaeocene, Eocene, next post
Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene epochs.
Fold Mountains
 The mountains were formed from about
65 million years to 7 million years ago.
 Fold mountains are formed when
Examples are sedimentary rock strata in geosynclines
are subjected to compressive forces.
 the Rockies of North America, the
Alpine mountains of Europe, Formation of Fold Mountains was
 the Atlas mountains of north-western explained previously in Continent – Ocean
Africa, Convergence – Formation of Andes,
 the Himalayas of the Indian Rockies And Continent – Continent
subcontinent in mountains radiating Convergence: Formation of Himalayas
from Pamir knot like Pauntic, Taurus,  They are the loftiest mountains and they
Elburz, Zagros and Kunlun etc. are generally concentrated along
Being the most recently formed, these continental margins.
ranges, such as the Alps, Himalayas, Fold mountains can be divided into two
Andes and Rockies are the loftiest with broad types on the basis of the nature of
rugged terrain. folds.
On the basis of mode of origin Simple fold mountains
Original or Tectonic mountains
 Simple fold mountains with open folds in
 Original or Tectonic mountains are the which well-developed systems of synclines
product of tectonic forces. and anticlines are found and folds are of
 The tectonic mountains may be wavy patterns.
categorized into fold mountains Complex fold mountains
(Himalayas, Rockies, Andes etc.), block
mountains (Vosges mountains in  Complex fold mountains in which the rock
France, Black Forest in Germany, strata are intensely compressed to
Vindhya and Satpuras in India etc.) and produce a complex structure of folds.
volcanic mountains (Cascade Range in
USA, Mount Kenya, Mount Kilimanjaro, In the Himalayas, over folds and
Mount Fujiyama etc.). recumbent folds are often found detached
from their roots and carried few hundred
Circum-erosional or Relict or Residual
mountains
kilometres away by the tectonic forces. ‘Fold’ in geology

These detached folds are called ‘nappe’.
Page
| 57
‘Fault’ in Geology  They are more than 500 million years old.
 Rounded features (due to denudation).
 Low elevation.
 The Appalachians in North America and
the Ural mountains in Russia
Old Fold Mountains
 Old fold mountains had their origin before

the Tertiary period (70 million years).
 The fold mountain systems belonging to
Caledonian and Hercynian mountain-
building periods fall in this category.
 They are also called as Thickening relict
fold mountains because of lightly
rounded features and medium elevation.
On the basis of period of origin, fold  Top layers worn out due to erosional
mountains are divided into very old fold activity.
mountains, old fold mountains and  Example: Aravali Range in India.
Alpine fold mountains.  The Aravali Range in India are the oldest
fold mountain systems in India. The
Very Old Fold Mountains range has considerably worn down due to
the processes of erosion. The range rose in  Fold mountains are characterized by
post Precambrian event called the granite intrusions on a massive scale.
Aravalli-Delhi orogeny.  Recurrent seismicity is a common
feature in folded mountain belts .
 High heat flow often finds expression in
volcanic activity. Page
 These mountains are by far the most
widespread and also the most important. | 58
 They also contain rich mineral resources
such as tin, copper, gold etc..
Some relevant definitions

Alpine or young fold mountains
Ridge
 Alpine fold mountains belonging to the
Tertiary period can be grouped under the  Mountain ridges refer to mountains which
new fold mountains category since they originated as a result of local folding and
originated in the Tertiary period. faulting.
 Examples are the Rockies, the Andes,  Generally, the slope of one side of the
the Alps, the Himalayas, etc. ridge is steep in contrast to the moderate
slope on the other side [In case of
Himalayas, the southern slope is steeper
compared to the northern slope].
 In some cases a ridge may have a
symmetrical slope on both sides.
Mountain range
 It refers to a series of ridges which

Characteristics originated in the same age and underwent
the same processes. The most prominent
 Rugged relief. or characteristic feature of mountain
 Imposing height (lofty). ranges is their long and narrow extension.
 High Conical Peaks.  Example: Himalayas are a mountain range
with Himadri ridge, Himachal ridge and
Characteristics of Fold Mountains
Shiwalik ridge.
 Fold mountains belong to the group of Mountain System
youngest mountains of the earth.
 The presence of fossils suggest that the  A group of mountain ranges formed in a
sedimentary rocks of these folded single period, similar in their form,
mountains were formed after structure and extension, is termed a
accumulation and consolidation of silts mountain system.
and sediments in a marine environment.  Examples are the Basin Range of Nevada
 Fold mountains extend for great lengths (USA), the Rocky mountain system of
whereas their width is considerably North America and the Appalachian.
small.
 Generally, fold mountains have a concave Mountain Chain
slope on one side and a convex slope on  It consists of mountain ranges which differ
the other. in size and periods of formation.
 Fold mountains are found along
continental margins facing oceans.
 It refers to highlands composed of different

types of mountains viz., fold, block or
volcanic mountains although there is a
proper arrangement of the mountains.
Cordillera
Page
 Cordillera refers to several mountain
| 59
groups and systems.
 Cordillera is a community of mountains
which includes ridges, ranges, mountain
chains and mountain systems.
 The best example is the Western Cordillera
in the western part of the USA and in
British Columbia of Canada.
Block Mountains
 Block mountains are created when large

areas or blocks of earth are broken and
displaced vertically.
 The uplifted blocks are termed as horsts
and the lowered blocks are called graben.
 The Great African Rift Valley (valley Compression and Tension
floor is graben), The Rhine Valley and
the Vosges mountain in Europe are  When the earth’s crust bends folding
examples. occurs, but when it cracks, faulting takes
 Block mountains are also called fault place.
block mountains since they are formed  The faulted edges are very steep, e.g. the
due to faulting as a result of tensile and Vosges and Black Forest of the Rhineland.
compressive forces.  Tension may also cause the central
 Block mountains are surrounded by faults portion to be let down between two
on either side of rift valleys or grabens. adjacent fault blocks forming a graben or
rift valley, which will have steep walls.
There are two basic types.
 The East African Rift Valley system is the
 Tilted block mountains have one steep best example. It is 3,000 miles long,
side contrasted by a gentle slope on the stretching from East Africa through the
other side. Red Sea to Syria.
 Compressional forces set up by earth
movements may produce a thrust or
reverse fault and shorten the crust. A
block may be raised or lowered in relation
to surrounding areas.
 In general large-scale block mountains
and rift valleys are due to tension rather
than compression.
 The faults may occur in series and be
further complicated by tilting and other
irregularities.
 Lifted block mountains have a flat top  Denudation through the ages modifies
and extremely steep slopes. faulted landforms.
 A majority of geologists argue that block Significance of mountains

mountains are the product of faulting.
 Sometimes, the surrounding blocks  The mountains are a storehouse of water.
subside leaving the middle block  Many rivers have their source in the
stationary. Such cases are found in high glaciers in the mountains.
plateau regions.  Water from the mountains is also used for Page
 Block mountains may originate when the irrigation and generation of hydro-
middle block moves downward and electricity. | 60
becomes a rift valley while the  The river valleys and terraces are ideal for
surrounding blocks stand higher as block cultivation of crops.
mountains.  Mountains have a rich variety of flora and
fauna.
Volcanic mountains
 Volcanic mountains are formed due to

volcanic activity. In this post we will study about Divergent
 Mt.Kilimanjaro in Africa and Mt.Fujiyama Boundary (Divergent plate boundary or
in Japan are examples of such mountains. Constructive Edge). We will study about
 These are, in fact, volcanoes which are the important land forms created due to
built up from material ejected from divergent boundary. These important land
fissures in the earth’s crust. forms include the East African Rift
 The materials include molten lava, System, Rift Lakes, Great Rift System
volcanic bombs, cinders, ashes, dust and etc.. We will also study the formation and
liquid mud. evolution of Rift Valley, Linear Sea,
Oceans etc..
 They fall around the vent in successive
layers, building up a characteristic Interaction of Plates
volcanic cone.
 Volcanic mountains are often called  Major geomorphological features such as
mountains of accumulation. fold mountains, block mountains, mid-
 They are common in the Circum-Pacific oceanic ridges, trenches, volcanism,
belt and include such volcanic peaks as earthquakes etc. are a direct consequence
Mt. Fuji (Japan) Mt. Mayon (Philippines), of interaction between various lithospheric
Mt. Merapi (Sumatra) etc. plates.
 There are three ways in which lithospheric
Residual mountains
plates interact with each other.
1. Divergence: Divergent boundary is also
 These are mountains evolved by
called as constructive edge. Mid-oceanic
denudation.
ridges, rift valleys, block mountains, etc.
 Where the general level of the land has
are the common landforms formed due to
been lowered by the agents of denudation
divergence.
some very resistant areas may remain and
2. Convergence: Convergent boundary is
these form residual mountains, e.g. Mt.
also called as destructive edge. Fold
Manodnock in U.S.A.
mountains, trenches, island arcs,
 Residual mountains may also evolve from continental arcs, etc. are the common
plateaus which have been dissected by landforms formed due to convergence.
rivers into hills and valleys. 3. Transcurrent boundary or transform
 Examples of dissected plateaux, where the edge: Here the landform is deformed due
down-cutting streams have eroded the to the horizontal grinding (plates slide past
uplands into mountains of denudation, each other horizontally) of the lithospheric
are the Highlands of Scotland,
Scandinavia and the Deccan Plateau.
plates. Example: San Anderas Fault, movements – divergence (divergent

USA. boundary) and convergence (convergent
boundary) of the lithospheric plates.
I have already explained about  The horizontal limbs of the convection
Convergence and types of convergence in currents, just below the lithosphere, drag
these posts: the plates horizontally. Page
1. Ocean – Ocean Convergence – Island Arc  The falling limbs of the convection
Formation currents create a negative pressure on the | 61
2. Continent – Ocean Convergence – lithosphere and this negative pressure
Formation of Andes, Rockies (pulling force) is responsible for the
3. Continent – Continent Convergence: formation the convergent boundary.
Formation of Himalayas  The rising limbs on the other hand create
positive pressure on the lithosphere and
Divergent boundary this positive pressure (pushing force)
creates a divergent boundary.
 In the See Floor Spreading theory, we have
studied how divergent boundaries below
the oceans are responsible for the
spreading of the see floor. In Plate
Tectonics, we have learnt about the major
and minor lithospheric plates and how
these plates moved thorough the
geological past. We have studied about
convection currents in the mantle which
are the primary reason behind plate
 Divergence (divergent boundary) is faults (reverse fault) occur during

responsible for the evolution and upwarping. Divergence of plates begin.
creation of new seas and oceans just like
convergent boundaries are responsible for Stage 2: Rift Valley Formation
the formation of fold mountains, volcanic
arcs (few exceptions like Hawaii) etc..  Faulting due to divergence creates
extensive rift system (fault zones, rift Page
Evolution – Formation of Rift Lakes, valleys). Rifting is followed by flood basalt | 62
Seas and Oceans volcanism in some places that spread
around the rift creating plateaus,
 The formation of atmosphere and the highlands etc.. East African Rift Valley is
oceans took millions of years. They were at this stage of evolution.
formed due to continuous ‘degassing’ of
the Earth's interior [denser elements [Narmada and Tapti Rift Valleys (fault
settled at the center of the earth and the zones) are formed from a mechanism
lighter elements at the surface]. different from the one explained above.
They are formed due to bending of the
 After the Earth's surface temperature
northern part of the Indian plate during
came down below the boiling point of
the formation of Himalayas.]
water, rain began to fall.
 Water began to accumulate in the hollows Stage 3: Formation of Linear Sea or Rift
and basins and the primeval [of the earliest Lakes
time in history] water bodies were formed.
 The primeval water bodies evolved to form  Rift valley deepens due to further
seas and oceans. divergence and makes way for ocean
 The process of formation of a new sea waters. If the rift valleys are formed deeper
begins with the formation of a divergent within the continents, rains waters
boundary. accumulate forming rift lakes. Rift lakes
 New lithosphere is created at the form some of the largest fresh water lakes
divergent boundary and old lithosphere on earth.
is destroyed somewhere else at the  Rift valleys evolve into volcanic vent. Block
convergent boundary. mountains on either side of the rift evolve
into oceanic ridges. Successive volcanism
Basic Terms and see floor spreading creates spreading
sites where new crust is formed (This is
 Up warp: Geology a broad elevated area of the reason that a Divergent Boundary is
the earth's surface. called a Constructive Edge). Oceanic
 Plume: Geology a column of magma rising crust starts to replace continental crust.
by convection in the earth's mantle. This stage is the formation of linear seas.
 Rift Valley: A rift valley is a linear-shaped Example: Red Sea. Most of the narrow
lowland between several highlands or seas are at this stage.
mountain ranges created by the action of
a geologic rift or fault. Stage 4: Linear Sea transforms into
Ocean
Stage 1: Upwarping, fault zones
 Intense outpouring of basaltic magma
 Rising limbs of the convectional currents accentuates see floor spreading and
create a mantle plume that tries to escape oceanic crust formation. Oceanic crust
to the surface by upwarping the replaces the continental crust and a
lithosphere. During upwarping, a series of mighty ocean is formed.
faults are created. Both normal and thrust  Crust formation along the mid-oceanic
ridge (divergent boundary) is compensated
by crust destruction (crustal shortening)  They are often found within rift valleys
along the convergent boundary and may be very deep. Rift lakes may be
(Destructive Edge). bounded by large steep cliffs along the
 This is exactly how the continents and fault margins.
oceans get transformed.  Many of the world's largest lakes are
located in rift valleys. Page
Rift valley lakes  Lake Baikal in Siberia lies in an active rift
valley. Lake Baikal is the largest (by | 63
 A rift lake is a lake formed as a result of volume) freshwater lake in the world,
subsidence related to movement on faults containing roughly 20% of the world's
within a rift zone, an area of extensional unfrozen surface fresh water.
tectonics in the continental crust.
 Lake Tanganyika, second by both
measures, is in the Albertine Rift, the
westernmost arm of the active East
African Rift.
 Lake Superior in North America, the
largest freshwater lake by area, lies in
the ancient and dormant Midcontinent
Rift.
Page
| 64
East African Rift Valley
 The East African Rift (EAR) is an active

continental rift zone in East Africa.  The rift is a narrow zone that is a
 The EAR began developing around the developing divergent tectonic plate
onset of the Miocene, 22–25 million years boundary, in which the African Plate is in
ago. the process of splitting into two tectonic
 In the past, it was considered to be part of plates, called the Somali Plate and the
a larger Great Rift Valley.
Nubian Plate (African Plate), at a rate of  The EAR transects through Ethiopia,
6–7 mm annually. Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi,
Zambia, Tanzania, Malawi and
Mozambique.
 Prior to rifting, enormous continental flood
basalts erupted on the surface and uplift Page
of the Ethiopian, Somalian, and East
African plateaus occurred. | 65
Volcanism and seismicity along East

African Rift Valley
 The East African Rift Zone includes a

number of active as well as dormant
volcanoes, among them: Mount
Kilimanjaro, Mount Kenya etc..
 Although most of these mountains lie
outside of the rift valley, the EAR created
them.
 The EAR is the largest seismically active
 As extension continues, lithospheric
rift system on Earth today.
rupture will occur within 10 million years,
 The majority of earthquakes occur near
the Somalian plate will break off, and a
new ocean basin will form. the Afar Depression, with the largest
earthquakes typically occurring along or
near major border faults.
Great Rift Valley
 The Great Rift Valley is a geographical

feature running north to south for around
6,400 kilometers from northern Syria to
central Mozambique in East Africa.
 The northernmost part of the Rift forms
the Beqaa Valley in Lebanon.
 Farther south, the valley is the home of
the Jordan River which continues south
through the Jordan Valley into the Dead
Sea on the Israeli-Jordanian border.
 The Eastern Rift Valley (also known as  From the Dead Sea southward, the Rift is
Gregory Rift) includes the Main Ethiopian occupied by the Gulf of Aqaba and the
Rift, running eastward from the Afar Triple Red Sea.
Junction, which continues south as the  The Afar Triangle of Ethiopia and
Kenyan Rift Valley. Eritrea is the location of a triple junction.
 The Western Rift Valley includes the  The Gulf of Aden is an eastward
Albertine Rift, and farther south, the continuation of the rift and from this point
valley of Lake Malawi. the rift extends southeastward as part of
 To the north of the Afar Triple Junction, the mid-oceanic ridge of the Indian Ocean.
the rift follows one of two paths: west to  In a southwest direction the fault
the Red Sea Rift or east to the Aden continues as the Great Rift Valley, which
Ridge in the Gulf of Aden. split the older Ethiopian highlands into
two halves.
 In eastern Africa the valley divides into the also the highest active volcano in the Solar
Eastern Rift and the Western Rift. The System.
Western Rift, also called the Albertine 1. Andes - 7,000 km
Rift contains some of the deepest lakes in 2. Rocky Mountains - 4,830 km
the world (up to 1,470 meters deep at 3. Great Dividing Range - 3,500 km
Lake Tanganyika). 4. Transantarctic Mountains - 3,500 km
Page
5. Ural Mountains - 2,500 km
Transcurrent boundary or transform 6. Atlas Mountains - 2,500 km | 66
edge 7. Appalachian Mountains - 2,414 km
8. Himalayas - 2,400 km
 A transform fault or transform boundary, 9. Altai Mountains - 2,000 km (1,243 mi)
also known as conservative plate 10. Western Ghats - 1,600 km
boundary since these faults neither create 11. Alps - 1,200 km
nor destroy lithosphere. 12. Drakensberg - 1,125 km
 Here the movement of the plates is 13. Aravalli Range - 800 km
predominantly horizontal.
 The effect of a fault is to relieve strain,
which can be caused by compression,
extension, or lateral stress in the rock
layers at the surface or deep in the Earth’s
subsurface.
 Most transform faults are hidden in the
deep oceans. Many transform faults are
located on the continental margins as well.
The best example is the San Andreas
Fault on the Pacific coast of the United
States.
In this post we will study about some of

the most Important Mountain Ranges of
the World.
Important mountain ranges
 The highest known mountain on any

planet in the Solar System is Olympus
Mons on Mars (~26 km in elevation). It is
Andes
 The Andes is the longest continental Rocky Mountains

mountain range in the world.
 Formed due to Ocean-Continent collision.  Mountain range in western North America.
 Average height of about 4,000 m.  The Rocky Mountains stretch more than
 Spread along Venezuela, Colombia, 3,000 miles.
Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and  Spread along northernmost part of British Page
Argentina. Columbia, in western Canada, to New
 The Andes is the world's highest mountain Mexico, in the southwestern U.S. | 67
range outside of Asia.
Geology of the Rocky Mountains
 The highest peak, Mount Aconcagua,
rises to an elevation of about 6,962 m  Formed due to Ocean - Continent
above sea level collision.
 World's highest volcanoes are in the  The rocks making up the mountains were
Andes. Ojos del Salado (6,893 m) on the formed before the mountains were raised.
Chile-Argentina border is the highest  The Rocky Mountains took shape during
volcano on earth. an intense period of plate tectonic activity
Geology that resulted in much of the rugged
landscape of the western North America.
 Caused by the subduction of oceanic crust
beneath the South American plate.
 Formed due to compression of western rim
of the South American Plate due to the
subduction of the Nazca Plate and the
Antarctic Plate.
Great Dividing Range
 The Great Dividing Range, or the Eastern  The Urals are among the world's oldest
Highlands, is Australia's most substantial extant mountain ranges.
mountain range and the third longest  Formed due to Continent – Continent
land-based range in the world. collision.
 It is also known as the Australian Alps.  They were formed during the Uralian
 I was formed due to rifting. orogeny due to the collision of the eastern Page
edge of the supercontinent Laurussia with
the young and weak continent of | 68
Kazakhstania, which now underlies much
of Kazakhstan. The collision lasted nearly
90 million years in the late Carboniferous
– early Triassic.
 Unlike the other major orogens of the
Paleozoic (Appalachians, Caledonides), the
Urals have not undergone post-orogenic
extensional collapse and are unusually
well preserved for their age. For its age of
250 to 300 million years, the elevation of
the mountains is unusually high.
Atlas Mountains
Ural Mountains
 Mountain range across the northwestern
 Mountain range that runs approximately stretch of Africa extending about 2,500 km
from north to south through western (1,600 mi) through Algeria, Morocco and
Russia, from the coast of the Arctic Ocean Tunisia.
to the Ural River and northwestern  The highest peak is Toubkal, with an
Kazakhstan. elevation of 4,165 metres (13,665 ft) in
 Their eastern side is usually considered southwestern Morocco.
the natural boundary between Europe and  The Atlas ranges separate the
Asia. Mediterranean and Atlantic coastlines
 They are rich in various deposits, from the Sahara Desert.
including metal ores, coal, precious and  These mountains were formed when Africa
semi-precious stones. and America collided, and were once a
 Since the 18th century the mountains chain rivaling today's Himalayas.
have been a major mineral base of  Some remnants can also be found in the
Russia. later formed Appalachians in North
America.
Geology
 System of mountains in eastern North

America.
 One of the major mineral bases of
America.
Himalayas
Page
 They separate the plains of the Indian | 69
subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau.
 The Himalayan range is home to the
planet's highest peaks, including the
highest, Mount Everest.
Transantarctic Mountains  By contrast, the highest peak outside Asia
– Aconcagua, in the Andes – is 6,961
metres tall.
 The first foothills, reaching about a
thousand meters along the northern edge
of the plains, are called the Shiwalik Hills
or Sub-Himalayan Range. Further north
is a higher range reaching two to three
thousand meters known as the Lower
Himalayan or Himachal or Mahabharat
Range.
 Nepal, Bhutan, India, China, Afghanistan
and Pakistan, with the first three
countries having sovereignty over most of
the range.
 The Himalayas are bordered on the
northwest by the Karakoram and Hindu
Kush ranges, on the north by the Tibetan
Plateau, and on the south by the Indo-
Gangetic Plain.
 Three of the world's major rivers, the
Indus, the Ganges and the Tsangpo-
Brahmaputra, all rise near Mount Kailash
and cross and encircle the Himalayas.
Their combined drainage basin is home to
some 600 million people.
Appalachian Mountains  Its western anchor, Nanga Parbat, lies
just south of the northernmost bend of
Indus river, its eastern anchor, Namcha
Barwa, just west of the great bend of the
Tsangpo river.
 The range varies in width from 400
kilometres in the west to 150 kilometres in
the east.
Geology
 The Himalaya are among the youngest

mountain ranges on the planet and
consist mostly of uplifted sedimentary and Hydrology

metamorphic rock.
 According to the modern theory of plate  The Himalayas have the third largest
tectonics, their formation is a result of a deposit of ice and snow in the world, after
continental collision or orogeny along the Antarctica and the Arctic. The Himalayan
convergent boundary between the Indo- range encompasses about 15,000 glaciers.
Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate.  Its glaciers include the Siachen glacier, Page
 The Arakan Yoma highlands in Myanmar Gangotri and Yamunotri (Uttarakhand) | 70
and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in and Khumbu glaciers (Mount Everest
the Bay of Bengal were also formed as a region), and Zemu (Sikkim).
result of this collision. Lakes
 During the Upper Cretaceous, about 70
million years ago, the north-moving Indo-  The Himalayan region is dotted with
Australian Plate was moving at about 15 hundreds of lakes. Most lakes are found at
cm per year. altitudes of less than 5,000 m, with the
 About 50 million years ago, this fast size of the lakes diminishing with altitude.
moving Indo-Australian plate had  Tilicho Lake in Nepal in the Annapurna
completely closed the Tethys Ocean, the massif is one of the highest lakes in the
existence of which has been determined by world.
sedimentary rocks settled on the ocean
floor, and the volcanoes that fringed its Impact on climate
edges.
 The Himalayas are also believed to play an
 Since both plates were composed of low
important part in the formation of Central
density continental crust, they were
Asian deserts, such as the Taklamakan
thrust faulted and folded into mountain
and Gobi.
ranges rather than subducting into the
mantle along an oceanic trench. Alps
 An often-cited fact used to illustrate this
process is that the summit of Mount  Mountain range systems of Europe
Everest is made of marine limestone from stretching approximately 1,200 kilometres
this ancient ocean. and spread across eight Alpine countries
 Today, the Indo-Australian plate continues from Austria and Slovenia in the east,
to be driven horizontally below the Tibetan France, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and
plateau, which forces the plateau to south east Germany, to the west. Monaco
continue to move upwards. and Italy to the south
 The Indo-Australian plate is still moving at  The mountains were formed over tens of
67 mm per year, and over the next 10 millions of years as the African and
million years it will travel about 1,500 km Eurasian tectonic plates collided.
into Asia.  Extreme shortening caused by the event
 About 20 mm per year of the India-Asia resulted in marine sedimentary rocks
convergence is absorbed by thrusting rising by thrusting and folding into high
along the Himalaya southern front. This mountain peaks such as Mont Blanc and
leads to the Himalayas rising by about 5 the Matterhorn.
mm per year, making them geologically  Mont Blanc spans the French–Italian
active. border, and at 4,810 m is the highest
 The movement of the Indian plate into the mountain in the Alps.
Asian plate also makes this region  The Alpine region area contains about a
seismically active, leading to earthquakes hundred peaks higher than 4,000 m,
from time to time. known as the "four-thousanders".
 The altitude and size of the range affects Why are world's highest mountains are
the climate in Europe; in the mountains at the equator?
precipitation levels vary greatly and
climatic conditions consist of distinct  Ice and glacier coverage at lower altitudes
zones. in cold climates is more important than
collision of tectonic plates. [Glacial erosion
Page
is very strong because of huge boulders of
rocks carried by the glacial ice that graze | 71
the surface. Though ice moves only few
meters a day, it can take along it huge
rocks that can peal the outer layers.]
 Scientists have solved the mystery of why
the world's highest mountains sit near the
equator.
 Colder climates are better at eroding
peaks. In colder climates, the snowline on
mountains starts lower down, and erosion
Mountain ranges By height takes place at lower altitudes.
 In general, mountains only rise to around
 Himalayas - Asia: India, China, Nepal, 1,500m above their snow lines, so it is the
Pakistan, Bhutan; highest point- Everest; altitude of these lines — which depends on
8848 meters above sea level. climate and latitude — which ultimately
 Karakoram (part of Greater Himalayas) - decides their height.
Asia: Pakistan, India, China; highest  At low latitudes, the atmosphere is warm
point- K2, 8611 meters above sea level. and the snowline is high. Around the
 Hindu Kush - Asia: Afghanistan, equator, the snowline is about 5,500m at
Pakistan, India (claim due to Kashmir its highest so mountains get up to
dispute); highest point- Tirich Mir, 7708 7,000m.
meters above sea level.  There are a few exceptions [that are
 Pamir - Asia: Tajikistan, China, higher], such as Everest, but extremely
Afghanistan, Pakistan, India (claim due to few.
Kashmir dispute); highest point - Ismail  When you then go to Canada or Chile, the
Samani Peak, 7495 meters above sea snowline altitude is around 1,000m, so
level. the mountains are around 2.5km.
 Tian Shan - Asia: China, Kazakhstan,
Highest mountain peaks of the world
Uzbekistan, Kyrgyztan, India, Pakistan;
highest point- Jengish Chokusu, 7439
meters above sea level.
Page
| 72
In this post we will study about Volcanism Causes of Volcanism

– Causes and Distribution, Andesitic and
Basaltic Lava and Geysers and Hot Water  The chemical reactions of radioactive
Springs. substances deep within the interior of the
earth generate tremendous amount of
Volcanism heat. Some heat is already present in the
form of residual heat (heat captured at
 A volcano is a vent in the earth's crust the center during earth’s formation) is
from which molten rock material (magma), already present at the earth’s interior.
explosive bursts of gases and volcanic  There is a huge temperature difference
ashes erupt.. between the inner layers and the outer
or layers of the earth due to differential
amount of radioactivity. This temperature
 A mountain or hill having a crater or vent difference gives rise to convectional
through which lava, rock fragments, hot currents in the outer core as well as the
vapour, and gas are or have been erupted mantle.
from the earth's crust.  The convectional currents in the mantle
create convergent and divergent
Fissure Vent boundaries.
 At the divergent boundary, molten, semi-
 A fissure vent, also known as a volcanic molten and sometimes gaseous material
fissure or eruption fissure, is a linear appears on earth at the first available
volcanic vent through which lava erupts, opportunity (the best available weak zone
usually without any explosive activity. – usually a plate margin). The earthquakes
 The vent is often a few meters wide and may expose fault zones through which
may be many kilometers long. magma may escape (This happens in
fissure type volcano).
 At the convergent boundary, the
subduction of denser plate creates magma
at high pressure which will escape to the
surface. Because of high pressure, the
magma and gases

escape with great
velocity as the
pressure is released
through eruptions.
Volcanism at Page
convergent | 73
boundary: Ocean –
Ocean Convergence –
Island Arc Formation
Volcanism at
divergent boundary:
Divergent Boundary
– African Rift System
Formation
Lava types in
Volcanism
Andesitic or Acidic or Composite or  Due to their high fluidity, they flow

Stratovolcanic lava readily with a speed of 10 to 30 miles per
hour.
These lavas are highly viscous with a  They affect extensive areas, spreading out
high melting point. as thin sheets over great distances
before they solidify (This is how Deccan
Traps were formed).
 They are light-colored, of low density, and
 The resultant volcano is gently sloping
have a high percentage of silica.
with a wide diameter and forms a flattened
 They flow slowly and seldom travel far shield or dome.
before solidifying. The resultant cone is
therefore steep sided. Destructive Effects of Volcanoes
 The rapid solidifying of lava in the vent
obstructs the flow of the out-pouring lava,  Volcanism can be a greatly damaging
resulting in loud explosions, throwing out natural disaster. The damage is caused by
many volcanic bombs or pyroclasts. advancing lava which engulfs whole cities.
 Sometimes the lavas are so viscous that  Showers of cinders and bombs can cause
they form a spine or plug at the crater like damage to life.
that of Mt. Pelee in Martinique.  Violent earthquakes associated with the
volcanic activity and mudflows of volcanic
ash saturated by heavy rain can bury
Basic or Basaltic or Shield lava nearby places.
 Sometimes ash can precipitate under the
 These are the hottest lavas, about influence of rain and completely cover
1,000°C. (1,830°F.) and are highly fluid. whole cities.
 They are dark colored like basalt, rich in  In coastal areas, seismic sea waves (called
iron and magnesium but poor in silica. tsunamis in Japan) are an additional
 They flow out of volcanic vent quietly and danger which are generated by submarine
are not very explosive. earth faults where volcanism is active.
Page
| 74
include USA, Russia, Japan, Italy, New

Positive Effects of Volcanoes Zealand and Mexico.
 The Puga valley in Ladakh region and
 Volcanism creates new landforms like Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh) are
islands, plateaus, volcanic mountains etc. promising spots in India for the generation
 The volcanic ash and dust are very fertile of geothermal electricity.
for farms and orchards.  Geothermal potential can also be used for
 Volcanic rocks yield very fertile soil upon space heating.
weathering and decomposition.  As scenic features of great beauty,
 Although steep volcano slopes prevent attracting a heavy tourist trade, few
extensive agriculture, forestry operations landforms outrank volcanoes.
on them provide valuable timber  At several places, national parks have
resources. been set up, centered around volcanoes.
 Mineral resources, particularly metallic  As a source of crushed rock for concrete
ores are brought to the surface by aggregate or railroad ballast, and other
volcanoes. Sometimes copper and other engineering purposes, lava rock is often
ores fill the gas-bubble cavities. The famed extensively used.
Kimberlite rock of South Africa, source of
diamonds, is the pipe of an ancient Geysers and Hot Springs
volcano.
 In the vicinity of active volcanoes, waters  Almost all the world’s geysers are confined
in the depth are heated from contact with to three major areas: Iceland, New
hot magma giving rise to springs and Zealand and Yellowstone Park of U.S.A.
geysers. The heat from the earth's interior  Iceland has thousands of hot springs.
in areas of volcanic activity is used to Some of them have been harnessed to
generate geothermal electricity. heat houses, swimming pools and for
Countries producing geothermal power other domestic purposes.
 Hot springs and geysers have

become tourist attractions e.g. in
Japan and Hawaii.
 Water that percolated into the porus rock
is subjected to intense heat by the
underlying hard rock which is in contact Page
with hot magma in the mantle or the lower
part of crust. | 75
 Under the influence of intense heat the
water in the capillaries and narrow roots
in the porous rock undergoes intense
expansion and gets converted to steam
resulting in high pressure.
 When this steam or water at high pressure
finds a path to the surface through narrow
vents and weak zones, appear at the
surface as geysers and hot water springs.
Geyser Hot water spring
 Steam or water at high pressure, along its  Steam or water at high pressure smoothly
path, gets accumulated in small reservoirs, flows to the top through the vent and
fissures and fractures. Once the pressure condense at the surface giving rise to a
exceeds the threshold limit, the steam spring.
bursts out to the surface disrupting the
water at the mouth. Hence the name geyser.
 Usually a carter like structure is created at
the mouth. 
Usually a carter like structure is created at
 the mouth of the spring.
Silicate deposits at mouth gives them their
distinct colours 
Some springs are very colorful because of
the presence of cyanobacteria of different
 Found in very few regions. Iceland is colors.
famous for its geysers.  Found all across the world
Distribution of Volcanoes across the the mid-world belt across the

World Mediterranean Sea, Alpine-Himalayan belt
and in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans.
 Since the 16th century, around 480  The belts of highest concentration are
volcanoes have been reported to be active. Aleutian-Kurile islands arc, Melanesia
 Of these, nearly 400 are located in and and New Zealand-Tonga belt.
around the Pacific Ocean and 80 are in
 In contrast, the Atlantic coasts have

comparatively few active volcanoes but
many dormant or extinct volcanoes, e.g.
St. Helena, Cape Verde Islands and
Canary Islands etc..
 But the volcanoes of Iceland and the Page
Azores are active.
| 76
Great Rift region
 In Africa some volcanoes are found along

the East African Rift Valley, e.g. Mt.
 Only 10 per cent to 20 per cent of all Kilimanjaro and Mt. Kenya, both
volcanic activity is above sea and probably extinct. The only active volcano
terrestrial volcanic mountains are small of West Africa is Mt. Cameroon.
when compared to their submarine  There are some volcanic cones in
counterparts. Madagascar, but active eruption has not
 Most known volcanic activity and the been known so far.
earthquakes occur along converging
plate margins and mid-oceanic ridges. The West Indian islands
 There is a strikingly close agreement
between volcanic and earthquake zones of  The West Indian islands have experienced
the earth. some violent explosions in recent times.
E.g. Mt. Pelee.
Pacific Ring of Fire  The Lesser Antilles (Part of West Indies
Islands) are made up mainly of volcanic
 Circum-Pacilic region, popularly termed islands and some of them still bear signs
the 'Pacific Ring of Fire', has the greatest of volcanic liveliness.
concentration of active volcanoes. Volcanic
belt and earthquake belt closely overlap Mediterranean volcanism
along the 'Pacific Ring of Fire'.
 'Pacific Ring of Fire' is estimated to include  Volcanoes of the Mediterranean region are
two-thirds of the world’s volcanoes. mainly associated with the Alpine folds,
e.g. Vesuvius, Stromboli (Light House of
Regions with active volcanism along the Mediterranean) and those of the
'Pacific Ring of Fire' Aegean islands.
 A few continue into Asia Minor (Mt.
 Aleutian Islands into Kamchatka, Japan, Ararat, Mt. Elbruz). The Himalayas have,
 the Philippines, and Indonesia (Java and surprisingly, no active volcano at all.
Sumatra in particular),
 Pacific islands of Solomon, New Hebrides, Why? Know Here: Continent – Continent
Tonga and North Island, New Zealand. Convergence: Formation of Himalayas
 Andes to Central America (particularly
Guatemala, Costa Rica and Nicaragua),  The volcanism of this broad region,
Mexico and right up to Alaska. stretching from Spain to the Caucasus, is
 It is said that there are almost 100 active largely the result of convergence between
volcanoes in the Philippines, 40 in the the Eurasian Plate and the northward-
Andes, 35 in Japan, and more than 70 in moving African Plate.
Indonesia.  This type of volcanism is mainly due to
breaking up of Mediterranean plate into
Along the Atlantic coast multiple plates due to interaction of
African and Eurasian plate
The Distribution of Earthquakes
 The world’s distribution of earthquakes

coincides very closely with that of
volcanoes.
 Regions of greatest seismicity are Circum- Page
Pacific areas, with the epicentres and the
most frequent occurrences along the | 77
'Pacific Ring of Fire.
 It is said that as many as 70 per cent of
earthquakes occur in the Circum-Pacific
belt.
 Another 20 per cent of earthquakes take
Other regions place in the Mediterranean-Himalayan belt
including Asia Minor, the Himalayas and
 Elsewhere in the interiors of continents— parts of north-west China.
Asia, North America, Europe and  Elsewhere, the earth’s crust is relatively
Australia, active volcanoes are rare. stable and is less prone to earthquakes,
 There are no volcanoes in Australia. though nowhere can be said to be immune
to earth tremors.
Volcanos in India  There are no volcanoes in the

Himalayan region or in the Indian
peninsula.
 Barren Island, lying 135 km north-east of vapours are exhaled. These are known as
Port Blair became active again in 1991 fumaroles or solfataras.
and 1995. After its activity in the  The Barren Island in the Andaman and
nineteenth century, it passed through a Nicobar Islands of India, Vesuvius (Italy)
mild solfataric stage as evidenced by the and Krakatao (Indonesia) which were
sublimations of sulphur on the walls of thought to be extinct, erupted recently Page
the crater. and stayed active for few years and are
 The other volcanic island in Indian now in dormant stage. | 78
territory is Narcondam, about 150 km  Krakatao volcano became active in 1883,
north-east of Barren Island; it is probably killing 36,000 people in West Java. Today,
extinct. Its crater wall has been completely Krakatao is no more than a low island
destroyed. with a caldera lake inside its crater.
Extinct, Dormant and Active volcanoes Some significant Volcanic Eruptions
 Before a volcano becomes extinct, it  In the history of mankind perhaps the

passes through a waning stage during most disastrous eruptions were those of
which steam and other hot gases and Mt. Vesuvius, Mt. Krakatau and Mt.
Pelee.
Mt. Vesuvius  The city of Pompeii, located to the south-

west, was buried beneath twenty feet of
 Mt. Vesuvius is a Stratovolcano (composite volcanic ashes cemented by the torrential
volcano) in Italy. downpours of heavy rain.
 Mt. Vesuvius, standing 4,000 feet above  Fertility of the solidified Volcanic ashes
the Bay of Naples, erupted violently in tempted many farmers to begin anew on
A.D. 79. the slopes of Vesuvius.
 Then came the catastrophic eruption of debris, volcanic bombs, ash and dust and
December 1631, ruined fifteen towns and gases such as nitrogen compounds,
killed inhabitants. sulphur compounds and minor amounts
of chlorine, hydrogen and argon.
Mt. Krakatau
Conical Vent and Fissure Vent
 The greatest volcanic explosion known to Page
men is perhaps that of Mt. Krakatau in  A conical vent is a narrow cylindrical vent | 79
August 1883. through which magma flows out violently.
 Krakatau is a small volcanic island in the Conical vents are common in andesitic
Sunda Straits, between Java and (composite or stratovolcano) volcanism.
Sumatra.  A fissure vent, also known as a volcanic
 The explosion could be heard in Australia, fissure or eruption fissure, is a narrow,
almost 3,000 miles away. linear volcanic vent through which lava
 Though Krakatau itself was not inhabited erupts, usually without any explosive
and nobody was killed by the lava flows, activity. The vent is often a few meters
the vibration set up enormous waves over wide and may be many kilometers long.
100 feet high which drowned 36,000 Fissure vents are common in basaltic
people in the coastal districts of Indonesia. volcanism.
Mt. Pelee
 The eruption of Mt. Pelee of the West

Indies in May 1902 was the most
catastrophic of modem times.
 St. Pierre, the capital of Martinique, lying
on the path of the lava, was completely
Mid-Ocean Ridges
destroyed within minutes.
 Its entire population of 30,000 was killed  These volcanoes occur in the oceanic
almost instantly. areas. There is a system of mid-ocean
Volcanic Landforms ridges more than 70,000 km long that
stretches through all the ocean basins.
 Volcanic landforms are divided into The central portion of this ridge
extrusive and intrusive landforms based experiences frequent eruptions.
on weather magma cools within the crust  The lava is basaltic in nature (Less silica
or above the crust. and hence less viscous).
 Rocks formed by cooling of magma within  Cools slowly and flows through longer
the crust are called ‘Plutonic rocks’. distances.
 Rocks formed by cooling of lava above the  The lava here is responsible for see floor
surface are called ‘Igneous rocks’. spreading.
 In general, the term ‘Igneous rocks’ is Composite Type Volcanic Landforms
used to refer all rocks of volcanic origin.
 They are conical or central type volcanic
Extrusive Volcanic Landforms
landforms.
 Extrusive landforms are formed from  Along with andesitic lava, large quantities
material thrown out during volcanic of pyroclastic material and ashes find their
activity. way to the ground.
 The materials thrown out during volcanic  Andesitic lava along with pyroclastic
activity includes lava flows, pyroclastic material accumulates in the vicinity of the
vent openings leading to formation of
layers, and this makes the mounts appear

as composite volcanoes.
 The highest and most common volcanoes
have composite cones.
 They are often called strato - volcanoes.
 Mt. Stromboli 'Lighthouse of the Page
Mediterranean’, Mt. Vesuvius, Mt. Fuji
etc. are examples. | 80
Caldera Lake
 After the eruption of magma has ceased,

the crater frequently turns into a lake at a
later time. This lake is called a 'caldera'.
Examples: Lonar in Maharashtra and
Krakatao in Indonesia.
Shield Type Volcanic Landforms
 The Hawaiian volcanoes are the most

famous examples.
 These volcanoes are mostly made up of
basalt, a type of lava that is very fluid
when erupted.
 These volcanoes are not steep.
 They become explosive if somehow water Cinder cone
gets into the vent; otherwise, they are less
explosive.  A cinder cone is a steep conical hill of
 Example: Mauna Loa (Hawaii). loose pyroclastic fragments, such as either
volcanic clinkers, cinders, volcanic ash, or
scoria that has been built around a
volcanic vent.
Fissure Type Flood Basalt Landforms

[Lava Plateaus]
 Sometimes, a very thin magma escapes

through cracks and fissures in the earth's
surface and flows after intervals for a long
time, spreading over a vast area, finally
Intrusive Volcanic Landforms
producing a layered, undulating (wave
like), flat surface.
 Intrusive landforms are formed when
 Example: Deccan traps (peninsular India), magma cools within the crust [Plutonic
Snake Basin, U.S.A, Icelandic Shield, rocks (intrusive igneous rock)].
Canadian Shield etc..
 The intrusive activity of volcanoes gives
rise to various forms.
Batholiths  These are basically intrusive counterparts

of an exposed domelike batholith.
 These are large rock masses formed due to  The Karnataka plateau is spotted with
cooling down and solidification of hot dome hills of granite rocks. Most of these,
magma inside the earth. now exfoliated, are examples of laccoliths
 They appear on the surface only after the or batholiths. Page
denudation processes remove the
overlying materials. Lapolith | 81
 Batholiths form the core of huge
mountains and may be exposed on surface  As and when the lava moves upwards, a
after erosion. portion of the same may tend to move in a
 These are granitic bodies. horizontal direction wherever it finds a
weak plane. It may get rested in different
Laccoliths forms. In case it develops into a saucer
shape, concave to the sky body, it is called
 These are large dome-shaped intrusive Lapolith.
bodies connected by a pipe-like conduit
from below.
Phacolith
 A wavy mass of intrusive rocks, at times, In this post we will study about
is found at the base of synclines or at the Volcanism Types – Exhalative, Effusive,
top of anticline in folded igneous country. Explosive and Subaqueous Volcanism.
 Such wavy materials have a definite
conduit to source beneath in the form of  Basically, four types of volcanism can be
magma chambers (subsequently developed identified.
1. Exhalative (vapor or fumes) Page
as batholiths). These are called the
Phacoliths. 2. Effusive (Lava outpouring) | 82
3. Explosive (Violent ejection solid
Sills material)
4. Subaqueous Volcanism
 These are solidified horizontal lava layers
inside the earth. Exhalative (vapor or fumes)
 The near horizontal bodies of the intrusive
igneous rocks are called sill or sheet, This includes the discharge of material in
depending on the thickness of the gaseous form, such as
material.  steam, fumes and
 The thinner ones are called sheets while  Hydrochloric acid
the thick horizontal deposits are called  Ammonium chloride
sills.  Sulphur dioxide
 Carbon dioxide
Dykes
 Carbon monoxide.
 When the lava makes its way through  Hydrogen sulphide
cracks and the fissures developed in the  Hydrogen
land, it solidifies almost perpendicular to  Nitrogen
the ground.  These gases may escape through vents
 It gets cooled in the same position to which are in the form of hot springs,
develop a wall-like structure. Such geysers, fumaroles and solfataras.
structures are called dykes.  This kind of volcanism indicates the
 These are the most commonly found volcano is reaching its extinction.
intrusive forms in the western
Maharashtra area. These are considered
the feeders for the eruptions that led to
the development of the Deccan traps.
 Associated landforms ==> sinter mounds,

cones of precipitated minerals and mud
volcanoes.
Page
| 83
Effusive (Lava outpouring) Explosive (Violent ejection of solid

material)
 Effusive: Geology relating to or denoting
igneous rocks poured out as lava and later  This type of activity results in
solidified. fragmentation and ejection of solid
 This type of activity refers to abundant material through vents.
outpourings of lava from a vent or  Volcanic eject that settle out of air or
fissure. water are sometimes called pyroclastic
 Lava is silica poor basic one like basalt. sediments.
Hence flows through larger distances.  Tephra: all fragmented ejects from the
volcanoes.
 Ash: The finest sand-sized tephra
 Lappilli: These are gravel sized particles
either in molten or solid state.
 Blocks: Cobble or boulder-sized solid
ejecta.
 Bombs: a lump of lava thrown out by a
volcano.
 Tuff: Layers of volcanic dust and ashes
 Smaller particles like lapilli and ash travel
through air for many kilometres and may
remain suspended in the air for a long
 The Deccan traps, which are composed of time.
such lavas today, cover an area of  The heavier particles like bombs and
5,00,000 square km. The original extent of blocks fall only as far from the vent or
the formation must have been at least 14 fissure as the explosive force is able to
lakh square km. hurl them.
 Columnar structure is sometimes
developed in fine-grained plateau basalts.
 Columnar basalts are seen in the Deccan
traps near Bombay.
Volcanism – Acid Rain, Ozone

Destruction
 The volcanic gases that pose the greatest

potential hazard to people, animals,
agriculture, and property are sulfur
Page
dioxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen
fluoride etc.. | 84
 Locally, sulfur dioxide gas can lead to acid
rain and air pollution downwind from a
volcano. consolidates to produce a structure like
 Globally, large explosive eruptions that that of a heap of pillows
inject a tremendous volume of sulfur  Pillow lava of Pre-Cambrian Age are found
aerosols into the stratosphere can lead to in parts of Karnataka.
lower surface temperatures and promote  Highly viscous lavas erupted at lesser
depletion of the Earth's ozone layer. depths develop glassy margins on pillows.
The related volcanic product is
hyaloclastite. Most hyaloclastites identified
are in Iceland.
Eruptive Volcanism Types
 Based on the typical pattern or mode of

eruptions:
Hawaiian Eruption or Icelandic

Eruption
 It involves the effusive outpouring of

basalt lava from craters, lava lakes or
fissures.
 A single flow spreads widely over open
slopes or flows down the valleys as lava
rivers.
 Little gas or tephra is produced.
 Examples: The great basalt plateaus of
Columbia and Iceland.
Strombolian Eruption
 In this case, more viscous lava is ejected

upward in a fountain like fashion from a
lava lake in the crater at regular intervals
of around 15 minutes.
Subaqueous Volcanism  Stromboli lies in the Lipari Islands near
Italy.
 This type of volcanic activity takes places  It is called the ‘lighthouse of the
below the surface of water. Mediterranean’.
 When lava flows over the deep ocean floor Vulcanian Eruption
or is otherwise in contact with water, it
 The eruption in this mode is explosive.
 The molten lava which fills the crater  Only minor lava flows result.
solidifies and is explosively ejected as a  After each eruption cycle, the volcano is
great cauliflower cloud of dark tephra. dormant for decades or for centuries.
 Bombs, blocks, lapilli and other ejecta fall
in the surrounding area.
Page
| 85
Pelean Eruption In this post we will study about Hotspot

Volcanism. Understanding Hotspot
 This type of eruption is the result of very volcanism is important to understand the
viscous, gas-rich, acidic lava flowing Formation of Hawaiian Islands and
violently over the crater rim or breaking Islands of Indian Ocean such as the
out laterally. Lakshadweep islands, Reunion islands,
 Hot gas and lava mixture is not carried Chagos archipelago etc.
skyward to become cold tephra but
spreads downslope as a nuce ardente, Hotspot Volcanism
continuing to evolve gas that cushions the
flowing fragments.  In the previous posts, we have studied
about volcanism at convergent and
Icelandic volcano divergent boundaries.
 Hotspot Volcanism is somewhat different
 The Icelandic type is characterized by from the other types because this type of
effusions of molten basaltic lava that flow volcanism occurs not at the margins but
from long, parallel fissures. Such at the interior parts of the lithospheric
outpourings often build lava plateaus. plates.
 Well known examples include Hawaiian over the hot spot creating a continuous
Hotspot Volcanism, Yellowstone cycle of volcanism, forming a volcanic
Hotspot Volcanism and Reunion arc.
Hotspot Volcanism.
Hotspot volcanic landforms
Hot spot
 Volcanic activity at hot spots can create Page
 A hot spot is a region within the Earth’s submarine mountains known as | 86
mantle from which heat rises through the seamounts.
process of convection.  Hot spot seamounts that reach the surface
 This heat facilitates the melting of rock at of the water can create entire chains of
the base of the lithosphere, where the islands, such as the U.S. state of Hawaii.
brittle, upper portion of the mantle meets  Reunion islands near Madagascar is also
the Earth’s crust. an example of volcanic hotspot.
 The melted rock, known as magma, often  Hot spots can also develop beneath
pushes through cracks in the crust to continents. The Yellowstone hot spot, for
form volcanoes. example, has produced a series of volcanic
features that extend in a northeastern
direction.
Mantle plumes
 Hot spot volcanism is unique because it

does not occur at the boundaries of Reunion Hotspot Volcanism
Earth’s tectonic plates, where all other
volcanism occurs.  The Reunion hotspot is a volcanic hotspot
 Instead it occurs at abnormally hot which currently lies under the Island of
centers known as mantle plumes. Mantle Reunion in the Indian Ocean.
plumes are exceptionally hot areas fixed  The Chagos-Laccadive Ridge
deep below the Earth’s crust. (Lakshadweep is a part of this ridge) and
the southern part of the Mascarene
Hotspot volcano chain Plateau are volcanic traces of the Reunion
hotspot.
 A volcano above a hot spot does not erupt  The hotspot is believed to have been active
forever. Attached to the tectonic plate for over 66 million years. A huge eruption
below, the volcano moves and is of this hotspot 66 million years ago is
eventually cut off from the hot spot. thought to have laid down the Deccan
 Without any source of heat, the volcano Traps, a vast bed of basalt lava that covers
becomes extinct and cools. This cooling part of central India, and opened a rift
causes the rock of the volcano and the which separated India from the Seychelles
tectonic plate to become more dense. Plateau.
 Over time, the dense rock sinks and
erodes. A new and active volcano develops
 As the Indian plate drifted north, the Distribution of Hotspot Volcanism

hotspot continued to punch through
the plate, creating a string of volcanic
islands and undersea plateaus.
 The Laccadive Islands, the Maldives,
and the Chagos Archipelago are atolls Page
resting on former volcanoes created
60-45 million years ago that | 87
subsequently submerged below sea
level.
 About 45 million years ago the mid-
ocean rift crossed over the hotspot,
and the hotspot passed under the
African Plate.
 The hotspot appears to have been In this post we will study about
relatively quiet from 45-10 million years Earthquakes – Types of Seismic Waves or
ago, when activity resumed, creating the Earthquake waves.
Mascarene Islands, which include
Earthquakes
Mauritius, Reunion, and Rodrigues.
 An earthquake is the shaking or trembling

of the earth’s surface, caused by the
sudden movement of a part of the earth’s
crust. They result from the sudden release
of energy in the Earth's crust that creates
seismic waves or earthquake waves.
 About 50,000 earthquakes large enough to
be noticed without the aid of instruments
occur annually over the entire Earth. Of
these, approximately 100 are of sufficient
size to produce substantial damage if their
centers are near areas of habitation.
Terms associated with earthquakes
Focus
 The place of origin of an earthquake inside

the earth.
Epicenter
 Point on the earth’s surface vertically and more limited in extent than those
above the focus. caused by fracturing of the earth’s crust.
 Maximum damage is caused at the  Earthquakes occur most often along
epicenter. geologic faults, narrow zones where rock
masses move in relation to one another.
Wave Velocity The major fault lines of the world are Page
located at the fringes of the huge tectonic
 5 to 8 km per second through the outer | 88
plates that make up Earth’s crust.
part of the crust but travel faster with
 Plate tectonics: Slipping of land along the
depth.
fault line along, convergent, divergent and
Isoseismic Line transform boundaries cause earthquakes.
Example: San Andreas Fault is a
 A line connecting all points on the surface transform fault where Pacific plate and
of the earth where the intensity is the North American plate move horizontally
same. relative to each other causing earthquakes
along the fault lines.
Human Induced Earthquakes
 Some earthquakes are human induced.

 Earthquakes in the reservoir region,
mining sites etc. are human induced.
Some Earthquake inducing human

activities
 Deep mining
 Underground nuclear tests
 Reservoir induced seismicity (RIS)
 Extraction of fossil fuels
 Groundwater extraction
Causes of Earthquakes  Artificial induction
 In fluid injection, the slip is thought to be
 Most earthquakes are causally related to induced by premature release of elastic
compressional or tensional stresses built strain, as in the case of tectonic
up at the margins of the huge moving earthquakes, after fault surfaces are
lithospheric plates. lubricated by the liquid.
 The immediate cause of most shallow
earthquakes is the sudden release of Volcanic Earthquakes
stress along a fault, or fracture in the
earth's crust.  A separate type of earthquake is
 Sudden slipping of rock formations along associated with volcanic activity and is
faults and fractures in the earth’s crust called a volcanic earthquake.
happen due to constant change in volume  Yet it is likely that even in such cases the
and density of rocks due to intense disturbance is the result of a sudden slip
temperature and pressure in the earth’s of rock masses adjacent to the volcano
interior. and the consequent release of elastic
 Volcanic activity also can cause an strain energy.
earthquake but the earthquakes of  The stored energy, however, may in part
volcanic origin are generally less severe be of hydrodynamic origin due to heat
provided by magma moving in reservoirs
beneath the volcano or to the release of  The velocity of waves changes as they
gas under pressure. travel through materials with different
 There is a clear correspondence between elasticity (stiffness) (Generally density with
the geographic distribution of volcanoes few exceptions). The more elastic the
and major earthquakes, particularly in the material is, the higher is the velocity. Their
Circum-Pacific Belt and along oceanic direction also changes as they reflect or Page
ridges. refract when coming across materials with
 Volcanic vents, however, are generally different densities. | 89
several hundred kilometres from the  There are two types of body waves. They
epicenters of most major shallow are called P and S-waves.
earthquakes, and many earthquake 1. Primary waves or P waves
sources occur nowhere near active (longitudinal)(fastest)
volcanoes. 2. Secondary waves or S waves
 Even in cases where an earthquake’s (transverse)(least destructive)
focus occurs directly below structures 3. Surface waves or L waves
marked by volcanic vents, there is (transverse)(slowest)(most destructive)
probably no immediate causal connection
between the two activities; most likely
both are the result of the same tectonic
processes.
Seismic Waves or Earthquake Waves
 The slipping of land generates seismic

waves and these waves travel in all
directions.
 Earthquake is any sudden shaking of the Primary Waves (P waves)
ground caused by the passage of seismic
 Also called as the longitudinal or
waves through Earth’s rocks. (Earthquake
compressional waves.
is caused by vibrations in rocks. And the
 Analogous to sound waves.
vibrations in rocks are produced by
seismic waves)  Particles of the medium vibrate along the
direction of propagation of the wave.
 Seismic waves are produced when some
form of energy stored in Earth’s crust is  P-waves move faster and are the first to
suddenly released, usually when masses arrive at the surface.
of rock straining against one another  These waves are of high frequency.
suddenly fracture and “slip.”  They can travel in all mediums.
 Velocity of P waves in Solids > Liquids >
Types of Seismic Waves Gases.
 Their velocity depends on shear strength
 Earthquake waves are basically of two or elasticity of the material.
types — body waves and surface waves.
 Body waves are generated due to the [We usually say that the speed of sound
release of energy at the focus and move in waves depends on density. But there are
all directions travelling through the body few exceptions. For example: Mercury
of the earth. Hence, the name body waves. (liquid metal) has density greater than
 The body waves interact with the surface Iron but speed of sound in mercury is
rocks and generate new set of waves called lesser compared to that in iron. This is
surface waves. These waves move along because the shear strength of mercury is
the surface. very low (this is why mercury is liquid)
compared to that of iron.]
Secondary Waves (S waves)
 Also called as transverse or distortional

waves.
 Analogous to water ripples or light
waves.
Page
 S-waves arrive at the surface with some
time lag. | 90
 A secondary wave cannot pass through
liquids or gases.
 These waves are of high frequency waves.
 Travel at varying velocities (proportional to
shear strength) through the solid part of
the Earth's crust, mantle.  Shallow focus earthquakes are called
Surface Waves (L waves) crustal earthquakes as they exist in the
earth’s crustal layer.
 Also called as long period waves.  Deep focus earthquakes are known as
 They are low frequency, long intra plate earthquakes, as they are
wavelength, and transverse vibration. triggered off by collision between plates.
 Generally affect the surface of the Earth  Shallow-focus earthquakes occur at
only and die out at smaller depth. depths less than 70 km, while deep-focus
 Develop in the immediate neighborhood of earthquakes occur at greater focal depths
the epicenter. of 300 – 700 km.
 They cause displacement of rocks, and  Shallow focus earthquakes are found
hence, the collapse of structures occurs. within the earth’s outer crustal layer,
 These waves are the most destructive. while deep focus earthquakes occur within
 Recoded last on the seismograph. the deeper subduction zones of the earth.
 Shallow focus earthquakes are of smaller
Earthquakes based on the depth of magnitudes, of a range 1 to 5, while deep
Focus focus earthquakes are of higher
magnitudes, 6 to 8 or more.
 Wadati Benioff zone is a zone of
subduction along which earthquakes are Distribution of Earthquakes
common.
 A Wadati–Benioff zone is a zone of  Earth’s major earthquakes occur mainly
seismicity corresponding with the down- in belts coinciding with the margins of
going slab in a subduction zone tectonic plates.
(Convergent Boundary).  The most important earthquake belt is the
 Differential motion along the zone Circum-Pacific Belt, which affects many
produces numerous earthquakes. populated coastal regions around the
Pacific Ocean—for example, those of New
 Shallow focus earthquakes (most common
Zealand, New Guinea, Japan, the Aleutian
at submarine ridges. Hardly felt)
Islands, Alaska, and the western coasts of
 Intermediate focus earthquakes
North and South America.
(somewhat severe)
 The seismic activity is by no means
 Deep focus earthquakes (Occurs at
uniform throughout the belt, and there are
trenches – convergent boundary. Very
a number of branches at various points.
powerful. Japan lies along trench line.
Because at many places the Circum-
Hence it faces devastating earthquakes)
Pacific Belt is associated with volcanic
activity, it has been popularly dubbed the
“Pacific Ring of Fire.” The Pacific Ring of Earthquake & Tsunami of 2011 which
Fire accounts for about 68 per cent of all caused death of more than 15,000
earthquakes. individuals. The tsunami caused nuclear
 A second belt, known as the Alpine Belt accidents, primarily the meltdowns at
(Himalayas and Alps). The energy released three reactors in the Fukushima Daiichi
in earthquakes from this belt is about 15 Nuclear Power Plant complex.
Page
percent of the world total. The mid-world
mountain belt (Alpine Belt) extends Tsunami | 91
parallel to the equator from Mexico across
the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea  Tsunami is a Japanese word for “Harbour
from Alpine-Caucasus ranges' to the wave”. They are also known as seismic sea
Caspian, Himalayan mountains and the waves.
adjoining lands. This zone has folded  They are very long-wavelength water
mountains, large depressions and active waves in oceans or seas. They are
volcanoes. commonly referred to as tidal waves
 There also are striking connected belts of because of long wavelengths, although
seismic activity, mainly along oceanic the attractions of the Moon and Sun play
ridges—including those in the Arctic no role in their formation.
Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, and the  They sometimes come ashore to great
western Indian Ocean—and along the rift heights – tens of metres above mean tide
valleys of East Africa. level – and may be extremely destructive.
Effects of Earthquakes What causes Tsunami?
 Earthquakes cause landslides, damming  A tsunami can be caused by any

of rivers, depressions which form lakes. disturbance that displaces a large water
 They can cause submergence and mass from its equilibrium position.
emergence of landforms along coastal  The usual immediate cause of a tsunami
regions. Example: Coastline of Kutch. is sudden displacement in a seabed due to
 Lead to change in surface drainage and submarine earthquakes sufficient to cause
underground circulation of water. the sudden raising or lowering of a large
body of water. The tsunami on December
 More devastating features of earthquakes
26, 2004 was caused after an earthquake
are fires and seismic waves (tsunamis).
displaced the seabed off the coast of
 Formation of cracks or fissures especially
Sumatra, Indonesia.
in the region of the epicenter is common.
 Large volcanic eruptions along shorelines,
such as Krakatoa (1883 CE), have also
produced notable tsunamis.
 A marine volcanic eruption can generate
an impulsive force that displaces the water
column and gives birth to a tsunami.
 During a submarine landslide, the
equilibrium sea-level is altered by
sediment moving along the floor of the sea.
Gravitational forces then propagate a
tsunami.
 Landslides along the coast, high intensity
Tsunamis are the most disastrous among explosions can also cause tsunami.
natural calamities. Though their  Most destructive tsunamis can be caused
occurrence is rare, the havoc they cause is due to the fall of extra-terrestrial objects
tremendous. The latest is the Japan on to the earth.
Mechanism in Earthquake induced continental plate for a while, when

Tsunami’s stresses build up, then the locked zone
gives way. Parts of the ocean floor then
 An undersea earthquake causes buckling snap upward and other areas sink
of the sea floor, something that occurs at downward.
subduction zones, places where drifting  In the instant after the quake, the sea Page
plates that constitute the outer shell of the surface shape resembles the contours of
earth converge and the heavier oceanic the seafloor. But then gravity acts to | 92
plate subducts below the lighter return the sea surface to its original
continents. shape. The ripples then race outward and
 As a plate plunges into the interior of the a tsunami is caused.
earth it gets stuck against the edge of a
Propagation of tsunami waves  With decrease in speed, height of the

tsunami wave grows. A tsunami which
 The long gravity tsunami waves are was imperceptible in deep water may grow
caused by two interacting processes. to many metres high and this is called the
1. There is the slope of the sea surface which ‘shoaling’ effect.
creates a horizontal pressure force.  Sometimes, the sea seems to at first draw
2. Then there is the piling up or lowering of a breath but then this withdrawal is
sea surface as water moves in varying followed by arrival of the crest of a
speeds in the direction that the wave form tsunami wave. Tsunamis have been
is moving. These processes together create known to occur suddenly without
propagating waves. warning.
 As a tsunami leaves deep waters and  In some cases there are several great
propagates into the shallow waters, it waves separated by intervals of several
transforms. This is because as the depth minutes or more. The first of these waves
of the water decreases, the speed of the is often preceded by an extraordinary
tsunami reduces. But the change of total recession of water from the shore, which
energy of the tsunami remains constant. may commence several minutes or even
half an hour beforehand.
Page
| 93
Properties of Tsunami Waves  It travels at different speeds in water: it

travels slow in water that is shallow and
 Tsunamis are a series of waves of very, fast in deep water.
very long wavelengths and period created
in oceans by an impulsive disturbance. Waves
 Tsunamis are different from the wind-
generated waves which usually have a  The horizontal and vertical motions are
period of five to twenty seconds. common in ocean water bodies. The
 Tsunamis behave as shallow-water waves horizontal motion refers to the ocean
because of their long wavelengths. They currents and waves. The vertical motion
have a period in the range of ten minutes refers to tides.
to two hours and a wavelength exceeding  Water moves ahead from one place to
500 km. another through ocean currents while
 The rate of energy loss of a wave is the water in the waves does not move,
inversely related to its wavelength. So but the wave trains move ahead.
tsunamis lose little energy as they  Waves are actually the energy, not the
propagate because of their very large water as such, which moves across the
wavelength. ocean surface. Water particles only travel
 So they will travel at high speeds in deep in a small circle as a wave passes.
waters and travel great distances as well  Wind provides energy to the waves. Wind
losing little energy. A tsunami that occurs causes waves to travel in the ocean and
1000 metres deep in water has a speed of the energy is released on shorelines.
356 km per hour.  The motion of the surface water seldom
 At 6000 m, it travels at 873 km per hour. affects the stagnant deep bottom water of
the oceans.
 As a wave approaches the beach, it slows  Wave crest and trough: The highest and
down. This is due to the friction occurring lowest points of a wave are called the crest
between the dynamic water and the sea and trough respectively.
floor.  Wave height: It is the vertical distance
from the bottom of a trough to the top of a
And, when the depth of water is less crest of a wave.
than half the wavelength of the wave, Page
 Wave amplitude: It is one-half of the wave
the wave breaks (dies). height. | 94
 Wave period: It is merely the time interval
between two successive wave crests or
troughs as they pass a fixed point.
 Wavelength: It is the horizontal distance
between two successive crests.
 Wave speed: It is the rate at which the
wave moves through the water, and is
measured in knots.
 Wave frequency: It is the number of waves
Gif Image passing a given point during a one second
time interval.
 The largest waves are found in the open
oceans. Waves continue to grow larger as Normal waves vs Tsunami waves
they move and absorb energy from the
wind.
 When a breeze of two knots or less blows
over calm water, small ripples form and
grow as the wind speed increases until
white caps appear in the breaking waves.
 Waves may travel thousands of km before
rolling ashore, breaking and dissolving as
surf. A wave’s size and shape reveal its
origin.
Steep waves are fairly young ones and

are probably formed by local wind. Slow
and steady waves originate from
faraway places, possibly from another
Tsunami waves are not noticed by ships
hemisphere.
far out at sea
 Waves travel because wind pushes the
water body in its course while gravity pulls  As tsunami waves are long wavelength
the crests of the waves downward. waves, they cannot be perceived in deep
 The falling water pushes the former oceans. Their amplitude is negligible when
troughs upward, and the wave moves to a compared with their wavelength and
new position. hence the waves go unnoticed in deep
oceans.
 The actual motion of the water beneath
the waves is circular. It indicates that  When tsunamis approach shallow water,
things are carried up and forward as the however, the wave amplitude increases
wave approaches, and down and back as (conservation of energy). The waves may
it passes. occasionally reach a height of 20 to 30
metres above mean sea level in U- and V-
Characteristics of Waves shaped harbours and inlets (funneling
effect).
 Tsunami traveled at a speed of about 800

km. per hour, comparable to speed of
commercial aircraft and completely
washed away some of the islands in the
Indian ocean.
 The Indira point in the Andaman and Page
Nicobar islands that marked the
southernmost point of India got completely | 95
submerged.
 As the wave moved from earthquake
epicenter from Sumatra towards the
Andaman Islands and Sri Lanka the wave
length decreased with decreasing depth
of water. The travel speed also declined
from 700-900 km. per hour to less than
70 km. per hour.
 Tsunami waves traveled up to a depth of 3
km from the coast killing more than
10,000 people and affected more than
lakh of houses.
2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami
 In India, the worst affected were the
coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
 Tsunami or the Harbour wave struck
Nadu, Kerala, Pondicherry and the
havoc in the Indian Ocean on the 26th of
Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
December 2004.
 The wave was the result of earthquake
that had its epicenter near western
boundary of Sumatra.
 The magnitude of the earthquake was 9.0
on the Richter scale.
Plate tectonics
 Indian plate went under the Burma

plate, there was a sudden movement of
the sea floor, causing the earthquake.
 The ocean floor was displaced by about 10
– 20m and tilted in a downwardly
direction.
 A huge mass of ocean water flowed to fill
in the gap that was being created by the
displacement.
 This marked the withdrawal of the water
mass from the coastlines of the
landmasses in the south and Southeast
Asia.
 After thrusting of the Indian plate below
the Burma plate, the water mass rushed
back towards the coastline as tsunami. Occurrence
Tsunami waves
 Subduction zones off Chile, Nicaragua,  The Pacific among the oceans has
Mexico and Indonesia have created killer witnessed most number of tsunamis (over
tsunamis. 790 since 1990).
Page
| 96
Shifts in Geography  While the earthquake cannot be predicted

in advance, it is possible to give a three-
 Tsunamis and earthquakes can cause hour notice of a potential tsunami.
changes in geography.  Such early warning systems are in place
 The December 26 earthquake and across the Pacific Ocean. Post 2004, they
tsunami shifted the North Pole by 2.5 cm were installed in Indian Ocean as well.
in the direction of 145 degrees East  In 1965, early warning system was started
longitude and reduced the length of the by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
day by 2.68 microseconds. Administration (NOAA). The member
 This in turn affected the velocity of earth’s states of the NOAA include the major
rotation and the Coriolis force which plays Pacific Rim countries.
a strong role in weather patterns.  NOAA has developed the ‘Deep Ocean
 The Andaman and Nicobar Islands may Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis’
have (moved by about 1.25 m owing to the (DART) gauge.
impact of the colossal earthquake and the  Each gauge has a very sensitive pressure
tsunami. recorder on the sea floor. Data is
generated whenever changes in water
Warning Systems pressure occur.
 The data is transmitted to a surface buoy  Petrology is science of rocks.

which then relays it over satellite.
 Computer systems at the Pacific Tsunami Different kinds of rocks
Warning Centre (PTWC) in Hawaii
monitors data.  Igneous Rocks — solidified from magma
 Based on the data, warnings are issued. and lava.
 Sedimentary Rocks — the result of Page
deposition of fragments of rocks. | 97
 Metamorphic Rocks — formed out of
existing rocks undergoing
recrystallization.
Igneous Rocks
 Formed out of magma and lava and are

known as primary rocks.
 If molten material is cooled slowly at great
depths, mineral grains may be very large.
 Sudden cooling (at the surface) results in
small and smooth grains.
 Granite, gabbro, pegmatite, basalt, etc.are
some of the examples of igneous rocks.
 There are two types of igneous rocks:
intrusive rocks (Granite) and extrusive
rocks (Basalt-Deccan Traps).
India’s preparedness  Having their origin under conditions of
high temperatures, the igneous rocks are
 The Deep Ocean Assessment and Unfossiliferous.
Reporting System (DOARS) was set up in  Acid igneous rocks, such as granite, are
the Indian Ocean post 2014. less dense and are lighter in colour than
 The Indian government plans to set up a basic rocks.
network with Indonesia, Myanmar and
Thailand etc.. Based on place and time taken in
 A National Tsunami Early Warning cooling of the molten matter, igneous
Centre, which has the capability to detect rocks can be divided into Plutonic and
earthquakes of more than 6 magnitude in Volcanic rocks.
the Indian Ocean, was inaugurated in
Plutonic Rocks or intrusive rocks
2007 in India.
 Set up by the Ministry of Earth Sciences  Sometimes, the molten matter is not able
in the Indian National Centre for Ocean to reach the surface and instead cools
Information Services (INCOIS), down very slowly at great depths.
Hyderabad, the tsunami warning system
 Slow cooling allows big-sized crystals
would take 10-30 minutes to analyze the
(large grains) to be formed.
seismic data following an earthquake.
 Granite is a typical example. These rocks
appear on the surface only after being
uplifted and denuded.
ROCKS
Lava or Volcanic Rocks or Extrusive
 Feldspar and quartz are the most rocks
common minerals found in rocks.
 These are formed by rapid cooling of the  Dyke rocks are semi-crystalline in
lava thrown out during volcanic eruptions. structure.
 Rapid cooling prevents crystallization, as a
result such rocks are fine-grained. Based on the presence of acid forming
 Basalt is a typical example. The Deccan radical, silicon, igneous rocks are
traps in the peninsular region is of divided into Acid Rocks and Basic
Rocks. Page
basaltic origin.
 Basic rocks contain a greater proportion of | 98
Acid Rocks
basic oxides, e.g. of iron, aluminium or
magnesium, and are thus denser and  These are characterized by high content of
darker in colour. silica—up to 80 per cent, while the rest is
divided among aluminium, alkalis,
Plutonic rocks Volcanic rocks magnesium, iron oxide, lime etc..
Intrusive rocks Extrusive rocks  These rocks constitute the sial portion of
the crust.
Granite Basalt  Due to the excess of silicon, acidic magma
cools fast and it does not flow and spread
Slow cooling Rapid cooling far away.
allows big-sized prevents  High mountains are formed of this type of
crystals (large crystallization, as a rock.
grains) result such rocks are  These rocks have a lesser content of
fine-grained heavier minerals like iron and magnesium
and normally contain quartz and feldspar.
Less dense and Denser and Darker in  Add rocks are hard, compact, massive and
are lighter in colour resistant to weathering.
colour than basic
rocks Basic Rocks
Hypabyssal or Dyke Rocks or  These rocks are poor in silica (about 40

Intermediate rocks per cent); magnesia content is up to 40
per cent and the remaining 40 per cent is
spread over iron oxide, lime, aluminium,
alkalis, potassium etc.
 Due to low silica content, the parent
material of such rocks cools slowly and
thus, flows and spreads far away. This
flow and cooling gives rise to plateaus.
 Presence of heavy elements imparts to
these rocks a dark colour.
 Basalt is a typical example, others being
gabbro and dolerite.
 Not being very hard, these rocks are
weathered relatively easily.
 These rocks occupy an intermediate

position between the deep-seated plutonic
bodies and the surface lava flows.
Acidic rocks Basic rocks
High content of silica—upto 80 per cent Poor in silica; magnesia content (40
per cent)
Due to the excess of silicon, acidic magma cools Due to low silica content, the parent
fast material of such rocks cools slowly
High Volcanic mountains are formed of this type of Forms plateaus. Deccan Traps
rock. Mt Fuji, Japan Page
Lesser content of heavier minerals like iron and Presence of heavy elements imparts | 99
magnesium and normally contain quartz and to these rocks a dark colour.
feldspar. Hence they are lighter in colour
Granite, quartz, feldspar etc. Basalt, gabbro, dolerite etc..
Add rocks are hard, compact, massive and resistant Not being very hard, these rocks are
to weathering. weathered relatively easily.
Economic Significance of Igneous Depending upon the mode of formation,

Rocks they are classified into
 Since magma is the chief source of metal  mechanically formed — sandstone,

ores, many of them are associated with conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess etc.
igneous rocks.  organically formed — geyserite, chalk,
 The minerals of great economic value limestone, coal etc.
found in igneous rocks are magnetic iron,  chemically formed — chert, limestone,
nickel, copper, lead, zinc, chromite, halite, potash etc..
manganese, gold, diamond and platinum.
Mechanically Formed Sedimentary
 Amygdales are almond-shaped bubbles
Rocks
formed in basalt due to escape of gases
and are filled with minerals.
 Formed by mechanical agents like running
 The old rocks of the great Indian
water, wind, ocean currents, ice, etc.
peninsula are rich in these crystallised
 Arenaceous rocks == More sand and big
minerals or metals.
sized particles, and are hard. E.g.
 Many igneous rocks like granite are used
sandstone.
as building material as they come in
 Argillaceous rocks == More clay and are
beautiful shades.
fine-grained, softer, impermeable and non-
Sedimentary Rocks porous. They are easily weathered and
eroded. E.g. shale.
 Sedimentary or detrital rocks.
Chemically Formed Sedimentary Rocks
 Formed as a result of denudation
(weathering and erosion).
 These deposits through compaction turn
into rocks. This process is called
lithification.
 Cover 75 per cent of the earth’s crust but
volumetrically occupy only 5 per cent.
 They are layered or stratified of varying
thickness. Example: sandstone, shale etc.
 Till or Tillite == Ice deposited sedimentary  Water containing minerals evaporate at
rocks. the mouth of springs or salt lakes and give
 Loess == Wind deposited sediments. rise to Stalactites and stalagmites
(deposits of lime left over by the lime-  The great Vindhyan highland in central
mixed water as it evaporates in the India consists of sandstones, shales,
underground caves. limestones.
 Coal deposits occur in river basins of the
Organically Formed Sedimentary Rocks Damodar, Mahanadi, Godavari in the
Gondwana sedimentary deposits. Page
 The remains of plants and animals are
buried under sediments and due to heat Economic Significance of Sedimentary |
and pressure from overlying layers, their Rocks
composition undergoes a change. 100
 Coal and limestone are well-known  Sedimentary rocks are not as rich in
examples. minerals of economic value as the igneous
 Plant remains give rise to coals of different rocks.
grades depending upon the proportion of  But important minerals such as hematite
carbon and the degree of overlying iron ore, phosphates, building stones,
pressure. coals, petroleum and material used in
 The peat and lignite (brown coal) is the cement industry are found.
first stage of coal having below 45 per cent  The decay of tiny marine organisms yields
of carbon; the bituminous variety is the petroleum. Petroleum occurs in suitable
next stage with 60 per cent carbon. structures only.
 Limestone is composed of shells and  Important minerals like bauxite,
skeletons of dead marine animals that manganese, tin are derived from other
once lived in shallow, warm and clear rocks but are found in gravels and sands
waters of a sea or lake. carried by water. Sedimentary rocks also
 Depending on the predominance of yield some of the richest soils.
calcium content or the carbon content,
sedimentary rocks may be calcareous Metamorphic Rocks
(limestone, chalk, dolomite) or
carbonaceous (coal).  The word metamorphic means ‘change of
form’.
Chief Characteristics of Sedimentary  Form under the action of pressure, volume
Rocks and temperature (PVT) changes.
 Metamorphism occurs when rocks are
 These rocks consist of a number of layers forced down to lower levels by tectonic
or strata processes or when molten magma rising
 These rocks are characterized by marks through the crust comes in contact with
left behind by water currents and waves the crustal rocks.
etc..  Metamorphism is a process by which
 These rocks have fossils of plants and already consolidated rocks undergo
animals. recrystallization and reorganization of
 These rocks are generally porous and materials within original rocks.
allow water to percolate through them.  In the process of metamorphism in some
 Spread of Sedimentary Rocks in India rocks grains or minerals get arranged in
 Alluvial deposits in the Indo-Gangetic layers or lines. Such an arrangement is
plain and coastal plains is of sedimentary called foliation or lineation.
accumulation.  Sometimes minerals or materials of
 These deposits contain loam and clay. different groups are arranged into
 Different varieties of sandstone are spread alternating thin to thick layers. Such a
over Madhya Pradesh, eastern Rajasthan, structure in is called banding.
parts of Himalayas, Andhra Pradesh,
Bihar and Orissa.
 Gneissoid, slate, schist, marble, quartzite  A magmatic intrusion causing thermal

etc. are some examples of metamorphic metamorphism is responsible for the peak
rocks. of Mt. Everest consisting of
metamorphosed limestone.
Causes of Metamorphism  As a result of thermal metamorphism,
sandstone changes into quartzite and Page
Orogenic (Mountain Building)
limestone into marble.
Movements |
Dynamic Metamorphism
 Such movements often take place with 101
interplay of folding, warping, crumpling  This refers to the formation of
and high temperatures. These processes metamorphic rocks under the stress of
give existing rocks a new appearance. pressure.
 Lava Inflow The molten magmatic material  Sometimes high pressure is accompanied
inside the earth’s crust brings the by high temperatures and the action of
surrounding rocks under the influence of chemically charged water.
intense temperature pressure and causes  The combination of directed pressure and
changes in them. heat is very powerful in producing
Geodynamic Forces metamorphism because it leads to more or
less complete recrystallisation of rocks
 The omnipresent geodynamic forces such and the production of new structures.
as plate tectonics also play an important This is known as dynamothermal
role in metamorphism. metamorphism.
 Under high pressure, granite is converted
On the basis of the agency of into gneiss; clay and shale are
metamorphism, metamorphic rocks can transformed into schist.
be of two types
Thermal Metamorphism
 The change of form or re-crystallisation of

minerals of sedimentary and igneous
rocks under the influence of high
temperatures is known as thermal
metamorphism.
 There may be various sources of the'high Some examples of Metamorphosis
temperatures—hot magma, hot gases,
vapours and liquids, geothermal heat etc.
Igneous or Sedimentary rock Influence Metamorphosed rock
Granite Pressure Gneiss
Clay, Shale Pressure Schist
Sandstone Heat Quartzite
Clay, Shale Heat Slate ==> Phyllite
Coal Heat Anthracite ==> Graphite
Limestone Heat Marble
Page
|
102
Metamorphic Rocks in India  The fragments derived out of igneous and

metamorphic rocks form into sedimentary
 The gneisses and schists are commonly rocks.
found in the Himalayas, Assam, West  Sedimentary and igneous rocks
Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh themselves can turn into metamorphic
and Rajasthan. rocks
 Quartzite is a hard rock found over  The crustal rocks (igneous, metamorphic
Rajasthan, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil and sedimentary) may be carried down
Nadu and areas surrounding Delhi. into the mantle (interior of the earth)
 Marble occurs near Alwar, Ajmer, Jaipur, through subduction process and the same
Jodhpur in Rajasthan and parts of melt down and turn into molten magma,
Narmada Valley in Madhya Pradesh. the original source for igneous rocks
 Slate, which is used as a roofing material
and for writing in schools, is found over Some Rock-Forming Minerals
Rewari (Haryana), Kangra (Himachal
Pradesh) and parts of Bihar.  Feldspar: Half the crust is composed of
 Graphite is found in Orissa and Andhra feldspar. It has a light colour and its main
Pradesh. constituents are silicon, oxygen, sodium,
potassium, calcium, aluminium.
Rock cycle  Quartz: It has two elements, silicon and
oxygen. It has a hexagonal crystalline
 Rock cycle is a continuous process structure. It is uncleavaged, white or
through which old rocks are transformed colorless. It cracks like glass and is
into new ones. present in sand and granite. It is used in
 Igneous rocks are primary rocks and other manufacture of radio and radar.
rocks form from these rocks.  Bauxite: A hydrous oxide of aluminium, it
 Igneous rocks can be changed into is the Ore of aluminium. It is non-
sedimentary or metamorphic rocks. crystalline and occurs in small pellets.
 Cinnabar: It is mercury sulphide and  The landforms created as a result of

mercury is derived from it. It has a degradational action (erosion) or
brownish colour. aggradational work (deposition) of
 Dolomite: A double carbonate of calcium running water are called fluvial landforms.
and magnesium. It is used in cement and  The fluvial processes may be divided into
iron and steel industries. It is white in three physical phases – erosion, Page
colour. transportation and deposition.
 Gypsum: It is hydrous calcium sulphate |
and is used in cement, fertilizer and Fluvial Erosional Landforms
103
chemical industries.
Various Aspects of Fluvial Erosive
 Haematite: It is a red ore of iron.
Action
 Magnetite: It is the black ore (or iron
oxide) of iron.  Corrasion or abrasion == solid river load
Multiple choice questions. striking against rocks and wearing them
down.
1. Which one of the following are the two  Hydration == force of running water
main constituents of granite? (a) Iron and wearing down rocks.
nickel (c) Silica and aluminium (b) Iron  Attrition == river load particles striking,
and silver (d) Iron Oxide and potassium colliding against each other and breaking
2. Which one of the following is the salient down in the process.
feature of metamorphic rocks? (a)  Downcutting == Erosion in vertical
Changeable (c) Crystalline (b) Quite (d) direction (downcutting leads to valley
Foliation deepening) or
3. Which one of the following is not a single  Lateral erosion == Erosion in horizontal
element mineral? (a) Gold (c) Mica (b) direction, especially the walls of the
Silver (d) Graphite stream.
4. Which one of the following is the hardest  Corrosion == Chemical action that leads to
mineral? (a) Topaz (c) Quartz (b) Diamond weathering.
(d) Feldspar
5. Which one of the following is not a River Valley Formation
sedimentary rock? (a) Tillite (c) Breccia (b)
Borax (d) Marble  The extended depression on ground
through which a stream flows throughout
its course is called a river valley.
 At different stages of the erosional cycle
Fluvial Erosional Landforms are landforms the valley acquires different profiles.
created by the erosional activity of rivers.  At a young stage, the valley is deep,
Landforms and Cycle of Erosion narrow with steep wall-like sides and a
convex slope. The erosional action here is
 Fluvial landforms and Cycle of Erosion – characterized by predominantly vertical
Deposition Landforms [This Post] and downcutting nature. The profile of valley
Erosional Landforms [Next Post]. here is typically ‘V’ shaped.
 Glacial landforms and Cycle of Erosion  A deep and narrow ‘V’ shaped valley is
 Marine landforms and Cycle of Erosion also referred to as gorge and may result
 Arid landforms and Cycle of Erosion due to downcutting erosion and because
of recession of a waterfall. Most
 Karst landforms and Cycle of Erosion
Himalayan rivers pass through deep
Fluvial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion gorges (at times more than 500 metres
deep) before they descend to the plains.
 An extended form of gorge is called a

canyon. The Grand Canyon of the
Colorado river in Arizona (USA) runs for
483 km and has a depth of 2.88 km.
 A tributary valley lies above the main
valley and is separated from it by a steep Page
slope down which the stream may flow as
a waterfall or a series of rapids. |
 As the cycle attains maturity, the lateral 104
erosion becomes prominent and the valley
floor flattens out. The valley profile now
becomes typically ‘U’ shaped with a broad
base and a concave slope.
River course
Youth
 Young rivers (A) close to their source tend

to be fast-flowing, high-energy
environments with rapid headward
erosion, despite the hardness of the rock
over which they may flow.
 Steep-sided "V-shaped' valleys, waterfalls,
and rapids are characteristic features.
Maturity
 Mature rivers (B) are lower-energy

systems. Erosion takes place on the
outside of bends, creating looping
meanders in the soft alluvium of the river
plain. Deposition occurs on the inside of

bends and on the river bed.
Old Age
 At a river's mouth (C), sediment is

deposited as the velocity of the river slows. Page
As the river becomes shallower more |
deposition occurs, forming islands and
braiding the main channel into multiple, 105
narrower channels.
 As the sediment is laid down, the actual
mouth of the river moves away from the Pot Holes
source into the sea or lake, forming a
delta.  The kettle-like small depressions in the
 Head ward erosion == Erosion at the rocky beds of the river valleys are called
origin of a stream channel, which causes pot holes which are usually cylindrical in
the origin to move back away from the shape.
direction of the stream flow, and so causes  Potholing or pothole-drilling is the
the stream channel to lengthen. mechanism through which the grinding
tools (fragments of rocks, e.g. boulders
Waterfalls and angular rock fragments) when caught
in the water eddies or swirling water start
 A waterfall is simply the fall of an dancing in a circular manner and grind
enormous volume of water from a great and drill the rock beds of the valleys like a
height. drilling machine.
 They are mostly seen in youth stage of  They thus form small holes which are
river. gradually enlarged by the repetition of the
 Relative resistance of rocks, relative said mechanism. The potholes go on
difference in topographic reliefs, fall in the increasing in both diameter and depth.
sea level and related rejuvenation, earth
movements etc. are responsible for the
formation of waterfalls.
 For example, Jog or Gersoppa falls on
Sharavati (a tributary of Cauveri) has a
fall of 260 metres.
Terraces
 Stepped benches along the river course in

a flood plain are called terraces.
 Terraces represent the level of former
valley floors and remnants of former
(older) flood plains.
 Sometimes, because of intensive erosion

action, the outer curve of a meander gets
accentuated to such an extent that the
inner ends of the loop come close enough
to get disconnected from the main channel
and exist as independent water bodies. Page
These water bodies are converted into
swamps in due course of time. |
 In the Indo-Gangetic plains, southwards 106
shifting of Ganga has left many ox-bow
lakes to the north of the present course of
the Ganga.
Gulleys/Rills
 Gulley is an incised water-worn channel,

which is particularly common in semi-arid
areas.
 It is formed when water from overland-
flows down a slope, especially following
heavy rainfall, is concentrated into rills,
which merge and enlarge into a gulley.
 The ravines of Chambal Valley in Central
India and the Chos of Hoshiarpur in
Punjab are examples of gulleys.
Peneplane (Or peneplain)
Meanders
 This refers to an undulating featureless
 A meander is defined as a pronounced plain punctuated with low-lying residual
curve or loop in the course of a river hills of resistant rocks. It is considered to
channel. be an end product of an erosional cycle.
 The outer bend of the loop in a meander is  Peneplain, gently undulating (wave like),
characterized by intensive erosion and almost featureless plain that, in principle,
vertical cliffs and is called the cliff-slope would be produced by fluvial erosion that
side. This side has a concave slope. would, in the course of geologic time,
 The inner side of the loop is characterized reduce the land almost to baselevel (sea
by deposition, a gentle convex slope, and level), leaving so little gradient that
is called the slip-off side. essentially no more erosion could occur.
 Morphologically, the meanders may be
wavy, horse-shoe type or ox-bow/ bracelet
type.
Ox-Bow Lake
 Examples: Seine and its tributaries in

Paris basin (France).
Page
|
107
Drainage Patterns
 The typical shape of a river course as it

completes its erosional cycle is referred to
as the drainage pattern of a stream.
Rectangular
 A drainage pattern reflects the structure of
basal rocks, resistance and strength,  The main stream bends at right angles
cracks or joints and tectonic irregularity, if and the tributaries join at right angles
any. creating rectangular patterns.
Dendric or Pinnate  This pattern has a subsequent origin
(subsequent drainage – you will study this
 This is an irregular tree branch shaped in Indian drainage systems). Example:
pattern. Colorado river (USA).
 Examples: Indus, Godavari, Mahanadi,
Cauvery, Krishna.
Angular
Trellis  The tributaries join the main stream at

acute angles.
 In this type of pattern the short  This pattern is common in Himalayan
subsequent streams meet the main stream foothill regions.
at right angles, and differential erosion
through soft rocks paves the way for
tributaries.
Annular
 When the upland has an outer soft

stratum, the radial streams develop
subsequent tributaries which try to follow
a circular drainage around the summit.
Page
 Example: Black Hill streams of South
Dakota. |
108
Parallel
 The tributaries seem to be running

parallel to each other in a uniformly
sloping region.
 Example: rivers of lesser Himalayas.
Centripetal
 In a low lying basin the streams converge

from all sides.
 Examples: streams of Ladakh, Tibet, and
the Baghmati and its tributaries in
Nepal.
Radial
 The tributaries from a summit follow the

slope downwards and drain down in all
Fluvial Depositional Landforms are
directions.
landforms created by the depositional
 Examples: streams of Saurashtra region
activity of rivers.
and the Central French Plateau, Mt.
Kilimanjaro etc.. Landforms and Cycle of Erosion
Fluvial landforms and Cycle of Erosion –

Erosional Landforms [Previous Post:
Fluvial Erosional Landforms – Drainage
Patterns – River Valley] and Depositional
Landforms [This Post].
 Glacial landforms and Cycle of Erosion

 Marine landforms and Cycle of Erosion
 Arid landforms and Cycle of Erosion
Fluvial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion Natural Levees
 The landforms created as a result of  These are narrow ridges of low height on
degradational action (erosion) or both sides of a river, formed due to
aggradational work (deposition) of deposition action of the stream, appearing
running water are called fluvial landforms. as natural embankments.
Page
 The fluvial processes may be divided into  These act as a natural protection against
three physical phases – erosion, floods but a breach in a levee causes |
transportation and deposition. sudden floods in adjoining areas, as it
109
happens in the case of the Hwang Ho
Fluvial Depositional Landforms river of China.
 The depositional action of a stream is

influenced by stream velocity and the
volume of river load.
 The decrease in stream velocity reduces
the transporting power of the streams
which are forced to leave some load to
settle down.
 Increase in river load is effected through
accelerated rate of erosion in the source
catchment areas consequent upon
deforestation. Delta
 Various landforms resulting from fluvial
deposition are as follows:  A delta is a tract of alluvium at the mouth
of a river where it deposits more material
Alluvial Fans and Cones than can be carried away.
 The river gets divided into distributaries
 When a stream leaves the mountains and which may further divide and rejoin to
comes down to the plains, its velocity form a network of channels.
decreases due to a lower gradient.  A delta is formed by a combination of two
 As a result, it sheds a lot of material, processes:
which it had been carrying from the 1. load-bearing capacity of a river is reduced
mountains, at the foothills. as a result of the check to its speed as it
 This deposited material acquires a conical enters a sea or lake, and
shape and appears as a series of 2. clay particles carried in suspension in the
continuous fans. These are called alluvial river coagulate in the presence of salt
fans. water and are deposited.
 Such fans appear throughout the  The finest particles are carried farthest to
Himalayan foothills in the north Indian accumulate as bottom-set beds.
plains. Depending on the conditions under which
they are formed, deltas can be of many
types.
Arcuate or Fan-shaped (Curved)
 This type of delta results when light

depositions give rise to shallow, shifting
distributaries and a general fan-shaped
profile. Examples: Nile, Ganga, Indus.
 These are ideal sites for fisheries, ports

and industries because estuaries provide
access to deep water, especially if
protected from currents and tides.
Example: Hudson estuary.
Page
|
110
Bird’s Foot Delta (Elongated)
 This type of delta emerges when limestone

sediment deposits do not allow downward
seepage of water.
 The distributaries seem to be flowing over
projections of these deposits which appear Cuspate Delta
as a bird’s foot.
 The currents and tides are weak in such  This is a pointed delta formed generally
areas and the number of distributaries along strong coasts and is subjected to
lesser as compared to an arcuate delta. strong wave action. There are very few or
Example: Mississippi river. no distributaries in a cuspate delta.
 Example: Tiber river on west coast of Italy.
High-constructive deltas – Elongate and

Lobate Delta
Estuaries
 Develops when fluvial action and
 Sometimes the mouth of the river appears depositional process dominate the system.
to be submerged. This may be due to a  Elongate delta is represented by the bird-
drowned valley because of a rise in sea foot delta of the Mississippi River.
level.  Lobate delta is represented by the
 Here fresh water and the saline water get Godavari River.
mixed. When the river starts ‘filling its
mouth’ with sediments, mud bars, Lobate: Shaped like a lobe.
marshes and plains seem to be developing
in it.
 In this class of high-destructive delta,

sediment is finally deposited as arcuate
sand barriers near the mouth of the river.
Karst Landforms and Cycle of Erosion
 Karst is a landscape which is underlain by Page

limestone which has been eroded by |
dissolution, producing towers, fissures,
sinkholes, etc. 111
 It is so named after a province of
Yugoslavia on the Adriatic sea coast
where such formations are most
noticeable.
Godavari – Lobate  Karst topography is a landscape formed
Krishna – Arcuate from the dissolution of soluble rocks such
as limestone, dolomite, and gypsum.
Kaveri – Quadrilateral  It is characterized by underground
drainage systems with sinkholes, caves
Nile, Indus, Ganga-Brahmaputra – etc..
Arcuate
Conditions Essential for Full
All the above are more or less the same Development of Karst Topography
kind of deltas.
 Presence of soluble rocks, preferably
 Both of these types have a large sediment limestone at the surface or sub-surface
supply that tend to disperse sediment level.
along the shoreline.  These rocks should be dense, highly
 A lobate delta (a sub type of fan shaped jointed and thinly bedded.
delta) is formed if the river water is as
dense as the seawater (precipitation or Cavern
coagulation of river sediments occur
immediately and hence the delta is not  This is an underground cave formed by
elongated). water action by various methods in a
 A bird-boot delta (elongated delta) is limestone or chalk area.
formed when the river water is lighter than
sea water (precipitation or coagulation of
river sediments can occur at a distance
from shore and hence the delta is
elongated).
High-destructive deltas
 Shoreline energy is high and much of the

sediment delivered by the river is reworked
by wave action or currents before it is
finally deposited.
 Deltas formed by rivers such as the Nile
and the Rhône have been classified as Arch/Natural Bridge
wave-dominated.
 When a part of the cavern collapses the These are called sinking creeks, and if
portion which keeps standing forms an their tops are open, they are called bogas.
arch.
Sink Hole/Swallow Hole

Page
 Sink holes are funnel-shaped depressions
having an average depth of three to nine |
metres.
112
 These holes are developed by enlargement
of the cracks found in such rocks, as a
result of continuous solvent action of the
rainwater.
 The surface streams which sink disappear Stalactite and Stalagmite
underground through swallow holes.
 The water containing limestone in
solution, seeps through the roof in the
form of a continuous chain of drops.
 A portion of the roof hangs on the roof and
on evaporation of water, a small deposit of
limestone is left behind contributing to the
formation of a stalactite, growing
downwards from the roof.
 The remaining portion of the drop falls to
the floor. This also evaporates, leaving
behind a small deposit of limestone aiding
the formation of a stalagmite, thicker and
flatter, rising upwards from the floor.
Karst Window  Sometimes, stalactite and stalagmite join
together to form a complete pillar known
 When a number of adjoining sink holes
as the column.
collapse, they form an open, broad area
called a karst window.
Marine Landforms and Cycle of Erosion
Sinking Creeks/Bogas  Sea waves, aided by winds, currents, tides

and storms carry on the erosional and
 In a valley, the water often gets lost depositional processes.
through cracks and fissures in the bed.
 The erosive work of the sea depends upon  Waves also use rock debris as instruments
size and strength of waves, slope, height of of erosion (glaciers are quite good at this).
the shore between low and high tides, These rock fragments carried by waves
shape of the coast, composition of rocks, themselves get worn down by striking
depth of water, human activity etc. against the coast or against one another.
 The wave pressure compresses the air  The solvent or chemical action of waves is Page
trapped inside rock fissures, joints, faults, another mode of erosion, but it is
etc. forcing it to expand and rupture the pronounced only in case of soluble rocks |
rocks along weak points. This is how rocks like limestone and chalk. 113
undergo weathering under wave action. 
www.pmfias.com www.youtube.com/c/PoorMansFriend www.pmfias.com
Marine Erosional Landforms When waves from opposite directions

strike a narrow wall of rock, differential
Chasms erosion of the rock leaves a bridge like
structure called Sea
 These are narrow, deep indentations (a arch.Stacks/Skarries/Chimney Rock
deep recess or notch on the edge or
surface of something) carved due to Page
 When a portion of the sea arch collapses,
headward erosion (downcutting) through the remaining column-like structure is |
vertical planes of weakness in the rocks by called a stack, skarry or chimney rock.
wave action. 114
Hanging Valleys
 If the fluvial erosion of a stream at the

 With time, further headward erosion is shore doesn’t match the retreat of the sea,
hindered by lateral erosion of chasm the rivers appear to be hanging over the
mouth, which itself keeps widening till a sea. These river valleys are called hanging
bay is formed. valleys.
Wave-Cut Platform Blow Holes or Spouting Horns
 When the sea waves strike against a cliff,  The burst of water through a small hole on
the cliff gets eroded (lateral erosion) a sea cave due to the compression of air in
gradually and retreats. the cave by strong waves. They make a
 The waves level out the shore region to peculiar noise.
carve out a horizontal plane or a wave-cut
platform.
 The bottom of the cliff suffers the
maximum intensive erosion by waves and,
as a result, a notch appears at this
position.
Sea Cliff
 Shoreline marked by a steep bank Plane of Marine Erosion/Peneplain

(escarpment, scarp).
 The eroded plain left behind by marine
Sea Caves action is called a plain of marine erosion.
If the level difference between this plain
 Differential erosion by sea waves through and the sea level is not much, the agents
a rock with varying resistance across its of weathering convert it into a peneplain.
structure produces arched caves in rocks
called sea caves. Marine Depositional Landforms
Sea Arches Beach
 This is the temporary covering of rock Coastlines can be divided into the
debris on or along a wave-cut platform. following classes:
Bar 1. Coastline of Emergence

2. Coastline of Submergence
 Currents and tidal currents deposit rock 3. Neutral coastline
debris and sand along the coast at a 4. Compound coastline Page
distance from the shoreline. 5. Fault coastline |
 The resultant landforms which remain  Coastline are modified either due to rise or
submerged are called bars. fall in sea levels or upliftment or 115
 The enclosed water body so created is subsidence of land, or both.
called a lagoon.
Coastlines of Emergence
Barrier
 These are formed either by an uplift of the
 It is the overwater counterpart of a bar. land or by the lowering of the sea level.
 Bars, spits, lagoons, salt marshes,
Spit and Hook beaches, sea cliffs and arches are the
typical features.
 A spit is a projected deposition joined at  The east coast of India, especially its
one end to the headland, with the other south-eastern part (Tamil Nadu coast),
end free in the sea. appears to be a coast of emergence.
 The mode of formation is similar to a bar  The west coast of India, on the other
or barrier. hand, is both emergent and submergent.
 A shorter spit with one end curved The northern portion of the coast is
towards the land is called a hook. submerged as a result of faulting and the
Tombolos southern portion, that is the Kerala
coast, is an example of an emergent
 Sometimes, islands are connected to each coast.
other by a bar called tombolo.  Coramandal coast == Tamil Nadu Coast
== Coastline of emergence
 Malabar coast == Kerala Coast ==
Coastline of emergence
 Konkan coast == Maharashtra and Goa
Coast == Coastline of submergence.
Coastlines of Submergence
 A submerged coast is produced either by

subsidence of land or by a rise in sea level.
 Ria, fjord, Dalmatian and drowned
lowlands are its typical features.
Ria
 When a region is dissected by streams into

Coastlines
a system of valleys and divides,
submergence produces a highly irregular
 The boundary between the coast (the part
shoreline called ria coastline.
of the land adjoining or near the sea) and
the shore (the land along the edge of a sea)  The coast of south-west Ireland is a typical
is known as the coastline. example of ria coastline.
 The fjord coasts of Norway are

a typical example.
Page
|
116
Dalmatian
 The Dalmatian coasts result by

submergence of mountain
ridges with alternating crests
and troughs which run parallel
to the sea coast.
 The Dalmatian coast of
Yugoslavia is a typical example.
Drowned lowland
 A drowned lowland coast is low

and free from indentations, as
it is formed by the
submergence of a low-lying area.
 It is characterized by a series of bars
running parallel to the coast, enclosing
lagoons.
 The Baltic coast of eastern Germany is an
example of this type of coastline.
Fjord
 Some coastal regions have been heavily

eroded by glacial action and the valley
glacier troughs have been excavated below
sea level.
 After the glaciers have disappeared, a fjord
coastline emerges. Neutral Coastlines
 These coasts have long and narrow inlets
with very steep sides.
 These are coastlines formed as a result of Glacial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion
new materials being built out into the
water.  A glacier is a moving mass of ice at speeds
 The word ‘neutral’ implies that there need averaging few meters a day.
be no relative change between the level of  Types of Glaciers: continental glaciers,
sea and the coastal region of the ice caps, piedmont glaciers and valley Page
continent. glaciers.
 Neutral coastlines include the alluvial fan  The continental glaciers are found in the |
shaped coastline, delta coastline, volcano Antarctica and in Greenland. The biggest 117
coastline and the coral reef coastline. continental ice sheet in Iceland.
 Ice caps are the covers of snow and ice on
Compound Coastlines mountains from which the valley or
mountain glaciers originate.
 Such coastlines show the forms of two of  The piedmont glaciers form a continuous
the previous classes combined, for ice sheet at the base of mountains as in
example, submergence followed by southern Alaska.
emergence or vice versa.
 The valley glaciers, also known as Alpine
 The coastlines of Norway and Sweden are glaciers, are found in higher regions of the
examples of compound coastlines. Himalayas in our country and all such
Fault Coastlines high mountain ranges of the world.
 The largest of Indian glaciers occur in the
 Such coastlines are unusual features and Karakoram range, viz. Siachen (72 km),
result from the submergence of a while Gangotri in Uttar Pradesh
downthrown block along a fault, such that (Himalayas) is 25.5 km long.
the uplifted block has its steep side (or the  A glacier is charged with rock debris
faultline) standing against the sea forming which are used for erosional activity by
a fault coastline. moving ice.
 A glacier during its lifetime creates various
landforms which may be classified into
erosional and depositional landforms.
Glacial Erosional Landforms
Landforms and Cycle of Erosion
 Fluvial Erosional Landforms [Done]

 Fluvial Depositional Landforms
[Previous Post]
 Glacial landforms and Cycle of
Erosion [This Post]
 Marine landforms and Cycle of
Erosion [Next Post]
 Arid landforms and Cycle of Erosion Cirque/Corrie
 Hollow basin cut into a mountain ridge.
 It has steep sided slope on three sides, an  Steep-sided narrow entrance-like feature
open end on one side and a flat bottom. at the coast where the stream meets the
 When the ice melts, the cirque may coast.
develop into a tarn lake.  Fjords are common in Norway, Greenland
and New Zealand.
Glacial Trough
Glacial Depositional Landforms Page
 Original stream-cut valley, further |
modified by glacial action. Outwash Plain
 It is a ‘U’ Shaped Valley. It at mature stage 118
of valley formation.  When the glacier reaches its lowest point
 Since glacial mass is heavy and slow and melts, it leaves behind a stratified
moving, erosional activity is uniform – deposition material, consisting of rock
horizontally as well as vertically. debris, clay, sand, gravel etc. This layered
 A steep sided and flat bottomed valley surface is called till plain or an outwash
results, which has a ‘U’ shaped profile. plain.
Hanging Valley Esker
 Formed when smaller tributaries are  Winding ridge of un-assorted depositions

unable to cut as deeply as bigger ones and of rock, gravel, clay etc. running along a
remain ‘hanging’ at higher levels than the glacier in a till plain.
main valley as discordant tributaries.  The eskers resemble the features of an
 A valley carved out by a small tributary embankment and are often used for
glacier that joins with a valley carved out making roads.
by a much larger glacier.
Arete
 Steep-sided, sharp-tipped summit with the

glacial activity cutting into it from two
sides.
Horn
 Ridge that acquires a ‘horn’ shape when

the glacial activity cuts it from more than
two sides.
D-Fjord
Kame Terraces
 Broken ridges or un-assorted depositions

looking like hump in a till plain.
Drumlin
 Inverted boat-shaped deposition in a till

plain caused by deposition.
Kettle Holes
 Formed when the deposited material in a  In hill slope geomorphology, a rill is a

till plain gets depressed locally and forms narrow and shallow channel cut into soil
a basin. by the erosive action of flowing water.
Moraine
 General term applied to rock fragments, Page

gravel, sand, etc. carried by a glacier. |
 Depending on its position, the moraine
can be ground moraine and end moraine. 119
Glacial Cycle of Erosion
Youth Gully
 The stage is marked by the inward cutting  A gully is a landform created by running
activity of ice in a cirque. water. Gullies resemble large ditches or
 Aretes and horns are emerging. The small valleys, but are metres to tens of
hanging valleys are not metres in depth and width.
prominent at this stage.
Maturity
 Hanging valleys start

emerging. The opposite
cirques come closer and the
glacial trough acquires a
stepped profile which is
regular and graded.
Old Age
 Emergence of a ‘U’-shaped
valley marks the beginning
of old age. Ravine
 An outwash plain with features such as
eskers, kame terraces, drumlins, kettle  A ravine is a landform narrower than a
holes etc. is a prominent development. canyon and is often the product of stream
cutting erosion. Ravines are typically
Arid Landforms and Cycle of Erosion classified as larger in scale than gullies,
although smaller than valleys.
 Arid regions are regions with scanty
rainfall. Deserts and Semi-arid regions fall Badland Topography
under arid landforms.
 In arid regions occasional rainstorms
Erosional Arid Landforms produce numerous rills and channels
which extensively erode weak sedimentary
Water Eroded Arid Landforms formations.
 Ravines and gullies are developed by
Rill linear fluvial erosion leading to the
formation of badland topography.
 Example: Chambal Ravines.
 Bajadas are moderately sloping

depositional plains located between
pediments and playa.
 Several alluvial fans coalesce to form a
bajada.
Page
|
120
Bolsons
 The intermontane basins in dry

regions are generally known as
bolsons.
Playas
 Three unique landforms viz.

pediments, bajadas and playas are
typically found in bolsons.
 Small streams flow into bolsons, where
water is accumulated. These temporary
lakes are called playas.
 After the evaporation of water, salt-covered
playas are called salinas.
Wind Eroded Arid Landforms
 The wind or Aeolian erosion takes place

in the following ways, viz. deflation,
abrasion, and attrition.
 Deflation == removing, lifting and carrying
Pediments away dry, unsorted dust particles by
winds. It causes depressions known as
 In form and function there is no difference blow outs.
between a pediment and an alluvial fan;  Abrasion == When wind loaded with sand
however, pediment is an erosional grains erodes the rock by grinding against
landform while a fan is a constructional its walls is called abrasion or
one. sandblasting.
 A true pediment is a rock cut surface at  Attrition == Attrition refers to wear and
the foot of mountains. tear of the sand particles while they are
being transported.
Bajada
Following are the major landforms
produced by wind erosion.
Deflation basins mountain that rises abruptly from a gently

sloping or virtually level surrounding
 Deflation basins, called blowouts, are plain.
hollows formed by the removal of particles
by wind. Blowouts are generally small, but Demoiselles
may be up to several kilometers in
diameter.  These are rock pillars which stand as Page
resistant rocks above soft rocks as a result |
Mushroom rocks of differential erosion of hard and soft
rocks. 121
 A mushroom rock, also called rock
pedestal or a pedestal rock, is a
naturally occurring rock whose shape, as
its name implies, resembles a mushroom.
 The rocks are deformed in a number of
different ways: by erosion and weathering,
glacial action, or from a sudden
disturbance. Mushroom rocks are related
to, but different from, yardang.
Zeugen
 A table-shaped area of rock found in arid

and semi-arid areas formed when more
resistant rock is reduced at a slower rate
than softer rocks around it.
Inselbergs
Yardangs
 Ridge of rock, formed by the action of the

wind, usually parallel to the prevailing
wind direction.
 A monadnock or inselberg is an isolated
Wind bridges and windows
hill, knob, ridge, outcrop, or small
 Powerful wind continuously abrades stone  Formed parallel to the wind movement.
lattices, creating holes. Sometimes the The windward slope of the dune is gentle
holes are gradually widened to reach the whereas the leeward side is steep. These
other end of the rocks to create the effect dunes are commonly found at the heart of
of a window—thus forming a wind trade-wind deserts like the Sahara,
window. Window bridges, are formed when Australian, Libyan, South African and Page
the holes are further widened to form an Thar deserts.
arch-like feature. |
122
Transverse dunes
 Dunes deposited perpendicular

Arid Depositional Landforms (transverse) to the prevailing wind
direction.
 Landforms are also created by the
depositional force of wind. These are as Barchans
follows.
 Crescent shaped dunes. The windward
Ripple Marks side is convex whereas the leeward side is
concave and steep.
 These are depositional features on a small
scale formed by saltation (he transport of Parabolic dunes
hard particles over an uneven surface in a
 They are U-shaped and are much longer
turbulent flow of air or water).
and narrower than barchans.
Star dunes
 Have a high central peak, radically

extending three or more arms.
Sand dunes
 Sand dunes are heaps or mounds of sand

found in deserts. Generally their heights
vary from a few metres to 20 metres but in
some cases dunes are several hundred
metres high and 5 to 6 km long.
Some of the forms are discussed below:
Longitudinal dunes
Page
|
123
Loess North America, central Europe, and

parts of Russia and Kazakhstan.
 In some parts of the world, windblown  The thickest loess deposits are near the
dust and silt blanket the land. This layer Missouri River in the U.S. state of Iowa
of fine, mineral-rich material is called and along the Yellow River in China.
loess.  Loess accumulates, or builds up, at the
 Extensive loess deposits are found in edges of deserts. For example, as wind
northern China, the Great Plains of blows across the Gobi, a desert in Asia, it
picks up and carries fine particles. These
particles include sand crystals made of  Most lakes have at least one natural
quartz or mica. It may also contain outflow in the form of a river or stream,
organic material, such as the dusty which maintain a lake's average level by
remains of skeletons from desert animals. allowing the drainage of excess water
 Loess often develops into extremely  Other lakes are found in endorheic basins.
fertile agricultural soil. It is full of Some lakes do not have a natural outflow Page
minerals and drains water very well. It is and lose water solely by evaporation or
easily tilled, or broken up, for planting underground seepage or both. They are |
seeds. termed endorheic lakes. 124
 Loess usually erodes very slowly – Chinese  The majority of lakes on Earth are fresh
farmers have been working the loess water, and most lie in the Northern
around the Yellow River for more than a Hemisphere at higher latitudes. Canada,
thousand years. Finland and Siberia contain most of the
fresh water lakes.
In this post: Lakes – Classification of
Lakes. Classification of Lakes
Next Post: Important Lakes. Temporary lakes
Lakes  Lakes may exist temporarily filling up the
small depressions of undulating ground
after a heavy shower.
 In this kind of lakes, Evaporation >
Precipitation.
 Example: Small lakes of deserts.
 A lake is a body of water of considerable

size, localized in a basin, that is
surrounded by land apart from a river or
other outlet that serves to feed or drain
the lake. Permanent lakes
 Lakes lie on land and are not part of the
ocean, and therefore are distinct from  In this kind of lakes, Evaporation <
lagoons, and are also larger and deeper Precipitation.
than ponds.  These lakes are deep and carry more water
 Natural lakes are generally found in than could ever be evaporated.
mountainous areas, rift zones, and areas  Example: Great Lakes of North America,
with ongoing glaciation. East African Rift Lakes.
Divergent Boundary – African Rift System  Rift valleys are deep, narrow and
Formation elongated. Hence the lakes formed along
rift valleys are also deep, narrow and very
Fresh water lakes long.
 Water collects in troughs (Valley in the rift)
 Most of the lakes in the world are fresh-
and their floors are often below sea level. Page
water lakes fed by rivers and with out-
 The best known example is the East
flowing streams e.g. Great Lakes of North
African Rift Valley which runs through |
America.
Zambia, Malawi, Tanzania, Kenya and 125
Saline lakes Ethiopia, and extends along the Red Sea
to Israel and Jordan over a total distance
 Salt lakes (also called saline lakes) can of 3,000 miles.
form where there is no natural outlet or  It includes such lakes as Lakes
where the water evaporates rapidly and Tanganyika, Malawi, Rudolf, Edward,
the drainage surface of the water table has Albert, as well as the Dead Sea 1,286 feet
a higher-than-normal salt content. below mean sea level, the world’s lowest
 Because of the intense evaporation lake.
(negative freshwater balance == more
water is lost in evaporation than gained
from rivers) these lakes are saline.
 Examples of salt lakes include Great Salt
Lake, the Aral Sea and the Dead Sea.
 For example the Dead Sea has a salinity
(salt content) of 250 parts per thousand,
and the Great Salt Lake of Utah, U.S.A.
has a salinity of 220 parts per thousand.
 Playas or salt lakes, are a common
feature of deserts (recall desert landforms).
Lakes Formed by Glaciation
Lakes Formed by Earth Movement
Cirque lakes or tarns
Tectonic lakes
 Cirque is a hollow basin cut into a
 Due to the warping (simple deformation),
mountain ridge. It has steep sided slope
subsidence (sliding downwards), bending
on three sides, an open end on one side
and fracturing (splitting) of the earth’s
and a flat bottom.
crust, tectonic depressions occur. (We
 When the ice melts, the cirque may
have studied all these terms in previous
develop into a tarn lake.
posts)
 Such depressions give rise to lakes of Rock-hollow lakes
immense sizes and depths.
 They include Lake Titicaca, and the  The advance and retreat of glaciers can
Caspian Sea. scrape depressions in the surface where
water accumulates; such lakes are
Rift valley lakes common in Scandinavia, Patagonia,
Siberia and Canada.
 A rift valley is formed when two blocks of
 These are formed by ice-scouring (eroding)
earth move apart letting the ‘in between’
when ice sheets scoop out (dig) hollows on
block slide downwards. Or, it’s a sunken
the surface.
land between two parallel faults.
 Such lakes of glacial origin are abundant When these become clogged with debris
in Finland - Land of Lakes. It is said that lakes may form in them.
there are over 35,000 glacial lakes in  The collapse of limestone roofs of
Finland. underground caverns may result in the
exposure of long, narrow- lakes that were
Lakes due to morainic damming once underground. Page
of valleys
Wind-deflated lakes |
 Valley glaciers often deposit morainic
debris across a valley so that lakes are  The winds in deserts creates hollows. 126
formed when water accumulates behind These may reach ground water which
the barrier. seeps out forming small, shallow lakes.
Excessive evaporation causes these to
Lakes Formed by Volcanic Activity become salt lakes and playas. Example:
Great Basin of Utah, U.S.A.
Crater and caldera lakes
Lakes Formed by Deposition
 During a volcanic explosion the top of the
cone may be blown off leaving behind a Lakes due to river deposits
natural hollow called a crater.
 This may be enlarged by subsidence into a  Ox-bow lake, e.g. those that occur on the
caldera. flood-plains of Lower Mississippi, Lower
 In dormant or extinct volcanoes, rain falls Ganges etc..
straight into the crater or caldera which
has no superficial outlet and forms a Lakes due to Marine deposits
crater or caldera lake.
 Also called Lagoons.
 Examples: Lonar in Maharashtra and
 Example: Lake Chilka
Krakatao in Indonesia.
Others are Lava-blocked lakes and Lakes due to damming of water

Lakes due to subsidence of a volcanic
 Lakes formed by these processes are also
land surface.
known as barrier lakes. Landslides,
Lakes Formed by Erosion avalanches may block valleys so that
rivers are dammed. Such lakes are short-
Karst lakes lived.
 Example: Lakes that are formed in
Shiwaliks (Outer Himalayas). Dehradun
(all Duns) were lakes few centuries ago.
Man-made lakes
 Besides the natural lakes, man has now
created artificial lakes by erecting a
concrete dam across a river valley so that
the river water can be kept back to form
reservoirs.
 Example: Lake Mead above the Hoover
Dam on the Colorado River, U.S.A.
 Man’s mining activities, e.g. tin mining in
 The solvent action of rain-water on West Malaysia, have created numerous
limestone carves out solution hollows.
lakes. Inland fish culture has necessitated  The Hirakud dam was originally conceived
the creation of many fishing-lakes. as a flood control measure. But the project
is criticized for doing more damage than
Lakes and Man good.
 In countries where they are found in Moderation of climate
abundance, such as Finland, Canada, Page
U.S.A., Sweden and the East African  Land and see breeze (we will see this in |
states, lakes are used as inland future posts).
waterways. 127
Source of food
Means of communication
 Many large lakes have important supplies
 Large lakes like the Great Lakes of North of protein food in the form of freshwater
America provide a cheap and convenient fish. Sturgeon is commercially caught in
form of transport for heavy and bulky the Caspian Sea, salmon and sea trout in
goods such as coal, iron, machinery, the Great Lakes.
grains and timber.
 The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Source of minerals
waterways penetrate more than 1,700
 Salt lakes provide valuable rock salts. In
miles into the interior. They are thus used
the Dead Sea, the highly saline water is
as the chief arteries of commerce.
being evaporated and produces common
Economic and industrial development salt. Borax is mined in the salt lakes of
the Mojave Desert.
 The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence waterways
were responsible for the development of Tourist attraction and health resorts
the interior wheat farms and lakeside
 Lake Chilka, Leh, Dead Sea etc..
industries.
No lake is permanent over geologic
Water storage
time
 Example: Kolleru lake in Andhra Pradesh.
 Lakes are only temporary features of the
Hydro-electric power generation earth’s crust; they will eventually be
eliminated by the double process of
 Artificial lakes like Hirakud. draining and silting up.
 The process of lake elimination may not be
Agricultural purposes completed within our span of life, it takes
place relatively quickly in terms of
 Many dams are built across artificial geological time.
lakes.
 Bhakra Nangal Dam. Its reservoir, known Important Lakes on Earth
as the “Gobind Sagar Lake” and Hirakud
Dam (Madhya Pradesh) on the Mahanadi Note 1: Black Sea is not a lake since
in India. Bosporus and Dardanelles Straits
connect it to the Mediterranean Sea. Many
Regulating river flows big rivers fall into the Black Sea, making
the salinity of its surface water half that of
 Hoover Dam on the River Colorado and the ocean: 17‰.
the Bhakra and Nangal Dams on the
Sutlej in India. Note 2: Caspian Sea and Dead Sea are
lakes. The surface and shores of the
Dead Sea are 423 metres below sea them it is too big to be considered a lake.
level, making it Earth’s lowest But it is still a lake.
elevation on land.
Note 4: Just like everybody else, even I
Note 3: While writing facts about lakes, have ignored Caspian Sea while stating the
people ignore Caspian Sea because for below facts.
Page
|
128
Lake Baikal [Deepest]  The world's highest commercially

navigable lake is Lake Titicaca in Peru
 Located in Siberia, Russia. and Bolivia border at 3,812 m. It is also
 The deepest lake in the world [1,637 the largest lake in South America.
metres deep]  The world's lowest lake is the Dead Sea,
 It is the world's largest lake by volume. bordering Israel and Jordan at 418 metres
 It is the second longest. below sea level. It is also one of the lakes
with highest salt concentration.
Lake Tanganyika [Longest]
The largest lakes (surface area) by
 The longest lake in the world. [660 continent
kilometres long]
 It is also the second largest by volume.  Australia – Lake Eyre (salt lake)
 It is the second deepest lake in the world,  Africa – Lake Victoria, also the third-
after lake Baikal. largest freshwater lake on Earth. It is one
of the Great Lakes of Africa.
World’s Highest and Lowest Lakes  Antarctica – Lake Vostok (subglacial)
 Asia – Lake Baikal (if the Caspian Sea is
 The world's highest lake, if size is not a considered a lake, it is the largest in
criterion, may be the crater lake of Ojos Eurasia, but is divided between the two
del Salado, at 6,390 metres. It is in geographic continents)
Andes.
 Europe – Lake Ladoga, followed by Lake
 The highest large lake in the world is the Onega, both located in northwestern
Pumoyong Tso (Pumuoyong Tso), in the Russia.
Tibet Autonomous Region of China. [5,018
 North America – Lake Superior.
metres above sea level]
 South America – Lake Titicaca, which is

also the highest navigable body of water
on Earth at 3,812 metres above sea level.
The much larger Lake Maracaibo is a
contiguous body of water with the sea, so
it is ignored. , Page
Great Lakes |
 Great Lakes of North America are a series 129

of interconnected freshwater lakes which
connect to the Atlantic Ocean through the
Aral Sea
Saint Lawrence Seaway.
 Consisting of Lakes Superior, Michigan,  It was a lake lying between Kazakhstan in
Huron, Erie, and Ontario [in the order of the north and Uzbekistan, in the south.
west to east]. Superior, Huron, Michigan,  Aral Sea has been steadily shrinking since
Erie, and Ontario [In the order of largest the 1960s after the rivers that fed it were
to smallest]. diverted by Soviet irrigation projects.
 Lake Superior is the largest continental
lake in the world by area, and Lake
Michigan is the largest lake that is
entirely within one country.
Shipping
The Aral Sea in 1989 (left) and 2008 (right)
 The Great Lakes are today used as a major
water transport corridor for bulk goods. African Great Lakes
 The Great Lakes Waterway connects all
the lakes; the smaller Saint Lawrence  Series of lakes constituting the part of the
Seaway connects the lakes to the Atlantic Rift Valley lakes in and around the East
oceans. African Rift.
 They include Lake Victoria, the second
Dead Sea largest fresh water lake in the world, and
Lake Tanganyika, the world's second
 Also called the Salt Sea. largest in volume as well as the second
 Lake bordering Jordan to the east, and deepest.
Palestine and Israel to the west.
 It Earth's lowest elevation on land. Largest Lakes by Surface Area
1. Caspian Sea - Asia
2. Lake Superior - North America  They are one of the four major landforms,
3. Lake Victoria - Africa along with mountains, plains, and hills.
4. Lake Huron - North America
5. Lake Michigan - North America
Page
|
130
 Plateaus, like mountains may be young or

old. The Deccan plateau in India is one of
the oldest plateaus.
 Valleys form when river water cuts
through the plateau. The Columbia
Plateau, between the Cascade and Rocky
mountains in the northwestern United
States, is cut through by the Columbia
River.
 Sometimes, a plateau is so eroded that it
is broken up into smaller raised sections
called outliers. Many outlier plateaus are
composed of very old, dense rock
formations. Iron ore and coal often are
found in plateau outliers.
 Plateaus are very useful because they are
Largest Lakes by Volume rich in mineral deposits. As a result, many
of the mining areas in the world are
1. Baikal - Asia located in the plateau areas.
2. Tanganyika - Africa
3. Superior - North America Model question on Plateaus
Deepest Lakes in the World Plateaus are of great economic

significance. Comment with reference
1. Lake Baikal - Asia to India And World.
2. Lake Tanganyika
3. Caspian Sea  The plateaus are famous for minerals. The
plateau of France [Massif Central], the
This post: Plateau – Types – Major Deccan plateau of India, Katanga plateau
Plateaus of The World. of Congo [Copper mines], Western
Australian plateau [Kimberly Plateau –
Previous Post: Diamond mines] and Brazilian plateau
Plateau [Brazilian Highlands] are very good
sources of minerals. Iron, copper, gold,
 A plateau is a flat-topped table land. diamonds, Manganese, coal, etc., are
 Plateaus occur in every continent and take found in these plateaus.
up a third of the Earths land.  East African plateau is famous for gold
and diamond mining.
 In India huge reserves of iron, coal and France, and the Ethiopian Plateau in
manganese are found in the Chotanagpur Africa are prominent examples.
plateau.  When the lithosphere underlying a broad
 In the plateau areas, there may be several area is heated rapidly – e.g., by an
waterfalls as the river falls from a great upwelling of hot material in the underlying
height. In India, the Hundru Falls in the asthenosphere – the consequent warming Page
Chotanagpur plateau on the river and thermal expansion of the uppermost
Subarnarekha and the Jog Falls in mantle causes an uplift of the overlying |
Karnataka are examples of such surface. The high plateaus of East Africa 131
waterfalls. These sites are ideal for hydro- and Ethiopia were formed this way.
electric power generation. Angel falls in
Venezuela is also a waterfall that descends Crustal shortening
down a plateau.
 The great heights of some plateaus, such
[Plateaus are not very useful from the as the Plateau of Tibet is due to crustal
point of view of agriculture. The hard shortening.
rocks on plateaus cannot form fertile soil  Crustal shortening, which thickens the
but agricultural activities are promoted crust as described above, has created high
where lava soils have developed. It is mountains along what are now the
difficult to dig wells and canals in margins of such plateaus.
plateaus. This hampers irrigation.]  Plateaus that were formed by crustal
shortening and internal drainage lie within
 The lava plateaus like Deccan traps are major mountain belts and generally in arid
rich in black soil that is fertile and good climates. They can be found in North
for cultivation. Example: Maharashtra has Africa, Turkey, Iran, and Tibet, where the
good cotton growing soils called regurs. African, Arabian, and Indian continental
 Loess plateau in China has very fertile masses have collided with the Eurasian
soils that are good for many kind of crops. continent.
 Many plateaus have scenic spots and are
of great attraction to tourists. (Grand Volcanic Flood Basalts - Traps
Canyon, USA, many waterfalls)
 A third type of plateau can form where
Plateau Formation extensive lava flows (called flood basalts
or traps) and volcanic ash bury
 Tectonic plateaus are formed from preexisting terrain, as exemplified by the
processes that create mountain ranges – Columbia Plateau in the northwestern
volcanism (Deccan Plateau), crustal United States, Deccan Traps of
shortening (thrusting of one block of crust peninsular India, Laurentian plateau or
over another, and folding occurs. The Canadian Shield and the Siberian
Example: Tibet), and thermal expansion Traps of Russia.
(Ethiopian Highlands).  Volcanic plateaus are commonly
associated with eruptions that occurred
Thermal expansion during the Cenozoic or Mesozoic.
 Eruptions on the scale needed to produce
 Thermal expansion of the lithosphere
volcanic plateaus are rare, and none
means the replacement of cold mantle
seems to have taken place in recent time.
lithosphere by hot asthenosphere).
 The volcanism involved in such situations
 Those caused by thermal expansion of the
is commonly associated with hot spots.
lithosphere are usually associated with
The lavas and ash are generally carried
hot spots. The Yellowstone Plateau in
long distances from their sources, so that
the United States, the Massif Central in
the topography is not dominated by  The uplift is caused by the slow collision of
volcanoes or volcanic centers. tectonic plates. The Colorado Plateau, in
 The thickness of the volcanic rock can be the western United States, Tibetan plateau
tens to even hundreds of metres, and the etc. are examples.
top surface of flood basalts is typically
very flat but often with sharply incised Page
canyons and valleys.
 The volcanic eruptions that produce lava |
plateaus tend to be associated with hot 132
spots. For example, the basalts of the
Deccan Traps, which cover the Deccan
plateau in India, were erupted 60–65
million years ago when India lay in the
Southern Hemisphere, probably over the
same hot spot that presently underlies the
volcanic island of Reunion.
 In North America the Columbia River
basalts may have been ejected over the Volcanic plateau
same hot spot that underlies the
Yellowstone area today. Lava plateaus of  A volcanic plateau is formed by numerous
the scale of those three are not common small volcanic eruptions that slowly build
features on Earth. up over time, forming a plateau from the
resulting lava flows.
Others  The Columbia Plateau in the
northwestern United States of America
 Some plateaus, like the Colorado Plateau, and Deccan Traps are two such plateaus.
the Ordos Plateau in northern China, or
the East African Highlands, do not seem
to be related to hot spots or to vigorous
upwelling in the asthenosphere but
appear to be underlain by unusually hot
material. The reason for localized heating
beneath such areas is poorly understood,
and thus an explanation for the
distribution of plateaus of that type is not
known.
 There are some plateaus whose origin is
not known. Those of the Iberian Peninsula
and north-central Mexico exhibit a
topography that is largely high and Others
relatively flat.
Plateau Types  Intermontane plateaus are the highest in

the world, bordered by mountains. The
 There are two kinds of plateaus: dissected Tibetan Plateau is one such plateau.
plateaus and volcanic plateaus.  Continental plateaus are bordered on all
sides by the plains or seas, forming away
Dissected plateau from mountains.
 A dissected plateau forms as a result of Major plateaus of the World

upward movement in the Earth’s crust.
Page
|
133
Tibetan Plateau Colorado Plateau
 Highest and largest plateau in the world  It is lying to western part of U.S.A. It is the
and hence called the ‘roof of the world’. largest plateau in America.
 Formed due to collision of the Indo-  It is divided by the Colorado River and
Australian and Eurasian tectonic plates. the Grand Canyon.
 The plateau is sufficiently high enough to  This plateau is an example of
reverse the Hadley cell convection cycles intermontane plateau. Mesas and buttes
and to drive the monsoons of India are found here at many places [Arid
towards the south. [We will learn this in Landforms].
future posts]  The plateau is known for the groundwater
 It covers most of the Autonomous Tibetan which is under positive pressure and
Region, Qinghai Province of Western causes the emergence of springs called
China, and a part of Ladakh in Jammu Artesian wells.
and Kashmir.
 It is surrounded by mountains to the Deccan Plateau
south by the Himalayan Range, to the
northeast by the Kunlun Range, and to  Deccan Plateau is a large plateau which
the west by the Karakoram Range. forms most of the southern part of India.
 It is bordered by two mountain ranges, the
Columbia – Snake Plateau Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats.
 The plateau includes the Deccan Traps
 River Columbia and its tributary Snake which is the largest volcanic feature on
meet in this plateau. Earth.
 It is bordered by the Cascade Range and  Made of multiple basalt layers or lava
Rocky Mountains and divided by the flows, the Deccan Traps covers 500,000
Columbia River. square kilometers in area.
 This plateau has been formed as the result  The Deccan Traps are known for
of volcanic eruptions with a consequent containing some unique fossils.
coating of basalt lava (Flood Basalt  The Deccan is rich in minerals. Primary
Plateau). mineral ores found in this region are mica
and iron ore in the Chotanagpur region, the Golconda region.

and diamonds, gold and other metals in
Page
|
134
Kimberley Plateau  Lying in the eastern part of Canada, it is a

part of Canadian Shield.
 Lies in the northern part of Australia.  Fine quality of iron-ore is found here.
 This plateau is made of volcanic eruption.
 Many minerals like iron, gold, lead, zinc, Mexican Plateau
silver and diamond are found here.
 Diamond is also found here.  It is called as ‘Mineral Store’. Different
types of metallic minerals like silver,
Katanga Plateau copper etc. are obtained from here.
 World’s biggest silver mine Chihuahua is
 It is lying in Congo. situated in the plateau.
 It is famous for copper production.
 Other minerals like Cobalt, Uranium, Patagonian Plateau
Zinc, Silver, Gold and Tin are also mined
here.  It is a Piedmont plateau (Arid Landforms)
lying in southern part of Argentina.
Mascarene Plateau  It is a rain shadow desert plateau.
 It is an important region for sheep rearing.
 Plateaus also form in the ocean, such as
the Mascarene Plateau in the Indian Altiplano Plateau or Bolivian Plateau
Ocean.
 It extends between the Seychelles and  It is an intermontane plateau which is
Mauritius Islands. located between two ranges of Andes
Mountain.
Laurentian Plateau  It is a major area of Tin reserves.
Massif Central
 This plateau lies in the central France.

 It is famous for Grapes cultivation.
Anatolian Plateau
Page
 Also known as Asia Minor, most of Turkey |
lies on this plateau.
 It is an intermontane plateau lying 135
between Pontiac and Taurus Mountain
ranges.
 Tigris – Euphrates Rivers flow through
this plateau.
 Precious wool producing Angora goats are
found here.
Others
 Spanish Plateau or Iberian Plateau: It is

situated in the middle of Spain. It is a lava
plateau. It is rich in minerals like Iron.
 Loess Plateau: It is in China. The soil
here is made of fine particles brought by
the wind. This fine loamy soil is extremely
productive. Crops grown in this soil along
the Yellow River give great yields.
 Potwar Plateau: It is situated in northern
plateau (Punjab) region of Pakistan. Its
average ‘Salt Range’ is located to the
south-west of the plateau.
 Bavarian Plateau: Southern part of
Germany.
 Ahaggar Plateau: A small plateau located
in Algeria, Sahara.
Climatology
Latitudes and Longitudes Latitude
 Latitudes and Longitudes are imaginary  Latitude is the angular distance of a point
lines used to determine the location of a on the earth’s surface, measured in
place on earth. degrees from the center of the earth.
 The shape of the earth is ‘Geoid’. And the  As the earth is slightly flattened at the
location of a place on the earth can be poles, the linear distance of a degree
mentioned in terms of latitudes and of latitude at the pole is a little longer
longitudes. than that at the equator.
 Example: The location of New Delhi is 28°  For example at the equator (0°) it is
N, 77° E. 68.704 miles, at 45° it is 69.054 miles and
at the poles it is 69.407 miles. The average
is taken as 69 miles (111km).
 1 mile = 1.607 km.  Areas lying between the Arctic circle and
the north pole in the northern hemisphere
Important parallels of latitudes and the Antarctic circle and the south pole
in the southern hemisphere, are very cold.
 Besides the equator (0°), the north pole It is because here the sun does not raise
(90°N) and the south pole (90° S), there much above the horizon. Therefore, its Page
are four important parallels of latitudes– rays are always slanting. These are,
1) Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) in the therefore, called frigid zones. |
northern hemisphere.
2) Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S) in the Longitude 136
southern hemisphere.
3) Arctic circle at 66½° north of the
equator.
4) Antarctic circle at 66½° south of the
equator.
 Longitude is an angular
distance, measured in
degrees along the equator
east or west of the Prime (or
First) Meridian.
 On the globe longitude is
shown as a series of semi-
circles that run from pole to
Latitudinal Heat zones of the earth pole passing through the equator. Such
lines are also called meridians.
 The mid-day sun is exactly overhead at  Unlike the equator which is centrally
least once a year on all latitudes in placed between the poles, any meridian
between the Tropic of Cancer and the could have been taken to begin the
Tropic of Capricorn. This area, therefore, numbering of longitude. It was finally
receives the maximum heat and is called decided in 1884, by international
the torrid zone. agreement, to choose as the zero meridian
 The mid-day sun never shines overhead the one which passes through the Royal
on any latitude beyond the Tropic of Astronomical Observatory at
Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The Greenwich, near London.
angle of the sun’s rays goes on decreasing  This is the Prime Meridian (0°) from
towards the poles. As such, the areas which all other meridians radiate
bounded by the Tropic of Cancer and the eastwards and westwards up to 180°.
Arctic circle in the northern hemisphere,  As the parallels of latitude become shorter
and the Tropic of Capricorn and the poleward, so the meridians of longitude,
Antarctic circle in the southern which converge at the poles, enclose a
hemisphere, have moderate temperatures. narrower space.
These are, therefore, called temperate  They have one very important function,
zones. they determine local time in relation to
G.M.T. or Greenwich Mean Time, which  Most countries adopt their standard time
is sometimes referred to as World Time. from the central meridian of their
countries.
Longitude and Time  In larger countries such as Canada,
U.S.A., China, and U.S.S.R, it would be
 Since the earth makes one complete
inconvenient to have single time zone. So Page
revolution of 360° in one day or 24 hours,
these countries have multiple time zones.
it passes through 15° in one hour or 1°
 Both Canada and U.S.A. have five time |
in 4 minutes.
zones—the Atlantic, Eastern, Central, 137
 The earth rotates from west to east, so
Mountain and Pacific Time Zones. The
every 15° we go eastwards, local time is
difference between the local time of the
advanced by 1 hour. Conversely, if we go
Atlantic and Pacific coasts is nearly five
westwards, local time is retarded by 1
hours.
hour.
 U.S.S.R had eleven time zones before its
 We may thus conclude that places east
disintegration. Russia now has nine time
of Greenwich see the sun earlier and
zones.
gain time, whereas places west of
Greenwich see the sun later and lose
time.
 If we know G.M.T., to find local time, we
merely have to add or subtract the
difference in the number of hours from the
given longitude.
The International Date Line
Standard Time and Time Zones
 If each town were to keep the time of its

own meridian, there would be much
difference in local time between one town
and the other.
 Travelers going from one end of the
country to the other would have to keep
changing their watches if they wanted to
keep their appointments. This is
impractical and very inconvenient.
 To avoid all these difficulties, a system of
standard time is observed by all countries.  A traveler going eastwards gains time from
Greenwich until he reaches the meridian
180°E, when he will be 12 hours ahead of gains a day (because of the gain in time he
G.M.T. encountered).
 Similarly in going westwards, he loses 12  The International Date Line in the mid-
hours when he reaches 180°W. There is Pacific curves from the normal 180°
thus a total difference of 24 hours or a meridian at the Bering Strait, Fiji, Tonga
whole day between the two sides of the and other islands to prevent confusion of Page
180° meridian. day and date in some of the island groups
 This is the International Date Line where that are cut through by the meridian. |
the date changes by exactly one day when  Some of them keep Asiatic or New Zealand 138
it is crossed. A traveler crossing the date standard time, others follow the American
line from east to west loses a day (because date and time.
of the loss in time he has made); and while
crossing the dateline from west to east he Why is the international dateline drawn
in a zigzag manner?
 The International Date Line (IDL) passes the dateline. So if the dateline was
through the Pacific Ocean. It is an straight, then two regions of the same
imaginary line, like longitudes and Island Country or Island group would fall
latitudes. under different date zones. Thus to avoid
 The time difference on either side of this any confusion of date, this line is drawn
line is 24 hours. So, the date changes as through where the sea lies and not land.
soon as one crosses this line. Hence, the IDL is drawn in a zig-zag
 Some groups of Islands (Polynesia, manner.
Melanesia, Micronesia) fall on either of
Page
|
139
Indian Standard Time  150 years ago British colonialists

introduced “chaibagaan time” or “bagaan
 The Indian Government has accepted the time”, a time schedule observed by tea
meridian of 82*5° east for the standard planters, which was one hour ahead of
time which is 5hrs. 30 mins, ahead of IST.
Greenwich Mean Time.  This was done to improve productivity by
optimizing the usage of daytime.
 After Independence, Assam, along with the
rest of India, has been following IST for
the past 66 years.
 The administration of the Indian state of
Assam now wants to change it’s time zone
back to Chaibagaan time to conserve
energy and improve productivity.
 Indian government didn’t accept to such a
proposal.
Chaibagaan Time
Latitude Longitude
 Parallels  Meridian
 Angular distance of a point from the center of the earth  Angular distance along the
 Equator = 0° Latitude equator
 Latitudes are named south and north of equator  Prime meridian = longitude
 Their length decreases from equator to poles  Longitudes are named east
 Equator has the maximum length or west of prime meridian
 Equator, Tropic of Cancer 23.5° N, Tropic of Capricorn  All longitudes are equal in
23.5° S, Arctic circle 66.5° N, Antarctic circle 66.5° S, length
North Pole 90° N and South Pole 90° S are important  Prime meridian 0° and
latitudes International Date Line Page
 They help in determining the intensity of sunlight 180° E or 180° W are
received at a point important longitudes |
 They divide earth into torrid, temperate and frigid zones  Used to determine time 140
and date at a location
Both are used to determine the location of a point on earth. The location is identified with
Co-ordinates
1. Statements 3) It is not continent for a country of greater
latitudinal extent but smaller longitudinal
1) The shape of the Earth is Geoid. extent to have multiple time zones.
2) The region that lies between Tropic of 4) On a 24 hour clock, the time is 00:00 in
Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn is called London. Then the time in Mumbai on a 12
Torrid Zone. hour clock will be 05:30 AM.
3) The temperature decreases from equator
to poles because of the shape of the earth. Which of the above statements are
4) North Poles is a latitude. false?
Which of the above statements are a) None

true? b) 2 and 4 only
c) 1, 2 and 3 only
a) 1 and 2 only d) 3 only
b) 1, 3 and 4 only
c) 1, 2 and 3 only This post: Rotation and Revolution of
d) All Earth. This is the 2nd post in Climatology.
2. Which of the following is false? Click Here for All posts on

Geomorphology.
a) Longitudes and Latitudes are useful to
determine time at a location. Previous Post: Longitudes and Latitudes.
b) Longitudes and Latitudes are useful to
determine a location. Motions of the earth: Rotation and
c) GMT is a reference time zone. All other Revolution
time zones make use of GMT to specify
time at a location.  Primarily two motions: Rotation and
d) Places to the east of Greenwich gain time Revolution.
while those to the west lose.
3. Statements
1) A person travelling from Japan to USA

across International Date Line will gain a
day.
2) A person travelling from Hawaii to New
Zealand across International Date Line
will lose a day.
Rotation of Earth  The circle that divides the day from night
on the globe is called the circle of
 Earth rotates along its axis from west to illumination.
east.  Earth rotates on a tilted axis. Earth’s
 It takes approximately 24 hrs to complete rotational axis makes an angle of 23.5°
on rotation. with the normal i.e. it makes an angle of Page
 Days and nights occur due to rotation of 66.5° with the orbital plane. Orbital plane
the earth. is the plane of earth’s orbit around the |
Sun. 141
nighttime would be near equal at the

equator, at least during equinoxes.
 But due to atmosphere, the sun’s rays
gets refracted (bending of light). Refraction
is particularly stronger during the
morning and the evening time when the
sun’s rays are slant.
 Even though the actual sun is below the
horizon, its apparent image would appear
above the horizon due to refraction. This
makes the days longer than nights at the
equator.
Why are days always longer than nights

at the equator?
 If there was no atmosphere, there would

be no refraction and the daytime and
Page
|
142
Why temperature falls with increasing Revolution

latitude (as we move from equator
towards poles)?  The second motion of the earth around the
sun in its orbit is called revolution. It
 Because of the spherical (Geoid) shape of takes 365¼ days (one year) to revolve
the earth and the position of the sun. around the sun.
 Because the energy received per unit area  Six hours saved every year are added to
decreases from equator to poles. make one day (24 hours) over a span of
 Because Equator receives direct sunlight four years. This surplus day is added to
while Poles receive slant or oblique rays of the month of February. Thus every fourth
the Sun. year, February is of 29 days instead of 28
days. Such a year with 366 days is called
a leap year.
Solstice
 On 21st June, the northern hemisphere is

tilted towards the sun. The rays of the sun
fall directly on the Tropic of Cancer. As a
result, these areas receive more heat.
 The areas near the poles receive less heat
as the rays of the sun are slanting.
 The north pole is inclined towards the sun
and the places beyond the Arctic Circle
experience continuous daylight for about
six months.
 Since a large portion of the northern
hemisphere is getting light from the sun, it
is summer in the regions north of the
equator. The longest day and the  On 21st March and September 23rd,
shortest night at these places occur on direct rays of the sun fall on the equator.
21st June. At this position, neither of the poles is
 At this time in the southern hemisphere tilted towards the sun; so, the whole earth
all these conditions are reversed. It is experiences equal days and equal nights.
winter season there. The nights are longer This is called an equinox. Page
than the days. This position of the earth is  On 23rd September, it is autumn season
called the summer solstice. [season after summer and before the |
 On 22nd December, the Tropic of beginning of winter] in the northern 143
Capricorn receives direct rays of the sun hemisphere and spring season [season
as the south pole tilts towards it. As the after winter and before the beginning of
sun’s rays fall vertically at the Tropic of summer] in the southern hemisphere. The
Capricorn (23½° s), a larger portion of the opposite is the case on 21st March, when
southern hemisphere gets light. Therefore, it is spring in the northern hemisphere
it is summer in the southern hemisphere and autumn in the southern hemisphere.
with longer days and shorter nights. The  Thus, you find that there are days and
reverse happens in the northern nights and changes in the seasons
hemisphere. This position of the earth is because of the rotation and revolution
called the winter solstice. of the earth respectively.
 Rotation === Days and Nights.
Equinox
 Revolution === Seasons.
Why regions beyond the Arctic circle

receive sunlight all day long in
summer?
 This is because of the tilt of the earth.

 Earth’s axis at the north pole is tilted
towards the sun in summer.
 So the whole of Arctic region falls within
the ‘zone of illumination’ all day long in
summer.
Daylight saving in some temperate
regions
 Daylight saving time (DST) or summer Atmosphere

time is the practice of advancing clocks
during summer months by one hour.
 In DST, evening time is increased by
sacrificing the morning hours.
[Normal days = Start office at 10 AM and Page

close at 5 PM |
In DST = Advance clock by one hour (can 144
be more) = Start office at 9 AM and Close
at 4 PM]
 Typically, users in regions with summer

time (Some countries in extreme north
and south) adjust clocks forward one hour
close to the start of spring and adjust
them backward in the autumn to standard
time.
 Advantage: Putting clocks forward benefits
retailing, sports, and other activities that
exploit sunlight after working hours.
Reduces evening use of incandescent
lighting, which was formerly a primary use
of electricity.
 Problems: DST clock shifts sometimes
complicate timekeeping and can disrupt
travel, billing, record keeping, medical
 Our planet earth is enveloped by a deep
devices, heavy equipment, and sleep
blanket of gases extending several
patterns.
thousands of kilometres above its surface.
1. Variations in the length of daytime and This gaseous cover of the earth is known
night time from season to season are as the atmosphere.
due to  Like land (lithosphere) and water
(hydrosphere), the atmosphere is an
a) the earth’s rotation on its axis integral part of the earth.
b) the earth’s revolution round the sun in an  Compared to the earth’s radius, the
elliptical manner atmosphere appears to be only a very thin
c) latitudinal position of the place layer of gases. However, because of the
d) revolution of the earth on a tilted axis force of gravity, it is inseparable from the
earth.
Hint: Revolution + Rotation on a Tilted
Axis = = Variation in seasons = =  Atmospheric pressure: The air exerts
Variation in Day time and Night time pressure on earth’s surface by virtue of its
weight. This pressure is called
This is 3rd post in Climatology. In this atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric
post: Atmosphere – Structure: pressure is the most important climatic
Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, element. The atmospheric pressure at sea
Thermosphere and Exosphere; level is 1034 gm per square centimeter.
Composition: Major gasses and other
constituents of atmosphere. Role of Earth’s Atmosphere
 The atmosphere contains various gases

like oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen etc.
 Plants require carbon dioxide to survive
while animals and many other organisms
need oxygen for their survival. The
atmosphere supplies these life giving Page
gases.
 All life forms need a particular range of |
temperature and a specific range of 145
frequencies of solar radiation to carry out
their biophysical processes. The
atmosphere absorbs certain frequencies
and lets through some other frequencies of  The atmosphere is a mixture of many
solar radiation. In other words, the gases. In addition, it contains huge
atmosphere regulates the entry of solar numbers of solid and liquid particles,
radiation. collectively called ‘aerosols’.
 The atmosphere also keeps the  Some of the gases may be regarded as
temperature over the earth’s surface permanent atmospheric components
within certain limits. In the absence of the which remain in fixed proportion to the
atmosphere extremes of temperature total gas volume.
would exist between day and night over  Other constituents vary in quantity from
the earth’s surface. place to place and from time to time. If the
 Harmful ultraviolet radiation would find suspended particles, water vapour and
its way through, if the atmosphere (ozone other variable gases were excluded from
in stratosphere to be specific) were absent. the atmosphere, then the dry air is very
 The atmosphere also takes care of extra- stable all over the earth up to an altitude
terrestrial objects like meteors which get of about 80 kilometres.
burnt up while passing through the  The proportion of gases changes in the
atmosphere (mesosphere to be precise) higher layers of the atmosphere in such a
due to friction. way that oxygen will be almost in
 Weather is another important negligible quantity at the height of 120
phenomenon which dictates the direction km. Similarly, carbon dioxide and water
of a number of natural and man-made vapour are found only up to 90 km from
processes like plant growth, agriculture, the surface of the earth.
soil-formation, human settlements, etc.  Nitrogen and oxygen make up nearly
Various climatic factors join together to 99% of the clean, dry air. The remaining
create weather. gases are mostly inert and constitute
about 1% of the atmosphere.
Composition of Atmosphere  Besides these gases, large quantities of
water vapour and dust particles are also
present in the atmosphere. These solid
and liquid particles are of great climatic
significance.
 Different constituents of the atmosphere,
with their individual characteristics, are
discussed below.
Oxygen
 Oxygen, although constituting only 21% of

total volume of atmosphere, is the most
important component among gases. All greatest concentrations of ozone are

living organisms inhale oxygen. Besides, found. It is formed at higher altitudes and
oxygen can combine with other elements transported downwards.
to form important compounds, such as,  Ozone plays a crucial role in blocking
oxides. Also, combustion is not possible the harmful ultraviolet radiation from
without oxygen. the sun. Page
 Other gases found in almost negligible
Nitrogen quantities in the atmosphere are argon, |
neon, helium, hydrogen, xenon, 146
 Nitrogen accounts for 78% of total
krypton, methane etc.
atmospheric volume. It is a relatively
inert gas, and is an important constituent Water Vapour
of all organic compounds. The main
function of nitrogen is to control  Water Vapour is one of the most variable
combustion by diluting oxygen. It also gaseous substances present in
indirectly helps in oxidation of different atmosphere – constituting between 0.02%
kinds. and 4% of the total volume (in cold dry
and humid tropical climates respectively).
Carbon Dioxide 90% of moisture content in the
atmosphere exists within 6 km of the
 The third important gas is Carbon Dioxide
surface of the earth. Like carbon dioxide,
which constitutes only about 0.03% of the
water vapour plays a significant role in the
dry air and is a product of combustion.
insulating action, of the atmosphere.
Green plants, through photosynthesis,
 It absorbs not only the long-wave
absorb carbon dioxide from the
terrestrial radiation (infrared or heat
atmosphere and use it to manufacture
emitted by earth during nights), but also
food and keep other bio-physical
a part of the incoming solar radiation.
processes going.
 Water vapour is the source of precipitation
 Being an efficient absorber of heat,
and clouds. On condensation, it releases
carbon dioxide is considered to be of great
latent heat of condensation —the
climatic significance. Carbon dioxide is
ultimate driving force behind all
considered to be a very important factor in
storms.
the heat energy budget.
 With increased burning of fossil fuels – oil, The moisture – carrying capacity of air
coal and natural gas – the carbon dioxide is directly proportional to the air
percentage in the atmosphere has been temperature.
increasing at an alarming rate.
 More carbon dioxide in the atmosphere Solid Particles
means more heat absorption. This could
significantly raise the temperature at  The Solid Particles present in the
lower levels of the atmosphere thus atmosphere consist of sand particles (from
inducing drastic climatic changes. weathered rocks and also derived from
volcanic ash), pollen grains, small
Ozone (03) organisms, soot, ocean salts; the upper
layers of the atmosphere may even have
 Ozone (03) is another important gas in the fragments of meteors which got burnt up
atmosphere, which is actually a type of in the atmosphere. These solid particles
oxygen molecule consisting of three, perform the function of absorbing,
instead of two, atoms. It forms less than reflecting and scattering the radiation.
0.00005% by volume of the atmosphere  The solid particles are, consequently,
and is unevenly distributed. It is between responsible for the orange and red
20 km and 25 km altitude that the
colours at sunset and sunrise and for the Methane

length of dawn (the first appearance of light in the
sky before sunrise) and twilight (the soft glowing  One of the most important greenhouse
light from the sky when the sun is below the horizon, gases. It is produced from decomposition
caused by the reflection of the sun's rays by the of animal wastes and biological matter.
atmosphere. Dusk: the darker stage of twilight.). The
blue colour of the sky is also due to Structure of Atmosphere Page
selective scattering by dust particles. |
 Some of the dust particles are hygroscopic  The atmosphere can be studied as a
(i.e. readily absorbing moisture from air) in layered entity – each layer having its own 147
character, and as such, act as nuclei of peculiar characteristics. These layers are
condensation. Thus, dust particles are an systematically discussed below.
important contributory factor in the
formation of clouds, fog and hailstones. Troposphere
Major Greenhouse Gases  It is the atmospheric layer between the

earth’s surface and an altitude of 8 km at
Carbon dioxide the poles and 18 km at the equator.
 The thickness is greater at the equator,
 Carbon dioxide is meteorologically a very because the heated air rises to greater
important gas as it is transparent to the heights.
incoming solar radiation but opaque to  The troposphere ends with the
the outgoing terrestrial radiation. It Tropopause.
absorbs a part of terrestrial radiation and
reflects back some part of it towards the
earth’s surface. It is largely responsible for
the greenhouse effect.
Ozone
 Ozone is another important greenhouse

gas. But it is very small proportions at the
surface.
Water vapour
 Water vapour is also a variable gas in the

atmosphere, which decreases with
altitude. Water vapour also decreases from
the equator towards the poles.
 In the warm and wet tropics, it may
account for four per cent of the air by
volume, while in the dry and cold areas of
desert and polar regions, it may be less
than one per cent of the air.
 It also absorbs parts of the insolation from
the sun and preserves the earth’s radiated
heat.
 It thus, acts like a blanket allowing the
earth neither to become too cold nor too
hot. Water vapour also contributes to the
stability and instability in the air.
 It lies beyond troposphere, up to an

altitude of 50 km from the earth’s surface.
 The temperature in this layer remains
constant for some distance but then rises
to reach a level of 0°C at 50 km altitude.
 This rise is due to the presence of ozone Page
(harmful ultraviolet radiation is absorbed
by ozone). |
 This layer is almost free from clouds and 148
associated weather phenomenon, making
conditions most ideal for flying
aeroplanes. So aeroplanes fly in lower
stratosphere, sometimes in upper
 The temperature in this layer, as one goes troposphere where weather is calm.
upwards, falls at the rate of 6.5°C per  Sometimes, cirrus clouds are present at
kilometer, and reaches -45°C at the poles lower levels in this layer.
and -80°C over the equator at Tropopause
Ozonosphere
(greater fall in temperature above equator
is because of the greater thickness of  It lies at an altitude between 30 km and
troposphere – 18 km). 60 km from the earth’s surface and spans
 The fall in temperature is called ‘lapse the stratosphere and lower mesosphere.
rate’. (more about this in future posts)  Because of the presence of ozone
 The troposphere is marked by molecules, this layer reflects the harmful
temperature inversion, turbulence and ultraviolet radiation.
eddies.  The ozonosphere is also called
 It is also meteorologically the most chemosphere because, a lot of chemical
significant zone in the entire atmosphere activity goes on here.
(Almost all the weather phenomena like  The temperature rises at a rate of 5°C per
rainfall, fog and hailstorm etc. are kilometer through the ozonosphere.
confined to this layer).
 It is also called the convective region, Mesosphere
since all convection stops at
Tropopause.  This is an intermediate layer beyond the
 The troposphere is the theatre for weather ozone layer and continues upto an altitude
because all cyclones, anticyclones, storms of 80 km from the earth’s surface.
and precipitation occur here, as all water  The temperature gradually falls to -100°C
vapours and solid particles lie within this. at 80 km altitude.
 The troposphere is influenced by seasons  Meteorites burn up in this layer on
and jet streams. entering from the space.
Tropopause Thermosphere
 Top most layer of troposphere.  In thermosphere temperature rises very

 It acts as a boundary between troposphere rapidly with increasing height.
and stratosphere.  Ionosphere is a part of this layer. It
 This layer is marked by constant extends between 80-400 km.
temperatures.  This layer helps in radio transmission.
In fact, radio waves transmitted from the
Stratosphere earth are reflected back to the earth by
this layer.
 Person would not feel warm because of

the thermosphere's extremely low
pressure.
 The International Space Station and
satellites orbit in this layer. (Though
temperature is high, the atmosphere is Page
extremely rarified – gas molecules are
spaced hundreds of kilometers apart. |
Hence a person or an object in this layer 149
doesn’t feel the heat)
 Aurora’s are observed in lower parts of
this layer.
Ionosphere
 This layer is located between 80 km and

400 km and is an electrically charged
layer.
 This layer is characterized by ionization
of atoms.
 Because of the electric charge, radio waves
transmitted from the earth are reflected
back to the earth by this layer.
 Temperature again starts increasing with Temperature Distribution, Latitudinal
height because of radiation from the sun. Heat Balance, Heat Budget, Mean Annual
Temperature Distribution and Seasonal
Exosphere Temperature Distribution – January and
July.
 This is the uppermost layer of the
atmosphere extending beyond the Temperature Distribution on Earth
ionosphere above a height of about 400
km.  Sun is the ultimate source of heat. And
 The air is extremely rarefied and the the differential heat received from sun by
temperature gradually increases through different regions on earth is the ultimate
the layer. reason behind all climatic features. So
 Light gases like helium and hydrogen understanding the patterns of distribution
float into the space from here. of temperature in different seasons is
 Temperature gradually increases through important for understanding various
the layer. (As it is exposed to direct climatic features like wind systems,
sunlight) pressure systems, precipitation etc..
 This layer coincides with space.
Insolation
Speed of sound follows temperature
profile  Earth intercepts only one in two billion
parts of solar radiation. This intercepted
 This is because speed of sound is directly radiation is called Insolation.
proportional to temperature as we move  Insolation == Proportion of Solar energy
away from earth. received or intercepted by earth.
 Some heat within the core and mantle is
In this Post: Temperature Distribution on transferred to the surface and ocean
Earth, Insolation, Factors Affecting bottoms through volcanoes, springs and
geysers. But this heat received at the Duration of Sunshine

surface form interiors of the earth is
negligible compared to that received from  Heat received depends on day or night;
sun. clear sky or overcast, summer or winter
 Earth receives Sun’s radiation (heat) in the etc..
form of short waves (visible light + Transparency of Atmosphere Page
wavelengths below visible light – most
of it is ultraviolet radiation) which are of  Aerosols (smoke, sooth), dust, water |
electromagnetic nature. The earth absorbs vopour, clouds etc. effect transparency. 150
short wave radiation during daytime and  If the wavelength (X) of the radiation is
reflects back the heat received into space more than the radius of the obstructing
as long-wave radiation (mostly infrared particle (such as a gas), then scattering of
radiation) during night. radiation takes place.
 If the wavelength is less than the
obstructing particle (such as a dust
particle), then total reflection takes place.
 Absorption of solar radiation takes place
if the obstructing particles happen to be
water vapour, ozone molecules, carbon
dioxide molecules or clouds.
 Most of the light received by earth is
scattered light.
Ways of Transfer of Heat Energy
 The heat energy from the solar radiation is

received by the earth through three
mechanisms—
 Radiation == Heat transfer from one body
to another without actual contact or
movement. It is possible in relatively
emptier space, for instance, from the sun
to the earth through space.
 Conduction == Heat transfer through
matter by molecular activity. Heat
transfer in iron and other metals is by
conduction. Generally, denser materials
like water are good conductors and a
lighter medium like air is a bad conductor
of heat.
 Convection == Transfer of heat energy by
actual transfer of matter or substance Land-Sea Differential
from one place to another. (heat transfer
by convection cycles in atmosphere as well  Albedo of land is much greater than
as oceans) albedo of oceans and water bodies.
Especially snow covered areas reflect up to
Factors Affecting Temperature 70%-90% of insolation.
Distribution  Average penetration of sunlight is more in
water – up to 20 metres, than in land –
The Angle of Incidence or the
where it is up to 1 metre only. Therefore,
Inclination of the Sun’s Rays
land cools or becomes hot more rapidly  Winds transfer heat from one latitude to
compared to oceans. In oceans, another. They also help in exchange of
continuous convection cycle helps in heat heat between land and water bodies.
exchange between layers keeping diurnal  The oceanic winds have the capacity to
and annual temperature ranges low. take the moderating influence of the sea to
(more while studying salinity and coastal areas – reflected in cool summers Page
temperature distribution of oceans) and mild winters. This effect is
 The specific heat of water is 2.5 times pronounced only on the windward side |
higher than landmass, therefore water (the side facing the ocean). 151
takes longer to get heated up and to cool  The leeward side or the interiors do not get
down. the moderating effect of the sea, and
therefore experience extremes of
Prevailing Winds temperature.
Aspects of Slope
 The direction of the slope and its angle  Ocean currents influence the temperature
control the amount of solar radiation of adjacent land areas considerably. (more
received locally. Slopes more exposed to while studying ocean currents).
the sun receive more solar radiation than
those away from the sun’s direct rays. Altitude
 Slopes that receive direct Sun’s rays are  With increase in height, pressure falls, the
dry due to loss of moisture through excess effect of greenhouse gases decreases and
evaporation. These slopes remain barren if hence temperature decreases (applicable
irrigational facilities are absent. But slopes only to troposphere).
with good irrigational facilities are good for
 The normal lapse rate is roughly 1⁰ C for
agriculture due to abundant sunlight
every 165 metres of ascent.
available. They are occupied by dense
human settlements. Earth’s Distance form Sun
 Slopes that are devoid of direct sunlight
are usually well forested.  During its revolution around the sun, the
earth is farthest from the sun (152
Ocean Currents million km on 4th July). This position of
the earth is called aphelion.
 On 3rd January, the earth is the nearest  The amount of insolation received varies
to the sun (147 million km). This position from latitude to latitude.
is called perihelion.  Regions within the equator and 40° N and
 Therefore, the annual insolation received S latitudes receive abundant sunlight and
by the earth on 3rd January is slightly hence more heat will be gained than lost.
more than the amount received on 4th Hence they are energy surplus regions. Page
July.  Regions beyond 40° N and S latitudes lose
 However, the effect of this variation in the more heat than that gained from sunlight. |
solar output is masked by other factors Hence they are energy deficit regions 152
like the distribution of land and sea and (This is because of slant sunlight and
the atmospheric circulation. high albedo of polar regions).
 Hence, this variation in the solar output  Going by this logic, the tropics should
does not have great effect on daily weather have been getting progressively hotter and
changes on the surface of the earth. the poles getting progressively cooler. And
the planet would have been inhospitable
Latitudinal Heat Balance except for few regions near mid-latitudes.
But, in reality, this does not happen.
 The atmosphere (planetary winds) and
the oceans (ocean currents) transfer
excess heat from the tropics (energy
surplus region) towards the poles (energy
deficit regions) making up for heat loss at
higher latitudes.
 And most of the heat transfer takes
place across the mid-latitudes (30° to
50°)[more while studding jet streams
and cyclones], and hence much of the
stormy weather is associated with this
region.
 Thus, the transfer of surplus energy from
the lower latitudes to the deficit energy
zone of the higher latitudes, maintains an
overall balance over the earth’s surface.
Heat Budget
 The earth receives a certain amount of

Insolation (short waves) and gives back
heat into space by terrestrial radiation
(longwave radiation). Through this give
and take, or the heat budget, the earth
maintains a constant temperature.
Page
|
153
Gif Image: Watch in power point in full  Narrow spacing between isotherms
screen mode indicate rapid change in temperature
(high thermal gradient).
The Mean Annual Temperature  Wide spacing between isotherms indicate
Distribution small or slow change in temperatures
(low thermal gradient).
 Isotherm == An imaginary line joining
places having equal temperatures. General Temperature Distribution
 The horizontal or latitudinal distribution
of temperature is shown with the help of a  The highest temperatures occur over
map with isotherms. tropics and sub-tropics (high insolation).
 Effects of altitude is not considered while The lowest temperatures occur in polar
drawing an isotherm. All the temperatures and sub polar regions. in continents due
are reduced to sea levels. to the effect of continentiality.
 Diurnal and annual range of temperatures
General characteristics of isotherms. are highest in the interiors of continents
due to the effect of continentiality (in
 Generally follow the parallels: Isotherms continental interiors these will no
have close correspondence with the moderating effect of oceans).
latitude parallels mainly because the same  Diurnal and annual range of temperatures
amount of insolation is received by all the are least in oceans. [high specific heat of
points located on the same latitude. water and mixing of water keep the range
 Sudden bends at ocean – continent low]
boundaries: Due to differential heating of  Low temperature gradients are observed
land and water, temperatures above the over tropics (sun is almost overhead the
oceans and landmasses vary even on the entire year) and high temperature
same latitude. (we have seen how land sea gradients over middle and higher latitudes
differential effects temperature
distribution)
(sun’s apparent path varies significantly land mass and the ocean currents are well
from season to season). pronounced.
 Temperature gradients are usually low
over the eastern margins of continents. Seasonal Temperature Distribution –
(This is because of warm ocean currents) January
 Temperature gradients are usually high
During January, it is winter in the Page
over the western margins of continents.
northern hemisphere and summer in the |
(This is because of cold ocean currents)
southern hemisphere.
 The isotherms are irregular over the 154
northern hemisphere due to an enhanced  The western margins of continents are
land-sea contrast. Because of warmer than their eastern
predominance of land over water in the counterparts, since the Westerlies are
north, the northern hemisphere is able to carry high temperature into the
warmer. The thermal equator (ITCZ) lies landmasses.
generally to the north of geographical  The temperature gradient is close to the
equator. eastern margins of continents. The
 While passing through an area with warm isotherms exhibit a more regular behavior
ocean currents, the isotherms show a in the southern hemisphere.
poleward shift. (North Atlantic Drift and
Gulf Stream combined with westerlies in Northern Hemisphere
Northern Atlantic; Kurishino Current and
North Pacific current combined with  The isotherms deviate to the north over
westerlies in Northern Pacific) (we will see the ocean and to the south over the
about ocean currents in detail later.) continent. This can be seen on the North
 Mountains also affect the horizontal Atlantic Ocean.
distribution of temperature. For instance,  The presence of warm ocean currents,
the Rockies and the Andes stop the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift,
oceanic influence from going inwards into make the Northern Atlantic Ocean warmer
North and South America. and the isotherms show a poleward shift
indicating that the oceans are warmer and
Seasonal Temperature Distribution are able to carry high temperatures
poleward.
 The global distribution of temperature can  An equator ward bend of the isotherms
well be understood by studying the over the northern continents shows that
temperature distribution in January and the landmasses are overcooled and that
July. polar cold winds are able to penetrate
 The temperature distribution is generally southwards, even in the interiors. It is
shown on the map with the help of much pronounced in the Siberian plain.
isotherms. The Isotherms are lines joining  Lowest temperatures are recorded over
places having equal temperature. northern Siberia and Greenland.
 In general the effect of the latitude on
temperature is well pronounced on the Southern Hemisphere
map, as the isotherms are generally
parallel to the latitude. The deviation from  The effect of the ocean is well pronounced
this general trend is more pronounced in in the southern hemisphere. Here the
January than in July, especially in the isotherms are more or less parallel to the
northern hemisphere. latitudes and the variation in temperature
 In the northern hemisphere the land is more gradual than in the northern
surface area is much larger than in the hemisphere.
southern hemisphere. Hence, the effects of
Page
|
155
 The high temperature belt runs in the  During July, it is summer in the northern
southern hemisphere, somewhere along hemisphere and winter in the southern
30°S latitude. hemisphere. The isothermal behavior is
 The thermal equator lies to the south of the opposite of what it is in January.
geographical equator (because the  In July the isotherms generally run
Intertropical Convergence Zone or ITCZ parallel to the latitudes. The equatorial Page
has shifted southwards with the apparent oceans record warmer temperature, more
southward movement of the sun). than 27°C. Over the land more than 30°C |
is noticed in the subtropical continental 156
Seasonal Temperature Distribution – region of Asia, along the 30° N latitude.
July
Northern Hemisphere  The isotherms over the northern oceans

show an equator ward shift indicating that
 The highest range of temperature is more the oceans are cooler and are able to carry
than 60° C over the north-eastern part of the moderating effect into tropical
Eurasian continent. This is due to interiors. The lowest temperatures are
continentiality. The least range of experienced over Greenland.
temperature, 3°C, is found between 20° S  The highest temperature belt runs
and 15° N. through northern Africa, west Asia, north-
 Over the northern continents, a poleward west India arid southeastern USA. The
bend of the isotherms indicates that the temperature gradient is irregular and
landmasses are overheated and the hot follows a zig-zag path over the northern
tropical winds are able to go far into the hemisphere.
northern interiors.
Southern Hemisphere 4) Why is the annual range of temperature

high in the Siberian plains
 The gradient becomes regular over the
southern hemisphere but shows a slight 150 words
bend towards the equator at the edges of
continents. Thermal equator now lies to 1) How do the latitude and the tilt in the axis
the north of the geographical equator. of rotation of the earth affect the amount Page
of radiation received at the earth’s |
Questions from NCERT surface?
2) Discuss the processes through which the 157
1. The atmosphere is mainly heated by earth-atmosphere system maintains heat
the: balance.
(a) Short wave solar radiation 3) Compare the global distribution of
(b) Long wave terrestrial radiation temperature in January over the northern
(c) Reflected solar radiation and the southern hemisphere of the earth.
(d) Scattered solar radiation
2. The main reason that the earth Condensation of water vapour,
experiences highest temperatures in thunderstorms, cyclonic and anticyclonic
the subtropics in the northern conditions etc. depend on Adiabatic
hemisphere rather than at the equator Lapse Rate. Adiabatic Lapse Rate
is: determines the Rate Of Condensation
(a) Subtropical areas tend to have less cloud and the rate of condensation determines
cover than equatorial areas. the amount of Latent Heat of
(b) Subtropical areas have longer day hours Condensation Released.
in the summer than the equatorial.
All the explanation below is meant to
(c) Subtropical areas have an enhanced
explain ‘Adiabatic Lapse Rate’ and ‘Latent
“greenhouse effect” compared to equatorial
Heat of Condensation’. These two terms
areas.
occur frequently in almost all the future
(d) Subtropical areas are nearer to the
topics of climatology. They won’t be
oceanic areas than the equatorial
specifically asked in the exam. But
locations.
understanding them once for all will help
Match the following immensely in understanding the future
posts on climatology.
Lapse Rate
 Lapse rate is rate of change in

temperature observed while moving
upward through the Earth’s atmosphere
(troposphere to be specific).
30 words  The lapse rate is considered positive
when the temperature decreases with
1) How does the unequal distribution of heat elevation, zero when the temperature is
over the planet earth in space and time constant with elevation, and negative
cause variations in weather and climate? when the temperature increases with
2) What are the factors that control elevation (temperature inversion).
temperature distribution on the surface of  The lapse rate of non-rising air –
the earth? commonly referred to as the normal, or
3) In India, why is the day temperature Environmental, Lapse Rate (ELR) – is
maximum in May and why not after the highly variable, being affected by
summer solstice? radiation, convection, and
condensation; it averages about 6.5 °C increase due to proportionate increase in

per kilometer in the lower atmosphere volume (here V is not constant). When
(troposphere). excess air is blown, balloon bursts as it
cannot with stand the pressure.
Why does temperature fall with
elevation Example 2: Vehicle tube
Page
 When we move up a hill, we notice a fall in  In a vehicle tube, volume remains
|
temperature. This fall in temperature with constant. When air is blown, pressure
elevation is primarily due to two reasons. increases and hence the temperature. 158
1. With increase in elevation, the  We are usually advised not to have full
atmospheric pressure falls. Fall in blown tubes because when vehicle travels
pressure implies that the temperature also on a road, the friction between the tire and
falls [Pressure is directly proportional to the road increases the temperature of the
Temperature and vice versa] air in the tube. As temperature is directly
2. With increase in elevation, the proportional to pressure, increase in
concentration of greenhouse gases temperature leads to increase in pressure
decrease (Water vapor and carbon dioxide and at certain pressure threshold, the tire
fall sharply with elevation). Hence the heat bursts.
absorption capacity of atmosphere will
also decrease. The above examples explain the relation
between Pressure, Temperature and
This sort of fall in temperature with Volume. They are both non-adiabatic
elevation is called Temperature Lapse processes as there is (will be) heat
and the rate at which it happens is called exchange between the system and the
Temperature Lapse Rate or simply Lapse external environment.
rate.
Adiabatic Process: A Parcel of Rising or
Adiabatic Lapse rate Falling Air
 Lapse rate is the rate of fall in temperature  An air bubble rises in water whereas stone
of atmosphere with elevation. sinks. This is obvious. The stone is denser
 Adiabatic Lapse Rate is the rate of fall in (heavier than water) and it sinks whereas
temperature of a rising or a falling air the air bubble is less denser (lighter than
parcel adiabatically. water) and it rises.
 Adiabatic or adiabatically: Heat doesn’t  Similarly, a parcel of air rises when it is
enter or leave the system. All temperature less denser than the surrounding
changes are internal. environment and it falls when its density
 Adiabatic Lapse rate is governed by Gas becomes greater than the surrounding
law. environment.
Gas law A Parcel of Rising Air
 When an air parcel is subjected to

 According to gas law Pressure ‘P’ is
differential heating compared to the
directly proportional to Temperature ‘T’
surrounding air, it becomes lighter (less
when Volume ‘V’ is a constant.
denser) or heavier (more denser)
Just for understanding depending on whether the air parcel is
heated or cooled.
Example 1: A balloon  When an air parcel receives more heat
than the surrounding air, its temperature
 When we blow air into a balloon, pressure increases leading to an increase in volume
increases but temperature doesn’t
(Increase in Volume == Fall in Density). slopes. We will see more about this in
The air parcel becomes lighter than the temperature inversion.
surrounding air and it starts to rise. This  The beginning of fall is a non-adiabatic
process is non-adiabatic (there is heat process as there is an exchange of heat
exchange between the air parcel and the between the air parcel and the
external environment). surrounding environment. Page
 But when the air parcel starts to rise, the  When an air parcel is falling, the
ambient pressure on it starts to fall [The atmospheric pressure acting on it will |
atmospheric pressure decreases with increase and its internal temperature will 159
height, so the pressure on the air parcel increase adiabatically. [This is Negative
decreases with height]. With the fall in Adiabatic Lapse Rate as the
ambient pressure, the temperature falls Temperature is rising].
and the volume increases. This is
adiabatic [there is no heat exchange Katabatic Wind is a hot dry wind that
between the air parcel and the external blows down a mountain slope. It is an
environment. All the temperature changes example for a falling parcel of air in which
are internal. Temperature changes are the temperature changes happen
only due to change in pressure or volume adiabatically.
or both].
Adiabatic Lapse Rate in simple terms
 This fall in temperature with the rising of
the air parcel is called Adiabatic  Adiabatic change refers to the change in
Temperature Lapse. And the rate at temperature with pressure.
which it happens is called Adiabatic  On descent through atmosphere, the lower
Lapse Rate [This is Positive Adiabatic layers are compressed under atmospheric
Lapse Rate as the Temperature is pressure. As a result, the temperature
falling]. increases.
[Lapse Rate == fall in temperature with  On ascent, the air expands as pressure
height. Adiabatic Lapse Rate == Fall in ‘decreases’. This expansion reduces the
temperature in a rising parcel of air temperature and aids condensation of
without losing any internal heat] water vapour. Condensation of water
vapour releases the Latent Heat of
Rising of a parcel of air (and associated Condensation in the process.
Positive Adiabatic Lapse Rate) is the  This latent heat of condensation is the
first step in the formation of major driving force behind tropical
Thunderstorms, Tornadoes and cyclones, convectional rains.
Cyclones. [We will see this in detail in
future posts] Wet and Dry Adiabatic Lapse rate
A Parcel of Falling Air  Adiabatic lapse rates are usually

differentiated as dry or wet (moist).
 An air parcels falls to the lower levels of
troposphere when it is cooled sufficiently. Dry Adiabatic Lapse rate
 When an air parcel is in the upper levels,
it gets cooled due to lower temperatures  The Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) is
(Lapse Rate). It’s volume falls and it’s the rate of fall in temperature with altitude
density increases. When it becomes more for a parcel of dry or unsaturated air (air
denser than the surroundings, it starts to with less moisture, to keep it simple)
fall. rising under adiabatic conditions.
 This also happens when an air parcel is in  Unsaturated air has less than 100%
contact with cooler surfaces like mountain relative humidity (we will study about
Humidity in future posts).
air). [I have explained in detail in my

videos]
 The dry adiabatic lapse rate for the Earth’s
atmosphere equals 9.8° C per kilometre.
 Dry Adiabatic Lapse rate is mainly
associated with stable conditions Page
[because it has less moisture].
|
Wet Adiabatic Lapse rate
160
 When an air parcel that is saturated
(stomach full) with water vapour rises,
some of the vapour will condense and
release latent heat [Additional Heat from
inside]. This process causes the parcel to
cool more slowly than it would if it were
not saturated.
 The moist adiabatic lapse rate varies
considerably
because the
amount of water
vapour in the air is
highly variable.
The greater the
amount of vapour,
the smaller the
adiabatic lapse
rate [because the
condensation
process keeps on
adding more latent
heat of
condensation]. On
an average it is
taken as 4° C per
kilometre.
 Wet Adiabatic Lapse rate is mainly
[Saturated air == The air that cannot associated with unstable conditions
hold any more moisture. Its stomach is [because it has more moisture].
full Unsaturated air == It’s stomach is
 As an air parcel rises and cools, it may
not full. It can accommodate some
eventually lose its moisture through
more moisture.]
condensation; its lapse rate then increases
 When a rising air parcel has little and approaches the dry adiabatic value.
moisture, condensation during upliftment Significance in meteorology
is low, the latent heat of condensation
released is low [Less additional heat from  The difference between the normal lapse
inside]. As a result, the fall in temperature rate in the atmosphere and the dry and
with height is greater compared to moist adiabatic lapse rates determines the
Adiabatic Lapse Rate (normal parcel of vertical stability of the atmosphere.
 For this reason, the lapse rate is of prime latent of condensation released will be low,
importance to meteorologists in
and the rising parcel of air gets cold
forecasting certain types of cloud
formations, the incidence of quickly, and it falls to the ground once it
thunderstorms, and the intensity of becomes denser.
atmospheric turbulence.  So there will be no cloud formation and Page
Weather conditions at hence there will be no rain |
different adiabatic lapse rates (thunderstorms).
161
 This simply means that the condition is
1. LR (Lapse Rate) = Average Adiabatic Lapse stable.
Rate of entire atmosphere = 6 °C/km
[ALR of a place may be greater than or Conditional stability: WALR < ALR <
DALR
lesser than the Laspe Rate of atmosphere,
i.e, it may be less than or greater
 The above condition simply means that
than 6 °C/km]
there is enough moisture in air and there
2. If ALR at a place is greater
are chances of thunderstorms.
than 6 °C/km then it is called DALR =
 When there is considerable moisture in
Less moisture than normal = more stable
the air parcel, condensation of water
than normal.
vapour will be reasonably high, so latent
3. If ALR at a place is lesser
of condensation released will be adequate
than 6 °C/km then it is called WALR =
to drive a thunderstorm. The occurrence
More moisture than normal = less stable
of thunderstorm depends on external
than normal or instability.
factors. So the weather will be associated
Absolute stability: ALR (at a place) > with conditional stability (it may rain or it
DALR == Little moisture in the air may not rain)
parcel == It won’t rain Absolute instability: ALR (at a place) <
WALR
Conditional stability: WALR < ALR <
DALR == Normal moisture conditions ==
 The above condition simply means that
It may or may not rain
there is more moisture in air and there
Absolute instability: ALR (at a place) < will be thunderstorms.
WALR == Excess moisture in the air  When there is unusually high moisture in
parcel == It will rain violently. the air parcel, condensation of water
vapour will be very high, so latent of
Absolute stability: ALR (at a place) >
DALR condensation released will be great
enough to drive a violent thunderstorm.
 The above condition simply means that So the weather will be associated with
there is little moisture in air. absolute instability.
 When there is little moisture,
condensation of water vapour is low, so
Latent Heat of Condensation
 Latent heat of condensation is the

driving force behind all tropical
cyclones.
Latent Heat Page

|
 It is the heat released or absorbed during
phase change. 162
 Latent heat, characteristic amount of
energy absorbed or released by a
substance during a change in its physical
state that occurs without changing its
temperature.
 The latent heat associated with melting a
solid or freezing a liquid is called the heat
of fusion; that associated with vaporizing On X – axis: Heat supplied to the system.
a liquid or a solid or condensing a vapour
is called the heat of vaporization. On Y – Axis: Temperature change in the
system.
The latent heat is normally expressed
as the amount of heat (in units of joules  From the above graph, we can observe
or calories) per mole or unit mass of the that there is no change in temperature in
substance undergoing a change of state. the system during change of state or
phase change (solid to liquid, liquid to
 For example, when a pot of water is kept solid, liquid to gas and gas to liquid). Then
boiling, the temperature remains at 100 where did the heat supplied go?
°C until the last drop evaporates, because  Initially the heat supplied is used to raise
all the heat being added to the liquid is the temperature of the system (A – B & C –
absorbed as latent heat of vaporization D)
and carried away by the escaping vapour  During phase change, the heat supplied is
molecules. consumed to turn water into liquid and
 Similarly, while ice melts, it remains at 0 then liquid into gas. So the heat supplied
°C, and the liquid water that is formed in used in phase change. Hence
with the latent heat of fusion is also at 0 temperature of the system remains
°C. constant during phase change process. (B
– C & D – E)
Explanation
 But when gas turns into liquid or liquid
into solid, heat is released. (this heat is
the heat that was used during the phase
change process)
So latent heat of condensation is the

heat released when gases turn into
liquid.
Vertical Distribution of Temperature
 The normal, lapse rate is uniform at a

given level at all latitudes within the
troposphere.
 At the Tropopause, the lapse rate stops at  Inversions play an important role in
zero i.e. there is no change in temperature determining cloud forms, precipitation,
there. and visibility.
 In the lower stratosphere, the lapse rate  An inversion acts as a cap on the upward
remains constant for some height, while movement of air from the layers below. As
higher temperatures exist over the poles a result, convection produced by the Page
because this layer is closer to earth at the heating of air from below is limited to
poles. levels below the inversion. Diffusion of |
dust, smoke, and other air pollutants is 163
Temperature Anomaly likewise limited.
 In regions where a pronounced low-level
 The difference between the mean inversion is present, convective clouds
temperature of a place and the mean cannot grow high enough to produce
temperature of its parallel (latitude) is showers.
called the temperature anomaly or  Visibility may be greatly reduced below the
thermal anomaly. inversion due to the accumulation of dust
 The largest anomalies occur in the and smoke particles. Because air near the
northern hemisphere and the smallest base of an inversion tends to be cool, fog
in the southern hemisphere. is frequently present there.
Temperature Inversion – Types – Effect on  Inversions also affect diurnal variations in
Weather. temperature. Diurnal variations tend to be
very small.
UPSC mains 2013 question.
What do you understand by

phenomenon of “temperature
inversion” in meteorology? How does it
affect weather and habitants of the
place?
Temperature Inversion
 Temperature inversion, is a reversal of the

normal behavior of temperature in the
troposphere, in which a layer of cool air at Ideal Conditions For Temperature
the surface is overlain by a layer of Inversion
warmer air. (Under normal conditions,
1. Long nights, so that the outgoing radiation
temperature usually decreases with
is greater than the incoming radiation.
height)
2. Clear skies, which allow unobstructed
escape of radiation.
3. Calm and stable air, so that there is no
vertical mixing at lower levels.
Types of Temperature Inversion
Temperature Inversion in Intermontane

Valley (Air Drainage Type of
Inversion)
Effects
 Sometimes, the temperature in the lower Ground Inversion (Surface

layers of air increases instead of
decreasing with elevation. This happens
Temperature Inversion)
commonly along a sloping surface.
 A ground inversion develops when air is
 Here, the surface radiates heat back to
cooled by contact with a colder surface
space rapidly and cools down at a faster
until it becomes cooler than the overlying Page
rate than the upper layers. As a result the
atmosphere; this occurs most often on |
lower cold layers get condensed and
clear nights, when the ground cools off
become heavy.
rapidly by radiation. If the temperature of 164
 The sloping surface underneath makes
surface air drops below its dew point, fog
them move towards the bottom where the
may result.
cold layer settles down as a zone of low
 This kind of temperature inversion is very
temperature while the upper layers are
common in the higher latitudes.
relatively warmer.
 Surface temperature inversion in lower
 This condition, opposite to normal vertical
and middle latitudes occurs during cold
distribution of temperature, is known as
nights and gets destroyed during daytime.
Temperature Inversion.
 In other words, the vertical temperature
gets inverted during temperature
inversion.
 This kind of temperature inversion is very
strong in the middle and higher latitudes.
It can be strong in regions with high
mountains or deep valleys also.
Subsidence Inversion (Upper Surface

Temperature Inversion)
 A subsidence inversion develops when a

widespread layer of air descends.
 The layer is compressed and heated by the
resulting increase in atmospheric
pressure, and as a result the lapse rate of
temperature is reduced.
 If the air mass sinks low enough, the air oceans; these regions generally have
at higher altitudes becomes warmer than subsiding air because they are located
at lower altitudes, producing a under large high-pressure centers.
temperature inversion.  This temperature inversion is called upper
 Subsidence inversions are common over surface temperature inversion because it
the northern continents in winter (dry takes place in the upper parts of the Page
atmosphere) and over the subtropical atmosphere.
|
165
Frontal Inversion (Advectional type of  Sometimes, the temperature of the air at

Temperature Inversion ) the valley bottom reaches below freezing
point, whereas the air at higher altitude
 A frontal inversion occurs when a cold air remains comparatively warm. As a result,
mass undercuts a warm air mass (Cold the trees along the lower slopes are bitten
and Warm Fronts: we will study in detail by frost, whereas those at higher levels are
later) and lifts it aloft; the front between free from it.
the two air masses then has warm air  Due to inversion of temperature, air
above and cold air below. pollutants such as dust particles and
 This kind of inversion has considerable smoke do not disperse in the valley
slope, whereas other inversions are nearly bottoms. Because of these factors, houses
horizontal. In addition, humidity may be and farms in intermontane valleys are
high, and clouds may be present usually situated along the upper slopes,
immediately above it. avoiding the cold and foggy valley bottoms.
 This types of inversion is unstable and is For instance, coffee growers of Brazil and
destroyed as the weather changes. apple growers and hoteliers of mountain
states of Himalayas in India avoid lower
Economic Implications of Temperature slopes.
Inversion  Fog lowers visibility affecting vegetation
and human settlements.
 Less rainfall due to stable conditions.
Pressure Systems and Pressure Belts:  The normal pressure at sea level is taken
Equatorial Low Pressure Belt or to be about 76 centimeters (1013.25
‘Doldrums’, Sub-Tropical High Pressure millibars).
Belts or ‘Horse Latitudes’, Sub-Polar Low
Pressure Belts and Polar High Pressure Vertical Variation of Pressure
Belts.
 In the lower atmosphere the pressure Page
Pressure Systems decreases rapidly with height. |
 At the height of Mt. Everest, the air
 Air expands when heated and gets pressure is about two-thirds less than 166
compressed when cooled. This results in what it is at the sea level.
variations in the atmospheric pressure.  The decrease in pressure with altitude,
 The differences in atmospheric pressure however, is not constant. Since the factors
causes the movement of air from high controlling air density – temperature,
pressure to low pressure, setting the air in amount of water vapour and gravity are
motion. Atmospheric pressure also variable, there is no simple relationship
determines when the air will rise or sink. between altitude and pressure.
 Air in horizontal motion is wind. The wind  In general, the atmospheric pressure
redistributes the heat and moisture across decreases on an average at the rate of
latitudes, thereby, maintaining a constant about 34 millibars every 300 metres of
temperature for the planet as a whole. height.
 The vertical rising of moist air forms
clouds and bring precipitation.
Air Pressure
 Since air has mass, it also has weight. The

pressure of air at a given place is defined
as a force exerted in all directions by
virtue of the weight of all the air above it.
 The weight of a column of air contained in
a unit area from the mean sea level to the
 The vertical pressure gradient force is
top of the atmosphere is called the
much larger than that of the horizontal
atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric
pressure gradient. But, it is generally
pressure is expressed in various units.
balanced by a nearly equal but opposite
Measurement of Air Pressure gravitational force. Hence, we do not
experience strong upward winds.
 Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the  Due to gravity the air at the surface is
column of air at any given place and time. denser and hence has higher pressure.
It is measured by means of an instrument Since air pressure is proportional to
called barometer. density as well as temperature, it follows
 The units used by meteorologists for this that a change in either temperature or
purpose are called millibars (mb). density will cause a corresponding change
 One millibar is equal to the force of one in the pressure.
gram on a square centimeter. A  The pressure decreases with height. At
pressure of 1000 millibars is equal to any elevation it varies from place to place
the weight of 1.053 kilograms per and its variation is the primary cause of
square centimeter. air motion, i.e. wind which moves from
 In other words, it will be equal to the high pressure areas to low pressure areas.
weight of a column of mercury 75 cm high.
 A rising pressure indicates fine, settled

weather, while a falling pressure
indicates unstable and cloudy weather.
Horizontal Distribution of Pressure
 Small differences in pressure are highly Page

significant in terms of the wind direction |
and velocity. Horizontal distribution of
pressure is studied by drawing isobars at 167
constant levels. World Distribution of Sea Level
 Isobars are lines connecting places having Pressure
equal pressure. In order to eliminate the
effect of altitude on pressure, it is  The atmosphere exerts a pressure of 1034
measured at any station after being gm per square cm at sea level. This
reduced to sea level for purposes of amount of pressure is exerted by the
comparison. atmosphere at sea level on all animals,
 The spacing of isobars expresses the rate plants, rocks, etc.
and direction of pressure changes and is  Near the equator the sea level pressure is
referred to as pressure gradient. low and the area is known as equatorial
 Close spacing of isobars indicates a steep low. Along 30° N and 30° S are found the
or strong pressure gradient, while wide high-pressure areas known as the
spacing suggests weak gradient. The subtropical highs. Further pole wards
pressure gradient may thus be defined as along 60° N and 60° S, the low-pressure
the decrease in pressure per unit distance belts are termed as the sub polar lows.
in the direction in which the pressure Near the poles the pressure is high and it
decreases most rapidly. is known as the polar high.
 There are distinctly identifiable zones of  These pressure belts are not permanent
homogeneous horizontal pressure regimes in nature. They oscillate with the apparent
or ‘pressure belts’. On the earth’s movement of the sun. In the northern
surface, there are in all seven pressure hemisphere in winter they move
belts. southwards and in the summer
 The seven pressure belts are : northwards.
1. equatorial low,
Equatorial Low Pressure Belt or
2. the sub-tropical highs,
‘Doldrums’
3. the sub-polar lows, and
4. the polar highs.
 Lies between 10°N and 10°S latitudes.
 Except the equatorial low, all others form
 Width may vary between 5°N and 5°S and
matching pairs in the northern and
20°N and 20°S.
southern hemispheres.
 This belt happens to be the zone of
Closed Isobars or Closed Pressure convergence of trade winds from two
centers hemispheres from sub-tropical high
pressure belts.
 Low pressure system is enclosed by one or  This belt is also called the Doldrums,
more isobars with the lowest pressure in because of the extremely calm air
the centre. High-pressure system is also movements.
enclosed by one or more isobars with the  The position of the belt varies with the
highest pressure in the centre. apparent movement of the Sun.
Page
|
168
Formation  As this region lies along the equator, it

receives highest amount of insolation.
 Due to intense heating, air gets warmed Climate

up and rises over the equatorial region
(convection).  The subsiding air is warm and dry,
 Whenever there is vertically upward therefore, most of the deserts are
movement of air, the region at the surface present along this belt, in both
will be at low pressure. Thus the belt hemispheres.
Page
along the equator is called equatorial low  A calm condition (anticyclonic) with
pressure belt. feeble winds is created in this high |
pressure belt.
Climate 169
 The descending air currents feed the
winds blowing towards adjoining low
 This belt is characterized by extremely pressure belts.
low pressure with calm conditions.  This belt is frequently invaded by
 This is because of the absence of Surface tropical and extra-tropical
winds since winds approaching this belt disturbances.
begin to rise near its margin. Thus, only
vertical currents are found. Horse Latitudes
 As the larger part of the low pressure belt
passes along the oceans, the winds obtain  The corresponding latitudes of sub-
huge amount of moisture. tropical high pressure belt are called
 Vertical winds (convection) carrying horse latitudes.
moisture form cumulonimbus clouds and  In early days, the sailing vessels with
lead to thunderstorms (convectional cargo of horses found it difficult to sail
rainfall). under calm conditions of this high
 Inspite of high temperatures, cyclones pressure belt.
are not formed at the equator because  They used to throw horses into the sea
of ‘zero’ coriolis force. (we will see more when fodder ran out. Hence the name
later) horse latitudes.
Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt or Question mains 2013

Horse Latitudes
Major hot deserts in northern
 The sub-tropical highs extend from near hemisphere are located between 20-30
the tropics to about 35°N and S. degree north and on the western side of
the continents. Why?
Formation
Why between 20 – 30 degree?
 After saturation (complete loss of
moisture) at the ITCZ, the air moving away  Answer: The subsiding air is warm and
from equatorial low pressure belt in the dry, therefore, most of the deserts are
upper troposphere becomes dry and cold. present along this belt, in both
hemispheres.
 This dry and cold wind subsides at 30°N
and S. So the high pressure along this belt Why on western side of the continents?
is due to subsidence of air coming from
the equatorial region which descends  We will get answer for this while studying
after becoming heavy. ocean currents.
 The high pressure is also due to the
blocking effect of air at upper levels
because of the Coriolis force.
Page
|
170
 During winter, because of a high contrast

between land and sea, this belt is broken
into two distinct low centers – one in the
vicinity of the Aleutian Islands and the
other between Iceland and Greenland.
 During summer, a lesser contrast results Page
in a more developed and regular belt.
|
Climate
171
 The area of contrast between cold and
warm air masses produces polar jet
streams which encircles the earth at 60
degrees latitudes and is focused in these
low pressure areas.
Due to a great contrast between the

temperatures of the winds from sub-
tropical and polar source regions, extra
tropical cyclonic storms or lows’
(temperate cyclones or frontal cyclones)
Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt are produced in this region.
 Located between 45°N and S latitudes Polar High Pressure Belt

and the Arctic and the Antarctic circles
(66.5° N and S latitudes).  The polar highs are small in area and
 Owning to low temperatures in these extend around the poles.
latitudes the sub polar low pressure belts  They lie around poles between 80 – 90° N
are not very well pronounced year long. and S latitudes.
 On long-term mean climatic maps, the
Formation
sub polar low-pressure belts of the
northern hemisphere are grouped into two
 The air from sub-polar low pressure belts
centers of atmospheric activity: the
after saturation becomes dry. This dry air
Iceland low and the Aleutian depression
becomes cold while moving towards poles
(Aleutian low).
through upper troposphere.
 Such belts in the southern hemisphere
 The cold air (heavy) on reaching poles
surround the periphery of Antarctica and
subsides creating a high pressure belt at
are not as well differentiated.
the surface of earth.
Formation
Climate
 These are dynamically produced due to
 The lowest temperatures are found over
1. Coriolis Force produced by rotation of
the poles.
the earth on its axis, and.
2. Ascent of air as a result of convergence Pressure belts in July
of westerlies and polar easterlies (we
will more about these in next topic –  In the northern hemisphere, during
wind systems). summer, with the apparent northward
 Sub polar low-pressure belts are mainly shift of the sun, the thermal equator (belt
encountered above oceans. of highest temperature) is located north of
the geographical equator.
Seasonal behavior
 The pressure belts shift slightly north of their annual average locations.
Page
|
172
Pressure belts in January  So the high pressure along this belt is due
to subsidence of air coming from the
 During winter, these conditions are equatorial region which descends after
completely reversed and the pressure belts becoming heavy.
shift south of their annual mean locations.  The rate of deflection increases with the
Opposite conditions prevail in the distance from the equator (Coriolis Page
southern hemisphere. The amount of shift force). As a result, by the time the
is, however, less in the southern poleward directed winds reach 25° |
hemisphere due to predominance of water. latitude, they are deflected into a nearly 173
 Similarly, distribution of continents and west-to-east flow. It produces a blocking
oceans have a marked influence over the effect and the air piles up. This causes a
distribution of pressure. In winter, the general subsidence in the areas between
continents are cooler than the oceans and the tropics and 35°N and S, and they
tend to develop high pressure centres, develop into high pressure belts.
whereas in summer, they are relatively  The location of pressure belts is further
warmer and develop low pressure. It is affected by differences in net radiation
just the reverse with the oceans. resulting from apparent movement of the
sun and from variations in heating of land
Factors Controlling Pressure Systems and water surfaces.
 Thus formation of sub-tropical high and
 There are two main causes, thermal and
sub-polar low pressure belts are due to
dynamic, for the pressure differences
dynamic factors like pressure gradient
resulting in high and low pressure
forces, apparent movement of sun and
systems.
rotation of the earth (Coriolis force)
Thermal Factors In this post: Wind Movement – Factors
Affecting Wind movement: Pressure
 When air is heated, it expands and, hence, Gradient Force, Coriolis Force, Frictional
its density decreases. This naturally leads Force, Centripetal Acceleration and
to low pressure. On the contrary, cooling Geostrophic Wind. Coriolis effect: Causes,
results in contraction. This increases the Impact and Myth about Coriolis Effect.
density and thus leads to high pressure.
 Formation of equatorial low and polar Factors affecting Wind Movement
highs are examples of thermal lows and
thermal highs, respectively.  Wind == horizontal movement of air
 Currents == vertical movement of air.
Dynamic Factors  Winds balance uneven distribution of
pressure globally.
 Apart from variations of temperature, the  Winds help in transfer of heat, moisture
formation of pressure belts may be etc. from one place to another.
explained by dynamic controls arising out  Sun is the ultimate force that drives
of pressure gradient forces and rotation winds. Pressure differences force winds to
of the earth (Coriolis force). flow from high pressure are to low
Example pressure area. Pressure differences in turn
are caused by unequal heating of the
 After saturation (complete loss of mosture) earth’s surface by solar radiation.
at the ITCZ, the air moving away from  The wind at the surface experiences
equatorial low pressure belt in the upper friction. In addition, rotation of the earth
troposphere becomes dry and cold. This also affects the wind movement. The force
dry and cold wind subsides at 30°N and S. exerted by the rotation of the earth is
known as the Coriolis force.
 Thus, the horizontal winds near the earth Hemisphere and to the left in the
surface respond to the combined effect of Southern Hemisphere, derived from the
three forces – the pressure gradient application of the Coriolis effect to air
force, the frictional force and the masses).
Coriolis force.
 In addition, the gravitational force acts Page
downwards. Centripetal acceleration
produces a circular pattern of flow around |
centers of high and low pressure. 174
Pressure Gradient Force and Wind
Movement
 The differences in atmospheric pressure

produces pressure gradient force.
 The rate of change of pressure with
respect to distance is the pressure
gradient.
 Pressure Gradient Force operates from the
high pressure area to a low pressure area
and causes wind movement.  This deflection force does not seem to exist
 The pressure gradient is strong where the until the air is set in motion and increases
isobars are close to each other and is weak with wind velocity, air mass and an
where the isobars are apart. increase in latitude.
 Since a closely spaced gradient implies a  The Coriolis force acts perpendicular to
steep pressure change, it also indicates a the pressure gradient force (pressure
strong wind speed. gradient force is perpendicular to an
 The wind direction follows the direction of isobar)
change of pressure, i.e. perpendicular to  As a result of these two forces operating
the isobars. perpendicular to each other, in the low-
pressure areas the wind blows around it
Coriolis Force and Wind Movement (cyclonic conditions).
 The rotation of the earth about its axis

affects the direction of the wind. This force
is called the Coriolis force. It has great
impact on the direction of wind movement.
 Due to the earth’s rotation, winds do not
cross the isobars at right angles as the
pressure gradient force directs, but get
deflected from their original path.
 This deviation is the result of the earth’s
rotation and is called the Coriolis effect or
Coriolis force.
 Due to this effect, winds in the northern
hemisphere get deflected to the right of
their path and those in the southern
hemisphere to their left, following
Farrell’s Law (the law that wind is
deflected to the right in the Northern
3 km. Over the sea surface the friction is

minimal.
 Over uneven terrain, however, due to high
friction, the wind direction makes high
angles with, isobars and the speed gets
retarded. Page
Centripetal Acceleration |
175
 It acts only on air that is flowing around
centers of circulation.
 Centripetal acceleration creates a force
directed at right angles to the wind
movement and inwards towards the
centers of rotation (e.g., low and high
pressure centers).
 This force produces a circular pattern of
flow around centers of high and low
pressure.
Why are there no tropical cyclones at  Centripetal acceleration is more important
the equator? for circulations smaller than the mid-
latitude cyclone.
 The Coriolis force is directly proportional
Pressure and Wind: Geostrophic Wind
to the angle of latitude. It is maximum at
the poles and is absent at the equator.
 The velocity and direction of the wind are
 At the equator (Coriolis force is zero) the net result of the wind generating
wind blows perpendicular to the isobars. forces.
The low pressure gets filled instead of
 The winds in the upper atmosphere, 2 - 3
getting intensified i.e., there is no spiraling
km above the surface, are free from
of air due to zero Coriolis effect. The winds
frictional effect of the surface and are
directly gets uplifted vertically to form
controlled by the pressure gradient and
thunderstorms.
the Coriolis force.
 When isobars are straight and when there
is no friction, the pressure gradient force
is balanced by the Coriolis force and the
resultant wind blows parallel to the isobar.
This wind is known as the geostrophic
wind.
Frictional Force and Wind Movement
 The irregularities of the earth’s surface

offer resistance to the wind movement in
the form of friction.
 It affects the speed of the wind. It is
greatest at the surface and its influence
generally extends up to an elevation of 1 -
 The wind movement around a low is called changes according to their location in
cyclonic circulation. Around a high it is different hemispheres.
called anti cyclonic circulation. The
direction of winds around such systems
Page
|
176
The wind movement or wind circulation at  Apart from convergence, some eddies,
the earth’s surface around low and high convection currents, orographic uplift and
on many occasions is closely related to the uplift along fronts cause the rising of air,
wind circulation at higher level. Generally, which is essential for the formation of
over low pressure area the air will clouds and precipitation. (more about this
converge and rise. Over high pressure area later)
the air will subside from above and diverge
at the surface.
More about Coriolis effect surface that same object appears to curve
off of its course. The object is not actually
 The Coriolis effect is the apparent moving off of its course but this just
deflection of objects (such as airplanes, appears to be happening because the
wind, missiles, sniper gun bullets and earth’s surface is rotating beneath the
ocean currents) moving in a straight path object.
relative to the earth's surface.
 Its strength is proportional to the speed Causes of the Coriolis Effect
of the earth's rotation at different
latitudes but it has an impact on moving  The main cause of the Coriolis effect is the
objects across the globe. earth's rotation. As the earth spins in a
counter-clockwise direction on its axis
 The "apparent" portion of the Coriolis
anything flying or flowing over a long
effect's definition is also important to take
distance above its surface appears to be
into consideration.
deflected.
 This means that from the object in the air
 This occurs because as something moves
(i.e. an airplane) the earth can be seen
freely above the earth's surface, the earth
rotating slowly below it. From the earth's
is moving east under the object at a faster

speed.
 As latitude increases and the speed of the
earth's rotation decreases, Coriolis effect
increases.
 A plane flying along the equator itself Page
would be able to continue flying on the
equator without any apparent deflection. A |
little to the north or south of the equator, 177
the plane would be deflected.
 In addition to the speed of the earth’s
rotation and latitude, the faster the object
itself is moving, the more deflection there
will be.
Impacts of the Coriolis Effect Gif Image
In This Post: Winds - General circulation

 Some of the most important impacts of the
of the atmosphere: Hadley Cell, Ferrel Cell,
Coriolis effect in terms of geography are
Polar Cell and Walker Cell.
the deflection of winds and currents in the
ocean. It also has a significant effect on Classification of Winds: Permanent winds
man-made items like planes and missiles. or Primary winds or Prevailing winds or
Planetary Winds, Secondary or Periodic
Myth about Coriolis Effect
Winds and Local winds
 One of the biggest misconceptions Primary or Prevailing Winds: The Trade
associated with the Coriolis effect is that it Winds, The Westerlies, The Polar easterlies
causes the rotation of water down the
drain of a sink or toilet. This is not truly Secondary or Periodic Winds: Monsoons,
the cause of the water's movement. The Land Breeze and Sea Breeze, and Valley
water itself is simply moving too fast down Breeze and Mountain Breeze
the drain to allow for the Coriolis effect to
have any significant impact. Tertiary or Local Winds: Loo, Foehn or
Fohn, Chinook, Mistral and Sirocco.
General circulation of the atmosphere
 The pattern of planetary winds depend on:

(i) latitudinal variation of atmospheric
heating;
(ii) emergence of pressure belts;
(iii) the migration of belts following apparent
path of the sun;
(iv) the distribution of continents and oceans;
(v) the rotation of earth.
 The pattern of the movement of the
planetary winds is called the general
circulation of the atmosphere. The
general circulation of the atmosphere also
sets in motion the ocean water circulation
which influences the earth’s climate.
Hadley Cell in turn provide input of energy and water

vapour into the air. These interactions
 The air at the Inter Tropical Convergence take place rather slowly over a large part
Zone (ITCZ) rises because of the of the ocean.
convection currents caused by low
pressure. Low pressure in turn occurs due Walker Cell
Page
to high insolation. The winds from the
tropics converge at this low pressure zone.  Warming and cooling of the Pacific Ocean |
 The converged air rises along with the is most important in terms of general
atmospheric circulation. 178
convective cell. It reaches the top of the
troposphere up to an altitude of 14 km,  The warm water of the central Pacific
and moves towards the poles. This causes Ocean slowly drifts towards South
accumulation of air at about 30° N and S. American coast and replaces the cool
Part of the accumulated air sinks to the Peruvian current. Such appearance of
ground and forms a subtropical high. warm water off the coast of Peru is known
Another reason for sinking is the cooling as the El Nino.
of air when it reaches 30° N and S  The El Nino event is closely associated
latitudes. with the pressure changes in the Central
 Down below near the land surface the air Pacific and Australia. This change in
flows towards the equator as the pressure condition over Pacific is known
easterlies. The easterlies from either side as the southern oscillation.
of the equator converge in the Inter  The combined phenomenon of southern
Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Such oscillation and El Nino is known as ENSO.
circulations from the surface upwards and
vice-versa are called cells. Such a cell in
the tropics is called Hadley Cell.  In the years when the ENSO is strong,
large-scale variations in weather occur
Ferrel Cell
over the world. The arid west coast of
 In the middle latitudes the circulation is South America receives heavy rainfall,
that of sinking cold air that comes from drought occurs in Australia and
the poles and the rising warm air that sometimes in India and floods in China.
blows from the subtropical high. At the This phenomenon is closely monitored and
surface these winds are called westerlies is used for long range forecasting in major
and the cell is known as the Ferrel cell. parts of the world. (El-Nino in detail later)
Polar Cell
 At polar latitudes the cold dense air

subsides near the poles and blows
towards middle latitudes as the polar
easterlies. This cell is called the polar cell.
 These three cells set the pattern for the
general circulation of the atmosphere.
The transfer of heat energy from lower
latitudes to higher latitudes maintains the
general circulation.
 The general circulation of the atmosphere
also affects the oceans. The large-scale
winds of the atmosphere initiate large and Gif Image
slow moving currents of the ocean. Oceans
Page
|
179
Classification of Winds  The trade winds are those blowing from

the sub-tropical high pressure areas
Permanent winds or Primary winds or towards the equatorial low pressure belt.
Prevailing winds or Planetary Winds  Therefore, these are confined to a region
between 30°N and 30°S throughout the
 The trade winds, westerlies and
earth’s surface. Page
easterlies.
 They flow as the north-eastern trades in
Secondary or Periodic Winds the northern hemisphere and the south- |
eastern trades in the southern 180
 Seasonal winds: These winds change their hemisphere.
direction in different seasons. For example  This deflection in their ideally expected
monsoons in India. north-south direction is explained on the
 Periodic winds: Land and sea breeze, basis of Coriolis force and Farrel’s law.
mountain and valley breeze etc..  Trade winds are descending and stable in
areas of their origin (sub-tropical high
Local winds
pressure belt), and as they reach the
 These blow only during a particular period equator, they become humid and warmer
of the day or year in a small area. after picking up moisture on their way.
 Winds like Loo, Mistral, Foehn, Bora  The trade winds from two hemispheres
etc.. meet at the equator, and due to
convergence they rise and cause heavy
Primary or Prevailing Winds rainfall.
 The eastern parts of the trade winds
 These are the planetary winds which blow associated with the cool ocean currents
extensively over continents and oceans. are drier and more stable than the western
 The two most well- understood and parts of the ocean.
significant winds for climate and human
activities are trade winds and westerly The Westerlies
winds.
 The westerlies are the winds blowing from
The Trade Winds the sub-tropical high pressure belts
towards the sub polar low pressure belts.
 They blow from southwest to north-east
in the northern hemisphere and north-
west to south-east in the southern
hemisphere.
 The westerlies of the southern hemisphere
are stronger and persistent due to the
vast expanse of water, while those of the
northern hemisphere are irregular
because of uneven relief of vast land-
masses.
 The westerlies are best developed between
40° and 65°S latitudes. These latitudes
are often called Roaring Forties, Furious
Fifties, and Shrieking Sixties – dreaded
terms for sailors.
 The poleward boundary of the westerlies is
highly fluctuating. There are many
seasonal and short-term fluctuations.
These winds produce wet spells and the south-western coast of India, they are
variability in weather. over-saturated with moisture and cause
heavy rainfall in India and neighboring
The Polar easterlies countries.
 During winter, these conditions are
 The Polar easterlies are dry, cold reversed and a high pressure core is Page
prevailing winds blowing from north-east created to the north of the Indian
to south-west direction in Northern subcontinent. Divergent winds are |
Hemisphere and south-east to north- produced by this anticyclonic movement 181
west in Southern Hemisphere. which travels southwards towards the
 They blow from the polar high-pressure equator. This movement is enhanced by
areas of the sub-polar lows. the apparent southward movement of the
Secondary or Periodic Winds sun. These are north-east or winter
monsoons which are responsible for some
 These winds change their direction with precipitation along the east coast of India.
change in season.  The monsoon winds flow over India,
 Monsoons are the best example of large- Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar (Burma),
scale modification of the planetary wind Sri Lanka, the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal,
system. southeastern Asia, northern Australia,
 Other examples of
periodic winds include
land and sea breeze,
mountain and valley
breeze, cyclones and
anticyclones, and air
masses.
Monsoons
 Monsoons were
traditionally explained
as land and sea breezes on a large scale. China and Japan.
Thus, they were considered a  Outside India, in the eastern Asiatic
convectional circulation on a giant countries, such as China and Japan, the
scale. winter monsoon is stronger than the
 The monsoons are characterized by summer monsoon. (we will study about
seasonal reversal of wind direction. monsoons in detail while studying Indian
 During summer, the trade winds of Climate)
southern hemisphere are pulled
northwards by an apparent northward Land Breeze and Sea Breeze
movement of the sun and by an intense
 The land and sea absorb and transfer heat
low pressure core in the north-west of the
differently. During the day the land heats
Indian subcontinent.
up faster and becomes warmer than the
 While crossing the equator, these winds
sea. Therefore, over the land the air rises
get deflected to their right under the effect
giving rise to a low pressure area, whereas
of Coriolis force.
the sea is relatively cool and the pressure
 These winds now approach the Asian
over sea is relatively high. Thus, pressure
landmass as south-west monsoons. Since
gradient from sea to land is created and
they travel a long distance over a vast the wind blows from the sea to the land as
expanse of water, by the time they reach
the sea breeze. In the night the reversal of
condition takes place. The land loses heat

faster and is cooler than the sea. The
pressure gradient is from the land to the
sea and hence land breeze results.
Page
|
182
Tertiary or Local Winds
 Local differences of temperature and

pressure produce local winds.
Valley Breeze and Mountain Breeze  Such winds are local in extent and are
confined to the lowest levels of the
 In mountainous regions, during the day troposphere. Some examples of local
the slopes get heated up and air moves winds are discussed below.
upslope and to fill the resulting gap the air
from the valley blows up the valley. This Loo
wind is known as the valley breeze. During
the night the slopes get cooled and the  Harmful Wind
dense air descends into the valley as the  In the plains of northern India and
mountain wind. The cool air, of the high Pakistan, sometimes a very hot and dry
plateaus and ice fields draining into the wind blows from the west in the months of
valley is called katabatic wind. May and June, usually in the afternoons.
 Another type of warm wind (katabatic It is known as loo. Its temperature
wind) occurs on the leeward side of the invariably ranges between 45°C and 50°C.
mountain ranges. The moisture in these It may cause sunstroke to people.
winds, while crossing the mountain ranges
condense and precipitate. When it Foehn or Fohn
descends down the leeward side of the
slope the dry air gets warmed up by  Beneficial Wind
adiabatic process. This dry air may melt  Foehn is a hot wind of local importance in
the snow in a short time. the Alps. It is a strong, gusty, dry and
warm wind which develops on the leeward
side of a mountain range. As the
windward side takes away whatever
moisture there is in the incoming wind in
the form of orographic precipitation, the
air that descends on the leeward side is  Sirocco is a Mediterranean wind that
dry and warm (Katabatic Wind). comes from the Sahara and reaches
 The temperature of the wind varies hurricane speeds in North Africa and
between 15°C and 20°C. The wind helps Southern Europe.
animal grazing by melting snow and aids  It arises from a warm, dry, tropical air
the ripening of grapes. mass that is pulled northward by low- Page
pressure cells moving eastward across the
Chinook Mediterranean Sea, with the wind |
originating in the Arabian or Sahara 183
 Beneficial Wind deserts. The hotter, drier continental air
 Foehn like winds in USA and Canada mixes with the cooler, wetter air of the
move down the west slopes of the Rockies maritime cyclone, and the counter-
and are known as Chinooks. clockwise circulation of the low propels
 It is beneficial to ranchers east of the the mixed air across the southern coasts
Rockies as it keeps the grasslands clear of of Europe.
snow during much of the winter.  The Sirocco causes dusty dry
Mistral conditions along the northern coast of
Africa, storms in the Mediterranean
 Harmful Wind Sea, and cool wet weather in Europe.
 Mistral is one of the local names given to
such winds that blow from the Alps over
France towards the Mediterranean Sea.
 It is channeled through the Rhine valley. It
is very cold and dry with a high speed.
 It brings blizzards into southern France.
Sirocco
 Harmful Wind
Questions Humidity, Dew point and Specific

Humidity.
Multiple choice questions
Water Cycle - Hydrological cycle
1. Multiple choice questions. (i) If the surface
air pressure is 1,000 mb, the air pressure
at 1 km above the surface will be: (a) 700 Page
mb (c) 900 mb (b) 1,100 mb (d) 1,300 mb |
2. The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
normally occurs: (a) near the Equator (b) 184
near the Tropic of Cancer (c) near the
Tropic of Capricorn (d) near the Arctic
Circle
3. The direction of wind around a low
pressure in northern hemisphere is: (a)
clockwise (c) anti-clock wise (b)
perpendicular to isobars (d) parallel to
isobars
4. Which one of the following is the source
region for the formation of air masses? (a)  There is a continuous exchange of water
the Equatorial forest (c) the Siberian Plain between the atmosphere, the oceans and
(b) the Himalayas (d) the Deccan Plateau the continents through the processes of
evaporation, transpiration,
30 words condensation and precipitation.
1. While the pressure gradient force is from  The moisture in the atmosphere is derived
north to south, i.e. from the subtropical from water bodies through evaporation
high pressure to the equator in the and from plants through transpiration
northern hemisphere, why are the winds (evapotranspiration).
north easterlies in the tropics.  Evaporated water undergoes
2. What are the geostrophic winds? condensation and forms clouds.
3. Explain the land and sea breezes.  When saturation is reached, clouds give
away water in the form of precipitation.
150 words  Since the total amount of moisture in the
entire system remains constant, a balance
 Discuss the factors affecting the speed is required between evapotranspiration
and direction of wind. and precipitation. The hydrological cycle
 Draw a simplified diagram to show the maintains this balance.
general circulation of the atmosphere over
the globe. What are the possible reasons Water Vapour in Atmosphere
for the formation of subtropical high
pressure over 30° N and S latitudes?  Water vapour in air varies from zero to
 Why does tropical cyclone originate over four per cent by volume of the
the seas? In which part of the tropical atmosphere (averaging around 2% in the
cyclone do torrential rains and high atmosphere). Amount of water vapour
velocity winds blow and why? (Humidity) is measured by, an instrument
called hygrometer.
Significance of Atmospheric Moisture

In this post: Atmospheric Moisture,
Significance of Atmospheric Moisture;
Humidity: Absolute Humidity, Relative
1. Water vapour absorbs radiation—both  The percentage of moisture present in

incoming and terrestrial. It thus plays a the atmosphere as compared to its full
crucial role in the earth’s heat budget. capacity at a given temperature is
2. The amount of water vapour present known as the relative humidity.
decides the quantity of latent energy  With the change of air temperature, the
stored up in the atmosphere for capacity to retain moisture increases or Page
development of storms and cyclones. decreases and the relative humidity is
3. The atmospheric moisture affects the also affected. |
human body’s rate of cooling by  It is greater over the oceans and least 185
influencing the sensible temperature. over the continents.
 Relative humidity can be changed in either
Evaporation
of the two ways—
1. By adding moisture through
 The oceans covering 71% of the earth’s
evaporation: if moisture is added by
surface hold 97% of all the earth’s water
evaporation, the relative humidity will
reserves.
increase and vice versa.
 Evapotranspiration may be taken as the
2. By changing temperature of air: a
starting point in the hydrological cycle.
decrease in temperature (hence, decrease
The oceans contribute 84% of the annual
in moisture-holding capacity) will cause a
total and the continents 16%.
decrease in relative humidity and vice
 The highest annual evaporation occur in
versa.
the sub-tropics of the western North
 The relative humidity determines the
Atlantic and North Pacific because of the
amount and rate of evaporation and
influence of the Gulf Stream and the
hence it is an important climatic factor.
Kurishino Current, and in the trade
 Air containing moisture to its full capacity
wind zone of the southern oceans.
at a given temperature is said to be
 The land maximum occurs in equatorial
‘saturated’. At this temperature, the air
region because of high insolation and
cannot hold any additional amount of
luxuriant vegetation.
moisture. Thus, relative humidity of the
Humidity saturated air is 100%.
 If the air has half the amount of moisture
 Water vapour present in the air is known that it can carry, then it is unsaturated
as humidity. and its relative humidity is only 50%.
Absolute Humidity Consider 1 m3 of air at a temperature ‘T’.
 The actual amount of the water vapour Let us assume that saturation occurs
present in the atmosphere is known as the when 0.5 kg of water vapor is present in 1
absolute humidity. m3 of air
 It is the weight of water vapour per unit i.e. relative humidity will be 100% if 1 m3
volume of air and is expressed in terms of of atmosphere contains 0.5 kg of water
grams per cubic metre. vapor at temperature T.
 The absolute humidity differs from place
to place on the surface of the earth. Imagine that 1 m3 of atmosphere at a
 The ability of the air to hold water vapour given time is made up of 0.2 kg of water
depends entirely on its TEMPERATURE. vapor at a temperature ‘T’.
Warm air can hold more moisture than
cold air. Now the relative humidity = 40 % ===>
0.2 kg of water vapor per 1 m3 of
Relative Humidity atmosphere ===> the atmosphere can still
hold 0.3 kg of water vapor since saturation  The temperature at which saturation
occurs at 0.5 kg. occurs in a given sample of air is known
as dew point.
Here,  Dew point occurs when Relative
Absolute Humidity = 0.2 kg/ m3 and Humidity = 100%.
Page
Relative Humidity = 20 % Specific Humidity
|
So, relative humidity is expressed as %  It is expressed as the weight of water 186
whereas absolute humidity is expressed in vapour per unit weight of air.
absolute terms.  Since it is measured in units of weight
Now to make the air saturated (100 % (usually grams per kilogram), the specific
relative humidity), we can add that humidity is not affected by changes in
additional 0.3 kg of water vapor by pressure or temperature.
evaporation. Absolute Humidity and Relative
OR Humidity are Variable whereas Specific
Humidity is a constant.
We can decrease the temperature.
In this post: Evaporation: Factors Affecting
If we decrease the temperature, the Rate of Evaporation; Condensation -
saturation point will come down. Forms of Condensation: Dew, White Frost,
Fog, Mist, Smog, Haze (similar to smog but
Let us image that the temperature of 1 m3 there is no condensation in haze); Clouds:
of air is decreased by 2 °C. The water Cirrus clouds, Cumulus clouds, Stratus
holding capacity will fall due to decrease clouds, Nimbus clouds; High clouds –
in temperature. Let us say it decreases by cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus; Middle
0.1 kg per 1 °C fall in temperature. clouds – altostratus and altocumulus; Low
clouds – stratocumulus and nimbostratus
Now for 2 °C, the fall in water holding
and Clouds with extensive vertical
capacity is 0.1 kg x 2 = 0.2 kg.
development – cumulus and
Now the new saturation point = 0.5 kg – cumulonimbus.
0.2 kg = 0.3 kg.
Evaporation
Now “new saturation point (relative
humidity = 100%)” occurs when the water  Evaporation is a process by which water is
vapor content is 0.3 kg for 1 kg of air. transformed from liquid to gaseous state.
Heat is the main cause for evaporation.
Now we can saturate 1 m3 of air by adding  Movement of air replaces the saturated
just 0.1 kg instead of 0.3 kg as in the layer with the unsaturated layer.
earlier case. Hence, the greater the movement of
air, the greater is the evaporation.
Dew point
Factors Affecting Rate of Evaporation
 The air containing moisture to its full
capacity at a given temperature is said to  Amount of water available.
be saturated.  Temperature.
 It means that the air at the given  Relative humidity. [explained in previous
temperature is incapable of holding any post]
additional amount of moisture at that  Area of evaporating surface.
stage.
 Wind speed: A high wind speed removes from the ocean are particularly good
the saturated air from the evaporating nuclei because they absorb water.
surface and replaces it with dry air which
favors more evaporation.
 Whenever there is a combination of high
temperature, very low relative humidity Page
and strong winds, the rate of evaporation
is exceptionally high. This leads to |
dehydration of soil to a depth of several 187
inches.
 Air Pressure: Evaporation is also affected
by the atmospheric pressure exerted on
the evaporating surface. Lower pressure
over open surface of the liquid results in a
higher rate of evaporation.
 Composition of water: Evaporation is
inversely proportional to salinity of
water.
 Rate of evaporation is always greater over
fresh water than over salt water. [Because
of the reduction in the water vapor
pressure at the water surface due to
salinity.]
 Under similar conditions, ocean water
evaporates about 5% more slowly than
fresh water.
 More evaporation by plants: Water from
plants generally evaporates at a faster rate  Condensation also takes place when the
than from land. moist air comes in contact with some
colder object and it may also take place
Condensation when the temperature is close to the dew
point.
 The transformation of water vapour into  Condensation, therefore, depends upon
water is called condensation. the amount of cooling and the relative
 Condensation is caused by the loss of humidity of the air.
heat (latent heat of condensation,  Condensation takes place:
opposite of latent heat of vaporization). 1. when the temperature of the air is
 When moist air is cooled, it may reach a reduced to dew point with its volume
level when its capacity to hold water remaining constant (adiabatically),
vapour ceases (Saturation Point = 100% 2. when both the volume and the
Relative Humidity = Dew Point reached). temperature are reduced,
Then, the excess water vapour condenses 3. when moisture is added to the air through
into liquid form. If it directly condenses evaporation,
into solid form, it is known as  After condensation the water vapour or
sublimation. the moisture in the atmosphere takes one
 In free air, condensation results from of the following forms — dew, frost, fog
cooling around very small particles termed and clouds.
as hygroscopic condensation nuclei.  Condensation takes place when the dew
Particles of dust, smoke, pollen and salt point is lower than the freezing point as
well as higher than the freezing point.
Processes of Cooling for Producing  The forms of condensation can be

Condensation classified on the basis of temperature at
which the dew point is reached.
 These processes can be studied under the"  Condensation can take place when the
headings, adiabatic and non-adiabatic. dew point is
1. lower than the freezing point, Page
Adiabatic Temperature Changes
2. higher than the freezing point.
 (Explained in detail in previous posts)  White frost, snow and some clouds |
(cirrus clouds) are produced when the 188
 When the air rises, it expands. Thus, heat
temperature is lower than the freezing
available per unit volume is reduced and,
point.
therefore, the temperature is also reduced.
Such a temperature change which does  Dew, fog and clouds result even when the
not involve any subtraction of heat, and temperature is higher than the freezing
cooling of air takes place only by ascent point.
and expansion, is termed ‘adiabatic  Forms of condensation may also be
change’. classified on the basis of their location, i.e.
 The vertical displacement of the air is the at or near the earth’s surface and in free
major cause of adiabatic and katabatic air.
(cold, dense air flowing down a slope)  Dew, white frost, fog and mist come in
temperature changes. the first category, whereas clouds are in
 Near the earth’s surface, most processes of the second category.
change are non-adiabatic because
horizontal movements often produce Dew
mixing of air and modify its
characteristics.  When the moisture is deposited in the
form of water droplets on cooler surfaces
Non-Adiabatic Temperature Changes of solid objects (rather than nuclei in air
above the surface) such as stones, grass
 Non-adiabatic processes include cooling blades and plant leaves, it is known as
by radiation, conduction or mixing with dew.
colder air. The air may be cooled due to  The ideal conditions for its formation are
loss of heat by radiation. clear sky, calm air, high relative
 In case there is direct radiation from moist humidity, and cold and long nights.
air, the cooling produces fog or clouds,  For the formation of dew, it is necessary
subject to presence of hygroscopic nuclei that the dew point is above the freezing
in the air. point.
 Cooling by contact with a cold surface
produces dew, frost or fog depending on
other atmospheric conditions.
 But the effect of cooling produced by
radiation, conduction and mixing is
confined to a thin layer of the atmosphere.
 The non-adiabatic processes of cooling
produce only dew, fog or frost. They are
incapable of producing a substantial
amount of precipitation.
Forms of Condensation White Frost
 Frost forms on cold surfaces when  Fogs formed by condensation of warm air
condensation takes place below freezing when it moves horizontally over a cold
point (0° C), i.e. the dew point is at or surface, are known as advectional fog.
below the freezing point. These fogs are thick and persistent.
 The excess moisture is deposited in the Occurs over warm and cold water mixing
form of minute ice crystals instead of zones in oceans. Page
water droplets.  Frontal or precipitation fog is produced
 The ideal conditions for the formation of due to convergence of warm and cold air |
white frost are the same as those for the masses where warm air mass is pushed 189
formation of dew, except that the air under by the heavier cold air mass.
temperature must be at or below the  Precipitation in the warm air mass
freezing point. condenses to produce fog at the boundary
of the two air masses. These are called
frontal or precipitation fog.
 In fog visibility is less than one
kilometer.
Fog
 When the temperature of an air mass
containing a large quantity of water
vapour falls all of a sudden, condensation Mist
takes place within itself on fine dust
particles.  The difference between the mist and fog is
 So, the fog is a cloud with its base at or that mist contains more moisture than
very near to the ground. Because of the fog.
fog and mist, the visibility becomes poor  In mist each nuclei contains a thicker
to zero. layer of moisture.
 In urban and industrial centers smoke  Mists are frequent over mountains as the
provides plenty of nuclei which help the rising warm air up the slopes meets a cold
formation of fog and mist. Such a surface.
condition when fog is mixed with smoke,  Mist is also formed by water droplets, but
is described as smog (will be discussed with less merging or coalescing. This
in detail in next post). [Related Question means mist is less dense and quicker to
Asked in Mains 2015: Mumbai, Delhi and dissipate.
Kolkata are the three mega cities of  Fogs are drier than mist and they are
the country but the air pollution is prevalent where warm currents of air
much more serious problem in Delhi as come in contact with cold currents.
compared to the other two. Why is this  In mist visibility is more than one
so?] kilometer but less than two kilometres.
 Radiation fog results from radiation,
cooling of the ground and adjacent air.
These fogs are not very thick. Usual in
winters.
 As the clouds are formed at some height

over the surface of the earth, they take
various shapes.
 According to their height, expanse, density
and transparency or opaqueness clouds
are grouped under four types : (i) cirrus; Page
(ii) cumulus; (iii) stratus; (iv) nimbus.
|
Cirrus Clouds
190
Haze  Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes
(8,000 - 12,000m). They are thin and
 Haze is traditionally an atmospheric detached clouds having a feathery
phenomenon where dust, smoke and other appearance. They are always white in
dry particles obscure the clarity of the sky colour.
(No condensation. Smog is similar to haze
Cumulus Clouds
but there is condensation in smog).
 Sources for haze particles include farming  Cumulus clouds look like cotton wool.
(ploughing in dry weather), traffic, They are generally formed at a height of
industry, and wildfires. 4,000 -7,000 m. They exist in patches and
Smog can be seen scattered here and there.
They have a flat base.
 Smog = smoke + fog (smoky fog) caused by
Stratus Clouds
the burning of large amounts of coal,
vehicular emission and industrial fumes  As their name implies, these are layered
(Primary pollutants). clouds covering large portions of the sky.
We will study about smog in detail in the  These clouds are generally formed either
next post. due to loss of heat or the mixing of air
masses with different temperatures.
Nimbus Clouds
 Nimbus clouds are black or dark gray.

They form at middle levels or very near to
the surface of the earth.
 These are extremely dense and opaque to
the rays of the sun.
 Sometimes, the clouds are so low that
they seem to touch the ground.
 Nimbus clouds are shapeless masses of
Clouds thick vapour.
 Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets A combination of these four basic types
or tiny crystals of ice formed by the can give rise to the following types of
condensation of the water vapour in free clouds:
air at considerable elevations.
 Clouds are caused mainly by the 1. High clouds – cirrus, cirrostratus,
adiabatic cooling of air below its dew cirrocumulus;
point. 2. Middle clouds – altostratus and
altocumulus;
3. Low clouds – stratocumulus and Sun’s halo is produced by the refraction

nimbostratus (long duration rainfall of light in: [2002]
cloud) and (a) water vapour in Stratus clouds
4. Clouds with extensive vertical (b) ice crystals in Cirro-Cumulus clouds
development – cumulus and (c) ice crystals in Cirrus clouds
cumulonimbus (thunderstorm cloud) (d) dust particles in Stratus clouds
Page
|
191
In this Post: Smog - Primary and effects of coal burning were observed in
secondary pollutants; Types of Smog: early twentieth century).
Sulfurous smog [London Smog] and  This type of smog is aggravated by
Photochemical smog [Los Angeles Smog]; dampness and a high concentration of
Effects of Smog; Question UPSC Mains suspended particulate matter in the air.
2015: Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata are the
Photochemical smog Page
three mega cities of the country but the air
pollution is much more serious problem in |
Delhi as compared to the other two. Why
192
is this so?] [200 words]
Smog
 Smog = smoke + fog (smoky fog) caused

by the burning of large amounts of coal,
vehicular emission and industrial fumes
(Primary pollutants).
 Smog contains soot particulates like
smoke, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen  Photochemical smog is also known as
dioxide and other components. “Los Angeles smog”.
 At least two distinct types of smog are  Photochemical smog occurs most
recognized: sulfurous smog and prominently in urban areas that have
photochemical smog. large numbers of automobiles (Nitrogen
Primary and secondary pollutants oxides are the primary emissions).
 Photochemical (summer smog) forms
 A primary pollutant is an air pollutant when pollutants such as nitrogen oxides
emitted directly from a source. (primary pollutant) and organic
 A secondary pollutant is not directly compounds (primary pollutants) react
emitted as such, but forms when other together in the presence of SUNLIGHT. A
pollutants (primary pollutants) react in the gas called OZONE (Secondary pollutant) is
atmosphere. formed.
 Examples of a secondary pollutant include Nitrogen Dioxide + Sunlight +
ozone, which is formed when Hydrocarbons = Ozone (Ozone in
1. hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides stratosphere it is beneficial, but near
(NOx) combine in the presence of sunlight; the earth’s surface it results in global
2. NO combines with oxygen in the air; and warming as it is a greenhouse gas)
3. acid rain, which is formed when sulfur
dioxide or nitrogen oxides react with  The resulting smog causes a light
water. brownish coloration of the atmosphere,
reduced visibility, plant damage, irritation
Sulfurous smog
of the eyes, and respiratory distress.
 Sulfurous smog is also called “London
smog,” (first formed in London).
 Sulfurous smog results from a high
concentration of SULFUR OXIDES in the
air and is caused by the use of sulfur-
bearing fossil fuels, particularly coal
(Coal was the mains source of power in
London during nineteenth century. The
Reactions involved dry particles obscure the clarity of the sky

(No condensation. Smog is similar to haze
but there is condensation in smog).
 Sources for haze particles include farming
(ploughing in dry weather), traffic,
industry, and wildfires. Page
|
Effects of Smog 193
 The atmospheric pollution levels of Los

Angeles, Beijing, Delhi, Mexico City and
other cities are increased by inversion
Haze that traps pollution close to the ground.
 It is usually highly toxic to humans and
can cause severe sickness, shortened life
or death.
 Smog is a combination of airborne
particulate matter, like soot, and invisible
toxic gases including ozone (O3), carbon
monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2),
which are carcinogens (cancer causing
agents).
 Temperature inversions are accentuated
and precipitation is reduced.
 Haze is traditionally an atmospheric
 Smog related Haze lowers visibility.
phenomenon where dust, smoke and other
Question UPSC Mains 2015 Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata are the
three mega cities of the country but the
air pollution is much more serious
problem in Delhi as compared to the In this post: Precipitation; Types of

other two. Why is this so?] [200 words] Rainfall: Conventional Rainfall,
Orographic Rainfall, Frontal Precipitation,
 In spite of similar urbanization, air Cyclonic Rain and Monsoonal Rainfall;
pollution is much more severe in Delhi World Distribution of Rainfall.
compared to that in Mumbai and Kolkata.
This is because of Precipitation Page
|
Polluting Industry in close vicinity in  The process of continuous condensation
Delhi. in free air helps the condensed particles to 194
grow in size. When the resistance of the
 Delhi and its immediate neighborhood is
air fails to hold them against the force of
the hot bed of polluting industries which
gravity, they fall on to the earth’s surface.
are primarily coal fueled. Burning coal
So after the condensation of water vapour,
releases Oxides of sulphur which forms
the release of moisture is known as
sulphurous smog. This type of smog is
precipitation. This may take place in liquid
more pronounced in Delhi than in the
or solid form.
other two cities due to geography and
 Precipitation in the form of drops of water
climate.
is called rainfall, when the drop size is
Vehicular Emissions more than 0.5 mm.
 It is called virage when raindrops
 All the three cities contribute nearly equal evaporate before reaching the earth while
vehicular emissions rich in CO2 and NO2. passing through dry air.
NO2 results in phochemical smog. Here  Drizzle is light rainfall with drop size
again, Delhi is worst hit due to its being less than 0.5 mm, and when
geography and climate. evaporation occurs before reaching the
ground, it is referred to as mist.
Geography and Climate
 When the temperature is lower than the 0°
 This the most detrimental factor. Delhi C, precipitation takes place in the form of
is a continental city while the other two fine flakes of snow and is called snowfall.
are coastal. Land and See Breezes in Moisture is released in the form of
Mumbai and Kolkata carry pollutants hexagonal crystals. These crystals form
away from the city. There is no such flakes of snow. Besides rain and snow,
advantage to Delhi as it is land locked. other forms of precipitation are sleet and
 Also, the duration of monsoon winds is hail (more about hail while studying
short in Delhi compared to the other two. thunderstorms), though the latter are
 Delhi faces severe cold wave in winter limited in occurrence and are sporadic in
compared to the other two. Cold climate both time and space.
here creates temperature inversion which  Sleet is frozen raindrops and refrozen
traps the pollutants, mainly smog, for a melted snow-water. When a layer of air
longer duration. with the temperature above freezing point
overlies a subfreezing layer near the
Farm Straw Burning ground, precipitation takes place in the
form of sleet.
 Delhi is at the heart of major agricultural  Raindrops, which leave the warmer air,
region. Burning of farm straw in the encounter the colder air below. As a
surrounding regions also adds to Delhi’s result, they solidify and reach the ground
pollution levels. as small pellets of ice not bigger than the
raindrops from which they are formed.
226 words. Cutting those 26 words will be
Sometimes, drops of rain after being
detrimental for success.
released by the clouds become solidified
into small rounded solid pieces of ice and condensation which further heats the air
which reach the surface of the earth are and forces the air to go further up.
called hailstones. These are formed by the  Convectional precipitation is heavy but of
rainwater passing through the colder short duration, highly localised and is
layers. Hailstones have several concentric associated with minimum amount of
layers of ice one over the other. cloudiness. It occurs mainly during Page
 Rainfall: drop size more than 0.5 mm summer and is common over equatorial
 Virage: raindrops evaporate before doldrums in the Congo basin, the Amazon |
reaching the earth basin and the islands of south-east Asia. 195
 Drizzle: light rainfall; drop size less than
0.5 mm Orographic Rainfall
 Mist: evaporation occurs before reaching
the ground leading to foggy weather
 Snowfall: fine flakes of snow fall when the
temperature is less than 0°C
 Sleet: frozen raindrops and refrozen
melted snow; mixture of snow and rain or
merely partially melted snow
 Hail: precipitation in the form of hard
rounded pellets is known as hail; 5 mm
and 50 mm
Types of Rainfall
 On the basis of origin, rainfall may be

classified into three main types – the  When the saturated air mass comes
convectional, orographic or relief and across a mountain, it is forced to ascend
the cyclonic or frontal. and as it rises, it expands (because of fall
in pressure); the temperature falls, and
Conventional Rainfall the moisture is condensed.
 This type of precipitation occurs when
warm, humid air strikes an orographic
barrier (a mountain range) head on.
Because of the initial momentum, the air
is forced to rise. As the moisture laden air
gains height, condensation sets in, and
soon saturation is reached. The surplus
moisture falls down as orographic
precipitation along the windward slopes.
 The chief characteristic of this sort of rain
is that the windward slopes receive
greater rainfall. After giving rain on the
windward side, when these winds reach
the other slope, they descend, and their
temperature rises. Then their capacity to
 The, air on being heated, becomes light take in moisture increases and hence,
and rises up in convection currents. As it these leeward slopes remain rainless and
rises, it expands and loses heat and dry. The area situated on the leeward side,
consequently, condensation takes place which gets less rainfall is known as the
and cumulous clouds are formed. This rain-shadow area (Some arid and semi-
process releases latent heat of arid regions are a direct consequence of
rain-shadow effect. Example: Patagonian  This type of precipitation is characterized

desert in Argentina, Eastern slopes of by seasonal reversal of winds which
Western Ghats). It is also known as the carry oceanic moisture (especially the
relief rain. south-west monsoon) with them and
 Example: Mahabaleshwar, situated on the cause extensive rainfall in south and
Western Ghats, receives more than 600 southeast Asia. (More while studying Page
cm of rainfall, whereas Pune, lying in the Indian Monsoons).
rain shadow area, has only about 70 cm. |
Frontal Precipitation 196
 When two air masses with different

temperatures meet, turbulent conditions
are produced. Along the front convection
occurs and causes precipitation (we
studied this in Fronts). For instance, in
north-west Europe, cold continental air
and warm oceanic air converge to produce
heavy rainfall in adjacent areas. World Distribution of Rainfall
 Different places on the earth’s surface

receive different amounts of rainfall in a
year and that too in different seasons. In
general, as we proceed from the equator
towards the poles, rainfall goes on
decreasing steadily.
 The coastal areas of the world receive
greater amounts of rainfall than the
interior of the continents. The rainfall is
more over the oceans than on the
Cyclonic Rain landmasses of the world because of being
great sources of water.
 Cyclonic Rainfall is convectional rainfall  Between the latitudes 35° and 40° N and S
on a large scale. (we will see this in detail of the equator, the rain is heavier on the
later) eastern coasts and goes on decreasing
 The precipitation in a tropical cyclone is of towards the west. But, between 45° and
convectional type while that in a 65° N and S of equator, due to the
temperate cyclone is because of frontal westerlies, the rainfall is first received on
activity. the western margins of the continents and
it goes on decreasing towards the east.
 Wherever mountains run parallel to the
coast, the rain is greater on the coastal
plain, on the windward side and it
decreases towards the leeward side.
 On the basis of the total amount of annual
precipitation, major precipitation regimes
of the world are identified as follows.
 The equatorial belt, the windward slopes
of the mountains along the western coasts
in the cool temperate zone and the coastal
Monsoonal Rainfall
areas of the monsoon land receive heavy  Areas lying in the rain shadow zone of the
rainfall of over 200 cm per annum. interior of the continents and high
 Interior continental areas receive moderate latitudes receive very low rainfall - less
rainfall varying from 100 - 200 cm per than 50 cm per annum.
annum. The coastal areas of the  Seasonal distribution of rainfall provides
continents receive moderate amount of an important aspect to judge its Page
rainfall. effectiveness. In some regions rainfall is
 The central parts of the tropical land and distributed evenly throughout the year |
the eastern and interior parts of the such as in the equatorial belt and in the 197
temperate lands receive rainfall varying western parts of cool temperate regions.
between 50 - 100 cm per annum.
Questions  Name the three types of precipitation.

 Explain relative humidity.
Multiple choice questions  Why does the amount of water vapour
decreases rapidly with altitude?
1. Which one of the following process is
 How are clouds formed? Classify them
responsible for transforming liquid into
vapour? (a) Condensation (c) Evaporation 150 words
(b) Transpiration (d) Precipitation
2. The air that contains moisture to its full  Discuss the salient features of the world
capacity : (a) Relative humidity (c) distribution of precipitation.
Absolute humidity (b) Specific humidity (d)  What are forms of condensation? Describe
Saturated air the process of dew and frost formation.
3. Which one of the following is the highest
cloud in the sky? (a) Cirrus (c) Nimbus (b) In this post: Thunderstorm, Types of
Stratus (d) Cumulus Thunderstorms, Lightning and Thunder,
Tornado and Waterspout.
30 words
Thunderstorm
 Thunderstorms and tornadoes are severe Cumulus stage

local storms. They are of short duration,
occurring over a small area but are  Ground is significantly heated due to solar
violent. insolation.
 Thunderstorm is a storm with thunder  A low pressure starts to establish due to
and lightning and typically also heavy intense upliftment of an air parcel
(convention). Page
rain or hail.
 Thunderstorms mostly occur on ground  Air from the surroundings start to rush in |
where the temperature is high. to fill the low pressure.
198
Thunderstorms are less frequent on water  Intense convection of moist hot air builds
bodies due to low temperature. up a towering cumulonimbus cloud. [I
 Worldwide, there are an estimated 16 have explained how condensation occurs
million thunderstorms each year, and at in previous post]
any given moment, there are roughly Mature stage
2,000 thunderstorms in progress.
 Characterized by intense updraft of rising
warm air, which causes the clouds to grow
bigger and rise to greater height.
 Later, downdraft brings down to earth the
cool air and rain.
 The incoming of thunderstorm is indicated
by violent gust of wind. This wind is due to
the intense downdraft.
 The updraft and downdraft determine the
How does a thunderstorm form? path of the thunderstorm. Most of the
time, the path is erratic.
Page
|
199
Dissipating stage  A microburst is smaller in dimension but

produces winds as high as 75 metres per
 When the clouds extend to heights where second, or 270 km per hour
sub-zero temperature prevails, hails are  They are seriously hazardous to
formed and they come down as hailstorm. aircrafts, especially during takeoffs and
Intense precipitation occurs. landings.
 In a matter of few minutes, the storm
dissipates and clear weather starts to
prevail.
Motion of a thunderstorm
 Path of a thunderstorm is erratic. Motion

is primarily due to interactions of its
updrafts and downdrafts.
 The speed of isolated storms is typically
about 20 km (12 miles) per hour, but
some storms move much faster.
 In extreme circumstances, a supercell Types of Thunderstorms
storm may move 65 to 80 km (about 40 to
50 miles) per hour.  Convectional, Frontal, Orographic
Thunderstorms.
Downbursts  Isolated Thunderstorms, Multiple-Cell
Thunderstorms, Supercell thunderstorms.
 Downdrafts are referred to as macrobursts
or microbursts. Thermal thunderstorm
 Macroburst is more than 4 km in diameter
and can produce winds as high as 60  Caused due to intense heating of ground
metres per second, or 215 km per hour. during summer.
Page
|
200
 Forceful upliftment of warm moist air

parcel when it passes over a mountain
barrier creates cumulonimbus cloud
causing heavy precipitation on the
windward side.
 Orographic ‘Cloud bursts’ are common
in Jammu and Kashmir, Cherrapunji
and Mawsynram.
Frontal thunderstorm
Orographic thunderstorm
 Thunderstorms occurring along cold

fronts.
Single-cell thunderstorm
 Single-cell thunderstorms are small, brief,  As they continue to move up, they
weak storms that grow and die within an gather mass — until they are so heavy
hour or so. They are typically driven by that they start to fall.
heating on a summer afternoon.  This leads to a system where smaller
 Single-cell storms may produce brief ice crystals move up while bigger
heavy rain and lightning (Very common in crystals come down.
Page
India during summers, mostly April, May.  The resulting collisions trigger the
In Kerala they are called ‘Mango release of electrons, in a process very |
Showers’ and in Karnataka ‘Blossom similar to the generation of electric
201
showers’). sparks (this is called as ionization – an
electron in the outer shell is pealed out
A multi-cell thunderstorm of the atom and the atom become an
ion. There are two types of ions based
 A multi-cell storm is a thunderstorm in on charge – cation and anion. Cation:
which new updrafts form along the leading A cation is an atom or a molecule
edge of rain-cooled air (the gust front). which is positively charged, i.e. has
 Individual cells usually last 30 to 60 more number of protons than
minutes, while the system as a whole may electrons. Anion: An anion is an atom
last for many hours. or molecule which is negatively
 Multicell storms may produce hail, strong charged, i.e. has more number of
winds, brief tornadoes, and/or flooding. electrons than protons).
 The moving free electrons cause more
A supercell thunderstorm collisions and more electrons, as a
chain reaction ensues.
 A supercell is a long-lived (greater than 1
 The process results in a situation in
hour) and highly organized storm feeding
which the top layer of the cloud gets
off an updraft (a rising current of air) that
positively charged (cations) while the
is tilted and rotating.
middle layer is negatively (anions)
 Most large and violent tornadoes come
charged.
from supercells.
 The electrical potential difference
between the two layers is huge, of the
order of 109 or 1010 volts.
 In little time, a huge current, of the
order of 105 to 106 amperes, starts to
flow between the layers.
 It produces heat, leading to the heating
of the air column between the two
layers of cloud.
Lightning and thunder  It is because of this heat that the air
column looks red during lightning.
 The heated air column expands and
 As water vapour moves upward in the
produces shock waves that result in
cumulonimbus cloud, decreasing
thunder.
temperatures causes it to condense.
 The heat (latent heat of condensation)
Lightining from cloud to Earth
generated in the process pushes the
water molecules further up.
 As they move beyond zero degrees,  Earth is a good conductor of electricity
water droplets change into small ice but is electrically neutral.
crystals.
 In comparison to the middle layer of  It is this current flow that results in the
the cloud, however, it becomes damage to life and property.
positively charged.  There is a greater probability of
 As a result, a flow of current (about 20- lightning striking tall objects such as
15%) gets directed towards the Earth trees, towers or buildings.
as well.
Page
|
202
 Once about 80-100 m from the surface, Lightning deaths

lightning tends to change course to hit
the taller objects (guess why very tall  Several thousand thunderstorms occur
buildings have a vertical pole above). over India every year.
 Incidents of lightning have been
showing an increasing trend over the
last 20 years, especially near the
foothills of the Himalayas.
 People are rarely hit directly by
lightning. But such strikes are almost
always fatal.
 The most common way in which people
are struck by lightning are by ‘ground
currents’.
 The electrical energy, after hitting a
tree or any other object, spreads
laterally on the ground for some
 This is because travelling through air, distance, and people in this area
which is a bad conductor of electricity, receive electrical shocks.
electrons try to find a better conductor,  It becomes more dangerous if the
and also the shortest route to the ground is wet, or there is conducting
relatively positively charged Earth’s material like metal on it.
surface.
Prediction and precautions
 Predicting a thunderstorm over a very mountain faces, thunderstorm activity —

precise location is not possible. Nor is characterised by almost non-stop
the exact time that it is likely to strike. lightning activity within clouds — results.
 People are advised to move indoors in a
storm. Deadly Strikes
 Moving under a tree or lying flat on the
Page
ground can increase risks.  Direct Strike: Occurs most often in open
 Even indoors, electrical fittings, wires, areas. |
metal and water must be avoided.  Side Flash (Or Side Splash): Occurs 203
when lightning strikes a taller object and
The world’s most electric place some current jumps on to the victim, who
ends up acting as a “short circuit” for the
 The most lightning activity on Earth is energy.
seen on the shore of Lake Maracaibo  Generally occurs when the victim is within
in Venezuela. a foot or two of the struck object. Most
 At the place where the Catatumbo river victims are those sheltering under a tree
falls into Lake Maracaibo, October sees in a rainstorm.
28 lightning flashes every minute — a  Ground Current: When an object is
phenomenon referred to as the Beacon struck, much of the energy travels
of Maracaibo or the Everlasting Storm. outward in and along the ground surface.
This is ‘ground current’, and anyone close
can be a victim.
 Ground current affects a larger area than
other kinds of current and causes the
most lightning deaths and injuries.
 Conduction: Lightning can travel long
distances in wires or other metal surfaces.
 Most indoor lightning casualties and some
outdoor casualties are due to conduction.
Features of Lightning
 The reason probably lies in the
topography of the spot: winds blow  Positive charge accumulates at both
across Lake Maracaibo — the largest higher and lower altitudes.
in South America (By volume of water,  Larger and heavier cloud particles charge
Titicaca is the largest lake in South with a negative polarity.
America. Lake Maracaibo has a larger  Smaller and
surface area, though some consider it  Roughly two-thirds of all discharges occur
to be a large brackish bay due to its within the cloud. The rest are between the
direct connection with the sea.) — cloud and ground.
which is surrounded by swampy plains
and connected to the Gulf of Thunder
Venezuela/Caribbean Sea by a very
narrow strait.  Lightning creates plasma (ionized gas
 The Maracaibo plain is enclosed on medium) [30,000 °C].
three sides by high mountain sides into  The channel pressure greatly exceeds the
which air masses crash. ambient (surrounding) pressure, and the
 The heat and moisture picked from the channel expands at a supersonic rate
swampy plains creates electrical charges (speed of sound).
and, as the air is destabilized at the
 The resultant shock wave decays rapidly

with distance and is eventually heard as
thunder once it slows to the speed of
sound.
Source:
Page
http://indianexpress.com/article/explain
ed/nuts-and-bolts-throwing-light-on- |
lightning-2872172/
204
Tornado
 From severe thunderstorms sometimes restless atmosphere again returns to its

spiraling wind descends like a trunk of an stable state.
elephant with great force, with very low  Tornado is a small-diameter column of
pressure at the center, causing massive violently rotating air developed within a
destruction on its way. Such a convective cloud and in contact with the
phenomenon is called a tornado. ground.
 Tornadoes generally occur in middle  Tornados occur most often in association
latitudes. The tornado over the sea is with thunderstorms during the spring and
called water sprouts. summer in the mid-latitudes of both the
 These violent storms are the manifestation Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
of the atmosphere’s adjustments to  These whirling atmospheric vortices can
varying energy distribution. The potential generate the strongest winds known on
and heat energies are converted into Earth: wind speeds in the range of 500 km
kinetic energy in these storms and the (300 miles) per hour.
 They are often referred to as twisters or

cyclones.
Distribution of tornadoes
 Rare in polar regions and infrequent at

latitudes higher than 50° N and 50° S. Page
 The temperate and tropical regions are the
most prone to thunderstorms.  Waterspout is an intense columnar vortex |
 Tornadoes have been reported on all (usually appearing as a funnel-shaped 205
continents except Antarctica. cloud) that occurs over a body of water.
 United States has the most violent  They are connected to a towering
tornadoes. cumuliform cloud or a cumulonimbus
cloud.
 Canada reports the second largest number
of tornadoes.  Weaker than most of its land counterparts
i.e. tornadoes.
 In the Indian sub-continent, Bangladesh
is the most prone country to tornadoes.  Most waterspouts do not suck up water;
they are small and weak rotating columns
 At any moment there are approximately
of air over water.
1,800 thunderstorms in progress
throughout the world.  They are tornadoes in connection with
severe thunderstorms, but simply
occurring over water.
Damage caused by thunderstorms and

tornadoes
 Many hazardous weather events are

associated with thunderstorms.
 Under the right conditions, rainfall from
thunderstorms causes flash flooding,
killing more people each year than
hurricanes, tornadoes or lightning.
 Lightning is responsible for many fires
around the world each year, and causes
fatalities.
 Hail up to the size of softballs damages
cars and windows, and kills livestock
caught out in the open.
 Strong (up to more than 120 mph)
straight-line winds associated with
thunderstorms knock down trees, power
lines and mobile homes.
 Tornadoes (with winds up to about 300
mph) can destroy all but the best-built
man-made structures.
Jet Streams – Geostrophic Wind – Upper

Level Westerlies.
Waterspout
Geostrophic Wind
 The velocity and direction of the wind are  Instead of one big cell (as shown in fig) we
the net result of the wind generating have three small cells that combinedly
forces. produces the same effect.
 The winds in the upper atmosphere, 2 - 3
km above the surface, are free from
frictional effect of the surface and are Page
controlled by the pressure gradient and
the Coriolis force. |
 An air parcel initially at rest will move 206
from high pressure to low pressure
because of the Pressure Gradient Force
(PGF).
Jet streams
Jet streams are
 Circumpolar (situated around or

inhabiting around one of the earth's
poles),
 However, as that air parcel begins to
 narrow, concentrated bands of
move, it is deflected by the Coriolis force to
 meandering,
the right in the northern hemisphere (to
the left in the southern hemisphere).  upper tropospheric,
 As the wind gains speed, the deflection  high velocity,
increases until the Coriolis force equals  geostrophic streams,
the pressure gradient force (2 – 3 km  bounded by low speed winds and
above the ground, friction is low and  are a part of upper level westerlies.
winds travel at greater speeds).
 At this point, the wind will be blowing
parallel to the isobars (perpendicular to
Pressure Gradient Force). When this
happens, the wind is referred to as
geostrophic wind.
Why winds don’t flow from tropical high

pressure (in upper troposphere) to polar
low (in upper troposphere) directly as
shown in figure below?
 Because these winds are geostrophic, i.e.,

they flow at great speeds due to low Circumpolar
friction and are subjected to greater
Coriolis force.  Jet streams are winds that circle around
 So they deflect greatly giving rise to three the earth with poles as their centers.
distinct cells called Hadley cell, Ferrel Cell
and Polar cell.
Page
|
Rossby Waves 207
 The meandering jet streams are called

Rossby Waves.
 Rossby waves are natural phenomenon in
Narrow, concentrated bands the atmosphere and oceans due to
rotation of earth.
 The stream of air is very narrow (50 -150  In planetary atmospheres, they are due to
km across) and, the air in the stream is the variation in the Coriolis effect (When
directed towards the axis of the stream temperature contrast is low, speed of jet
making it very narrow. stream is low, and Coriolis force is weak
leading to meandering) with latitude.
Meandering
 Rossby waves are formed when polar air
moves toward the Equator while tropical
air is moving poleward.
 The existence of these waves explains the
low-pressure cells (cyclones) and high-
pressure cells (anticyclones).
Upper Tropospheric
 Jet streams flow just below the

Tropopause.
 Polar jet streams flow 6 – 9 km above the
ground and Sub-tropical jet streams flows
10 – 16 km above the grounds.
Why this difference in height?
 Recall that troposphere is thicker at

equator –– 17 to 18 km, than at poles –– 8
 When the temperature contrast is
to 9 km.
maximum, jet stream flows in near
straight path.
 But when temperature contrast reduces,
the jet stream starts to follow a
meandering path.
 So meandering depends on temperature
contrast (temperature gradient).
 A meander is called peak or ridge if it is
towards poles and trough if it is towards
equator.
Page
|
208
High velocity
 Pressure gradient increases with altitude

and creates high velocity winds at higher
altitudes.
 The friction in the upper troposphere is
quite low due to less denser air. Hence the
Jet streams flow at great velocities.
 Temperature also influences the velocity of
the jet stream. The greater the difference
in air temperature, the faster the jet
stream, which can reach speeds of up to
250 mph (402 kph) or greater, but average
about 110 mph (177 kph).
 The jet streams have an average velocity of
120 kilometres per hour in winter and 50
km per hour in summer. These jet streams
also have cores where the speed is much
greater.
 Both the Northern and Southern

hemispheres have jet streams, although
the jet streams in the north are more
forceful due greater temperature
gradients.
Page
|
209
Geostrophic streams
 Direction of the jet stream is determined

by pressure gradient force (temperature
contrast creates pressure gradients) and
Coriolis force.
 The direction of jet stream is
perpendicular to the pressure gradient
force. Permanent jet streams
Bounded by low speed winds  There are two permanent jet streams –
subtropical jets at lower latitudes and
 The winds surrounding jet streams are of polar front jets at mid-latitudes.
comparatively low velocities.
Subtropical jet stream (STJ)
Are a part of upper level westerlies
 The sub-tropical jet stream is produced by
 Jet streams are produced due to winds the earth’s rotation (Coriolis force) and
flowing from tropics towards poles (In temperature contrast between tropical
polar jet streams wind flows from and sub – tropical regions.
temperate region towards polar region,  At the equator, the rotation produces
and in sub-polar jet streams winds flow greatest velocity in the atmosphere.
from sub-tropics towards temperate  As a result, the rising air which spreads
region). out northwards and southwards, moves
 Anything moving from tropics towards faster than the latitudes over which it is
poles deflects towards their right in the blowing.
northern hemisphere and towards their  It is deflected to the right in the northern
left in the southern hemisphere due to hemisphere and to the left in the southern
Coriolis effect. So jet streams flow from hemisphere, and at about 30° latitude, it
west to east in both the hemispheres and becomes concentrated as the subtropical
hence they are called westerlies or upper jet streams.
level westerlies.  During winter, the STJ is nearly
 Jet streams when weak move in the continuous in both hemispheres. The STJ
direction of westerlies in a wavy, irregular exists all year in the southern hemisphere.
manner with a poleward or equator ward However, it is intermittent in the northern
component. hemisphere during summer when it
migrates north.
Types of Jet streams – Permanent Jet
 The STJ can be temporarily displaced
Streams: Subtropical Jet Stream and Polar
when strong mid-latitude troughs extend
Jet Stream; Temporary Jet Streams:
into subtropical latitudes. When these
Tropical Easterly Jet or African Easterly
displacements occur, the subtropical jet
Jet and Somali Jet. Impact of Jet Streams
can merge with the polar front jet (Related
on Weather; Jet Streams and Aviation.
to Cloudbursts. We will study this in that enhance convection over South India
Indian Monsoons). and nearby ocean.
 STJ is closely connected to the Indian and  The establishment and maintenance of the
African summer monsoons (We will study TEJ is not fully understood but it is
this in Indian Monsoons) believed that the jet may be caused by the
uniquely high temperatures and heights Page
Polar front jet (PFJ) over the Tibetan Plateau during summer.
 The TEJ is the upper-level venting system |
 The polar front jet is produced by a for the strong southwest monsoon.
temperature difference and is closely 210
related to the polar front (more about
fronts later).
 It has a more variable position than the
sub-tropical jet. In summer, its position
shifts towards the poles and in winter
towards the equator.
 The jet is strong and continuous in winter.
 It greatly influences climates of regions
lying close to 60 degree latitude.
 It determines the path and speed and
intensity of temperate cyclones.
Temporary jet streams
 While the polar and subtropical jet

The Somali Jet
streams are the best known and most
studied, other jet streams can form when  Among the most well-known of the tropical
wind speeds are above 94 kph in the LLJs is the Somali Jet, a southwesterly
upper atmosphere at about 9 - 14.5 km jet.
above the surface.
 The Somali jet occurs during the summer
 They are few. Important ones are Somali over northern Madagascar and off the
Jet and The African Easterly jet. coast of Somalia. The jet is most intense
The Tropical Easterly Jet or African from June to August.
Easterly Jet  It is a major cross-equatorial flow from the
southern Indian Ocean to the central
 There are also major high velocity winds in Arabian Sea.
the lower troposphere called low-level jets  A split in the axis of the jet over the
(LLJs). In the tropics, the most prominent Arabian Sea, the more northern branch
of these are the Somali Jet and the African intersecting the west coast of India near
Easterly Jet. 17°N, while the southerly branch moves
 The TEJ is a unique and dominant feature eastward just south of India.
of the northern hemispheric summer over  The jet remains relatively steady from
southern Asia and northern Africa. The June to September before moving
TEJ is found near between 5° and 20°N. southward to the southern Indian Ocean
 It is fairly persistent in its position, during the winter.
direction, and intensity from June through
Influence of Jet Streams on Weather
the beginning of October.
 During the south Asian summer monsoon,
 Jet streams help in maintenance
the TEJ induces secondary circulations
of latitudinal heat balance by mass
exchange of air.
 PFJ influence the mid-latitude weather Explanation

disturbances. Usually there are severe
storms when jet streams interfere with  Polar jet has distinct peaks (ridges) and
surface wind systems. troughs.
 Jet streams also influence the path of  Ridges occur where the warm air (at high
temperate cyclones. They have an pressure) pushes against the cold air.
influence on distribution of precipitation  Troughs occur where cold air (at lower Page
by the temperate cyclones. pressure) drops into warm air. |
 Sub-tropical jet stream and some  This condition occurs due to weak jet
211
temporary jet streams together influence stream which is weak due to lesser
Indian Monsoon patterns. (more about temperature contrast between sub-tropics
this while studying India Monsoons in and temperate region.
Indian geography)  These ridges and troughs give rise to jet
 Jet streams also exercise an influence on streaks which are the main reason behind
movement of air masses which may cause cyclonic and anticyclonic weather
prolonged drought or flood conditions. conditions at the surface.
 The winds leaving the jet streak are
rapidly diverging, creating a lower
pressure at the upper level (Tropopause)
in the atmosphere. The air below rapidly
replaces the upper outflowing winds. This
in turn creates the low pressure at the
surface. This surface low pressure creates
conditions where the surrounding surface
winds rush inwards. The Coriolis effect
creates the cyclonic rotation that is
associated with depressions.
 The winds entering the jet streak are
rapidly converging, creating a high
in the atmosphere. This convergence at
upper troposphere leads to divergence
Jet Streams and Weather in Temperate (high pressure) at the surface (anticyclonic
Regions condition).
 The Coriolis effect creates the anticyclonic
How does jet streams affect the weather rotation that is associated with clear
in temperate regions? weather.
 PFJ play a key role in determining the
weather because they usually separate
colder air and warmer air.
 Jet streams generally push air masses
around, moving weather systems to new
areas and even causing them to stall if
they have moved too far away.
 PFJ play a major role in determining the
path and intensity of frontal precipitation
and frontal cyclones or temperate
cyclones.
 Weak PFJ also results in slipping of polar
vortex into temperate regions. (More later)
(MP), Continental Tropical Air Masses (CT)

and Maritime Tropical Air Masses (MT).
Air Masses
 When the air remains over a homogenous

area for a sufficiently longer time, it Page
acquires the characteristics of the area. |
The homogenous regions can be the vast
ocean surface or vast plains and plateaus. 212
 The air with distinctive characteristics in
terms of temperature and humidity is
called an air mass. It is a large body of air
having little horizontal variation in
Jet Streams and Aviation temperature and moisture.
 Air masses form an integral part of the
 Jet streams are used by aviators if they global planetary wind system. Therefore,
have to fly in the direction of the flow of they are associated with one or other wind
the jet streams, and avoid them when belt.
flying in opposite direction.  They extend from surface to lower
 Jet streams can also cause a bumpy flight, stratosphere and are across thousands of
because the jet stream is sometimes kilometers.
unpredictable and can cause sudden
movement, even when the weather looks Source regions
calm and clear.
 During volcanic eruptions plumes of  The homogenous surfaces, over which air
volcanic ash have a tendency to get masses form, are called the source
sucked into the same jet stream that regions.
airplanes use for travel.  The main source regions are the high
pressure belts in the sub tropics (giving
rise to tropical air masses) and around
the poles (the source for polar air
masses).
 Source Region establishes heat and
moisture equilibrium with the overlying
air mass.
 When an air mass moves away from a
source region, the upper level maintains
the physical characteristics for a longer
Jet streams on other planets period. This is possible because air
masses are stable with stagnant air which
 Other planets have jet streams as well, do not facilitate convection. Conduction
notably Jupiter and Saturn and radiation in such stagnant air is not
effective.
Air masses - Source regions, Cold Air Conditions for the formation
Mass, Warm Air Mass; Influence of Air
Masses on World Weather; Classification of Air masses
of Air Masses: Continental Polar Air
Masses (CP), Maritime Polar Air Masses
 Source region should be extensive with  A cold air mass is one which is colder than
gentle, divergent air circulation (slightly the underlying surface and is associated
at high pressure). with instability and atmospheric
 Areas with high pressure but little turbulence.
pressure difference or pressure gradient
are ideal source regions. Cold source regions (polar air masses)
Page
 There are no major source regions in  Arctic Ocean - cold and moist
the mid-latitudes as these regions are |
 Siberia - cold and dry
dominated by cyclonic and other 213
 Northern Canada - cold and dry
disturbances.
 Southern Ocean - cold and moist
Air masses based on Source Regions
Warm Air Mass
 There are five major source regions. These
are:  A warm air mass is one which is warmer
1. Warm tropical and subtropical oceans; than the underlying surface and is
2. The subtropical hot deserts; associated with stable weather conditions.
3. The relatively cold high latitude oceans;
Warm source regions (tropical air
4. The very cold snow covered continents in
masses)
high latitudes;
5. Permanently ice covered continents in the  Sahara Desert - warm and dry
Arctic and Antarctica.  Tropical Oceans - warm and moist
 Accordingly, following types of airmasses
are recognised: Influence of Air Masses on World
1. Maritime tropical (mT); Weather
2. Continental tropical (cT);
3. Maritime polar (mP);  The properties of an air mass which
4. Continental polar (cP); influence the accompanying weather are
vertical distribution
temperature (indicating its
stability and coldness or
warmness) and the moisture
content.
 The air masses carry
atmospheric moisture from
oceans to continents and
cause precipitation over
landmasses.
 They transport latent heat,
thus removing the latitudinal
heat balance.
 Most of the migratory
5. Continental arctic (cA). atmospheric disturbances such as
 Tropical air masses are warm and polar cyclones and storms originate at the
air masses are cold. contact zone between different air
 The heat transfer processes that warms or masses and the weather associated with
cools the air takes place slowly. these disturbances is determined by
characteristics of the air masses involved.
Cold Air Mass
Classification of Air Masses
 Broadly, the air masses are classified into  The source regions of these air masses
polar and tropical air masses. include the oceans in tropics and sub-
 Both the polar and the continental air tropics such as Mexican Gulf, the Pacific
masses can be either of maritime or and the Atlantic oceans.
continental types.  These air masses are warm, humid and
unstable. Page
Continental Polar Air Masses (CP)  The weather during winter has mild
temperatures, overcast skies with fog. |
 Source regions of these air masses are the
 During summer, the weather is 214
Arctic basin, northern North America,
characterized by high temperatures, high
Eurasia and Antarctica.
humidity, cumulous clouds and
 These air masses are characterized by dry, convectional rainfall.
cold and stable conditions.
 The weather during winter is frigid, clear
and stable.
 During summer, the weather is less stable Front - Front Formation: Frontogenesis;
with lesser prevalence of anticyclonic Front Dissipation: Frontolysis;
winds, warmer landmasses and lesser Classification of Fronts: Stationary Front,
snow. Cold Front, Warm Front and Occluded
Front.
Maritime Polar Air Masses (MP)
Understanding Front Formation and Types
 The source region of these air masses are of Fronts is important to understand the
the oceans between 40° and 60° formation of Mid-latitude cyclones
latitudes. [temperate cyclones or extra-tropical
 These are actually those continental polar cyclones] and the dominant weather
air masses which have moved over the patterns of mid latitudes.
warmer oceans, got heated up and have
Fronts
collected moisture.
 The conditions over the source regions are  Fronts are the typical features of
cool, moist and unstable. These are the midlatitudes weather (temperate region
regions which cannot lie stagnant for long. – 30° - 65° N and S). They are uncommon
 The weather during winters is (unusual) in tropical and polar regions.
characterized by high humidity, overcast  Front is a three dimensional boundary
skies and occasional fog and precipitation. zone formed between two converging
 During summer, the weather is clear, fair air masses with different physical
and stable. properties (temperature, humidity,
Continental Tropical Air Masses (CT) density etc.).
 The two air masses don’t merge readily
 The source-regions of the air masses due to the effect of the converging
include tropical and sub-tropical deserts atmospheric circulation, relatively low
of Sahara in Africa, and of West Asia and diffusion coefficient and a low thermal
Australia. conductivity.
 These air masses are dry, hot and stable Front Formation
and do not extend beyond the source.
 They are dry throughout the year.  The process of formation of a front is
known as Frontogenesis (war between
Maritime Tropical Air Masses (MT)
two air masses), and dissipation of a front
is known as Frontolysis (one of the air
masses win against the other).
 Frontogenesis involves convergence of down adiabatically, condenses and

two distinct air masses. Frontolysis causes rainfall.
involves overriding of one of the air mass  The intensity of precipitation depends on
by another. the slope of ascent and amount of water
 In northern hemisphere Frontogenesis vapour present in ascending air.
(convergence of air masses) happens in Page
anti-clockwise direction and in southern Classification of Fronts
hemisphere, clockwise direction. This is |
due to Coriolis effect.  Based on the mechanism of frontogenesis
 Mid-latitude cyclones or temperate and the associated weather, the fronts can 215
cyclones or extra-tropical cyclones be studied under the following types.
occur due to frontogenesis.
Gif Image
General Characteristics of Fronts
 The temperature contrast influences the

thickness of frontal zone in an inversely Stationary Front
proportional manner, i.e., two air masses
with higher temperature difference do not  When the surface position of a front does
merge readily. So the front formed is less not change (when two air masses are
thick. unable to push against each other; a
 With a sudden change in temperature draw), a stationary front is formed.
through a front, there is a change in  The wind motion on both sides of the front
pressure also. is parallel to the front.
 Front experiences wind shift, since the  Warm or cold front stops moving, so the
wind motion is a function of pressure name stationary front.
gradient and Coriolis force.  Once this boundary resumes its forward
motion, becomes a warm front or cold
Wind Shift: A change in wind direction of front.
45 degrees or more in less than 15
minutes with sustained wind speeds of 10 Weather along a stationary front
knots or more throughout the wind shift.
 Cumulonimbus clouds are formed.
1 knot = 1.852 kmph Overrunning of warm air along such a
front causes frontal precipitation.
1 Nautical Mile = 1.852 km
 Cyclones migrating along a stationary
 The frontal activity is invariably associated front can dump heavy amounts of
with cloudiness and precipitation precipitation, resulting in significant
because of ascent of warm air which cools flooding along the front.
 Cold front moves up to twice as quickly

as warm fronts.
 Frontolysis begin when the warm air mass
is completely uplifted by the cold air mass.
Weather along a cold front

Page
 The weather along such a front depends |
on a narrow band of cloudiness and
precipitation. 216
 Severe storms can occur. During the
summer months thunderstorms are
common in warm
sector.
 In some regions like
USA tornadoes
occur in warm
sector.
 Produce sharper
changes in weather.
Temperatures can
drop more than 15
Cold and Warm Front Gif degrees within the first hour.
Gif Images
Cold Front
 Such a front is formed when a cold air Cloud formation along a cold front
mass replaces a warm air mass by
advancing into it or that the warm air  The approach of a cold front is marked by
mass retreats and cold air mass advances increased wind activity in warm sector and
(cold air mass is the clear winner). the appearance of cirrus clouds, followed
by lower, denser altocumulous and
 In such a situation, the transition zone
altostratus.
between the two is a cold front.
 At actual front, dark nimbus and Clouds along a warm front

cumulonimbus clouds cause heavy
showers. A cold front passes off rapidly,  With the approach, the hierarchy of clouds
but the weather along it is violent. is—-cirrus, stratus and nimbus. [No
cumulonimbus clouds as the gradient is
gentle]
Page
 Cirrostratus clouds ahead of the warm
front create a halo around sun and moon. |
217
Occluded Front
 Occlusion: Meteorology a process by
which the cold front of a rotating low-
pressure system catches up the warm
front, so that the warm air between them
is forced upwards.
 Such a front is formed when a cold air
Warm Front mass overtakes a warm air mass and goes
underneath it.
 It is a sloping frontal surface along which  Frontolysis begin when warm sector
active movement of warm air over cold air diminishes and the cold air mass
takes place (warm air mass is too weak to completely undertakes the warm sector on
beat the cold air mass). ground.
 Frontolysis (front dissipation) begin when  Thus, a long and backward swinging
the warm air mass makes way for cold air occluded front is formed which could be a
mass on the ground, i.e. when the warm warm front type or cold front type
air mass completely sits over the cold air occlusion.
mass.
Weather along a warm front
 As the warm air moves up the slope, it

condenses and causes precipitation but,
unlike a cold front, the temperature and
wind direction changes are gradual.
 Such fronts cause moderate to gentle
precipitation over a large area, over
several hours.
 The passage of warm front is marked by
Weather along an occluded front
rise in temperature, pressure and
change in weather.
 Weather along an occluded front is

complex—a mixture of cold front type
and warm front type weather. Such
fronts are common in west Europe.
 The formation Mid-latitude cyclones
[temperate cyclones or extra-tropical Page
cyclones] involve the formation of
occluded front. |
218
Clouds along an occluded front
 A combination of clouds formed at cold

front and warm front.
 Warm front clouds and cold front clouds
are on opposite side of the occlusion Gif Image
Stationary Front Tie = No clear Winner

Cold Front Cold Air mass is the clear winner.
Warm Front The warm air mass picks up a fight but fails
to beat the cold air mass.
Cold Air mass is the winner.
Occluded Front Cold Front + Warm Front
Double win for cold air mass
Cold Front, Warm Front and Occluded front are examples of Temperature Inversion.
In this post: Tropical Cyclones – Favorable rainfall (torrential rainfall) and storm
conditions for the development of tropical surge.
cyclones, Origin and Development of  They are irregular wind movements
Tropical Cyclones, Structure and involving closed circulation of air around
Characteristics of a Tropical Cyclone, a low pressure center. This closed air
Categories of Tropical Cyclones etc.. circulation (whirling motion) is a result of
rapid upward movement of hot air
Tropical Cyclones which is subjected to Coriolis force. The
low pressure at the center is responsible
 Tropical cyclones are violent storms that for the wind speeds.
originate over oceans in tropical areas
and move over to the coastal areas Squall == a sudden violent gust of wind or
bringing about large scale destruction due localized storm, especially one bringing
to violent winds (squalls), very heavy rain, snow, or sleet.
Torrent == a strong and fast-moving greater than 27°C. This supplies enough
stream of water or other liquid. moisture to the storm.
 The cold currents lower the surface
 The cyclonic wind movements are anti- temperatures of the eastern parts of the
clockwise in the northern hemisphere tropical oceans making them unfit for the
and clockwise in the southern breeding of cyclonic storms.
hemisphere (This is due to Coriolis Page
force). [One Exception: During strong El Nino |
 The cyclones are often characterized by years, strong hurricanes occur in the
existence of an anticyclone between two eastern Pacific. This is due to the 219
cyclones. accumulation of warm waters in the
eastern Pacific due to weak Walker Cell]
Conditions Favourable for Tropical
Cyclone Formation Why cyclones occur mostly in late
summers?
1. Large sea surface with temperature higher
than 27° C,  Whirling motion is enhanced when the
2. Presence of the Coriolis force enough to doldrums (region within ITCZ) over oceans
create a cyclonic vortex, are farthest from the equator. This
3. Small variations in the vertical wind happens during the autumnal equinox
speed, (August-September). At this time, there
4. A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or are two advantages—the air is overheated
low-level-cyclonic circulation, and the sun is exactly over the equator.
5. Upper divergence above the sea level
[Due to high specific heat of water, and
system,
mixing, the ocean waters in northern
Good Source of Latent Heat hemisphere attain maximum
temperatures in August. (Continents
 Ocean waters having temperatures of 27° attain maximum temperatures in June-
C or more is the source of moisture which July)]
feeds the storm. The condensation of
Coriolis Force (f)
moisture releases enough latent heat of
condensation to drive the storm.
 The Coriolis force is zero at the equator
Why tropical cyclones form mostly on (no cyclones at equator because of zero
the western margins of the oceans? OR Coriolis Force) but it increases with
latitude. Coriolis force at 5° latitude is
Why tropical cyclones don’t form in the significant enough to create a storm
eastern tropical oceans? [cyclonic vortex].
 About 65 per cent of cyclonic activity
 The depth of warm water (26-27°C) should occurs between 10° and 20° latitude.
extend for 60-70 m from surface of the
ocean/sea, so that deep convection Low-level Disturbances
currents within the water do not churn
and mix the cooler water below with the  Low-level disturbance (thunderstorms –
warmer water near the surface. they are the seeds of cyclones) in the form
 The above condition occurs only in of easterly wave disturbances in the Inter-
western tropical oceans because of warm Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) should
ocean currents (easterly trade winds pre-exist.
pushes ocean waters towards west) that  Small local differences in the
flow from east towards west forming a temperature of water and of air produce
thick layer of water with temperatures various low pressure centers of small
size. A weak cyclonic circulation develops the troughs, a rising motion occurs; this
around these areas. leads to the development of
 Then, because of the rising warm humid thunderstorms.
air, a true cyclonic vortex may develop  Further, these old abandoned troughs
very rapidly. However, only a few of these (remnants of temperate cyclones) usually
disturbances develop into cyclones. have cold cores, suggesting that the Page
environmental lapse rate is steeper and
unstable below these troughs. Such |
instability encourages thunderstorms 220
(child cyclones).
[rising of humid air => adiabatic lapse Wind Shear

rate => fall in temperature of air =>
condensation of moisture in air => latent  Wind Shear == differences between wind
heat of condensation released => air gets speeds at different heights.
more hot and lighter => air is further  Tropical cyclones develop when the wind
uplifted => more air comes in to fill the is uniform.
gap => new moisture available for  Because of weak vertical wind shear,
condensation => latent heat of cyclone formation processes are limited
condensation and the cycle repeats] to latitude equator ward of the
subtropical jet stream.
Temperature contrast between air  In the temperate regions, wind shear is
masses high due to westerlies and this inhibits
convective cyclone formation.
 Trade winds from both the hemispheres
meet along inter-tropical front. Upper Tropospheric Divergence
Temperature contrasts between these air
masses must exist when the ITCZ is
farthest, from the equator.
 Thus, the convergence of these air masses
of different temperatures and the resulting
instability are the prerequisites for the
origin and growth of violent tropical
storms.
Upper Air Disturbance
 The remains of an upper tropospheric

cyclone from the Westerlies move deep
into the tropical latitude regions. As
divergence prevails on the eastern side of
 A well - developed divergence in the upper

layers of the atmosphere is necessary so
that the rising air currents within the
cyclone continue to be pumped out and a
low pressure maintained at the center.
Humidity Factor Page

|
 High humidity (around 50 to 60 per cent)
is required in the mid-troposphere, since 221
the presence of moist air leads to the
formation of cumulonimbus cloud.
 Such conditions exist over the equatorial
doldrums, especially in western margins
of oceans (this is because of east to west
movement of ocean currents), which have
great moisture, carrying capacity because
the trade winds continuously replace the
saturated air.
Origin and Development of Tropical

Cyclones
 The tropical cyclones have a thermal

origin, and they develop over tropical seas
during late summers (August to mid-
November). Early stage
 At these locations, the strong local
convectional currents acquire a whirling  In the thunderstorm, air is uplifted as it is
motion because of the Coriolis force. warm and light. At certain height, due to
 After developing, these cyclones advance lapse rate and adiabatic lapse rate, the
till they find a weak spot in the trade wind temperature of air falls and moisture in
belt. the air undergoes condensation.
 Condensation releases latent heat of
Origin condensation making the air more
warmer. It becomes much lighter and is
 Under favorable conditions, multiple further uplifted.
thunderstorms originate over the oceans.  The space is filled by fresh moisture laden
These thunderstorms merge and create an air. Condensation occurs in this air and
intense low pressure system (wind is the cycle is repeated as long as the
warm and lighter). moisture is supplied.
 Due to excess moisture over oceans, the
thunderstorm intensifies and sucks in air
at much faster rate. The air from
surroundings rushes in and undergoes
deflection due to Coriolis force creating a
cyclonic vortex (spiraling air column.
Similar to tornado).
Page
|
222
 Due to centripetal acceleration (centripetal inner surface of the vortex forms the eye
force pulling towards the center is wall, the most violent region of the
countered by an opposing force called cyclone.
centrifugal force), the air in the vortex is
forced to form a region of calmness called [Eye is created due to tangential force
an eye at the center of the cyclone. The acting on wind that is following a curvy
path]
 All the wind that is carried upwards loses cyclone. On reaching the land the
its moisture and becomes cold and dense. moisture supply is cut off and the storm
It descends to the surface through the dissipates.
cylindrical eye region and at the edges of  If ocean can supply more moisture, the
the cyclone. storm will reach a mature stage.
 Continuous supply of moisture from the Page
sea is the major driving force behind every Mature stage
|
223
 At this stage, the spiraling winds create  The dry air flowing along the central dense
multiple convective cells with successive overcast descends at the periphery and
calm and violent regions. the eye region.
 The regions with cumulonimbus cloud
(rising limbs of convective cell) formation Structure of a tropical cyclone
are called rain bands below which intense
rainfall occurs.
 The ascending air will lose moisture at
some point and descends (subsides) back
to surface through the calm regions
(descending limbs of convection cell –
subsiding air) that exist between two rain
bands.
 Cloud formation is dense at the center.
The cloud size decreases from center to
periphery.
Eye
 Rain bands are mostly made up of
cumulonimbus clouds. The ones at the  The "eye" is a roughly circular area of
periphery are made up of nimbostratus comparatively light winds and fair
and cumulus clouds. weather found at the center of a severe
 The dense overcast at the upper levels of tropical cyclone.
troposphere is due to cirrus clouds which  There is little or no precipitation and
are mostly made up of hexagonal ice sometimes blue sky or stars can be seen.
crystals.
 The eye is the region of lowest surface
pressure and warmest temperatures aloft
(in the upper levels) - the eye temperature
may be 10°C warmer or more at an reach the ocean surface, but instead
altitude of 12 km than the surrounding only gets to around 1-3 km of the surface.
environment, but only 0-2°C warmer at
the surface in the tropical cyclone. Spiral bands
 Another feature of tropical

cyclones that probably Page
plays a role in forming |
and maintaining the eye
is the eye wall convection. 224
 Convection in tropical
cyclones is organized into
long, narrow rain bands
which are oriented in the
same direction as the
horizontal wind.
 Because these bands
seem to spiral into the
center of a tropical
cyclone, they are called
“spiral bands".
 Along these bands, low-
level convergence is a
maximum, and therefore,
Eyes range in size from 8 km to over 200 upper-level divergence is most pronounced
km across, but most are approximately above.
30-60 km in diameter.  A direct circulation develops in which
warm, moist air converges at the surface,
Eye wall
ascends through these bands, diverges
aloft, and descends on both sides of the
 The eye is surrounded by the "eye wall",
bands.
the roughly circular ring of deep
 Subsidence is distributed over a wide area
convection, which is the area of highest
on the outside of the rain band but is
surface winds in the tropical cyclone. Eye
concentrated in the small inside area.
Wall region also sees the maximum
sustained winds i.e. fastest winds in a  As the air subsides, adiabatic warming
cyclone occur along the eye wall region. takes place, and the air dries.
 The eye is composed of air that is slowly  Because subsidence is concentrated on
sinking and the eye wall has a net upward the inside of the band, the adiabatic
flow as a result of many moderate - warming is stronger inward from the band
occasionally strong - updrafts and causing a sharp contrast in pressure falls
downdrafts [Explained in across the band since warm air is lighter
‘Thunderstorms’]. than cold air.
 The eye's warm temperatures are due to  Because of the pressure falls on the
compressional warming (adiabatic) of the inside, the tangential winds around the
subsiding air. tropical cyclone increase due to increased
pressure gradient. Eventually, the band
 Most soundings taken within the eye show
moves toward the center and encircles it
a low-level layer, which is relatively moist,
and the eye and eye wall form.
with an inversion above - suggesting that
the sinking in the eye typically does not  Thus, the cloud-free eye may be due to a
combination of dynamically forced
centrifuging of mass out of the eye into  The middle layer, extending from 3 km to
the eye wall and to a forced descent 7 km, is where the main cyclonic storm
caused by the moist convection of the takes place.
eye wall.  The outflow layer lies above 7 km. The
maximum outflow is found at 12 km and
Vertical Structure of a Tropical Cyclone above. The movement of air is Page
anticyclonic in nature.
There are three divisions in the vertical |
structure of tropical cyclones. Categories of Tropical Cyclones
225
The lowest layer, extending up to 3 km
and known as the inflow layer, is
responsible for driving the storm.
Favorite Breeding Grounds for Tropical  South-east Caribbean region where they
Cyclones are called hurricanes.
 Philippines islands, eastern
China and Japan where they
are called typhoons.
 Bay of Bengal and Arabian
Sea where they are called
cyclones.
 Around south-east African
coast and Madagascar-
Mauritius islands.
 North-west Australia.
Regional names for

Tropical Cyclones
Regions What they are called Western Pacific and Typhoons

Indian Ocean Cyclones South China Sea
Atlantic Hurricanes Western Australia Willy-willies
Page
|
226
Characteristics of Tropical Cyclones 20° latitude. They turn further north-

eastwards around 25° latitude, and then
 The main features of tropical cyclones are eastwards around 30° latitude. They then
as follows. lose energy and subside.
 Tropical cyclones follow a parabolic path,
Size and Shape their axis being parallel to the isobars.
 Coriolis force or earth’s rotation, easterly
 Tropical cyclones have symmetrical
and westerly winds influence the path of a
elliptical shapes (2:3 ratio of length and
tropical cyclone.
breadth) with steep pressure gradients.
 Tropical cyclones die at 30° latitude
They have a compact size—80 km near
because of cool ocean waters and
center, which may develop up to 300 km
increasing wind shear due to westerlies.
to 1500 km.
Warning of Tropical Cyclones
Wind Velocity and Strength
 Detection of any unusual phenomena in
 Wind velocity, in a tropical cyclone, is
the weather leading to cyclones has three
more in poleward margins than at center
main parameters: fall in pressure,
and is more over oceans than over
increase in wind velocity, and the
landmasses, which are scattered with
direction and movement (track) of
physical barriers. The wind velocity may
storm.
range from nil to 1200 km per hour.
 There are a network of weather stations
Path of Tropical Cyclones monitoring pressure fall and wind
velocities in all countries of the world,
 These cyclones start with a westward including the Arctic and Antarctic regions.
movement, but turn northwards around
 The islands attain special significance in  Today, it is possible to detect a cyclone

this as they facilitate monitoring of these right from its genesis in the high seas and
developments. follow its course, giving a warning at least
 In India, there are detection radars along 48 hours prior to a cyclone strike.
both the coasts.  However, the predictions of a storm course
 Monitoring is also done by aircraft which made only 12 hours in advance do not Page
carry a number of instruments including a have a very high rate of precision.
weather radar. |
 Cyclone monitoring by satellites is done Questions on Tropical Cyclones from
IMD website 227
through very high resolution radiometers,
working in the visual and infra-red regions What is a Storm Surge?
(for night view) of the spectrum to obtain
an image of the cloud cover and its  Storm Surge is an abnormal rise of sea
structure. level as the cyclone crosses the coast.
 Remote sensing by radars, aircraft and  Sea water inundates the coastal strip
satellites helps predict where exactly the causing loss of life, large scale destruction
cyclone is going to strike. It helps in to property & crop.
taking advance steps in the following  Increased salinity in the soil over affected
areas: area makes the land unfit for agricultural
1. closing of ports and harbours, use for two or three seasons.
2. suspension of fishing activities,  Storm surge depends on intensity of the
3. evacuation of population, cyclone (Maximum winds and lowest
4. stocking of food and drinking water, and pressure associated with it and Coastal
5. provision of shelter with sanitation bathymetry (shallower coastline generates
facilities (safety homes). surges of greater heights).
What is storm tide?  Disaster potential due to cyclones is due

to high storm surges occurring at the time
 The storm tide is the combination of of landfall. The storm surges are by far the
storm surge and the astronomical tide. greatest killers in a cyclone. as sea water
inundates low lying areas of the coastal
What are the disaster potential of regions causing heavy floods, erosion of
Storm Surge? beaches and embankments, damage to
vegetation and reducing soil fertility.
 Flooding due to storm surges pollute  Cyclones that form over the Bay of Bengal
drinking water sources resulting in are either those develop insitu over
shortage of drinking water and causing southeast Bay of Bengal and adjoining
out-break of epidemics, mostly water Andaman Sea or remnants of typhoons
borne diseases Very strong winds (Gales) over Northwest Pacific and move across
may cause uprooting of trees, damage to south China sea to Indian Seas. Page
dwellings, overhead installations,  As the frequency of typhoons over
communication lines etc., resulting in loss Northwest Pacific is quite high (about 35 |
of life and property. % of the global annual average), the Bay of 228
 Past records show that very heavy loss of Bengal also gets its increased quota.
life due to tropical cyclones have occurred  The cyclones over the Arabian Sea either
in the coastal areas surrounding the Bay originate insitu over southeast Arabian
of Bengal. Cyclones are also often Sea (which includes Lakshadweep area
accompanied by very intense & heavy also) or remnants of cyclones from the Bay
precipitation (exceeding 40-50 cm in a day of Bengal that move across south
or about 10cm or more per hour in some peninsula. As the majority of Cyclones
places) over the Bay of Bengal weaken over land
after landfall, the frequency of migration
Why do 'tropical cyclones' winds rotate into Arabian Sea is low.
counter-clockwise (clockwise) in the  In addition to all the above the Arabian
Northern (Southern) Hemisphere? Sea is relatively colder (mosnsoon
winds) than Bay of Bengal and hence
 As the earth's rotation sets up an inhibits the formation and intensification
apparent force (called the Coriolis force) of the system.
that pulls the winds to the right in the
Northern Hemisphere (and to the left in Why there are very few Tropical
the Southern Hemisphere). Cyclones during southwest monsoon
 So, when a low pressure starts to form season?
over north of the equator, the surface
winds will flow inward trying to fill in the  The southwest monsoon is characterized
low and will be deflected to the right and a by the presence of strong westerly winds
counter-clockwise rotation will be in the lower troposphere (below 5 km) and
initiated. The opposite (a deflection to the very strong easterly winds in the upper
left and a clockwise rotation) will occur troposphere (above 9 km). This results in
south of the equator. large vertical wind shear. Strong vertical
 This Coriolis force is too tiny to effect wind shear inhibits cyclone development.
rotation in, for example, water that is  Also the potential zone for the
going down the drains of sinks and toilets. development of cyclones shifts to North
 The rotation in those will be determined by Bay of Bengal during southwest monsoon
the geometry of the container and the season.
original motion of the water.  During this season, the low pressure
 Thus, one can find both clockwise and system upto the intensity of depressions
counter-clockwise flowing drains no form along the monsoon trough (ITCZ),
matter what hemisphere you are located. which extends from northwest India to the
If you don't believe this, test it out for north Bay of Bengal.
yourself.  The Depression forming over this area
crosses Orissa – West Bengal coast in a
Why there are fewer cyclones over the day or two. These systems have shorter
Arabian Sea as compared to the Bay of oceanic stay (they make landfall very
Bengal? quickly) which is also one of the reasons
for their non-intensification into intense  The severest destructive feature of a

cyclones. tropical storm is the storm surge
popularly called tidal waves.
What are the causes of disaster during  The costal areas are subjected to storm
cyclone? surge and is accentuated if the landfall
time coincides with that of high tides. Page
 The dangers associated with cyclonic This is again more if the sea bed is
storms are generally three fold. shallow. |
1. Floods
 Storm surge as high as 15 to 20 ft. may 229
2. Winds
occur when all the factors contributing to
3. Storm Surge
storm surge are maximum. This storm
Very heavy rains causing floods. tide inundates low lying coastal areas
which has far reaching consequences
 The rainfall associated with a storm vary apart from flooding.
from storm to storm even with the same  The fertility of land is lost due to
intensity. Record rainfall in a cyclonic inundation by saline water for a few
storm has been as low as trace to as high years to come.
as 250 cms. It has been found that the
intensity of rainfall is about 85 cms/day Mains 2013: Naming of Cyclones
within a radius of 50 kms and about 35
The recent cyclone on east coast of
cms/day between 50 to 100 kms from the
India was called ‘Phailin’. How are the
centre of the storm. Precipitation of about
tropical cyclones named across the
50 cm/day is quite common with a C.S.
world? Elaborate.
This phenomenal rain can cause flash
flood.  WMO (World meteorological organization)
divided the world Oceans into Basins and
Strong wind.
assigned the responsibility of naming the
 The strong wind speed associated with a Cyclones to the respective regional bodies.
cyclonic storm. (60-90 kmph) can result  Each regional body has its own rules in
into some damage to kutcha houses and naming cyclones. In most regions pre-
tree branches likely to break off. Winds of determined alphabetic lists of alternating
a severe Cyclonic storm (90-120 kmph) male and female names are used.
can cause uprooting of trees, damage to  In the north-west Pacific the majority of
pucca houses and disruption of names used are not personal names.
communications. The wind associated While there are a few male and female
with a very severe Cyclonic storm and names, majority are names of flowers,
super cyclonic storm can uproot big trees, animals, birds, trees, foods or descriptive
cause wide spread damages to houses and adjectives.
installations and total disruption of
How are cyclones named in Northern
communications. The maximum wind
Indian Ocean Region
speed associated with a very severe
Cyclonic storm that hit Indian coast in the  The names of cyclones in Indian Seas are
past 100 years was 260 kmph in Oct., not allocated in alphabetical order, but are
1999 (Paradeep Super cyclone). arranged by the name of the country
Storm surge which contributed the name.
 It is usual practice for a storm to be
 Storm surge occur in places where a named when it reaches tropical storm
tropical cyclone crosses the coast (makes strength (winds of 34 knots).
landfall).
Knot  Naming them after a

person/flower/animal etc. makes it easier
 The knot (pronounced not) is a unit of for the media to report on tropical
speed equal to one nautical mile (1.852 cyclones, increases community
km) per hour, approximately 1.151 mph preparedness, also helps in quick
 Worldwide, the knot is used in information exchange between faraway Page
meteorology, and in maritime and air stations, ships etc.
navigation—for example, a vessel |
travelling at 1 knot along a meridian Polar or Arctic Cyclones
travels approximately one minute of 230
geographic latitude in one hour.  Arctic or polar cyclones occur in Antarctic
 1 international knot = 1 nautical mile per regions and can reach up to 1,200 miles
hour (exactly) = 1.852 kilometres per hour wide.
(exactly) = 0.514 metres per second  Polar cyclones differ with others because
(approximately) they are not seasonal. [Tropical Cyclones
are seasonal]
 The Indian Meteorological Department  They can occur at any time of the year.
(IMD) which issues cyclone advisors to  Polar cyclones can also form quickly
eight countries has a list of names (sometimes less than 24 hours), and
contributed by each of them. their direction or movement cannot be
 Every time a cyclone occurs, a name is predicted.
picked in the order of the names that are  They can last from a day up to several
already submitted. weeks. [Tropical Cyclones doesn’t for more
 Each country gets a chance to name a than a week]
cyclone. After all the countries get their  Most frequently, polar cyclones develop
turn, the next list of names is followed. above northern Russia and Siberia.
Maximum Sustained Wind
 India Meteorological Department (IMD)

uses a 3 minutes averaging for the
sustained wind.
 Maximum sustained wind is the highest 3
minutes surface wind occurring within the
circulation of the system.
Low Pressure, Depression and Cyclone

Why is this system of uniformity in
How are low pressure system classified
naming a cyclone in the region
in India? What are the differences
 Tropical cyclones are named to provide between low, depression and cyclone?
ease of communication between  The pressure criteria is used, when the
forecasters and the general public system is over land and wind criteria is
regarding forecasts and warnings. used, when the system is over the sea.
 Since the storms can often last a week or  The system is called as low if there is one
even longer and more than one cyclone closed isobar in the interval of 2 hPa.
can be occurring in the same region at the
 It is called depression, if there are two
same time, names can reduce the
closed isobars, a deep depression, if there
confusion about what storm is being
are three closed isobars and cyclonic
described
storm if there are four or more closed  The detailed classification based on wind
isobars. criteria are given in the Table below.
System Pressure deficient hPa Wind speed Knots (Kmph)
Low pressure area 1.0 <17(<32)
Depression 1.0- 3.0 17-27 (32–50)
Deep Depression 3.0 - 4.5 28-33 (51–59) Page
Cyclonic Storm 4.5- 8.5 34-47 (60-90) |
Severe Cyclonic Storm (SCS) 8.5-15.5 48-63 (90-119)
Very Severe Cyclonic Storm 15.5-65.6 64-119 (119-220) 231
Super Cyclonic Storm >65.6 >119(>220)
Central Dense Overcast (CDO)  The average annual frequency of tropical
cyclones in the north Indian Ocean (Bay of
 "CDO" is an acronym that stands for Bengal and Arabian Sea) is about 5 (about
"central dense overcast". 5-6 % of the Global annual average) and
 This is the cirrus cloud shield that about 80 cyclones form around the globe
results from the thunderstorms in the in a year.
eyewall of a tropical cyclone and its  The frequency is more in the Bay of
rainbands. Bengal than in the Arabian Sea, the ratio
 Before the tropical cyclone reaches being 4:1.
very severe cyclonic storm (64 knots,),
typically the CDO is uniformly showing States Vulnerable to Cyclones
the cold cloud tops of the cirrus with
no eye apparent.
Annual frequency of Cyclones over the

Indian Seas
Which sector of the cyclone

experiences strongest winds?
 In general, the strongest winds in a

cyclone are found on the right side of the
storm. The "right side of the storm" is
defined with respect to the storm's motion:
if the cyclone is moving to the west, the
right side would be to the north of the
storm; if the cyclone is moving to the
north, the right side would be to the east
of the storm, etc.
 The strongest wind on the right side of the
storm is mainly due to the fact that the
motion of the cyclone also contributes to IMD and Cyclone Diasster Management
its swirling winds.
 A cyclone with a 145 kmph winds while  1999, IMD introduced a 4-Stage warning
stationary would have winds up to 160 system to issue cyclone warnings to the
kmph on the right side and only 130 disaster managers. They are as follows:
kmph on the left side if it began moving Pre-Cyclone Watch Page
(any direction) at 16 kmph.
 Issued when a depression forms over the |
What is the normal movement of a
Bay of Bengal irrespective of its distance 232
Tropical Cyclone?
from the coast and is likely to affect Indian
coast in future. The pre-cyclone watch is
 The cyclones, which cross 20° N latitude
issued by the name of Director General of
generally, recurve and they are more
Meteorology and is issued at least 72
destructive.
hours in advance of the commencement of
 Tropical Cyclones move as a whole. They adverse weather. It is issued at least once
casually move west-northwestwards or a day.
northwestwards in the northern
hemisphere. Cyclone Alert
 The average speed is 15-20 kmph (360-
480 km per day). They may change their  Issued atleast 48 hours before the
direction of movement towards north. commencement of the bad weather when
During this change their speed of the cyclone is located beyond 500 Km
movement decreases to 10 kmph or even from the coast. It is issued every three
less. hours.
 A larger fraction of such storms later turn
Cyclone Warning
towards northeast and move
northeastwards very fast at a speed of 25  Issued at least 24 hours before the
kmph or more. commencement of the bad weather when
the cyclone is located within 500 Km from
What is the role of upper tropospheric
the coast. Information about time /place
westerly trough ?
of landfall are indicated in the bulletin.
Confidence in estimation increases as the
 An Upper tropospheric westerly trough is
cyclone comes closer to the coast
important for tropical cyclone forecasting
as they can force large amounts of vertical Post landfall outlook
wind shear over tropical disturbances and
tropical cyclones which may inhibit their  It is issued 12 hours before the cyclone
strengthening. landfall, when the cyclone is located
 There are also suggestions that these within 200 Km from the coast. More
troughs can assist tropical cyclone genesis accurate & specific information about time
and intensification by providing additional /place of landfall and associated bad
forced ascent near the storm centre weather indicated in the bulletin. In
and/or by allowing for an efficient outflow addition, the interior distraction is likely
channel in the upper troposphere. to be affected due to the cyclone are
 The location of this trough and its warned in this bulletin.
intensity can also influence the movement
of the storm and hence can be used for Modifying cyclones?
cyclone track forecasting.
 Seeding with silver iodide.
What is 4-stage warning system for  Placing a substance on the ocean surface.
Tropical Cyclones?  By nuking them.
 By cooling the surface waters with deep  According to this theory, the warm-humid
ocean water. air masses from the tropics meet the dry-
 By adding a water absorbing substance. cold air masses from the poles and thus a
polar front is formed as a surface of
How are Tropical Cyclones monitored discontinuity.
by IMD?  Such conditions occur over sub-tropical Page
high, sub-polar low pressure belts and
 A good network of meteorological along the Tropopause. |
observatories (both surface and upper air)
is operated by IMD, covering the entire 233
coastline and islands.
 The conventional observations are
supplemented by observational data from
automatic weather stations (AWS), radar
and satellite systems.
 INSAT imagery obtained at hourly
intervals during cyclone situations has
proved to be immensely useful in
monitoring the development and
movement of cyclones.
Temperate Cyclones or Extra Tropical

Cyclones or Mid-Latitude Cyclones or  The cold air pushes the warm air upwards
Frontal Cyclones from underneath. Thus a void is created
because of lessening of pressure. The
 The systems developing in the mid and surrounding air rushed in to occupy this
high latitude (35° latitude and 65° void and coupled with the earth’s rotation,
latitude in both hemispheres), beyond a cyclone is formed which advances with
the tropics are called the middle latitude the westerlies (Jet Streams).
cyclones or extra tropical cyclones or
temperate cyclones or frontal cyclones
or wave cyclones.
Origin and Development of Temperate

Cyclones
In detail
 In the northern hemisphere, warm air

blows from the south and cold air from the
north of the front.
 When the pressure drops along the front,
Polar Front Theory the warm air moves northwards and the
cold air move towards south setting in
motion an anticlockwise cyclonic As a result, cumulus clouds develop along

circulation (northern hemisphere). This the cold front. The cold front moves
is due to Coriolis Force. faster than the warm front ultimately
 The cyclonic circulation leads to a well- overtaking the warm front. The warm air
developed extra tropical cyclone, with a is completely lifted up and the front is
warm front and a cold front. occluded (occluded front) and the
Page
 There are pockets of warm air or warm cyclone dissipates.
sector wedged between the forward and  The processes of wind circulation both at |
the rear cold air or cold sector. The warm the surface and aloft are closely 234
air glides over the cold air and a sequence interlinked.
of clouds appear over the sky ahead of the  So temperate cyclone is intense
warm front and cause precipitation. frontogenesis involving mainly occlusion
 The cold front approaches the warm air type front. (Occluded front explained in
from behind and pushes the warm air up. detail in previous posts).
Gif Image: View in MS power point in Full  The temperate cyclones occur mostly in
Screen mode. [The copy of this image is winter, late autumn and spring. They
present on my website www.pmfias.com] are generally associated with rainstorms
and cloudy weather.
 Normally, individual frontal cyclones exist  During summer, all the paths of temperate
for about 3 to 10 days moving in a cyclones shift northwards and there are
generally west to east direction. only few temperate cyclone over sub-
 Precise movement of this weather system tropics and the warm temperate zone,
is controlled by the orientation of the polar although a high concentration of storms
jet stream in the upper troposphere. occurs over Bering Strait, USA and
Russian Arctic and sub-Arctic zone.
Seasonal Occurrence of Temperate
Cyclones Distribution of Temperate Cyclones
 USA and Canada – extend over Sierra  The wind velocity increases with the
Nevada, Colorado, Eastern Canadian approach but decreases after the cyclone
Rockies and the Great Lakes region, has passed.
 the belt extending from Iceland to Barents
Sea and continuing over Russia and Orientation And Movement
Siberia,
 Jet stream plays a major role in temperate Page
 winter storms over Baltic Sea,
cyclonogeneis. |
 Mediterranean basin extending up to
 Jet streams also influence the path of
Russia and even up to India in winters 235
temperate cyclones.
(called western disturbances) and the
Antarctic frontal zone.
Characteristics of Temperate Cyclones
Size and Shape

 Since these cyclones move with the
 The temperate cyclones are asymmetrical
westerlies (Jet Streams), they are
and shaped like an inverted ‘V’.
oriented east-west.
 They stretch over 500 to 600 km.
 If the storm front is east-west, the center
 They may spread over 2500 km over North
moves swiftly eastwards.
America (Polar Vortex).
 If the storm front is directed northwards,
 They have a height of 8 to 11 km.
the center moves towards the north, but
after two or three days, the pressure
difference declines and the cyclone
dissipates.
 In case the storm front is directed
southwards, the center moves quite deep
southwards-even up to the Mediterranean
region [sometimes causing the
Mediterranean cyclones or Western
Disturbances (They are very important as
they bring rains to North-West India –
Punjab, Haryana)].
Wind Velocity And Strength Structure
 The wind strength is more in eastern and  The north-western sector is the cold sector
southern portions, more over North and the north-eastern sector is the warm
America compared to Europe. sector (Because cold air masses in north
and warm air masses in south push  Rainfall stops and clear weather prevails
against each other and rotate anti- until the cold front of an anticyclonic
clockwise in northern hemisphere). character arrives which causes a fall in
temperature, brings cloudiness and
Associated Weather rainfall with thunder. After this, once
again clear weather is established. Page
 The approach of a temperate cyclone is
 The temperate cyclones experience more
marked by fall in temperature, fall in the
rainfall when there is slower movement |
mercury level, wind shifts and a halo
and a marked difference in rainfall and 236
around the sun and the moon, and a
temperature between the front and rear of
thin veil of cirrus clouds.
the cyclone. These cyclones are generally
 A light drizzle follows which turns into a accompanied by anticyclones.
heavy downpour. These conditions change
with the arrival of the warm front which Tropical Cyclones and Temperate
halts the fall in mercury level and the Cyclones Comparison
rising temperature.
Tropical Cyclone Temperate Cyclone
Origin Thermal Origin Dynamic Origin – Coriolis Force,
Movement of air masses.
Latitude Confined to 100 - 300 N and S of Confined to 350 - 650 N and S of
equator. equator. More pronounced in
Northern hemisphere due to greater
temperature contrast.
Frontal Absent The very cyclone formation is due to
system frontogenesis.[Occluded Front]
Formation They form only on seas with Can form both on land as well as
temperature more than 26-270 C. seas
They dissipate on reaching the
land.
Season Seasonal: Late summers (Aug - Irregular. But few in summers and
Oct) more in winters.
Size Limited to small area. They cover a larger area.
Typical size: 100 – 500 kms in Typical size: 300 – 2000 kms in
diameter. diameter. Varies from region to
Varies with the strength of the region.
cyclone.
Shape Elliptical Inverted ‘V’
Rainfall Heavy but does not last beyond a In a temperate cyclone, rainfall is
few hours. If the cyclone stays at a slow and continues for many days,
place, the rainfall may continue for sometimes even weeks.
many days.
Wind Velocity Much greater (100 – 250 Comparatively low. Typical range:
and kmph)(200 – 1200 kmph in upper 30 – 150 kmph.
destruction troposphere) Less destruction due to winds but
Greater destruction due to winds, more destruction due to flooding.
storm surges and torrential
rains.
Isobars Complete circles and the pressure Isobars are usually ‘V’ shaped and
gradient is steep the pressure gradient is low.
Life time Doesn’t last for more than a week Last for 2-3 weeks.
Path East – West. Turn North at 200 West – East (Westerlies – Jet
latitude and west at 300 latitude. Streams). Move away from equator.
Move away from equator.
The movement of Cyclones in
Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal is a
little different.
Page
Here, these storms are
superimposed upon the monsoon |
circulation of the summer
237
months, and they move in
northerly direction along with the
monsoon currents.
Temperature The temperature at the center is All the sectors of the cyclone have
distribution almost equally distributed. different temperatures
Calm region The center of a tropical cyclone is In a temperate cyclone, there is not
known as the eye. The wind is calm a single place where winds and
at the center with no rainfall. rains are inactive.
Driving force The tropical cyclone derives its The energy of a temperate cyclone
energy from the latent heat of depends on the densities of air
condensation, and the difference masses.
in densities of the air masses does
not contribute to the energy of the
cyclone.
Influence of The relationship between tropical The temperate cyclones, in contrast,
Jet streams cyclones and the upper level air- have a distinct relationship with
flow is not very clear. upper level air flow (jet streams,
Rossby waves etc.)
Clouds The tropical cyclones exhibit fewer The temperate cyclones show a
varieties of clouds – variety of cloud development at
cumulonimbus, nimbostratus, etc.. various elevations.
Surface anti- The tropical cyclones are not The temperate cyclones are
cyclones associated with surface associated with anticyclones which
anticyclones and they have a precede and succeed a cyclone.
greater destructive capacity. These cyclones are not very
destructive.
Influence on Both coasts effected. But east coast Bring rains to North – West India.
India is the hot spot. The associated instability is called
‘Western Disturbances’.
 Titbit: In certain instances, two cyclones  The direction of wind around a low
move toward each other and revolve pressure in northern hemisphere is: (a)
around one another, with the smaller and clockwise (c) anti-clock wise (b)
less intense one moving more quickly. perpendicular to isobars (d) parallel to
This phenomenon is called the Fujlwara isobars
effect.
150 words
Questions
 Why does tropical cyclone originate over
Multiple choice questions the seas? In which part of the tropical
cyclone do torrential rains and high
velocity winds blow and why?
In this post: Polar Vortex – Ozone How Polar Vortex slips towards
Depletion – Polar Stratospheric Clouds. Midlatitudes,
Polar Vortex Breakdown of the polar vortex,
 In the previous posts, we have studied Sudden stratospheric warming,

about tropical cyclones and extra tropical Page
Polar vortex event.
cyclones (Temperate Cyclone). Here we will |
study Polar vortex (circumpolar vortex) All the above phrases mean the same –
which is a polar cyclone. Polar Vortex Cold Wave. 238
 A polar vortex is a large pocket of very cold
air, typically the coldest air in the  The polar vortex will remain in its place
Northern Hemisphere, which sits over the when the Westerlies along with the polar
polar region during the winter season. jet are strong (Strong polar vortex means
 Polar Vortex is a there is huge temperature contrast
1. Cold; between the temperate and polar regions).
2. Upper tropospheric: sometime extending till  When the polar vortex is weak, it intrudes
the lower levels of stratosphere (At poles, into the midlatitude regions by buckling
the troposphere extends up to 8-9 km); the general wind flow pattern. This leads
3. Circumpolar; to significant cold outbreaks in the
4. Low pressure; midlatitude regions.
5. Large cyclonic parcel of air [1000 km]  The vortex is capable of delivering subzero
(counter-clockwise in the Northern temperatures to the United States and
Hemisphere) Canada where is occurs the most.
 Polar vortex is closely associated with jet
How it slips
streams [Rossby waves].
 It is formed mainly in winter and gets
 The Polar jet traverses somewhere over
weaker in summer.
650 N and S latitudes. When the
 It surrounds polar highs and lie within temperature contrast between polar and
the polar front (boundary separating the temperate regions is maximum, the jet is
temperate and polar air masses). very strong and the meandering is
negligible.
 But when the temperature contrast is low
(doesn’t mean it’s summer), the jet starts
to meander (Rossby waves).
 Meandering jet creates alternating low and
high pressure cells. High pressure cells
are created below the ridges and the low
pressure cells below the troughs (This is
because of the upper air circulations
created by the jet).
 With severe meandering, the high
pressure cells push over to north and
displace the polar cyclone from its normal
position i.e. the cyclone moves away from
the pole and slips into the temperate
regions where there is an intense low
pressure.
Polar Vortex Cold Wave  With the strengthening of the jet, the high
pressure cells become weak and retreat to
their normal latitudinal positions. With

the retreat of the high pressure cells, the
polar cyclone moves back to its normal
position – poles.
Page
|
239
Ozone Hole [Ozone Depletion at South  Depletion of ozone is due to increase in

Pole] halocarbons in the atmosphere.
 Polar vortex and ozone depletion are two Halocarbon == a compound in which
distinct but related phenomena. the hydrogen of a hydrocarbon is
 There is a steady decline of about 4% in replaced by halogens like chlorine,
the total volume of ozone in Earth's bromine, iodine etc.
stratosphere. Halogen == group of reactive non-
 Much larger decrease in stratospheric metallic elements like fluorine,
ozone is observed around Earth's polar chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine.
regions.
Halogen atoms like chlorine destroy however, they occur as far south as
ozone England.
 Photodissociation (under the influence of

sunlight) of ozone-depleting substances
(ODS) like halocarbon refrigerants,
Page
solvents, propellants, and foam-blowing
agents (CFCs, HCFCs, carbon tetrachloride |
and trichloroethane, freons, halons) creates
240
free chlorine atoms that destroy ozone.
 PSCs or nacreous clouds contain water,

nitric acid and/or sulfuric acid.
 They are formed mainly during the
event of polar vertex in winter; more
intense at south pole.
 The Cl-catalyzed ozone depletion is
dramatically enhanced in the presence of
polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) [Finally
this how polar vortex leads to ozone
depletion]
But how does a chlorine atom reach to

such high levels of atmosphere?
Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs)
 Extend from 12 km – 22 km above the

surface.
 They are nacreous clouds.
Nacreous clouds
 Nacreous clouds, sometimes called

mother-of-pearl clouds, are rare clouds.
 They are mostly visible within two hours
after sunset or before dawn.  PSCs convert "reservoir" compounds into
 They form in frigid regions of the lower reactive free radicals (Cl and ClO).
stratosphere, some 15 - 25 km (9 -16 mile)  These free radicals deplete ozone as shown
high and well above tropospheric clouds. in the animation below.
They are bright even after sunset and  So PSC accelerate ozone depletion.
before dawn because at those heights
there is still sunlight.
 They are seen mostly during winter at
high latitudes like Scandinavia, Iceland,
Alaska and Northern Canada. Sometimes,
Gif Images
Prelims question: The formation of

ozone hole in the Antarctic region has
been a cause of concern. What could be
the reason for ozone depletion at
poles? Page
|
a) Presence of prominent tropospheric
turbulence; and inflow of 241
chlorofluorocarbons
b) Presence of prominent polar front and
stratospheric Clouds and inflow of
chlorofluorocarbons
c) Absence of polar front and stratospheric
clouds; and inflow of methane and
chlorofluorocarbons
d) Increased temperature at polar region due
to global warming
In this post: El Nino, El Nino Southern

Oscillation ENSO, Indian Ocean Dipole
IOD, La Nina and El Nino Modoki.
El Nino
 El Niño is the name given to the

occasional development of warm ocean
surface waters along the coast of Ecuador
and Peru.
 When this warming occurs the usual
upwelling of cold, nutrient rich deep ocean
water is significantly reduced.
 El Niño normally occurs around
Christmas and usually lasts for a few
weeks to a few months.
 Sometimes an extremely warm event can
develop that lasts for much longer time
periods. In the 1990s, strong El Niños
developed in 1991 and lasted until 1995,
and from fall 1997 to spring 1998.
Normal Conditions
 In a normal year, a surface low pressure

develops in the region of northern
Australia and Indonesia and a high
pressure system over the coast of Peru.
As a result, the trade winds over the
Pacific Ocean move strongly from east to
west.
 The easterly flow of the trade winds carries Gif Image

warm surface waters westward, bringing
convective storms (thunderstorms) to
Indonesia and coastal Australia. Along the
coast of Peru, cold bottom cold nutrient
rich water wells up to the surface to Page
replace the warm water that is pulled to
the west. |
242
This cross-section of the Pacific Ocean,

along the equator, illustrates the pattern of
atmospheric circulation typically found at
the equatorial Pacific. Note the position of
the thermocline.
 Thermocline == noun a temperature

gradient in a lake or other body of water,
separating layers at different
temperatures.
 The Walker cell is indirectly related to
upwelling off the coasts of Peru and
Ecuador. This brings nutrient-rich cold
water to the surface, increasing fishing
stocks.
During El Nino year
 In an El Niño year, air pressure drops over

large areas of the central Pacific and along
the coast of South America.
Walker circulation (Occurs during  The normal low pressure system is
Normal Years) replaced by a weak high in the western
Pacific (the southern oscillation). This
 The Walker circulation (walker cell) is change in pressure pattern causes the
caused by the pressure gradient force that trade winds to be reduced == Weak
results from a high pressure system over Walker Cell. Sometimes Walker Cell might
the eastern Pacific ocean, and a low even get reversed.
pressure system over Indonesia.  This reduction allows the equatorial
counter current (current along
doldrums) to accumulate warm ocean
water along the coastlines of Peru and
Ecuador.
Effects of El Nino
 The warmer waters had a devastating

effect on marine life existing off the coast
of Peru and Ecuador.
Page
|
243
 Fish catches off the coast of South

America were lower than in the normal
year (Because there is no upwelling).
 Severe droughts occur in Australia,
Indonesia, India and southern Africa.
 Heavy rains in California, Ecuador, and
the Gulf of Mexico.
 This accumulation of warm water causes

the thermocline to drop in the eastern part
of Pacific Ocean which cuts off the
upwelling of cold deep ocean water
along the coast of Peru.
 Climatically, the development of an El
Niño brings drought to the western Normal Conditions
Pacific, rains to the equatorial coast of
South America, and convective storms Eastern Pacific == Coast of Peru and
and hurricanes to the central Pacific. Ecuador == Cold Ocean Water == Good
for Fishing.
This cross-section of the Pacific Ocean,
along the equator, illustrates the pattern of Western Pacific == Indonesia and
atmospheric circulation that causes the Australia == Warm Ocean Water ==
formation of the El Niño. Plenty of rains.
 In the image above, we can see the El Nino Condition

presence of a strong El Niño event Eastern Pacific == Coast of Peru and
(October, 1997). Ecuador == Warm Ocean Water ==
Fishing industry takes a hit.
Western Pacific == Indonesia and ENSO = [Warm water in Eastern Pacific

Australia == Cold Ocean Water == + Low Pressure over Eastern Pacific] +
Drought. [Cold water in Western Pacific + High
Pressure over Western Pacific].
How El Nino impacts monsoon rainfall
in India Southern Oscillation Index and Indian
Monsoons Page
 El Nino and Indian monsoon are inversely |
related.  SO is a see-saw pattern of meteorological
 The most prominent droughts in India - changes observed between the Eastern 244
six of them - since 1871 have been El Nino Pacific and Western Pacific.
droughts, including the recent ones in  When the pressure was high over
2002 and 2009 equatorial Eastern Pacific, it was low over
 However, not all El Nino years led to a the equatorial Western Pacific and vice
drought in India. For instance, 1997/98 versa.
was a strong El Nino year but there was  The pattern of low and high pressures
no drought (Because of IOD). gives rise to vertical circulation along the
 On the other hand, a moderate El Nino in equator with its rising limb over low
2002 resulted in one of the worst pressure area and descending limb over
droughts. high pressure area. This is known as
 El Nino directly impacts India's agrarian Walker Circulation.
economy as it tends to lower the  The location of low pressure and hence the
production of summer crops such as rice, rising limb over Western Pacific is
sugarcane, cotton and oilseeds. considered to be conductive to good
 The ultimate impact is seen in the form of monsoon rainfall in India.
high inflation and low gross domestic  Its shifting eastward from its normal
product growth as agriculture contributes position, such as in El Nino years, reduces
around 14 per cent to the Indian economy. monsoon rainfall in India.
 Due to the close association between an El
El Nino Southern Oscillation [ENSO] Nino (E.N.) and the Southern Oscillation
SO the two are jointly referred to as an
 The formation of an El Niño [Circulation ENSO event.
of Water] is linked with Pacific Ocean  The periodicity of SO is not fixed and
circulation pattern known as the its period varies from two to five years.
southern oscillation [circulation of  Southern Oscillation Index (SOD) is used
atmospheric pressure] to measure the intensity of the Southern
 Southern Oscillation, in oceanography and Oscillation.
climatology, is a coherent inter-annual  This is the difference in pressure between
fluctuation of atmospheric pressure Tahiti in French Polynesia (Central
over the tropical Indo-Pacific region. Pacific), representing the Central Pacific
 El Nino and Southern Oscillation coincide Ocean and Port Darwin, in northern
most of the times hence their combination Australia representing the Eastern Pacific
is called ENSO – El Nino Southern Ocean.
Oscillation.  The positive and negative values of the SOI
Only El Nino == [Warm water in Eastern i.e. Tahiti minus the Port Darwin pressure
Pacific + Cold water in Western Pacific]. are pointers towards good or bad rainfall
in India.
Only SO == [Low Pressure over Eastern
Pacific + High Pressure over Western
Pacific]
Positive SOI Negative SOI

Tahiti pressure greater than that of Port Darwin Reverse
Pressure high over eastern Pacific and low over Reverse
Drought conditions in Eastern Pacific and good rainfall in Reverse Page

Western Pacific (Northern Australia and Indonesia)
|
Good for Indian Monsoons Bad for Indian Monsoons 245
Indian Ocean Dipole effect (Not every El  With a positive IOD winds over the Indian
Nino year is same in India) Ocean blow from east to west (from Bay of
Bengal towards Arabian Sea). This results
 Although ENSO was statistically effective in the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean
in explaining several past droughts in near African Coast) being much warmer
India, in the recent decades the ENSO- and eastern Indian Ocean around
Monsoon relationship seemed to weaken Indonesia becoming colder and dry.
in the Indian subcontinent. For e.g. the  In the negative dipole year (negative IOD),
1997, strong ENSO failed to cause reverse happens making Indonesia much
drought in India. warmer and rainier.
 However, it was later discovered that just
like ENSO was an event in the Pacific
Ocean, a similar seesaw ocean-
atmosphere system in the Indian Ocean
was also at play. It was discovered in 1999
and named the Indian Ocean Dipole
(IOD).
 The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is defined
by the difference in sea surface
temperature between two areas (or
poles, hence a dipole) – a western pole in
the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean)
and an eastern pole in the eastern Indian
Ocean south of Indonesia.
 IOD develops in the equatorial region of
Indian Ocean from April to May peaking in
October.
 It was demonstrated that a positive IOD  Similar to ENSO, the atmospheric

index often negated the effect of ENSO, component of the IOD was later discovered
resulting in increased Monsoon rains in and named as Equatorial Indian Ocean
several ENSO years like the 1983, 1994 Oscillation [EQUINOO][Oscillation of
and 1997. warm water and atmospheric pressure
 Further, it was shown that the two poles between Bay of Bengal and Arabian
of the IOD - the eastern pole (around Sea].
Indonesia) and the western pole (off the
African coast) were independently and Impact on IOD on
cumulatively affecting the quantity of Cyclonogeneis in Northern
rains for the Monsoon in the Indian
subcontinent. Indian Ocean
 Negative IOD (Arabian Sea warmer than  The El Niño Modoki phenomenon is
Bay of Bengal) results in more cyclones characterized by the anomalously warm
than usual in Arabian Sea. central equatorial Pacific flanked by
 Positive IOD results in stronger than usual anomalously cool regions in both west and
cyclonogenesis in Bay of Bengal. east.
Cyclonogenesis in Arabian Sea is  Such zonal gradients result in anomalous Page
suppressed. two-cell Walker Circulation over the
tropical Pacific, with a wet region in the |
The El Niño Modoki central Pacific. 246
 El Niño Modoki is a coupled ocean- La Nina
atmosphere phenomenon in the tropical
Pacific.  After an El Niño event weather conditions
 It is different from another coupled usually return back to normal.
phenomenon in the tropical Pacific  However, in some years the trade winds
namely, El Niño. can become extremely strong and an
 Conventional El Niño is characterized by abnormal accumulation of cold water can
strong anomalous warming in the occur in the central and eastern Pacific.
eastern equatorial Pacific. This event is called a La Niña.
 Whereas, El Niño Modoki is associated  A strong La Niña occurred in 1988 and
with strong anomalous warming in the scientists believe that it may have been
central tropical Pacific and cooling in responsible for the summer drought over
the eastern and western tropical Pacific central North America. During this period,
(see figure below). the Atlantic Ocean has seen very active
hurricane seasons in 1998 and 1999.
 One of the hurricanes that developed,
named Mitch, was the strongest October
hurricane ever to develop in about 100
years of record keeping.
Effects of La Nina
 Some of the other weather effects of La

Niña include
1. abnormally heavy monsoons in India
and Southeast Asia,
2. cool and wet winter weather in
southeastern Africa, wet weather in
eastern Australia,
El Niño Modoki Impacts
3. cold winter in western Canada and 4. winter drought in the southern United
northwestern United States, States.
Page
|
247
Climatic Regions confirm that it falls to the ground –

empirical]
In this post: Koeppen’s scheme Of  Koeppen identified a close relationship
Classification Of Climate - Tropical Humid between the distribution of vegetation
Climates - Tropical Wet Climate [Hot, Wet and climate. He selected certain values of
Equatorial Climate, Equatorial Rainforest temperature and precipitation and
Climate, Equatorial Rainforests, related them to the distribution of
Equatorial Evergreen Forests, Tropical vegetation and used these values for
Moist Broadleaf Forest, Lowland classifying the climates.
Equatorial Evergreen Rainforest]  Koeppen recognized five major climatic
groups, four of them are based on
Koeppen’s scheme Of Classification Of temperature and one on precipitation.
Climate  The capital letters : A, C, D and E
delineate humid climates and B dry
 The most widely used classification of climates.
climate is the empirical climate  The climatic groups are subdivided into
classification scheme developed by V. types, designated by small letters, based
Koeppen. [empirical: verifiable by on seasonality of precipitation and
observation or experience rather than temperature characteristics.
theory or pure logic][when dropped, stone  The seasons of dryness are indicated by
falls to the ground – logic. Drop a stone to the small letters : f, m, w and s, where f
corresponds to no dry season, m -
monsoon climate, w - winter dry season  The B - Dry Climates are subdivided using
and s - summer dry season. the capital letters S for steppe or semi-
 The small letters a, b, c and d refer to the arid and W for deserts.
degree of severity of temperature.
Page
|
248
Page
|
249
Group A : Tropical Humid Climates 1. Af – Tropical wet climate;

2. Am – Tropical monsoon climate;
 Tropical humid climates exist between 3. Aw – Tropical wet and dry climate.
Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn.
 The sun being overhead throughout the
year and the presence of Inter Tropical
Convergence Zone (INTCZ) make the
climate hot and humid.
 Annual range of temperature is very low
and annual rainfall is high.
 The tropical group is divided into three
types, namely



ADMIN1: ADMIN2:
Tropical Wet Climate (Af)  There is no winter. [Typical to Equatorial

Rainforest Climate]
 Also known as ‘The Hot, Wet Equatorial  Cloudiness and heavy precipitation
Climate’, ‘Equatorial Rainforest moderate the daily temperature.
Climate’.  Regular land and sea breezes assist in
 The regions are generally referred as maintaining a truly equable climate. Page
‘Equatorial Rainforests’, ‘Equatorial  The diurnal range of temperature is small,
Evergreen Forests’, ‘Tropical Moist and so is the annual range. |
Broadleaf Forest’, ‘Lowland Equatorial 250
Evergreen Rainforest’. Precipitation
 Precipitation is heavy and well

distributed throughout the year.
 Annual average is always above 150 cm.
In some regions the annual average may
be as high as 250 – 300 cm.
 There is no month without rain (distinct
dry season is absent). The monthly
average is above 6 cm most of the times.
 There are two periods of maximum
rainfall, April and October. [shortly after
Distribution the equinox]. Least rain fall occurs in
June and December [solstice].
 Mostly between 5° N and S of Equator.  The double rainfall peaks coinciding
[little or no Coriolis Force == no tropical with the equinoxes are a characteristic
cyclones] feature of equatorial climates not found in
 Its greatest extent is found in the any other type of climate.
lowlands of the Amazon, the Congo,  There is much evaporation and
Malaysia and the East Indies. convectional air currents are set up,
followed by heavy thunderstorms in the
afternoons.
Climate Graphs
Equatorial Climate
 Dominated by Maritime Tropical air

masses.
Temperature
 Temperature is uniform throughout the

year.
 The mean monthly temperatures are
always around 27° C with very little
variation.
 From the air, the tropical rain forest

appears like a thick canopy of foliage,
broken only where it is crossed by large
rivers or cleared for cultivation.
 All plants struggle upwards (most
ephiphytes) for sunlight resulting in a Page
peculiar layer arrangement.
|
Epiphyte: An epiphyte is a plant that
grows harmlessly upon another plant 251
(such as a tree) and derives its moisture
and nutrients from the air, rain, and
sometimes from debris accumulating
around it.
Equatorial Vegetation
 High temperature and abundant rainfall

support a luxuriant tropical rain forest.
 The tallest trees attain a height close to 50
 In the Amazon lowlands, the forest is so
m.
dense that it is called ‘selvas'. [selvas: A
 The smaller trees beneath form the next
dense tropical rainforest usually having a
layer.
cloud cover (dense canopy)]
 The ground is rooted with ferns and
 Unlike the temperate regions, the growing
herbaceous plants which can tolerate
season here is all the year round-
shade.
seeding, flowering, fruiting and decaying
 Because the trees cut out most of the
do not take place in a seasonal pattern.
sunlight the undergrowth is not dense.
 The equatorial vegetation comprises a
multitude of evergreen trees that yield Multiple species
tropical hardwood, e.g. mahogany,
ebony, dyewoods etc. In spite of dense forests, countries in
 Many parts of the tropical rain forests equatorial regions are net importers of
have been cleared either for lumbering or timber. Comment.
shifting cultivation.
 In the coastal areas and brackish swamps,  Though the tropics have great potential in
mangrove forests thrive. timber resources, commercial extraction is
difficult.
Canopy  Multiple species of trees occur in a
particular area (trees do not occur in
homogenous stands or pure stands)
making commercial exploitation a difficult
task.
 Many of the tropical hardwoods (very
heavy) do not float readily on water and
this makes transportation an expensive
matter.
 It is therefore not surprising that many  The climate is very Favourable for the
tropical countries are net timber cultivation of certain crops that are highly
importers. valued in the industrial West. The most
important is natural rubber.
Life and Economy  Malaysia and Indonesia are the leading
producers. The home country, Brazil Page
Agriculture
exports practically no natural rubber.
 The forests are sparsely populated.  Cocoa is another important crop which is |
cultivated in West Africa, bordering the 252
 In the forests most primitive people live as
Gulf of Guinea. The two most important
hunter gatherers and the more advanced
producers are Ghana and Nigeria. All the
ones practice shifting cultivation.
cocoa here goes into American and
 Food is abundantly available. People
European chocolate industry.
generally don’t stock food for the next day.
 From the same area another crop, oil
Commercial palm, has done equally well and many
countries like Indonesia have now taken to
1. In the Amazon basin the Indian tribes its cultivation.
collect wild rubber,  Other important crops include coconuts,
2. in the Congo Basin the Pygmies gather sugar, coffee (Brazil), tea, tobacco, spices,
nuts and etc.
3. in the jungles of Malaysia the Orang Asli  The plantations resulted in the
make all sorts of cane products and sell destruction of nearly half of equatorial
them to people in villages and towns. [The forests.
names of the tribes come under Social
Geography – Prelims]
Shifting Cultivation or Slash and Burn

Cultivation.
 This type of cultivation is followed in many

parts of the world where dense forests are
common [In India, North-East is known
for this type of cultivation].
 Tribes cut the trees in a plot, burn them
and cultivate the plot till the fertility is
exhausted.
 Once the fertility is exhausted, the
clearing is abandoned and they move on to
a new plot. Such farming practices are
becoming more and more widespread even Plantations Regions
among backward tribes. Palm Malaysia,
 In the clearings for shifting cultivation, Indonesia
crops like manioc (tapioca), maize, Sugarcane Brazil
bananas and groundnuts are grown. Coffee Brazil
Rubber Malaysia,
Plantation Boom Indonesia
Cocoa Ghana, Nigeria
 With the coming of the Europeans, many Factors Affecting the Development of
large plantations have been established, Equatorial Regions
especially in Java, Sumatra, Malaysia,
West Africa and Central America. Equatorial climate and health
 Excessive heat (sun-stroke) and high  The few animals like buffaloes are kept
humidity creates serious physical and mainly for domestic use. Their yield in
mental handicaps. milk or beef is well below those of the
 High humidity feeds many tropical cattle in the temperate grasslands.
diseases such as malaria and yellow-fever.  In Africa, domesticated animals are
 Communicable diseases are rampant as attacked by tsetse flies that cause ngana, Page
germs and bacteria are transmitted a deadly disease.
through moist air. |
 Insects and pests not only spread diseases Mineral resources
253
but are injurious to crops.
 Gold, copper, diamonds, and other
Jungle hinders development precious metals and gemstones are
important resources that are found in
 The construction of roads and railways is rainforests around the world.
a risky business as workers are exposed to  Extracting these natural resources is a
wild animals, poisonous snakes, insects destructive activity that damages the
and most importantly tropical diseases. rainforest ecosystem.
 Once completed, they have to be  Examples are gold mining in the
maintained at a high cost. Brazilian and Peruvian Amazon, rare
earth mining in the Congo, and gold
Rapid deterioration of tropical soil and copper mining in Indonesia and
Papua New Guinea.
Why does restoration of lost forests
 Some of the world’s most promising oil
take decades in equatorial regions?
and gas deposits lie deep in tropical
 The fertility of top soil in rainforest regions rainforests. Oil and gas development
is very poor. Torrential downpours wash often takes a heavy toll on the
out most of the top soil nutrients environment and local people (This
[leaching == percolation and draining way happens in Ecuador).
of nutrients due to rain water action].  More than 70 percent of the Peruvian
 The soil deteriorates rapidly with Amazon is now under concession for oil
subsequent soil erosion and soil and gas.
impoverishment.
Questions
 It takes decades to replenish the soil of
lost nutrients. Q1
 So a seed doesn’t usually germinate and
even if it does, its development is hindered Assertion (A): Areas near the equator
due to little availability of sunlight. receive rainfall throughout the year.
 Lalang (tall grass) and thick
undergrowth spring up as soon as the Reason (R): High temperatures and high
trees are cut. They choke the restoration humidity cause convectional rain in
of forests. most afternoons near the equator.
 Indonesian island of Java is an exception In the context of the above two
because of its rich volcanic ashes. statements, which one of the following is
correct?
Difficulties in livestock farming
a) Both A and R are true and R is the
 Livestock farming is greatly handicapped correct explanation of A
by an absence of meadow grass. The
grass is so tall and coarse that it is not b) Both A and R true but R is not a correct
nutritious. explanation of A
c) A is true but R is false d) Tropical rain forest
d) A is false but R is true Q4
Q2 Assertion (A): Unlike temperate forests,

the tropical rain forests, if cleared, can
Assertion (A) : Areas lying within five to yield productive farmland that can Page
eight degrees latitude on either side of support intensive agriculture for
the equator receive rainfall throughout |
several years even without chemical
the year. fertilizers. 254
Reason (R) : High temperatures and Reason (R): The primary productivity of
high humidity cause convectional rain the tropical rain forest is very high
to fall mostly in the afternoons near when compared to that of temperate
the equator. [2003] forests. [2003]
a) Both A and R are individually true and a) Both A and R are individually true and
R is die correct explanation of A R is the correct explanation of A.
b) Both A and R are individually true but b) Both A and R are individually true but
R is not the correct explanation o f A R is not the correct explanation of A
c) A is true but R is false c) A is true but R is false
d) A is false but R is true d) A is false but R is true
Q3 Consider the following statements:
A geographic area with an altitude of [2010]
400 metres has following 1. Biodiversity hotspots are located only in
characteristics. [2010] tropical regions.
2. India has four biodiversity hotspots i.e.,
Eastern Himalayas, Western Himalayas,
Western Ghats and Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
a) 1 only
If this geographic area were to have a b) 2 only

natural forest, which one of the following
would it most likely be? c) Both 1 and 2
a) Moist temperate coniferous forest d) Neither I nor 2
b) Montane subtropical forest Biodiversity Hotspots Across the World
c) Temperate forest
Page
|
255
What type of climate is characterized Convergence Zone (INTCZ) make the

by two periods of maximum rainfall? climate hot and humid.
Explain why this is so.  Annual range of temperature is very low
and annual rainfall is high.
 Equatorial Rainforest. Sun is overhead  The tropical group is divided into three
during Equinoxes. So the ITCZ passes types, namely
twice over the region. 1. Af- Tropical wet climate [Done in
Write brief notes on any three of the previous post];
following statements about the 2. Am - Tropical monsoon climate [This
equatorial regions. post];
3. Aw- Tropical wet and dry climate [Next
 Large-scale livestock farming is least Post].
developed in wet equatorial areas.
Tropical Monsoon Climate
 The greatest single drawback to
commercial lumbering in equatorial
 Monsoons are land and sea breezes on a
regions is inaccessibility.
much larger scale.
 The equatorial environment is best suited
 Unlike equatorial wet climate, monsoon
to plantation agriculture (Good rainfall,
climate is characterized by distinct wet
humid climate, cheap labour, good
and dry seasons associated with seasonal
markets in Europe and North America).
reversal of winds.
In this post : Tropical Monsoon Climate,  Floods in wet season and droughts in dry
Tropical Marine Climate and Tropical season are common.
Monsoon Forests.  Usually there are three seasons namely
summer, winter and rainy season.
Group A : Tropical Humid Climates
 Tropical humid climates exist between

Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn.
 The sun being overhead throughout the
year and the presence of Inter Tropical
Distribution of Tropical Monsoon  Temperatures range from 30-45° C in

Climate summer. Mean summer temperature is
about 30°C.
 Occur within 5° to 30° N and S of the  In winters, temperature range is 15-30° C
equator. with mean temperature around 20-25° C.
 On-shore [sea to land] tropical monsoons
Precipitation Page
occur in the summer and off-shore [land
to sea] dry monsoons in the winter. |
 They are best developed in the Indian sub-  Annual mean rainfall ranges from 200-250
continent, Burma, Thailand, Laos, cm. In some regions it is around 350 cm. 256
Cambodia, parts of Vietnam and south  Places like Cherrapunji & Mawsynram
China and northern Australia. receive an annual rainfall of about 1000
cm. [They lie on the windward side of the
Meghalaya hills, so the resulting
orographic lift (orographic rainfall)
enhances precipitation. Also, they are
located between mountains which
enhances cloud concentration due to
funneling effect].
Climate
 The basic cause of monsoon climates is

the difference in the rate of heating and
cooling of land and sea (This is old theory.
New theory will be explained while
studying Indian Climate).
 In the summer, when the sun is overhead
at the Tropic of Cancer, a low pressure is Seasons
created in Central Asia.
 The seas, which warm up much slower,  Seasons are chief characteristics of
remain comparatively at high pressure. At monsoon climate.
the same time, the southern hemisphere
experiences winter, and a region of high The cool, dry season (October to
pressure is set up in the continental February)
interior of Australia.
 Winds blow outwards as the South-East  Out blowing dry winds, the North-East
Monsoon, to Java, and after crossing the Monsoon, bring little or no rain to the
equator are drawn towards the continental Indian sub-continent.
low pressure area reaching the Indian  However, a small amount of rain falls in
sub-continent as the South-West Monsoon Punjab from cyclonic sources (Western
(Coriolis force). Disturbances: Frontal precipitation
 In the winter, conditions are reversed. brought by jet streams) and this is vital for
the survival of winter cereals.
Temperature  North-East Monsoons blowing over the
Bay of Bengal acquires moisture and bring
 Monthly mean temperatures above 18 °C. rains to the south-eastern tip of the
peninsula at this time of the year (Nov-
Dec).
The hot dry season (March to mid-June) Africa, Madagascar, the Guinea Coast and
eastern Brazil.
 The temperature rises sharply with the  The rainfall is both orographic where the
sun’s northward shift to the Tropic of moist trades meet upland masses as in
Cancer. eastern Brazil, and convectional due to
 Day temperatures of 35° C are usual in intense heating during the day and in Page
central India and the mean temperature in summer.
Sind and south India may be as high as  Its tendency is towards a summer |
44° C. maximum without any distinct dry period. 257
 Coastal districts are a little relieved by sea  Due to the steady influence of the trades,
breezes. There is practically little rain. the Tropical Marine Climate is more
[Hailstorms (thunderstorms with hail) Favourable for habitation, but it is prone
occurs here and there] to severe tropical cyclones, hurricanes
or typhoons.
The rainy season (mid-June to
September) Climate Graph
 With the ‘burst’ of the South-West

Monsoon in mid-June, torrential
downpours sweep across the
country. Almost all the rain for the
year falls within this rainy season.
 This pattern of concentrated
heavy rainfall in summer is a
characteristic feature of the
Tropical Monsoon Climate.
The Retreating Monsoon
 The amount and frequency of rain

decreases towards the end of the rainy
Tropical Monsoon Forests
season. It retreats gradually southwards
after mid-September until it leaves the Drought-deciduous forest; dry forest;
continent altogether. dry-deciduous forest; tropical
 The skies are clear again and the cool, dry deciduous forest.
season returns in October, with the out
blowing North-East Monsoon.  Broad-leaved hardwood trees. Well
developed in southeast Asia.
The role of monsoons in India is vital for  Trees are normally deciduous, because of
its economy.
the marked dry period, during which they
Tropical Marine Climate shed their leaves to withstand the drought
[They shed their leaves to prevent loss
 Outside the monsoon zone, the climate is water through transpiration].
modified by the influence of the on-shore  The forests are more open and less
Trade Winds all the year round. This type luxuriant than the equatorial jungle and
of climate is called Tropical Marine there are far fewer species.
Climate. Such a climate has a more  Where the rainfall is heavy, e.g. in
evenly distributed rainfall. southern Burma, peninsular India,
 Such a climate is experienced in Central northern Australia and coastal regions
America, West Indies, north-eastern with a tropical marine climate, the
Australia, the Philippines, parts of East resultant vegetation is luxuriant.
 With a decrease in rainfall in summer, the The following types of agriculture are
forests thin out into thorny scrubland or recognizable.
savanna with scattered trees and tall
grass. Crops
 In parts of the Indian sub-continent,
 Rice is the most important staple crop.
rainfall is so deficient that semi-desert
 Irrigation water from rivers, canals, dams Page
conditions are found in summer.
or wells is extensively used in the major |
Monsoonal vegetation is thus most varied,
rice producing countries.
ranging from forests to thickets, and from
savanna to scrubland.  Other food crops like maize, millet, 258
sorghum, wheat, gram and beans are of
Population and Economy in Monsoon subsidiary importance. They are cultivated
Climate in the drier or cooler areas where rice
cannot be grown.
 Monsoon climatic regions support high
population density. Lowland cash crops
 Income levels are low as most of these
 The most important crop in this category
regions are underdeveloped or developing.
is cane sugar.
 Subsistence farming is the main
 As much as two-thirds of world’s sugar
occupation. (crops grown with an
production comes from tropical countries.
intention to secure food for the season.
 Some of the major producers include
The crops are not sold as the production is
India, Java, Formosa, Cuba, Jamaica,
very low).
Trinidad and Barbados.
 Intensive cultivation is common in regions
 Jute is confined almost entirely to the
with irrigational facilities.
Ganges - Brahmaputra delta, in India and
 Shifting cultivation is followed in North-
Bangladesh.
East India and South-East countries.
 Other crops include cotton, a major
 Major crops include rice, sugar, cotton,
commercial crop of the Indian sub-
jute, spices, etc..
continent.
 Cattle and sheep rearing is carried out for
domestic and commercial purposes. Highland plantation crops
Livestock industry is not as profitable as
in temperate regions.  The colonization of tropical lands by
Europeans gave rise to a new form of
Agricultural Development in the cultivated landscape in the cooler
Monsoon Lands monsoonal highlands.
 Thousands of acres of tropical upland
 Much of the monsoon forest has been
forests were cleared to make way for
cleared for agriculture to support the very
plantation agriculture in which tea and
dense population. Subsistence agriculture
coffee are the most important crops.
is the major occupation.
 Farms are small and the people are forever Coffee
‘land hungry.’ Industrialization make
things worse.  Coffee originated in Ethiopia and Arabia.
 Tropical agriculture dependent on natural  But Brazil accounts for almost half the
rainfall and a large labour force, reaches world’s production of coffee.
its greatest magnitude in the monsoon  It is mainly grown on the eastern slopes of
lands. the Brazilian plateau.
 Farming is the dominant occupation of the  The crop is also cultivated on the highland
Indian sub-continent, China, South- East slopes in the Central American states,
Asia, eastern Brazil and the West Indies. India and eastern Java.
Tea furniture and other constructional

purposes.
 Tea originated in China and is still an
important crop there. Shifting Cultivation
 It requires moderate temperatures
(about 15° C), heavy rainfall (over 150  This most primitive form of farming is
widely practiced. Page
cm) and well drained highland slopes.
 It thrives well in the tropical monsoon  Instead of rotating the crops in the same |
zone (highlands). field to preserve fertility, the tribesmen
 The best regions are thus the Himalayan move to a new clearing when their first 259
foothills of India and Bangladesh, the field is exhausted.
central highlands of Sri Lanka and  Maize, dry padi, sweet potatoes and some
western Java, from all of which it is beans are the most common crops.
exported.  Farming is entirely for subsistence, i.e.
 In China tea is grown mostly for local everything is consumed by the farmer’s
consumption. family, it is not traded or sold.
 As tropical soils are rapidly leached and
Lumbering easily exhausted, the first crop may be
bountiful but the subsequent harvests
 Most of the forests yield valuable timber, deteriorate.
and are prized for their durable  Shifting cultivation is so widely practiced
hardwood. amongst indigenous peoples that different
 Lumbering is undertaken in the more local names are used in different
accessible areas. This is particularly countries.
important in continental South-East Asia.
 Of the tropical deciduous trees, teak, of Region Name of Shifting
which Burma is the leading producer, is Cultivation
perhaps the most sought after. It is Malaysia Lacking
valuable on account of its great Burma Taungya
durability, strength, immunity to Thailand Tamrai
shrinkage, fungus attack and insects. Philippines Caingin
 Teak logs are so heavy that they will not Java Humah
float readily on water. It is therefore Sri Lanka Chena
necessary to ‘poison’ the tree several years Africa and Central Milpa
before actual felling, so that it is dry and America
light enough to be floated down the North-east India Jhum
Chindwin and the Irrawaddy to reach the Can be a [tough] prelims question under
saw mills at Rangoon. social geography.
 Other kinds of timber include Neem,
Banyan, Mango, Teak, Sal, Acacia, Questions
Eucalyptus
Explain the following statements.
 Together with the forests are bamboo
thickets, which often grow to great (a) The east coasts of continents within
heights. the tropics have much heavier
Teak rainfall than the interiors or the
west coasts [Hint: Easterly trade
 Burma alone accounts for as much as winds].
three – quarters of the world’s production. (b) Near the equatorial latitudes, the
 It is such a durable timber that it is period of maximum rainfall is
extensively used for ship building, closely related to the movements of
the overhead sun [Hint: Inter- Distribution of Savanna Climate

Tropical Convergence Zone shifts
according to the apparent  It is confined within the tropics and is best
movement of the Sun]. developed in Sudan, hence its name the
(c) There is a marked difference in Sudan Climate.
temperature between the east and  It is a transitional type of climate found Page
west coasts of countries in latitudes between the equatorial rainforests and
20° to 35°N [Hint: Ocean currents]. hot deserts. |
The seasonal reversal of winds is African Savanna 260

the typical characteristic of
1. Equatorial climate  The belt includes West African Sudan,
2. Mediterranean climate and then curves southwards into East
3. Monsoon climate Africa and southern Africa north of the
4. All of the above climates Tropic of Capricorn.
In this post: Savanna Climate or Tropical South American Savanna

Wet and Dry Climate or Sudan Climate,
Distribution of Savanna Climate, Savanna  There are two distinct regions namely the
Climate, Natural Vegetation of Savanna llanos of the Orinoco basin [north of
Climate and Life and Economy in the equator] and the compos of the Brazilian
Savanna. Highlands [South of equator].
Savanna Climate or Tropical Wet and Australian savanna

Dry Climate or Sudan Climate
 The Australian savanna is located south of
the monsoon strip (northern Australia)
running from west to east north of the
Tropic of Capricorn.
Indian Savanna
 Certain parts across Northern Karnataka,

Southern Maharashtra and Telangana
exhibit characteristics of both semi-arid
and savanna climate.
 Due to irrigation and cultivation, this
region is different from other savanna
 This type of climate has alternate wet regions.
and dry seasons similar to monsoon
climate but has considerably less annual
rainfall.
 Also, there is no distinct rainy season
like in monsoon climate.
[Only two seasons – winter and summer.

Rains occur in summer].
 Floods and droughts are common.

 Vegetation, wildlife and human life are
quite different from monsoon climate
regions.
Page
|
261
Savanna Climate  Days are hot and nights are cold. This
extreme diurnal range of temperature is
Rainfall another characteristic feature of the
Sudan type of climate.
 Mean annual rainfall ranges from 80 –
160 cm [Rainfall decreases with distance Winds
from equator].
 In the northern hemisphere, the rainy  The prevailing winds of the region are the
season begins in May and lasts till Trade Winds, which bring rain to the
September. coastal districts.
 In the southern hemisphere, the rainy  They are strongest in the summer
season is from October to March. [favorable position of ITCZ] but are
relatively dry by the time they reach the
Temperature continental interiors or the western coasts
[Trade winds are easterlies – flow from
 Mean annual temperature is greater than east to west. So rainfall decreases from
18° C. east to west here].
 The monthly temperature hovers between  In West Africa, the North-East Trades, in
20° C and 32° C for lowland stations. fact, blow off-shore [continent to sea] from
 Highest temperatures do not coincide the Sahara Desert and reach the Guinea
with the period of the highest sun (e.g. coast as a dry, dust-laden winds.
June in the northern hemisphere) but
occur just before the onset of the rainy What is the reason for alternating wet
season, i.e. April in Northern Hemisphere and dry seasons in Savanna type
and October in Southern Hemisphere. climate?
 On shore winds is summer bring rains.  Trees usually have broad trunks, with
 Off-shore winds in winter keep the climate water-storing devices to survive through
dry. the prolonged drought.
 Many trees are umbrella shaped, exposing
Natural Vegetation of Savanna Climate only a narrow edge to the strong winds.
 In true savanna lands, the grass is tall Page
 The savanna landscape is typified by tall and coarse, growing 6 to 12 feet high. The
grass and short trees. elephant grass may attain a height of |
 The grasslands are also called as ‘bush- even 15 feet.
veld’. 262
 Grasses appear greenish and well-
 The trees are deciduous, shedding their nourished in the rainy season but turns
leaves in the cool, dry season to prevent yellow and dies down in the dry season
excessive loss of water through that follows.
transpiration, e.g. acacias.  As the rainfall diminishes towards the
deserts the savanna merges into thorny
scrub.
Animal Life of the Savanna  Many tribes live in savanna region. Tribes
like the Masai tribes of the East African
 The savanna is known as the ‘big game plateau are pastoralists whereas Hausa of
country’ as thousands of animals are northern Nigeria are settled cultivators.
trapped or killed each year by people from  The old grazing grounds of Masai tribes in
all over the world. the Kenyan Highlands were taken over by
 There are two main groups of animals in the immigrant white settlers for plantation
the savanna, the grass-eating herbivorous agriculture (coffee, tea, cotton) and dairy
animals and the fleshing-eating farming.
carnivorous animals.  The cattle kept by the Masai are kept
 The herbivorous include the zebra, entirely for the supply of milk. They don’t
antelope, giraffe, deer, gazelle, elephant slaughter cattle for meat. Agriculture is
etc. [most of the National geographic and barely practiced.
Animal Planet documentaries on wild  The Hausa are a tribe of settled cultivators
animals are shot in savanna regions] and who inhabit the savanna lands of the
carnivorous animals include the lion, Nigeria. They are more advanced in their
tiger, leopard, hyena, panther, jaguar, civilization.
jackal etc..  They do not practice shifting cultivation.
 Species of reptiles and mammals including Instead, they clear a piece of land and use
crocodiles, alligators, giant lizards live it for several years.
together with the larger rhinoceros and
hippopotamus in rivers and marshy lakes. Crops in Savanna
Life and Economy in the Savanna  Settlements in central Africa, northern

Australia and eastern Brazil have shown
that the savannas have immense
agricultural potential for plantation largest cattle producing state. Both meat
agriculture of cotton, cane sugar, coffee, and milk are exported.
oil palm, groundnuts and even tropical
fruits. QUESTIONS
 Tropical Queensland, despite its scarcity
of labour force has been very successful in Explain why
Page
developing its huge empty land.  The savanna is the natural home of
 Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and Malawi |
cattle.
have already taken to large-scale  Rainfall in the Sudan Climate is 263
production of cotton. concentrated in the summer.
 In West Africa, the commercial cultivation
of groundnuts, oil palm and cocoa have Which one of the following is the
been gradually extended into the savanna characteristic climate of the Tropical
lands. Savannah Region? [2012]
 In the cooler highlands, temperate crops
have been successfully raised. 1) Rainfall throughout the year
2) Rainfall in winter only
Farming 3) An extremely short dry season
4) A definite dry and wet season
 Droughts are long due to unreliable
rainfall. In this post: Desert Climate, Hot Desert
 Political instability hinders the Climate, Mid-Latitude Desert Climate and
development of agricultural infrastructure. Life in the Deserts.
 The Sudan Climate, with distinct wet- B: Desert Climate
and-dry periods is also responsible for the
rapid deterioration of soil fertility.  Deserts are regions where evaporation
 During the rainy season, torrential exceeds precipitation.
downpours of heavy rain cause leaching of  There are mainly two types – hot like the
nitrates, phosphates and potash. hot deserts of the Saharan type and
 During the dry season, intense heating temperate as are the mid-latitude deserts
and evaporation dry up most of the water. like the Gobi.
 Many savanna areas therefore have poor
lateritic soils which are incapable of Hot Desert Climate
supporting good crops.
 The aridity of the hot deserts is mainly
Cattle rearing due to the effects of off-shore Trade
Winds, hence they are also called Trade
 The savanna is said to be the natural Wind Deserts.
cattle country and many of the native  The major hot deserts of the world are
people are pastoralists. located on the western coasts of
 But the quality of grass doesn’t support continents between latitudes 15° and
large scale ranching. 30°N. and S (Question asked in Previous
 Grasses here are no match to nutritious Mains Exam).
and soft grasses of temperate grasslands.  They include the biggest Sahara Desert
 The cattle varieties are also poor and yield (3.5 million square miles), Great
little meat or milk. Australian Desert, Arabian Desert,
 The export of either beef or milk from the Iranian Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari
tropical grasslands is so far not important. and Namib Deserts.
 Few regions progressed with the
adaptation of science and technology.
Queensland has become Australia’s
Page
|
264
 In North America, the desert extends from  The temperate deserts are rainless
Mexico into U.S.A. and is called by because of either continentiality or rain-
different names at different places, e.g. the shadow effect. [Gobi desert is formed
Mohave, Sonoran, Californian and due to continentiality and Patagonian
Mexican Deserts. desert due to rain-shadow effect]
 In South America, the Atacama or  Amongst the mid-latitude deserts, many
Peruvian Desert (rain shadow effect and are found on plateau and are at a
off-shore trade winds) is the driest of all considerable distance from the sea. These
deserts with less than 2 cm of rainfall are Ladakh, The Kyzyl Kum, Turkestan,
annually. Taklimakan and Gobi deserts of Central
Asia, drier portions of the Great Basin
Desert of the western United States and
Patagonian Deserts of Argentina etc..
 The Patagonian Desert is more due to its
rain-shadow position on the leeward side
of the lofty Andes than to continentiality.
Desert Climate
Rainfall (Both Hot and Cold deserts)
 Deserts, whether hot or mid-latitude have

an annual precipitation of less than 25
cm.
 Atacama (driest place on earth) has
practically no rain at all.
 Rain normally occurs as violent
thunderstorms of the convectional type.
 It ‘bursts’ suddenly and pours
continuously for a few hours over small
Mid-Latitude Desert Climate areas.
 The thunderstorm is so violent, and comes Chilean coast is so pronounced that the
so suddenly that it has disastrous mean annual rainfall for the Atacama
consequences on desert landforms [flash Desert is not more than 1.3 cm.
floods].
Temperature of Hot deserts
Major hot deserts in northern
hemisphere are located between 20-30  There is no cold season in the hot deserts Page
degree north and on the western side of and the average summer temperature is |
the continents. Why? high around 30°C.
 The highest temperature recorded is 265
57.77° C in 1922 at A1
Azizia, Libya.
 The reasons for the high
temperatures are obvious—a
clear, cloudless sky, intense
insolation, dry air and a rapid
rate of evaporation.
 Coastal deserts by virtue of
their maritime influence and
the cooling effect of the cold
currents have much lower
temperatures.
 The desert interiors, however,
 The hot deserts lie along the Horse
experience much higher summer
Latitudes or the Sub-Tropical High
temperatures and the winter months are
Pressure Belts where the air is
rather cold.
descending, a condition least favorable for
 The diurnal range of temperature in the
precipitation of any kind to take place.
deserts is very great. Intense insolation by
 The rain-bearing Trade Winds blow off-
day in a region of dry air and no clouds
shore and the Westerlies that are on-
causes the temperature to rise with the
shore blow outside the desert limits.
sun.
 Whatever winds reach the deserts blow
 But as soon as the sun sets, the land loses
from cooler to warmer regions, and their
heat very quickly by radiation and the
relative humidity is lowered, making
mercury levels drop.
condensation almost impossible.
 High diurnal temperature range is a
 There is scarcely any cloud in the
typical feature of hot deserts. Average
continuous blue sky. The relative
diurnal range varies from 14 to 25°
humidity is extremely low, decreasing from
Celsius.
60 per cent in coastal districts to less than
 Frosts may occur at night in winter.
30 per cent in the desert interiors. Under
such conditions, every bit of moisture is Climatic Conditions in the Mid-Latitude
evaporated and the deserts are thus deserts
regions of permanent drought.
Precipitation is both scarce and most  These inland basins lie hundreds of miles
unreliable. from the sea, and are sheltered by the
 On the western coasts, the presence of high mountains all around them. As a
cold currents gives rise to mists and fogs result they are cut off from the rain-
by chilling the on-coming air. This air is bearing winds.
later warmed by contact with the hot land,  Occasionally depressions may penetrate
and little rain falls. The desiccating effect the Asiatic continental mass and bring
of the cold Peruvian Current along the light rainfall in winter. Due to their
coldness and elevation, snow falls in  The seeds of many species of grasses and
winter. herbs have thick, tough skins to protect
 The annual range of temperature is much them while they lie dormant.
greater than that of the hot deserts.
Continentiality accounts for these Life in the Deserts
extremes in temperature.
 Winters are often severe, freezing lakes  Despite its inhospitality, the desert has Page
and rivers, and strong cold winds blow all always been peopled by different groups of |
the time. When the ice thaws in early inhabitants.
266
summer, floods occur in many places. Tribe Desert Occupation
Desert Vegetation Bedouin Arabia nomadic
Arabs herdsmen
Tuaregs Sahara nomadic
herdsmen
Gobi Gobi nomadic
Mongols herdsmen
Bushmen Kalahari primitive
hunters and
collectors.
Bindibu Australia primitive
hunters and
collectors.
The settled cultivators
 The predominant vegetation of both hot  The life-giving waters of the Nile made it
and mid-latitude deserts is xerophytic or possible for the Egyptians to raise many
drought-resistant. crops as early as 5,000 years ago.
 This includes the cacti, thorny bushes,  Modem concrete dams constructed across
long-rooted wiry grasses and scattered the Nile e.g. Aswan and Sennar Dams
dwarf acacias. improved agriculture.
 Trees are rare except where there is  In the same way, desert cultivators rely on
abundant ground water to support the Indus in Pakistan, the Tigris-
clusters of date palms. Euphrates in Iraq, and the Colorado in
 Along the western coastal deserts washed the Imperial Valley of California.
by cold currents as in the Atacama Desert,  In the deserts, wherever there are oases,
support a thin cover of vegetation. some form of settled life is bound to follow.
 Intense evaporation increases the salinity These are depressions of varying sizes,
of the soil so that the dissolved salts tend where underground, water reaches the
to accumulate on the surface forming hard surface.
pans [Bajada, Palaya].  Some of them are abnormally large like
 Absence of moisture retards the rate of the Tafilalet Oasis in Morocco which
decomposition and desert soils are very measures 5,000 square miles.
deficient in humus.  A wall is usually constructed around the
 Most desert shrubs have long roots and oasis to keep out the violent dust storms
are well spaced out to gather moisture, called simooms.
and search for ground water. Plants have  The most important tree is the date palm.
few or no leaves and the foliage is either The fruit is consumed locally and also
waxy, leathery, hairy or needle-shaped exported.
to reduce the loss of water through
transpiration.
 Other crops cultivated include maize,  way of life

barley, wheat, cotton, cane sugar, fruits
and vegetables. Explain any three of the following.
The mining settlers  The hot deserts of the world are located on
the western coasts of continents.
 It was gold that brought immigrants  Patagonia is a desert in the rain shadow of Page
scrambling into the Great Australian the Andes. |
Desert.  The annual range of temperature is much
 Some of them like Kalgoorlie and greater at Kashgar (Gobi) than at Iquique 267
Coolgardie have become towns of (Atacama).
considerable size.
Write brief notes on any three of these
 In the Kalahari Desert, the discovery of
topics.
diamonds and copper has brought many
white men to the ‘thirstland’ as it is called.  Date palm cultivation in an oasis.
 Even in the most arid Atacama, in  The role of oil in the development of desert
northern Chile, large mining camps have economy.
been established for the mining of caliche
(cemented gravels) from which sodium In this post: Steppe Climate or Temperate
nitrate, a valuable fertilizer, is extracted Continental Climate or Temperate
and exported to all parts of the world. Grassland Climate, Natural Vegetation of
 Besides nitrates, copper is also mined. Steppe Climate, Economic Development of
Chuquicamata is the world's largest Steppes and Maps: Savanna Grasslands
copper town. and Steppe Grasslands.
 Similarly in the deserts of North America,
silver is mined in Mexico, uranium in Utah Steppe Climate or Temperate
and copper in Nevada. Continental Climate or Temperate
Grassland Climate
 In recent years, the discovery of oil, in
many parts of the Saharan and Arabian
Deserts has transformed this forgotten
part of the globe.
 Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Algeria,
Libya, Lebanon, Nigeria etc. are important
oil producing desert countries.
QUESTIONS
Explain how the aridity of the desert is

related to Distribution
 off-shore Trade Winds  They lie in the interiors of the

 the Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belts (the continents.
Horse Latitudes)  Lie in the Westerly wind belt [mid-
 cold ocean currents latitudes or temperate region].
 Grasslands are practically treeless due to
Bring out any distinct differences continentiality [deep within the interiors of
between the hot deserts and mid- the continents where rain bearing winds
latitude deserts in don’t reach].
 climate  In Eurasia, they are called the Steppes,
and stretch eastwards from the shores of
 vegetation
the Black Sea to the foothills of the Altai Mountains. [2,000 miles long belt].
Name of the Temperate Grassland Region
Pustaz Hungary and surrounding regions
Prairies North America [between the foothills of the
Rockies and the Great Lakes]
Pampas Argentina and Uruguay [Rain-shadow effect] Page
Bush-veld (more tropical) Northern South Africa
|
High Veld (more temperate) Southern South Africa
Downs Australia: Murray-Darling basin of southern 268
Australia
Canterbury New Zealand
Steppe Climate  The average rainfall may be taken as

about 45 cm, but this varies according to
Temperature location from 25 cm to 75 cm.
 The heaviest rain comes in June and July
 Climate is continental with extremes of (late spring and early summer).
temperature.  Most of the winter months have about an
 Temperatures vary greatly between 2.5 cm of precipitation, brought by the
summer and winter. occasional depressions of the Westerlies
 The summers are hot and the winters are and coming in the form of snow.
cold.  The maritime influence in the southern
 Summers are very warm, over 18 – 20° C. hemisphere causes more rainfall.
 The steppe type of climate in the southern
hemisphere is never severe. Chinook: Local winds in Steppe regions
Precipitation  On the eastern slopes of the Rockies in

Canada and U.S.A. a local wind, similar to
the Fohn in Switzerland, called the
Chinook, comes in a south-westerly  Polewards, an increase in precipitation

direction to the Prairies and has a gives rise to a transitional zone of wooded
considerable effect on the local pastures. steppes where some conifers gradually
 It actually comes with the depressions in appear.
winter or early spring from the Pacific  In the cultivated regions, such as the
coast ascending the Rockies and then wheat farms of the Prairies, double rows of Page
descending to the Prairies [katabatic trees are planted around the house to
wind]. shield the occupants from the strong |
 It is a hot wind and may raise the wind. 269
temperature by 5° C within a matter of 20
minutes. Animals
 It melts the snow-covered pastures and  Does not have much animal diversity.
animals can be driven out of doors to
 Horses are common in Asian Steppes.
graze in the open fields. The agricultural
year is thus accelerated. Economic Development of Steppes
 Local farmers welcome the Chinook for
frequent. Chinooks [Snow eaters] mean Wheat and Maize Cultivation
mild winters.
 Cultivation was unknown just before a
[Other important Local Winds in different century and the region was one of the
regions: Loo, Mistral, Sirocco, Foehn etc.] most sparsely populated parts of the
Natural Vegetation of Steppe Climate world.
 In recent years, the grasslands have been
Grasses ploughed up for extensive, mechanized
wheat cultivation and are now the
 Greatest difference from the tropical ‘granaries of the world’ [Prairies].
savanna is that steppes are practically  Besides wheat, maize is increasingly
treeless and the grasses are much cultivated in the warmer and wetter areas.
shorter.
 Grasses are tall, fresh and nutritious. Ranching
This is typical of the grass of the wheat-
lands in North America, the rich black  The tufted grasses have been replaced by
earth or chernozem areas of Russian the more nutritious Lucerne or alfalfa
Ukraine and the better watered areas of grass for cattle and sheep rearing.
the Asiatic Steppes.  These temperate grasslands are now the
 Where the rainfall is light or unreliable, or leading ranching regions of the globe.
the soil is poor, as in the continental Nomadic herding in Asian Steppes
interiors of Asia the short steppe type of
grass prevails.  This type of migratory animal grazing has
 The grasses are not only shorter but also almost disappeared from the major
wiry [lean, tough] and sparse [thinly dispersed or grasslands. The herders were wandering
scattered]. tribes e.g. the Kirghiz, and the Kazakhs.
 These areas are less suitable for arable  The harsh environment of the nomads,
farming and are used for some form of with long droughts and unreliable showers
ranching as in the High Plains of U.S.A. made the Kirghiz a tough and fearless
 The growth of grasses is not abruptly people, and they long resisted subjugation
checked by summer droughts or winter by the Russians.
cold.  Now, however, under the Communist
regime they are being forced to settle
Trees
down.
 The steppes have been made into huge Australia, agriculture is completely
collective farms and state farms for mechanized.
ranching or producing cereals.
Pastoral farming
Extensive mechanized wheat
cultivation  The natural conditions suit animal
farming. Page
 The temperate grasslands are ideal for  With the development of refrigerated ships |
extensive wheat cultivation. in the late nineteenth century, the
 The level ness of the Steppes and other temperate grasslands became major 270
temperate grasslands all over the world pastoral regions, exporting large quantities
makes ploughing and harvesting a of beef, mutton, wool, hides.
comparatively easy job.  Milk, butter, cheese and other dairy
 In the Prairies, the Argentinian Pampas, products are also important in some parts
the Ukrainian Steppes and the Downs of of the North American grasslands.
Grassland Major Economic Activity
Prairies Wheat Granaries
Extensive Ranching
Pustaz Rich black soil

Abundant wheat production
Sugar from Sugar beet [Beta vulgaris, is a plant whose root
contains a high concentration of sucrose]
Countries like Hungary, Ukraine, Romania etc.
Pampas Alfalfa: nutrient rich grass.
Ranching, cattle rearing; Dairy products
Extensive wheat producing region
Economy depends on wheat and beef export
Downs and Canterbury Sheep and Cattle rearing,
Merino sheep: wool production
Veldts Maize farms
Sheep and Cattle rearing
QUESTIONS (d) Australian Downs: sheep grazing
Compare and contrast tropical and Explain why

temperate grasslands in respect of
When Chinooks are more frequent in the
(a) their seasonal responses to climatic Prairies, the winters are milder.
changes
Maps: Savanna Grasslands and Steppe
(b) their economic importance
Grasslands
For any three of them, give a reasoned
account
(a) Asiatic Steppes: nomadic herding

(b) Canadian Prairies: spring wheat
cultivation
(a) Argentine Pampas: beef cattle ranching
(c) S. African Veld: maize growing
Page
|
271
In this post: Mediterranean Climate or

Warm Temperate Western Margin Climate
or Warm Temperate West Coast Climate,
Local winds in Mediterranean Climate,
Natural Vegetation in Mediterranean
Climate and Agriculture of the
Mediterranean Climate.
Mediterranean Climate or Warm

Temperate Western Margin Climate or
Warm Temperate West Coast Climate
Distribution
 Entirely confined to the western portion of

continental masses, between 30° and 45°
north and south of the equator.
 The basic cause of this type of climate is
the shifting of the wind belts.
 Mediterranean Sea has the greatest extent
of this type of ‘winter rain climate’, and
gives rise to the name Mediterranean
Climate.
 The best developed form of this climatic
type is found in central Chile.
Page
|
272
 Other Mediterranean regions include not likely to reach the Mediterranean

1. California (around San Francisco), lands.
2. the south-western tip of Africa (around  The prevailing Trade Winds [tropical
Cape Town), easterlies] are off-shore and there is
3. southern Australia, and south-west practically no rain.
Australia (Swanland).  Strong winds from inland desert regions
pose the risk of wildfires.
Mediterranean Climate
Rainfall in winter with on-shore
Clear skies and high temperatures; hot, Westerlies
dry summers and cool, wet winters.
 The Mediterranean lands receive most of
 Mean annual precipitation ranges from 35 their precipitation in winter when the
- 90 cm. Westerlies shift equator wards.
 Temperature of warmest month greater  In the northern hemisphere, the prevailing
than or equal to 10⁰ C. on-shore Westerlies bring much cyclonic
 Temperature of coldest month is less than rain from the Atlantic (Typical to
18⁰ C but greater than –3⁰ C Mediterranean Climate).
 Climate is not extreme because of cooling  The rain comes in heavy showers and
from water bodies. only on a few days with bright sunny
periods between them. This is another
A dry, warm summer with off-shore
characteristic feature of the Mediterranean
trades
winter rain.
 In summer when the sun is overhead at  Though the downpours are infrequent
the Tropic of Cancer, the belt of influence they are often very torrential and in
of the Westerlies is shifted a little pole mountainous districts, destructive floods
wards. Rain bearing winds are therefore occur.
Climate Graphs Mistral
 Mistral is a cold wind from the north,

rushing down the Rhone valley in violent
gusts between 40 and 80 miles per hour.
 The velocity of the Mistral is intensified by
Page
the funneling effect in the valley between
the Alps and the Central Massif [Plateau |
in France].
273
Local winds of the Mediterranean

Climate
 Many local winds, some hot, others cold

are common around the Mediterranean
Sea.  A similar type of cold north-easterly wind
experienced along the Adriatic coast is
Sirocco called the Bora.
 Tramontane and Gregale are similar cold
 This is a hot, dry dusty wind which winds of the Mediterranean Sea.
originates in the Sahara Desert.
 It is most frequent in spring and normally Natural Vegetation in the
lasts for only a few days. Mediterranean Climate
 The Sirocco blows outwards in a southerly
direction (south to north) from the desert  Trees with small broad leaves are widely
interiors into the cooler Mediterranean spaced and never very tall.
Sea.  The absence of shade is a distinct feature
 After crossing the Mediterranean Sea, the of Mediterranean lands.
Sirocco is slightly cooled by the absorption  Plants are in a continuous struggle
of the water vapour. against heat, dry air, excessive
 Its scorching heat withers evaporation and prolonged droughts. They
[To dry up or shrivel from loss of moisture] are, in short xerophytic [drought
vegetation and crops. tolerant], a word used to describe the
 This may be ‘blood rain’ because the wind drought-resistant plants in an
is carrying the red dust of the Sahara environment deficient in moisture.
Desert.
 Even if grasses do survive, they are so

wiry [lean, tough] and bunchy that they are
not suitable for animal farming.
 Cattle rearing is thus unimportant in the
Mediterranean.
Agriculture in the Mediterranean Page

Climate |
Orchard farming 274
 The Mediterranean lands are also known

Mediterranean evergreen forests as the world’s orchard lands.
 A wide range of citrus fruits such as
 These are open woodlands with evergreen oranges, lemons, limes, citrons and
oaks. grapefruit are grown.
 They are found only in the climatically  The fruit trees have long roots to draw
most favored regions. water from considerable depths during the
 The trees are normally low, even stunted, long summer drought.
with massive trunks, small leathery leaves  The thick, leathery skin of the citrus fruits
and a wide-spreading root system in prevents excessive transpiration.
search of water.  The long, sunny summer enables the
 The cork oaks are specially valued for fruits to be ripened and harvested.
their thick barks, used for making wine-  The Mediterranean lands account for 70
bottle corks and for export around the per cent of the world’s exports of citrus
world. fruits.
 In Australia, the eucalyptus forests  The olive tree is probably the most typical
replace the evergreen oak. of all Mediterranean cultivated vegetation.
 The giant redwood is typical of the  Olive oil extracted is a valuable source of
Californian trees. cooking oil in a region deficient in animal
fat.
Evergreen coniferous trees  Besides olives, many nut trees like
chestnuts, walnuts, hazelnuts and
 These include the various kinds of pines, almonds are grown and the nuts picked as
firs, cedars and cypresses which have fruits or for the chocolate industry.
evergreen, needle-shaped leaves and tall,
straight trunks. Crop cultivation and sheep rearing
Mediterranean bushes and shrubs  Wheat is the leading food crop. Barley is
the next most popular cereal.
 This is perhaps the most predominant  The mountain pastures, with their cooler
type of Mediterranean vegetation. climate, support a few sheep, goats and
sometimes cattle.
Grass
 Transhumance is widely practiced
 Conditions in the Mediterranean do not (moving up and down the hills in search of
suit grass, because most of the rain pastures according to seasons).
comes in the cool season when growth is Wine production
slow.
 Viticulture is by tradition a
Mediterranean occupation.
 Regions bordering the Mediterranean Sea The above features are distinct
account for three-quarters of the world’s characteristics of which one of the following
production of wine. regions?
 Some 85 per cent of grapes produced, go
into wine. (a) Mediterranean
 The long, sunny summer allows the (b) Eastern China Page
grapes to ripen.
(c) Central Asia |
Economy
(d) Atlantic coast of North America 275
Net exporter of citric fruits and net
importer of dairy products. In this post: Warm Temperate Eastern
Margin Climate: Temperate monsoon
 Clear skies in summer and good Climate or China Type Climate, Gulf Type
landscapes encourage tourism [Lot of Climate and Natal Type Climate.
Indian Songs are shot here].
 European Mediterranean has many Warm Temperate Eastern Margin
ancient cities and are famous for their Climate
health and pleasure resorts, frequented by
millions all-round the year.  Different variants of Warm Temperate
Eastern Margin Climate include the
Questions 1. Temperate monsoon Climate or China
Type Climate,
Give an explanatory account of the 2. Gulf Type Climate and
following statements about economic 3. Natal Type Climate.
activities of the Mediterranean lands.  Found between 20° and 35° N and S
latitude (warm temperate latitudes just
1. Orchard farming is the predominant outside the tropics); on the east coast in
occupation. both hemispheres.
2. The chief cereal cultivated is hard, winter
wheat. China Type
3. Pastoral farming is of little importance.
 Temperate Monsoon or China Type climate
Write geographical notes on any three is observed in most parts of China. The
of the following. climate is also observed in southern parts
1. The Mediterranean Climate is typified by of Japan.
dry, sunny summers and wet, mild Gulf Type
winters.
2. Hot, dusty Sirocco and cold stormy  Found in south-eastern U.S.A., bordering
Mistral. the Gulf of Mexico where continental
3. Mediterranean woodlands, shrubs and heating in summer induces an inflow of
scrub. air from the cooler Atlantic Ocean.
4. Three-quarters of the world’s wine comes
from the Mediterranean regions of Europe. Natal Type
A geographic region has the following  Found in in New South Wales (Australia),
distinct characteristics: [2010] Natal (South Africa), Parana-Paraguay-
Uruguay basin (South America).
1. Warm and dry climate
 Natal type is different from temperate
2. Mild and wet winter
monsoon or China type as it receives
3. Evergreen Oak trees
rainfall from on-shore Trade Winds all  Though frosts are rare they occasionally
the year round. occur in the colder interiors.
Precipitation
 Rainfall is more than moderate, anything

from 60 cm to 150 cm. Page
 This is adequate for all agricultural |
purposes and hence supports a wide
range of crops. 276
 Areas which experience this climate are
Climate
very densely populated.
 There is the fairly uniform distribution
 Characterized by a warm moist summer
of rainfall throughout the year.
and a cool, dry winter (one exception:
 Rain comes either from convectional
winters are also moist in Natal Type).
sources or as orographic rain in summer,
Temperature or from depressions in prolonged showers
in winter.
 The mean monthly temperature varies  In summer, the regions are under the
between 4° C and 25° C and is strongly influence of moist, maritime airflow
modified by maritime influence. from the subtropical anticyclonic cells.
 Occasionally, the penetration of cold air  Local storms, e.g. typhoons (tropical
(Polar Vortex) from the continental cyclones), and hurricanes, also occur.
interiors may bring down the temperature
to freezing point. Summer in Northern Hemisphere
Summer in Southern Hemisphere
Page
|
277
Variations of Warm Temperate Eastern  Monsoon does not ‘burst’ as suddenly, nor
Margin Climate ‘pour’ as heavily as in India.
 Typhoons form mostly in late summer,
Climate type Feature from July to September.
China type Temperate Winter
monsoonal
 In winter, there is intense pressure over
Gulf type Slight-monsoonal Siberia and the continental polar air
stream flows outwards as the North-West
Natal type Non-monsoonal
Monsoon, bitterly cold and very dry.
Climate Graphs  There is little rain but considerable snow
on the windward slopes.
 Another climatic feature associated with
the China type of climate in southern
China is the occurrence of typhoons.
The Gulf type
 Monsoonal characteristics are less

intense compared to China type.
 There is no complete seasonal wind
reversal.
 Hurricanes occur in September and
The China type October.
The Natal type

Summer
 Intense heating within interiors (Tibet,  The narrowness of the continents and the
desert region) sets up a region of low dominance of maritime influence
pressure in summer attracting tropical eliminate the monsoonal elements.
Pacific air stream (South-East Monsoon).
 The South-East Trade Winds bring about dairying

a more even distribution of rainfall
throughout the year Farming in monsoon China
Natural Vegetation  A third of the world’s rice is grown in

China, though the huge population leaves
 Supports a luxuriant vegetation. very little for export. Page
 The lowlands carry both evergreen broad-  Monsoon China has all the ideal |
leaved forests and deciduous trees conditions for padi cultivation; a warm
[hardwood]. 278
climate, moderately wet throughout the
 On the highlands, are various species of year, and extensive lowlands with fertile
conifers such as pines and cypresses moisture-retentive alluvial soil, which if
which are important softwoods. necessary, can be easily irrigated.
 Perennial plant growth is not checked by  As the flat lands are insufficient for rice
either a dry season or a cold season. cultivation, farmers move up the hill-
slopes and grow padi on terraced uplands.
Timber
Agriculture in the Gulf states
 The forests of China and southern Japan
also have considerable economic value  Lack of population pressure and the urge
and include oak, camphor, etc.. to export gave rise to corn, cotton and
 South-eastern Brazil, eastern Paraguay, tobacco.
north-eastern Argentina have Parana pine,
and the quebracho (axe-breaker, an Corn
extremely hard wood used for tanning).
 The humid air, the sunny summer and the
 Eastern Australia have Eucalyptus forests.
heavy showers suit the crop well.
 In Natal palm trees thrive.
 It is grown right from the Gulf coast to the
 The Gulf states of U.S.A. have lowland
Mid-west south of the Great Lakes, with
deciduous forests.
the greatest concentration in the Corn Belt
Economic Development of Nebraska, Iowa, Indiana and Ohio.
 The region accounts for more than half the
Region Major Cropping world’s production of corn, but only 3 per
Patterns cent of the world’s export.
 This is because most of the corn is used
South-Eastern -Rice, tea and mulberries for fattening animals, mostly cattle and
China (sericulture) pigs. [Thriving beef and pork industry]
 The fattened animals are then sold to the
-Sericulture is declining meat plants in Chicago and Cincinnati to
be processed into ‘corned beef’. [From
South-Eastern -Widespread cultivation
here the beef is exported through Great
USA of maize and cotton in
Lakes and St Lawrence water way]
the Corn and Cotton
Belts of U.S.A  Apart from its ease of cultivation, corn’s
most outstanding feature is its prolific
-Fruit and tobacco are yield.
also grown  It gives almost twice as much food (mainly
starch) per acre as wheat or other cereals.
Natal, South Sugarcane  This explains why it is so widely cultivated
Africa in both the warm temperate and the
tropical latitudes.
South America Coffee and maize and
Cotton  Further north in southern Brazil, the

rainfall increases to more than 120 cm
 Of the cash crops grown in the Gulf states, and forest gradually replaces grass.
none is comparable with cotton.  Here the important occupations are the
 The Gulf type of climate is undoubtedly cultivation of yerba mate (Paraguay tea)
the best for cotton growing. and the lumbering of araucaria or Parana Page
 Its long, hot growing season with 200 days pine. Cattle and sheep are reared, and
frost free and a moderately high maize and cane sugar are grown. |
temperature permits the crop to grow  In eastern Australia, Giant eucalyptus 279
slowly and mature within six months. trees rise one above the other right up the
 In the very south, in the Gulf-lands, the Eastern Highlands.
heavy rainfall damages the lint. This area  But with the influx of European
is therefore less suitable for cotton and is immigrants, much of the forest has been
devoted to citrus fruits, cane sugar and cleared for settlement and dairying.
market gardening, as in Florida.  The eastern margin of New South Wales is
 The commercial cultivation of cotton is now the chief source of Australia’s milk,
now concentrated only in the most butter and cheese, besides cotton, cane
favorable areas which are the Mississippi sugar and maize which are increasingly
flood plains and Atlantic coastlands. grown in the north.
 The most dreaded enemy of the Cotton
Belt is the boll-weevil. The pest multiplies QUESTIONS
rapidly. The pest is responsible for the
westward migration of the Cotton Belt. Give a reasoned account of any two of
the following.
Tobacco
(a) Cotton cultivation in the United States of
 Native crop of America. America.
 Virginia tobacco is famous. (b) Padi growing in monsoon China.
 The humid atmosphere, the warmth and(c) Dairying in eastern Australia.
the well-drained soils of the Gulf states,(d) Lumbering in Canada.
enable tobacco to be successfully
Give an explanatory account of any
cultivated in many of the eastern states of
three of the following.
U.S.A.
 No less than half the tobacco that enters(a) Local storms (e.g. typhoon, hurricane,
international trade comes from these pampero) are often associated with the
states. Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate.
(b) U.S.A. accounts for more than 50 per cent
Crop in Southern Hemisphere of world production of corn (i.e. maize) but
only 3 per cent of world exports.
 In the coastlands of Natal, cane sugar is
(c) Farming in monsoon China is usually on a
the dominant crop, followed by cotton
subsistence basis, and the peasants are
and tobacco in the interior.
permanently ‘land-hungry’.
 Maize is extensively cultivated for use both
as food and animal fodder for cattle In this post: British Type Climate or Cool
rearing. Temperate Western Margin Climate or
 In South America where rainfall is less North-West European Maritime Climate,
than 120 cm, there is much grassland on Natural Vegetation in British Type Climate
which many cattle and sheep are kept for and Economy in British Type Climate.
meat, wool and hides.
 The extensive natural pastures provide British Type Climate
valuable forage for both cattle and sheep.
 Westerlies come all the year round. the on-shore Westerlies from penetrating
 There is a tendency towards an autumn or far inland]
winter maximum of rainfall.
Southern Hemisphere
 Light snow falls in winter.
 Ports are never frozen but frosts do occur
 The climate is experienced in southern
on cold nights.
Chile, Southern Australia, Tasmania Page
 The seasons are very distinct . and most parts of New Zealand.
 And the climate is very favorable for |
maximum human output. British Type Climate 280
British Type Climate or Cool Temperate  Moderately warm summers and fairly mild
Western Margin Climate or North-West winters.
European Maritime Climate.  Rainfall occurs throughout the year
 The cool temperate western margins are with winter maxima.
under the influence of the Westerlies Temperature
all-round the year.
 They are the regions of frontal cyclonic  The mean annual temperatures are
activity [Temperate Cyclones]. usually between 5° C and 15° C.
 This type of climate is typical to Britain,  Winters are abnormally mild. This is
hence the name ‘British Type’. because of the warming effect brought by
 Also called as North-West European warm North Atlantic Drift.
Maritime Climate due to greater oceanic  Sometimes, unusual cold spells are
influence. caused by the invasion of cold polar
continental air (Polar Vortex) from the
Distribution of British Type Climate
interiors.
Precipitation
 The British type of climate has adequate

rainfall throughout the year with a
tendency towards a slight winter
maximum (due to frontal cyclones).
 Western margins have the heaviest rainfall
due to westerlies.
Europe
 Most pronounced in and around Britain.

 In Europe the climate extends inland some
2,000 km.
 Climatic belt stretches far inland into the
lowlands of North-West Europe (northern
and western France, Belgium, the
Netherlands, Denmark, western Norway
and also north-western Iberia).
 Relief can make great differences in the
North America annual amount. This is particularly
significant in New Zealand where the
 Confined mainly to the coastlands of western margins are subjected to heavy
British Columbia. [high Rockies prevent orographic rainfall whereas the eastern
Canterbury plains receive comparatively  The trees shed their leaves in the cold
less rainfall due to rain-shadow effect. season.
 This is an adaptation for protecting
The seasons themselves against the winter snow and
frost.
 As in other temperate regions there are
 Shedding begins in autumn, the ‘fall’ Page
four distinct seasons.
season.
 Winter is the season of cloudy skies, foggy
 Some of the common species include oak, |
and misty mornings, and many rainy days
elm, ash, birch, beech, and poplar. 281
from the passing depressions.
 In the wetter areas grow willows (Light
 Spring is the driest and the most
weight cricket bats are made from willows.
refreshing season when people emerge
In India willows are found in Kashmir).
from the depressing winter to see
 Higher up the mountains in the
everything becoming green again.
Scandinavian highlands, the Rockies,
 This is followed by the long, sunny
southern Andes and the Southern Alps of
summer.
New Zealand, the deciduous trees are
 Next is the autumn with the roar of gusty
generally replaced by the conifers which
winds; and the cycle repeats itself.
can survive a higher altitude, a lower
 This type of climate with its four distinct temperature and poorer soils.
seasons is something that is
conspicuously absent in the tropics. Economy in British Type Climate
[Rainforest == Only Rainy season, Tropical
Monsoon == Summer, Winter and Rainy, Lumbering is quite profitable
Tropical Savanna == Summer (rains) and
Winter]  Unlike the equatorial forests, the
deciduous trees occur in pure stands
Climate Graph British Type Climate and have greater lumbering value.
 The open nature of the forests with sparse
undergrowth is useful in logging
operations.
 Easy penetration means much cost can
be saved in the movement of the logs.
 The deciduous hardwoods are excellent
for both fuel and industrial purposes.
 In Tasmania, the temperate eucalypts
are also extensively felled for the
lumbering industry.
 Higher up the mountains, conifers
(softwood) are felled and transported to
paper and pulp industry. They are
extensively used in cardboard making.
Industrialization
 The regions are highly industrialized with

Natural Vegetation in British Type high standard of living.
Climate  The countries are concerned in the
production of machinery, chemicals,
 The natural vegetation of this climatic type textiles and other manufactured articles
is deciduous forest. rather than agriculture, fishing or
lumbering, though these activities are well mainland Australia. It is no wonder the
represented in some of the countries. Australians nicknamed Tasmania the
 Fishing is particularly important in ‘garden state’.
Britain, Norway and British Columbia.
 Britain, France and Germany have Mixed farming
significant mineral resources and are
 With the rise of industry, more arable Page
heavily industrialized.
farms are being devoured by factories and |
 Ruhr region in Germany, Yorkshire,
wheat is now a net import item in
Manchester and Liverpool regions in 282
Europe.
Britain are significant for wide ranging
 Throughout north-western Europe,
manufacturing industries.
farmers practice both arable farming
 Automobile industry is the most
(cultivation of crops on ploughed land) and
significant. (BMW, Volkswagen, Audi,
pastoral farming (keeping animals on
Mercedes-Benz and many other world
grass meadows).
leading car manufacturers have their
 Amongst the cereals, wheat is the most
headquarters in Germany).
extensively grown, almost entirely for
 Industries based on dairy products thrive
home consumption.
in Denmark, Netherlands and New
 The next most important cereal raised in
Zealand.
the mixed farm is barley. The better
 Tasmania is important for merino wool
quality barley is sold to the breweries for
production. Wool produced here is
beer-making or whisky distilling.
exported to textile factories in England,
 The most important animals kept in the
Japan, China etc..
mixed farm are cattle.
Agriculture  The countries bordering the North Sea
(Britain, Denmark, the Netherlands) are
 A large range of cereals, fruits and root some of the most advanced dairying
crops are raised, mainly for home countries where cattle are kept on a
consumption rather than for export. scientific and intensive basis.
 North-West Europe, which includes some
of the most crowded parts of the globe, Dairying
has little surplus for export. It is, in fact, a
 The temperate western margin type of
net importer of food crops, especially
climate is almost ideal for intensive
wheat.
dairying.
Market gardening  Cheese is a specialized product of the
Netherlands.
 All the north-western European countries  From Denmark and New Zealand comes
are highly industrialized and have high high-quality butter.
population densities. There will normally  Milk is converted to cream, which is less
be great demand for fresh vegetables, perishable than fresh milk and is
eggs, meat, milk and fruits. exported to all regions across the globe.
 As the crops are perishable, a good  Fresh milk is converted into various forms
network of transport is indispensable. The of condensed or evaporated milk, and
produce are shipped by high speed trucks exported around the world for baby-
(truck farming, which is commonly used feeding, confectionery, ice-cream and
in the United States) chocolate making.
 In Australia, high-speed boats ply across
the Bass Strait daily from Tasmania to Beef cattle
rush vegetables, tomatoes, apples and
beans to most of the large cities in
 Besides dairying, some cattle are kept as  In Tasmania and southern Chile, sheep
beef cattle. rearing has always been a predominant
 In Argentina or Australia, meat production occupation with surplus sheep products
is the primary concern. for the international trade.
 The high rate of beef consumption in
Europe necessitates large imports of Other agricultural activities
Page
frozen and chilled beef.
 Amongst the food crops, potatoes feature |
 The pigs and poultry act as scavengers
prominently in the domestic economy of
that feed on the left-overs from root-crops 283
the cool temperate regions.
and dairy processes. In this way, Denmark
 It is the staple food in supplementing
is able to export large quantities of bacon
wheat or bread for millions of people.
[cured meat from the back or sides of a
pig] from pigs that are fed on the  In terms of starch, potato yields far more
skimmed milk, a by-product of butter- food than any cereals and can be
making. cultivated over a wide range of climatic
and soil types.
Sheep rearing  Today almost two-thirds of the world’s
annual production of potatoes comes from
 Sheep are kept both for wool and mutton. Europe, of which Poland, Germany,
 Britain is the home of some of the best France and UK are the major producers.
known sheep breeds.
 With the greater pressure exerted on land Beet Sugar
by increased urbanization,
 Found almost exclusively in north-western
industrialization and agriculture, sheep
Europe (including European Russia) and
rearing is being pushed further and
parts of U.S.A.
further into the less favored areas.
 The need for such a crop was greatly felt
 Britain was once an exporter of wool (But
during the Napoleonic Wars around 1800
now it imports from Australia). But today
when military blockades caused a scarcity
exports only British pedigree animals to
of sugar.
the newer sheep lands of the world
(Australia).  The beet is crushed for sugar and the
green tops are used as animal fodder.
 In the southern hemisphere, sheep rearing
is the chief occupation of New Zealand,  The crop thrives best in the warmer and
with its greatest concentration in the drier east of Britain and in mainland
Canterbury Plain [The rain shadow Europe. The highest sugar yield is
region]. It has been estimated that for obtained when the autumn is both dry
every New Zealander there are 20 sheep. and sunny.
 Favourable conditions include extensive QUESTIONS
meadows, a mild temperate climate, well-
drained level ground, scientific animal Write a geographical account of the
breeding, the development of refrigeration following economic activities.
–enables chilled Canterbury lamb and
Corriedale mutton to reach every corner of  Mixed farming
the globe.  Beet sugar cultivation
 Though New Zealand has only 4 per cent  Cool temperate orchard farming
of the world’s sheep population, it  Sheep rearing
accounts for two-thirds of the world’s  Woollen textile industry
mutton exports, and one sixth of world
wool exports. Give an explanatory account of any two
of the following.
 Sheep outnumber the population of New Absent in Southern Hemisphere

Zealand by 20:1.
 No country produces and exports more  Narrowness of the southern continents in
wool than Australia. the high latitudes is the main reason.
 Market-gardening is a product of  The strong oceanic influence reduces the
urbanization. severity of the winter.
Page
 Coniferous forests are found only on the
Taiga Climate or Boreal Climate or mountainous uplands of southern Chile, |
Siberian Climate or Cool Temperate New Zealand, Tasmania and south-east 284
Continental Climate or Continental Sub- Australia.
Polar Climate, Natural Vegetation of Taiga
Climate, Coniferous forests and Taiga Climate
Lumbering.
Taiga Climate or Boreal Climate
Temperature
 Summers are brief and warm reaching 20-

25 °C whereas winters are long and
brutually cold – always 30-40 °C below
freezing.
 Annual temperature range of the Siberian
Climate is the greatest [Almost 50-60 °C
in Siberia].
Boreal Climate OR Taiga Climate OR
 Some of the lowest temperatures in the
Siberian Climate OR Cool Temperate
world are recorded in Verkhoyansk (68°N.
Continental Climate OR Continental
113°E) where -67 °C was once recorded.
Sub-Polar Climate.
 In North America, the extremes are less
 Found only in the northern hemisphere severe, because of the continent’s lesser
[due to great east-west extent. Absent in east-west stretch.
the southern hemisphere because of the  All over Russia, nearly all the rivers are
narrowness in the high latitudes]. frozen. In normal years, the Volga is ice-
 Experienced in the regions just below covered for about 150 days.
Arctic circle.  Occasionally cold, northerly polar local
 On its poleward side, it merges into the winds such as the blizzards of Canada
Arctic tundra. and buran of Eurasia blow violently.
 The climate fades into the temperate  Permafrosts [a thick subsurface layer of soil that
Steppe climate. remains below freezing point throughout the year] are
generally absent as snow is a poor
Distribution conductor of heat and protects the
ground from the severe cold above.
 It stretches along a continuous belt
across central Canada, some parts of Precipitation
Scandinavian Europe and most of
central and southern Russian. [50° to  Maritime influence in the interiors is
70° N] absent.
 Frontal disturbances might occur in  Softwood is used in building construction,

winter. furniture, matches, paper and pulp,
 Typical annual precipitation ranges from rayon and other branches of the chemical
38 cm to 63 cm. industry.
 It is quite well distributed throughout  The world’s greatest softwood producers
the year, with a summer maxima are Russia, U.S.A., Canada and the Page
[convectional rain in mid-summer – 15 °C Fenoscandian countries (Finland,
to 24 °C] Norway and Sweden). |
 In winter the precipitation is in the form of  In the production of wood pulp (by both 285
snow, as mean temperatures are well chemical and mechanical methods), the
below freezing all the time. U.S.A. is the leader.
 But in the field of newsprint, Canada
Climate Graph of Taiga Climate accounts for almost half of the world’s
total annual production.
 There are four major species in the
coniferous forests – Pine, Fir, e.g. Douglas
fir and balsam fir; Spruce and Larch.
 Their presence in pure stands and the
existence of only a few species are a great
advantage in commercial forest
exploitation.
 Relatively inaccessible taiga of Siberia will
remain the richest reserve of temperate
softwood.
Natural Vegetation of Taiga Climate Characteristics of Coniferous forests
 The predominant vegetation is evergreen  Unlike the equatorial rain forests,

coniferous forest. Coniferous forests are of moderate
 The conifers, which require little moisture density and are more uniform. The trees
are best suited to this type of sub-Arctic in coniferous forests grow straight and
climate. tall.
 The greatest single band of the coniferous  Almost all conifers are evergreen. There is
forest is the taiga (a Russian word for no annual replacement of new leaves as in
coniferous forest) in Siberia. deciduous trees.
 In Europe the countries that have a  The same leaf remains on the tree for as
similar type of climate and forests are long as five years. Food is stored in the
Sweden and Finland. trunks, and the bark is thick to protect
 There are small amounts of natural the trunk from excessive cold.
coniferous forest in Germany, Poland,  Conifers are conical in shape. Their
Switzerland, Austria and other parts of conical shape and sloping branches
Europe. prevent snow accumulation. It also offers
 In North America, the belt stretches from little grip to the winds.
Alaska across Canada into Labrador.  Transpiration can be quite rapid in the
warm summer. So, leaves are small, thick,
Softwood trees leathery and needle-shaped to check
excessive transpiration.
 The coniferous forest belts of Eurasia and  The soils of the coniferous forests are
North America are the richest sources of poor. They are excessively leached and
softwood. very acidic. Humus content is also low as
the evergreen leaves barely fall and the  The vast reserves of coniferous forests
rate of decomposition is slow. Under- provide the basis for the lumbering
growth is negligible because of the poor industry.
soil conditions.  Lumberjacks: Contract laborers called
 Absence of direct sunlight and the short lumber jacks used to temporarily move to
duration of summer are other contributory the forest regions to fell the trees. Now Page
factors. felling is done by machines.
 Coniferous forests are also found in  Rivers for transportation: The soft wood |
regions with high elevation [Example: The logs easily float on rivers. Hence rivers are 286
forests just below the snowline in used to transport logs to the sawmills
Himalayas]. located down the stream.
 But on very steep slopes where soils are  Sawmilling: Logs are processed in saw
immature or non-existent, even the conifer mills into timber, plywood, and other
cannot survive [Example: Southern slopes constructional woods.
of Greater Himalayas].  Paper and pulp industry: Timber is
pulped by both chemical and mechanical
Economic Development of Taiga Region means to make wood pulp. Wood pulp is
the raw material for paper-making and
 Lot of coniferous forests in the northern newsprint.
hemisphere are still untouched due to
 Canada and U.S.A. are leading suppliers
remoteness.
of newsprint and wood pulp respectively.
 Only a small fraction of coniferous forests
 As a fuel: Very little softwood is burnt as
in Canada, Russia etc. are exploited
fuel as its industrial uses are far more
leaving a huge potential for the future.
significant.
 More accessible forests are cleared for
 As an industrial raw material: In
lumbering on a large scale.
Sweden, matches form a major export
 Agriculture is most unlikely as few crops item.
can survive in the sub-Arctic climates.
 From other temperate countries, timber is
Trapping used for making furniture, wood- carvings,
toys, packing cases etc..
 Many fur-bearing animals are trapped in  From the by-products of the timber, many
northerly lands of Canada and Eurasia. chemically processed articles are derived
 Wherever the cold is severe, the quality such as rayon turpentine, varnishes,
and thickness of the fur increases. paints, dyes, liquid resins, wood-alcohols,
 The most severe winters produce the finest disinfectants and cosmetics.
furs.
Factors that favor lumbering
 In Canada trappers and hunters, armed
with automatic rifles, reside in log cabins Coniferous forests is characterized by the
in the midst of the coniferous forests to following favorable features for Lumbering.
track down these animals.
 Muskrat, ermine, mink, and silver fox are  The conifers are limited in species. Pine,
the most important fur-bearing animals. spruce and fir in the northern forests and
 To ensure a more regular supply of furs larch in the warmer south are the most
many fur farms have been established in important.
Canada and Siberia.  Unlike rainforests, they occur in
homogeneous groups [Pure stands]. This
Lumbering saves time, costs and enhances the
commercial value of the felled timber.
 This is the most important occupation of
the Siberian type of climate.
 Lumbering is normally carried out in the

winter when the sap ceases to flow. This
makes felling much simpler.
 The snow-covered ground makes logging In this post: Laurentian Climate or Cool
and haulage [commercial transport of goods] a Temperate Eastern Marine Climate,
relatively easy job. Natural Vegetation - Laurentian Climate, Page
 The logs are dragged to the rivers and float Economic Development – Laurentian
to the saw-mills downstream when the |
Climate: Fishing in Grand Banks regions
rivers thaw [unfreeze] in spring. This has (Newfoundland) and Fishing off Japan. 287
greatly assisted the lumbering industry in
eastern Canada and Sweden. Laurentian Climate or Cool Temperate
 Lumbering is quite easy in Canada, Eastern Marine Climate
Norway and Sweden as the rivers are not
frozen for a greater part of the year. But in  Intermediate type of climate between the
Russian taiga most of Siberian rivers drain British Type Climate (moderate) and the
poleward into the Arctic Ocean which is Taiga Type Climate (extreme) of climate.
frozen for three-quarters of the year, and  It has features of both the maritime and
there are few saw-mills there. the continental climates.
 With the use of the Northern Sea Route,
which links Murmansk and Vladivostok Distribution of Laurentian Climate
via the Arctic Ocean, development is
 Laurentian type of climate is found only in
increasing.
two regions and that too only in the
 Cheap hydro-electricity for driving the
northern hemisphere.
saw-mills is harnessed in the
mountainous uplands of North America
and Europe and has greatly assisted the
lumbering industry.
QUESTIONS
Which one among the following covers

the highest percentage of forest area in
the world? [2003]
(a) Temperate coniferous forests

(b) Temperate deciduous forests North American region
(c) Tropical monsoon forests
(d) Tropical rain forests  North-eastern North America, including
 Distinguish between hardwoods and eastern Canada, north-east U.S.A., and
softwoods. What industrial uses are Newfoundland. This may be referred to as
made of them? Account for their large the North American region.
scale production for export in any one
Asiatic region
country.
 What is meant by  Eastern coastlands of Asia, including
(a) the taiga eastern Siberia, North China,
(b) the veld Manchuria, Korea and northern Japan.
(c) the selvas
 Describe the role played by forest
products in the economy of either
Canada or Sweden. Absent in Southern Hemisphere
 In the southern hemisphere only a small eastern regions causing wet conditions in
section of continents extends south of winter [vital for the agricultural activities].
40°S latitude.  Convergence of the warm Gulf Stream and
 Some of these small sections come under the cold Labrador Current near
the rain-shadow region of Andes Newfoundland produces dense mist and
(Patagonia) and hence Westerlies hardly fog and gives rise to much precipitation. Page
ever reach these regions.  It is said that Newfoundland experiences
 So these regions are subjected |
to aridity rather than 288
continentiality.
 In other regions, the oceanic
influence is so profound that
neither the continental nor
the eastern margin type of
climate exists.
Laurentian Climate
Temperature
 Characterized by cold, dry more drizzles than any other part of the
winters and warm, wet summers. world.
 Winter temperatures is below freezing-
point and snow fall is quite natural. The Asiatic region
 Summers are as warm as the tropics (~25
°C).  Rainfall distribution of the Asiatic region is
far less uniform when compared to North
Precipitation American Region.
 Winters are cold and very dry while
 Rainfall occurs throughout the year with summers are very warm and
summer maxima [easterly winds from the exceptionally wet.
oceans bring rains]  The rainfall regime resembles the tropical
 Annual rainfall ranges from 75 to 150 cm monsoon type in India.
[two – thirds of rainfall occurs in the  Intense heating of the mountainous
summer]. interior of China in summer creates a
 Dry Westerlies that blow from continental region of extreme low pressure, and
interiors dominate winters. moisture-laden winds from the Pacific
Ocean and the Sea of Japan blow in as the
The North American region
South-East Monsoon.
 In summer, prolonged heat waves cause  Thus the Laurentian type of climate in
discomfort. China is often described as the Cool
 In winter, the temperature drops below Temperate Monsoon Climate.
freezing and snowfall occurs.  It has a very long, cold winter, and a large
 Precipitation occurs all-round the year annual range of temperature.
due to the influence of Atlantic ocean  Much of the winter precipitation in
(summer) and the Great Lakes (winter). northern China, Korea and Hokkaido,
 The warm Gulf Stream increases the Japan, is in the form of snow.
moisture of easterly winds. Japan
 The prevailing Westerlies carry
depressions over the Great Lakes towards
 The climate of Japan is modified by the  The predominant vegetation is cool

meeting of warm and cold ocean temperate forest.
currents.  The heavy rainfall, the warm summers
 It receives adequate rainfall from both the and the damp air from fogs, all favor the
South-East Monsoon in summer and the growth of trees.
North- West Monsoon in winter (western  Forest tend to be coniferous north of the Page
coasts of Japan) 50°N latitude.
 The warm Kuroshio makes the climate of  In the Asiatic region (eastern Siberia and |
Japan less extreme. Korea), the coniferous forests are a 289
 The meeting zone between warm continuation of the great coniferous belt of
Kuroshio from south and cold Oyashio the taiga.
from the north produce fog and mist,
making north Japan a ‘second Lumbering
Newfoundland’.
 Timber and fish are
the leading export
items.
 Much of the
coniferous forests of
fir, spruce and larch
are exploited to a
great extent.
 Eastern Canada is
the heart of the
Canadian timber and
wood pulp industry
[St. Lawrence River
helps in export].
 South of latitude
50°N., the coniferous
forests give way to
deciduous forests.
 Fishing replaces agriculture as the main Oak, beech, maple and birch are most
occupation in many of the indented common.
coastlands.  Almost homogeneous species of trees
[pure stands], and the predominance of
Climate Graph for Laurentian Climate only a handful of species greatly enhance
the commercial value of these forests.
 They have been extensively felled for the
extraction of temperate hardwood. [From
Laurentian Climate regions, both
temperate hardwood and temperate
softwood are obtained]
 In Manchuria, Korea and Japan, the
forests have made way for the agriculture.
Economic Development – Laurentian

Climate
Natural Vegetation - Laurentian Climate
 Lumbering and its associated timber, freshwater fish, e.g. salmon etc. are
paper and pulp industries are the most caught.
important economic undertaking.  All the fishing activities are carried out by
 Agriculture is less important because of highly mechanized trawlers which can
long and severe winters. store fish in refrigerated chambers for
 In the North American region, farmers are months. Page
engaged in dairy farming.  St. John’s, chief port of Newfoundland is
 The Annapolis valley in Nova Scotia is the headquarters of the Grand Banks |
the world’s most renowned region for fishing industries. 290
apples.  All processing activities like cutting,
 Fishing is, however, the most outstanding cleaning, packing for disposal are done at
economic activity. the ports itself.
 Over-fishing is a growing problem.
Fishing off Newfoundland
Fishing off Japan
 Regions around the Grand Banks of
Newfoundland are the world’s largest  North-west Pacific surrounding the islands
fishing grounds. of Japan is another very important fishing
 Mixing of warm Gulf Stream and cold grounds of the world.
Labrador currents make the region the  Majority of the people in the region depend
most productive fishing ground on earth. on fishing for survival.
 Hakodate and Kushiro are large fishing
Fish feed on minute marine organisms ports with complete refrigeration facilities.
called plankton. Plankton is  The Japanese fishing trawlers venture far
abundantly available in shallow and wide into the Arctic, Antarctic and the
waters [continental shelves] where they Atlantic waters.
have access to both sunlight as well as  Large whaling fleets with processing
nutrients. Also, cold and warm water plants venture into distant regions as far
mixing creates upwelling of cold as Arctic and Antarctic [Japan is
nutrient rich water to the surface. criticized for its whaling operations].
 The gently sloping continental shelves  Japan accounts for a sixth of the world’s
stretch for over 200 miles south-east of total annual fish caught.
Newfoundland, and off the coasts of the  The Japanese make use of fish wastes,
Maritime Provinces and New England. fish meal and seaweeds as fertilizers in
 Hence microscopic plankton are abundant their farms.
[Continental Shelf + Mixing of Warm and  Japan is one of the few countries that has
Cold Ocean Currents]. taken to seaweed cultivation (India is
 Fish of all types and sizes feed and breed taking baby steps in seaweed cultivation).
here and support a thriving fishing  Coastal farms that are submerged in water
industry. grow weeds for sale as fertilizers, chemical
 Along with Canada and U.S.A., countries ingredient and food.
like Norway, France, Britain, Portugal,  Another aspect of Japanese fishing is
Denmark, Russia and Japan, also send pearl culture. Pearls are harvested from
fishing fleets to the Grand Banks. pearl oysters.
 In Newfoundland, fishing provides  As natural pearls are difficult to obtain in
employment for almost the entire large numbers, so the Japanese have
population. begun to harvest ‘cultured pearls’.
 Further inland, in lakes and rivers, such Why is fishing the dominant occupation
as the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes, of Japan?
 The mountainous nature of Japan and  Tropical monsoon Climate of India and the
parts of mainland eastern Asia support Warm Temperate Eastern Margin (China
little agricultural activity [80 per cent land type) Climate in S. China.
in Japan is classed as ‘non-agricultural’.  The Steppe type of climate in Eurasia and
Around 50% of the total land is covered by the Siberian type (Taiga climate) of climate
forests]. in northern Canada. Page
 Japan is not well endowed with natural  The Tundra Climate of Greenland and
resources. So, she has to take to the sea if Trade Wind Desert Climate of central |
she wants to survive. Australia. 291
 The scarcity of meat (there is little pasture
in Japan for livestock farming of any kind) Name the major fishing areas of the
popularized fish as the principal item of world. Explain the geographical factors
diet and the chief protein food of the which have contributed to its
Japanese and the Chinese as well. importance.
 There exists a great demand for fish and Write brief notes on
fish products in the nearby countries
where fishing industry in under-  The economy of the forests of the
developed. Laurentian regions.
 Japan has huge stakes in international  Fishing in Japan.
fishing enterprises and her advanced
fishing techniques give her an edge over In this post: Tundra Climate or Polar
competitors. Climate or Arctic Climate, Natural
 Advanced financial services, encouraging Vegetation of Tundra Climate and
government policy, advanced technology at Development in Tundra Climate.
hand, skilled workforce with decades of
Tundra Climate or Polar Climate or
experience in fishing and the only
Arctic Climate
available natural resource to exploit, make
Japan a leader in fishing industry.
Geographical advantage
 The continental shelves around the

islands of Japan are rich in plankton, due
to the meeting of the warm Kuroshio and
the cold Oyashio currents and provide
excellent breeding grounds for all kinds of
fish.
 The indented coastline of Japan,
provides sheltered fishing ports, calm
Distribution
waters and safe landing places, ideal for
the fishing industry.  Found in regions north of the Arctic
QUESTIONS Circle and south of Antarctic Circle.
 The ice-caps are confined to highlands
Compare and contrast the climate of and high latitude regions of Greenland
the following pairs of areas. and Antarctica.
 In the southern hemisphere, Antarctica is
 Laurentian Climate in the North American the greatest single stretch of ice-cap
region and the Asiatic region. (10,000 feet thick).
 The lowlands – coastal strip of Greenland,
the barren grounds of northern Canada
and Alaska and the Arctic seaboard of  Human activities of the tundra are largely
Eurasia, have tundra climate. confined to the coast.
 People live a semi-nomadic life.
Tundra Climate
 In Greenland, northern Canada and
Alaska live the Eskimos.
Temperature
 During winter they live in compact igloos. Page
 The tundra climate is characterized by a  Their food is derived from fish, seals,
walruses and polar bears. |
very low mean annual temperature.
 In mid-winter temperatures are as low as  Now a days rifles instead of traditional 292
40 – 50 °C below freezing. harpoons are used to track down animals.
 Summers are relatively warmer. Recent Development of the Arctic
 Normally not more than four months have Region
temperatures above freezing-point.
 Within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles,  New settlements have sprung up because
there are weeks of continuous darkness of the discovery of minerals.
(Rotation and Revolution).  Gold is mined in Alaska, petroleum in the
 The ground remains solidly frozen and is Kenai Peninsula, Alaska; and copper at
inaccessible to plants. the Rankin Inlet, Canada.
 Frost occurs at any time and blizzards,  With the declining reserves of iron ore
reaching a velocity of 130 miles an hour around the Great Lakes, iron ore deposits
are not infrequent. in Labrador are gaining importance. New
railway lines have been constructed to
Precipitation
bring the ores to the St. Lawrence River.
 Precipitation is mainly in the form of snow  Rich deposits of iron ores at Kiruna and
and sleet. Gallivare helped Sweden enjoy a
prosperous export trade in iron and steel
 Convectional rainfall is generally absent.
and other metallurgical products.
Natural Vegetation - Tundra Climate  New ports on the Arctic seaboard of
Eurasia has made it possible to ship
 There are no trees in the tundra. timber and fur from Siberia. Modern ice-
 Lowest form of vegetation like mosses, breakers makes the frozen seas navigable.
lichens etc. are found here and there.
 Climatic conditions along the coastal Oceanography
lowlands are a little favorable.
 Coastal lowlands support hardy grasses In this post: Ocean Relief [Ocean Bottom
and the reindeer moss which provide the Topography or Relief of the Ocean Floor] –
only pasturage for reindeers. Major Relief features of Ocean Bottom:
 In the brief summer, berry-bearing bushes Continental Shelf, Continental Slope,
and Arctic flowers bloom. Continental Rise, Deep Sea Plain or
 In the summer, birds migrate north to Abyssal Plain, Oceanic Deeps or Trenches
prey on the numerous insects which and Mid-Oceanic Ridges or Submarine
emerge when the snow thaws. Ridges. Minor Relief features of Ocean
 Mammals like the wolves, foxes, musk-ox, Bottom: Abyssal Hills, Submarine
Arctic hare and lemmings also live in Canyons, Atoll, Bank, Shoal and Reef.
tundra regions. Ocean Relief
 Penguins live only in Antarctic regions.
Human Activities  Ocean relief is largely due to tectonic,

volcanic, erosional and depositional
processes and their interactions.
 Ocean relief features are divided into

major and minor relief features.
Major Ocean Relief Features
Four major divisions in the ocean relief

are: Page
1. the continental shelf, |

2. the continental slope, 293
3. the continental rise,
4. the Deep Sea Plain or the abyssal plain.
Minor Ocean Relief Features
 Ridges,
 Hills,
 Seamounts,
 Guyots,
 Trenches,
 Canyons,
 Sleeps,
 Fracture zones,
 Island arcs,
 Atolls,
 Coral reefs,
 Submerged volcanoes and
 Sea-scarps.
Continental Shelf  These extended margins of each continent

are occupied by relatively shallow seas
 Continental Shelf is the gently sloping and gulfs.
seaward extension of continental plate.
 Continental Shelf of all oceans together coasts of Chile, the west coast of Sumatra,
cover 7.5% of the total area of the oceans. etc. [Ocean – Continent Convergence and
 Gradient of continental is of 1° or even Ocean – Ocean Convergence].
less.  It is up to 120 km wide along the eastern
 The shelf typically ends at a very steep coast of USA. On the contrary, the
slope, called the shelf break. Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean, the Page
 The continental shelves are covered with largest in the world, stretches to 1,500 km
variable thicknesses of sediments brought in width. |
down by rivers, glaciers etc.. 294
 Massive sedimentary deposits received
over a long time by the continental
shelves, become the source of fossil fuels
[Petroleum].
 Examples: Continental Shelf of South-East
Asia, Great Banks around Newfoundland,
Submerged region between Australia and
New Guinea.
 The shelf is formed mainly due to
1. submergence of a part of a continent
2. relative rise in sea level
3. Sedimentary deposits brought down by
rivers
 There are various types of shelves based
on different sediments of terrestrial origin Depth
—
1. glaciated shelf (Surrounding Greenland),  The depth of the shelves also varies. It
2. coral reef shelf (Queensland, Australia), may be as shallow as 30 m in some areas
3. shelf of a large river (Around Nile Delta), while in some areas it is as deep as 600 m.
4. shelf with dendritic valleys (At the Importance of continent shelves
Mouth of Hudson River)
5. shelf along young mountain ranges 1. Marine food comes almost entirely
(Shelves between Hawaiian Islands). from continental shelves;
2. They provide the richest fishing
grounds;
3. They are potential sites for economic
minerals [20% of the world production of
petroleum and gas comes from shelves.
Polymetallic nodules (manganese
nodules; concentric layers of iron and
manganese hydroxides) etc. are good
sources of various mineral ores like
manganese, iron copper, gold etc..]
Continental Slope
Width
 The continental slope connects the
 The average width of continental shelves is continental shelf and the ocean basins.
between 70 – 80 km.  It begins where the bottom of the
 The shelves are almost absent or very continental shelf sharply drops off into a
narrow along some of the margins like the steep slope.
 The gradient of the slope region varies  These plains are covered with fine-grained
between 2-5°. sediments like clay and silt.
 The depth of the slope region varies
between 200 and 3,000 m. Oceanic Deeps or Trenches
 The seaward edge of the continental slope
loses gradient at this depth and gives rise  The trenches are relatively steep sided,
to continental rise. narrow basins (Depressions). These areas Page
are the deepest parts of the oceans. |
 The continental slope boundary
indicates the end of the continents.  They are of tectonic origin and are formed
during ocean – ocean convergence and 295
 Canyons and trenches are observed in this
ocean continent convergence.
region.
 They are some 3-5 km deeper than the
Continental Rise surrounding ocean floor.
 The trenches lie along the fringes of the
 The continental slope gradually loses its deep-sea plain at the bases of continental
steepness with depth. slopes and along island arcs.
 When the slope reaches a level of between  The trenches run parallel to the
0.5° and 1°, it is referred to as the bordering fold mountains or the island
continental rise. chains.
 With increasing depth the rise becomes  The trenches are very common in the
virtually flat and merges with the abyssal Pacific Ocean and form an almost
plain. continuous ring along the western and
eastern margins of the Pacific.
 The Mariana Trench off the Guam
Islands in the Pacific Ocean is the deepest
trench with, a depth of more than 11
kilometres.
 They are associated with active volcanoes
and strong earthquakes (Deep Focus
Earthquakes like in Japan). This makes
them very significant in the study of plate
movements.
 As many as 57 deeps have been explored
so far; of which 32 are in the Pacific
Ocean; 19 in the Atlantic Ocean and 6 in
the Indian Ocean.
Deep Sea Plain or Abyssal Plain Mid-Oceanic Ridges or Submarine

Ridges
 Deep sea planes are gently sloping areas
of the ocean basins.  A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two
 These are the flattest and smoothest chains of mountains separated by a large
regions of the world because of depression. [Divergent Boundary]
terrigenous [denoting marine sediment eroded from  The mountain ranges can have peaks as
the land] and shallow water sediments that high as 2,500 m and some even reach
buries the irregular topography. above the ocean’s surface.
 It covers nearly 40% of the ocean floor.  Running for a total length of 75,000 km,
 The depths vary between 3,000 and 6,000 these ridges form the largest mountain
m. systems on earth.
 These ridges are either broad, like a GORGE: a steep, narrow valley or ravine
plateau, gently sloping or in the form of
steep-sided narrow mountains. VALLEY: a low area between hills or
 These oceanic ridge systems are of mountains or a depression, typically with
tectonic origin and provide evidence in a river or stream flowing through it.
support of the theory of Plate Tectonics. Page
 Iceland, a part of the mid-Atlantic Ridge,
is an example. |
296
Abyssal Hills  These are deep valleys, some comparable

to the Grand Canyon of the Colorado river.
 They are sometimes found cutting across
the continental shelves and slopes, often
extending from the mouths of large rivers.
 The Hudson Canyon is the best known
canyon in the world.
Broadly, there are three types of

submarine canyons—
 Seamount: It is a mountain with pointed  Small gorges which begin at the edge of
summits, rising from the seafloor that the continental shelf and extend down the
does not reach the surface of the ocean. slope to very great depths, e.g.,
Seamounts are volcanic in origin. These Oceanographer Canyons near New
can be 3,000-4,500 m tall. England.
 The Emperor seamount, an extension of  Those which begin at the mouth of a river
the Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and extend over the shelf, such as the
is a good example. Zaire, the Mississippi and the Indus
 Guyots: The flat topped mountains canyons.
(seamounts) are known as guyots.  Those which have a dendritic appearance
 Seamounts and guyots are very common and are deeply cut into the edge of the
in the Pacific Ocean where they are shelf and the slope, like the canyons off
estimated to number around 10,000. the coast of southern California. The
Hudson Canyon is the best known
Submarine Canyons canyon in the world.
 The largest canyons in the world occur in
CANYON: a deep gorge, especially one the Bering Sea off Alaska. They are the
with a river flowing through it Bering, Pribilof and Zhemchung canyons.
Atoll
 These are low islands found in the tropical

oceans consisting of coral reefs
surrounding a central depression.
 It may be a part of the sea (lagoon), or Page
sometimes form enclosing a body of fresh,
brackish, or highly saline water. |
297
Reef
 A reef is a predominantly organic deposit
made by living or dead organisms that
forms a mound or rocky elevation like a
ridge.
 Coral reefs are a characteristic feature of
the Pacific Ocean where they are
associated with seamounts and guyots.
 The largest reef in the world is found off
Bank, Shoal and Reef the Queensland coast of Australia. [We
will study coral reefs in future posts]
 These marine features are formed as a  Since the reefs may extend above the
result of erosional, depositional and surface, they are generally dangerous for
biological activity. navigation.
 These are produced upon features of
diastrophic [Earth Movements] origin. [Coral Bleaching is a very important topic.
Therefore, they are located on upper parts We will see it later posts]
of elevations.
Bank
 These marine features are formed as' a
result of erosional and depositional
activity.
 A bank is a flat topped elevation located in
the continental margins.
 The depth of water here is shallow but
enough for navigational purposes.
 The Dogger Bank in the North Sea and Significance of Study of Oceanic Relief
Grand Bank in the north-western Atlantic,
Newfoundland are famous examples.  Ocean relief controls the motion of sea
 The banks are sites of some of the most water.
productive fisheries of the world.  The oceanic movement in the form of
currents, in turn, causes many variations
Shoal in both oceans and in atmosphere.
 The bottom relief of oceans also influences
 A shoal is a detached elevation with navigation and fishing.
shallow depths. Since they project out of
water with moderate heights, they are
dangerous for navigation.
In this post: Marginal Seas, Marginal seas Marginal seas of the world
of the world, Human Impact on marginal
seas, Phytoplankton Bloom (Algal Bloom)  Important marginal seas are mentioned
in Marginal Seas, Biomass Production and below.
Primary Productivity, Water Circulation in
Marginal Seas, Bay, Gulf, Strait and Marginal seas of the Arctic Ocean
Page
Isthmus.
 Barents Sea |
Important for Prelims’ Environment and  The Irish Sea
Location based questions. 298
Marginal seas of the Atlantic Ocean
Marginal Seas
 Argentine Sea
 In oceanography, a marginal sea is a sea  Caribbean Sea
partially enclosed by islands,  English Channel
archipelagos, or peninsulas.  Gulf of Mexico
 Some of the major marginal seas include  Hudson Bay
the Arabian Sea, Baltic Sea, Bay of  Irish Sea
Bengal, Bering Sea, Black Sea, Gulf of  Labrador Sea
California, Gulf of Mexico,  Mediterranean Sea
Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, and all four  North Sea
of the Siberian Seas (Barents, Kara,  Norwegian Sea
Laptev, and East Siberian).  Scotia Sea
 The primary differences between marginal
seas and open oceans are associated with Marginal seas of the Indian Ocean
depth and proximity to landmasses.
 Marginal seas, which are generally  Andaman Sea
shallower than open oceans, are more  Arabian Sea
influenced by human activities, river  Bay of Bengal
runoff, climate, and water circulation.  Java Sea
 Persian Gulf
Important Marginal Seas:
 Red Sea
 Sea of Zanj
Marginal seas of the Mediterranean Sea
Major conflict zones lie on the east of

Mediterranean. Also recent refugee crisis
is constantly in news. Hence the locations
from the region are important for prelims.
 Adriatic Sea
 Aegean Sea
Download the above Image at high Marginal seas of the Pacific Ocean
resolution: [Very Important Image]
 Bering Sea
https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B1my  Celebes Sea
JlOn-  Coral Sea
mMCNWJYSWtMZTItVGM/view?usp=sh  East China Sea
aring  Philippine Sea
 Sea of Japan
 Sea of Okhotsk
 South China Sea (another important
conflict zone)
 Tasman Sea (between Australia and New
Zealand) Page
 Yellow Sea (by the Korean Peninsula)
|
Other seas
299
 The Caribbean Sea is sometimes defined
as a marginal sea, sometimes as a
Mediterranean sea.
 The Caspian Sea is also sometimes
defined as a marginal sea, and also the
Dead Sea.
 Phytoplankton are good as fish feed on
Human Impact on marginal seas them. But when they proliferate
indiscriminately, they consume too much
 Marginal seas are more susceptible to oxygen during nights, thus depriving
pollution than open ocean regions other marine organisms of oxygen.
because of the high concentration of  For example, the discharge of domestic
human activities near coastlines and sewage leads to elevated nutrient
rivers. concentrations (particularly phosphates)
 The greatest human impact on marginal which can result in harmful algal blooms.
seas is related to the fisheries industry.
Biomass Production and Primary
 Ninety percent of the world's fisheries exist
Productivity
within coastal waters that are located less
than 200 kilometers (124 miles) from the
 Marine biomass production originates with
shoreline.
primary productivity, which in turn is
 Other human activities that have affected by the availability of sunlight,
adversely affected marginal seas include carbon dioxide, nutrients such as nitrates
industrial sewage disposal, offshore oil and phosphates, and trace elements.
drilling, and accidental releases of
 Marginal seas generally exhibit
pollutants, including petroleum products,
intermediate levels of primary production,
radioactive waste, detergents, and plastics.
with the highest rates found in coastal
 Pollutants from the nearby landmasses upwelling regions and the lowest
are introduced into marginal seas in primary production occurring in open
concentrations that are thousands of
ocean regions.
times greater than in open oceans.
 Hence, the highest biomass production
Phytoplankton Bloom (Algal Bloom) in rates occur in coastal upwelling zones,
Marginal Seas the lowest in open oceans regions, and
intermediate rates in marginal seas.
 The Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea  For near shore regions, the dominant
are marginal seas found in proximity to processes influencing primary productivity
one another. The color difference shown are river runoff, water column mixing, and
here is due to a phytoplankton bloom turbidity.
occurring in the Black Sea.  River runoff and water column mixing
introduce dissolved nutrients, trace
elements, and suspended particles into
the photic (light) zones of near shore Straits of Gibraltar, to the Black Sea via
regions. the Bosporus Strait, and to the Red Sea
 Although the addition of dissolved via the manmade Suez Canal.
nutrients and trace elements to coastal  Atlantic Ocean water enters this marginal
waters and marginal seas serves to sea through the Straits of Gibraltar as a
increase primary production, the addition surface flow. This ocean water replaces a Page
of suspended particles increases water fraction of the water that evaporates in the
turbidity, which results in reduced eastern Mediterranean Sea. |
sunlight penetration and decreased  In Mediterranean Sea evaporation 300
primary productivity. exceeds precipitation and hence salinity
increases.
Water Circulation in Marginal Seas
Gulf of Mexico
 Water circulation patterns in marginal
seas depend largely on shape of the sea,  Compared to the Black, Baltic and
fresh-water input (e.g., river runoff and Mediterranean Seas, the Gulf of Mexico is
precipitation) and evaporation. a much less complex marginal sea.
 If river runoff and precipitation exceed  The Gulf of Mexico is connected to the
evaporation, as is the case in the Black Atlantic Ocean via the Straits of Florida
and Baltic Seas, the excess fresh water and the Caribbean Sea via the Yucatán
will tend to flow seaward near the sea Strait.
surface.  In the northern Gulf of Mexico region,
 If evaporation exceeds river runoff and Mississippi River runoff influences surface
precipitation, as in the Mediterranean Sea, waters as far as 150 meters away from the
the marginal sea water becomes saltier, shore, resulting in salinities as low as 25.
then sinks and flows towards the less  A unique feature of the Gulf of Mexico's
salty open ocean region. surface circulation pattern is the Loop
Current, which results from the
Circulation Patterns in Major Marginal Caribbean Current entering the Gulf of
Seas Mexico through the Yucatán Strait and
Black Sea and Baltic Sea upon arrival, turning in a clockwise
direction and "looping" around a warm
 The Black Sea and Baltic Sea basins both "dome" of Gulf of Mexico surface water
possess sills that restrict subsurface [More under ocean currents].
water circulation. Bays, gulfs, and Straits
 While the surface waters of the Black and
Baltic Seas are able to flow over the sills  Bays, gulfs, and straits are types of water
and introduce lower salinity water into the bodies that are contained within a larger
open ocean, the flow of the saltier body of water near land.
subsurface waters is blocked by these  These three water bodies are usually
sills. located at important points of human
 This type of subsurface-water restriction activities; thus, conflicts with nature and
often leads to stagnation, which may neighbors are common.
eventually result in local oxygen
depletion. Bays
Mediterranean Sea  A bay is a small body of water that is set
off from a larger body of water generally
 The Mediterranean Sea, which is divided where the land curves inward.
by a 400 meter sill into two sub basins, is
connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the
 In simple words, bay is a water body  The Strait of Gibraltar is probably the
surrounded on three sides by land with world's most famous strait. It connects the
the fourth side (mouth) wide open towards Atlantic Ocean on its west with the
oceans. (In Gulfs, the mouth is narrow). Mediterranean Sea on its east.
 A bay is usually smaller and less  Two other well-known straits are the
enclosed than a gulf. Strait of Bosporus and the Strait of Page
 Example: The Bay of Pigs (Cuba), Hudson Hormuz.
Bay (Canada), Bay of Bengal etc.  The Strait of Bosporus connects the Black |
 An example of a bay at a river's mouth is Sea (from the north) and the Sea of 301
New York Bay, at the mouth of the Marmara (from the south), and splits
Hudson River (Hudson Estuary). northwestern Turkey.
 The Strait of Hormuz is located at the
Guantánamo Bay southeastern end of the Persian Gulf. It
is a narrow waterway that can be (and has
 Guantánamo Bay is a sheltered inlet been) controlled to prevent ships from
within the Caribbean Sea. sailing through the gulf.
 During the Spanish-American War in
1898, the United States gained access to Choke Point
the outer harbor of Guantánamo Bay.
 Through an agreement signed with Cuba  When a body of water such as a strait is
in 1903, the United States obtained the capable of being blocked or even closed in
right to maintain a naval base at order to control transportation routes, the
Guantánamo Bay. body is called a "choke point."
 In 1934, a treaty reaffirmed the U.S. right  Historically, the Strait of Gibraltar has
to lease the site. The treaty gave the been one of the world's most important
United States a perpetual lease on choke points.
Guantánamo Bay.  However, the Strait of Hormuz has become
 The most infamous Guantánamo Bay an important choke point in recent years
prison is here. because of increasing Middle East
tensions.
Gulfs  The Strait is surrounded by the United
Arab Emirates and Oman (on one side)
 A gulf is a large body of water, sometimes and Iran (on the other side).
with a narrow mouth, that is almost
completely surrounded by land. The Isthmus
world's largest gulf is the Gulf of Mexico.
 Examples of other gulfs include the Gulf of  Isthmus is the land-equivalent of a
California, Gulf of Aden (between the Red strait. i.e., a narrow strip of land
Sea and the Arabian Sea), and the Persian connecting two larger land masses.
Gulf (between Saudi Arabia and Iran).  Example: Isthmus of Panama and
 The Persian Gulf is important with respect Isthmus of Suez.
to world energy because petroleum is
transported through its waters in oil
tankers.
Straits
 A strait is a narrow passageway of water,

usually between continents or islands, or
between two larger bodies of water.
In this post: Major Ocean relief: Pacific  There are also a large number of
Ocean - Atlantic Ocean - Indian ocean. seamounts and guyots. [Hawaiian
Hotspot]
The Pacific Ocean
West and South-West Pacific
 Largest and deepest ocean.
 Covers about one-third of the earth’s  Average depth is about 4,000 m. Page
surface.  It is marked by a variety of islands, |
 Average depth is generally around 7,300 marginal seas, continental shelves and
metres. submarine trenches. 302
 Its shape is roughly triangular with its  Mariana Trench and Mindanao Trench
apex in the north at the Bering Strait. are very deep with a depth of more than
 Many marginal seas, bays and gulfs occur 10,000 metres.
along its boundaries.
South-East Pacific
 Nearly 20,000 islands dot this vast ocean.
North and Central Pacific  This part is conspicuous for the absence
of marginal seas, and has submarine
 Characterized by maximum depth and a ridges and plateaus.
large number of deeps, trenches and  The Tonga and Atacama trenches are
islands. prominent.
 Some well-known trenches are Aleutian
and Kuril.
Page
|
303
The Atlantic Ocean [Recall fishing industry in Laurentian

Climate]
 The Atlantic is the second largest ocean  The Atlantic Ocean has numerous
after the Pacific. marginal seas occurring on the shelves,
 It is roughly half the size of the Pacific like the Hudson Bay, the Baltic Sea, and
Ocean. the North Sea, and beyond the shelves like
 It’s shape resembles the letter ‘S’. the Gulf of Florida (Mexican Gulf).
 In terms of trade, it is the most significant
of all oceans. Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Continental Shelf  The most remarkable feature of the

Atlantic Ocean is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
 It has prominent continental shelf with which runs from north to the south
varying widths. paralleling the ‘S’ shape of the ocean.
 The length of the continental shelf is  The ridge has an average height of 4 km
maximum in Northern Atlantic coasts. and is about 14,000 km long.
 The largest width occurring off north-east
Seamounts and guyots
America and north-west Europe.
 Grand banks continental shelf is the most
 They are present in significant numbers
productive continental shelf in the world.
but not as significant as in pacific ocean.
Page
|
304
 Several seamounts form islands of the  The ocean's continental shelves are
mid-Atlantic. Examples include Pico narrow, averaging 200 kilometres (120 mi)
Island of Azores, Gape Verde Islands, in width.
Canary Islands etc..  An exception is found off Australia's
 Also, there are coral islands like Bermuda northern coast, where the shelf width
and volcanic islands like, St Helena etc.. exceeds 1,000 kilometres (620 mi). Page
 The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 m
Trenches (12,762 ft). |
 Atlantic Ocean lacks significant troughs 305

Trenches
and trenches, which are most
characteristic to the Pacific Ocean.  Linear deeps are almost absent. Few
 North Cayman and Puerto Rico are the exceptions are Sunda Trench, which lies
two troughs and Romanche and South to the south of the island of Java and
Sandwich are the two trenches in the Diamantina Trench, west of Australia.
Atlantic Ocean.  Its deepest point is Diamantina Deep in
Diamantina Trench, at 8,047 m. Sunda
The Indian Ocean
Trench off the coast of Java is also
considerably deep.
 Indian Ocean is the third largest of the
world's oceanic divisions. Straits
 Smaller and less deep than the Atlantic
Ocean.  Most of the straits in Indian Ocean are
important trade roots.
Submarine ridges
 The major choke points include Bab el
Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, the Lombok
 Submarine ridges in this ocean include
Strait, the Strait of Malacca and the
the Lakshadweep-Chagos Ridge
Palk Strait.
[Reunion Hotspot], the Socotra-Chagos
Ridge, the Seychelles Ridge, the South Marginal seas
Madagascar Ridge, Carlsberg Ridge etc..
 These ridges divide the ocean bottom into  Arabian Sea
many basins. Chief among these are the  Persian Gulf
Central Basin, Arabian Basin, South  Red Sea
Indian Basin, Mascarene Basin, West  Gulf of Oman

Australian and South Australian Basins.  Gulf of Aden
 Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb connecting
Islands
Arabian Sea
 Most of the islands in the Indian Ocean  Gulf of Kutch
are continental islands and are present  Gulf of Khambat
in the north and west.  Palk Strait connecting Arabian Sea and
 These include the Andaman and Nicobar, Bay of Bengal
Sri Lanka, Madagascar and Zanzibar. The  Bay of Bengal
Lakshadweep and Maldives are coral  Andaman Sea
islands and Mauritius and the Reunion  Malacca Strait
Islands are of volcanic origin. The eastern  Mozambique Channel
section of the Indian Ocean is almost free  Great Australian Bight
from islands  Gulf of Mannar
 Laccadive Sea
Continental Shelf
Page
|
306
In this post: Ocean currents – Factors 2. secondary forces that influence the
responsible – Effects. currents to flow.
 The primary forces that influence the
Next post: Ocean Currents in Pacific currents are:
Ocean. 1. heating by solar energy;
Ocean Movements 2. wind; Page
3. gravity;
4. Coriolis force. |
 TiTBiT: World Water Day – March 22
 The movements that occur in oceans are  The secondary forces that influence the 307
categorized as: waves, tides and currents are:
currents. 1. Temperature difference;
 Waves are formed due to friction between 2. Salinity difference
wind and surface water layer. The stronger Primary Forces Responsible For Ocean
the wind, the bigger the wave. They die out Currents
quickly on reaching the shore or shallow
waters. Explain the factors responsible for the
 Horizontal currents arise mainly due to origin of ocean currents. How do they
friction between wind and water. Rotation influence regional climates, fishing and
of earth, Coriolis force and differences in navigation? [Mains 2015]
water level gradient also play a major role.
 Vertical currents arise mainly due to Influence of insolation
density differences caused by temperature
and salinity changes.  Heating by solar energy causes the water
to expand. That is why, near the equator
 Tsunami, storm surge and tides are tidal
the ocean water is about 8 cm higher in
waves [waves with large wavelengths that
level than in the middle latitudes.
have greater intensity and destructive
power]. Waves and Tides will be dealt in  This causes a very slight gradient and
separate posts. For now, we will take a water tends to flow down the slope. The
look at ocean currents only. flow is normally from east to west.
 Usually temperature distribution and Influence of wind (atmospheric
salinity are discussed first. But here, I will circulation)
begin with ocean currents as they bear a
greater influence on both temperature  Wind blowing on the surface of the ocean
distribution and salinity distribution. pushes the water to move. Friction
between the wind and the water surface
Ocean currents affects the movement of the water body in
its course.
 Ocean currents are the most important  Winds are responsible for both magnitude
ocean movements because of their and direction [Coriolis force also affects
influence on climatology of various direction] of the ocean currents. Example:
regions. [Read my previous posts on Monsoon winds are responsible for the
climatic regions to understand the seasonal reversal of ocean currents in the
influence of ocean currents.] Indian ocean.
 Ocean currents are like river flow in  The oceanic circulation pattern roughly
oceans. They represent a regular volume corresponds to the earth’s atmospheric
of water in a definite path and direction. circulation pattern.
 Ocean currents are influenced by two  The air circulation over the oceans in the
types of forces namely: middle latitudes is mainly anticyclonic
1. primary forces that initiate the movement [Sub-tropical High Pressure Belt] (more
of water; pronounced in the southern hemisphere
than in the northern hemisphere due to Based on depth

differences in the extent of landmass). The
oceanic circulation pattern also  The ocean currents may be classified
corresponds with the same. based on their depth as surface currents
 At higher latitudes, where the wind flow is and deep water currents:
mostly cyclonic [Sub-polar Low Pressure 1. surface currents constitute about 10 per
Belt], the oceanic circulation follows this cent of all the water in the ocean, these Page
pattern. waters are the upper 400 m of the ocean; |
 In regions of pronounced monsoonal flow 2. deep water currents make up the other 90
[Northern Indian Ocean], the monsoon per cent of the ocean water. These waters 308
winds influence the current movements move around the ocean basins due to
which change directions according to variations in the density and gravity.
seasons.  Deep waters sink into the deep ocean
basins at high latitudes, where the
Influence of gravity temperatures are cold enough to cause the
density to increase.
 Gravity tends to pull the water down to
pile and create gradient variation. Based on temperature
Influence of Coriolis force  Ocean currents are classified based on

temperature: as cold currents and warm
 The Coriolis force intervenes and causes currents:
the water to move to the right in the 1. Cold currents bring cold water into warm
northern hemisphere and to the left in the water areas [from high latitudes to low
southern hemisphere. latitudes]. These currents are usually
 These large accumulations of water and found on the west coast of the
the flow around them are called Gyres. continents (currents flow in clockwise
These produce large circular currents in direction in northern hemisphere and in
all the ocean basins. One such circular anti-clockwise direction in southern
current is the Sargasso Sea. hemisphere) in the low and middle
latitudes (true in both hemispheres) and
Secondary Forces Responsible For
on the east coast in the higher latitudes in
Ocean Currents
the Northern Hemisphere;
2. Warm currents bring warm water into cold
 Temperature difference and salinity
water areas[low to high latitudes] and are
difference are the secondary forces.
usually observed on the east coast of
 Differences in water density affect vertical continents in the low and middle latitudes
mobility of ocean currents (vertical (true in both hemispheres). In the
currents). northern hemisphere they are found on
 Water with high salinity is denser than the west coasts of continents in high
water with low salinity and in the same latitudes.
way cold water is denser than warm water.
 Denser water tends to sink, while General Characteristics of Ocean
relatively lighter water tends to rise. Currents
 Cold-water ocean currents occur when the
cold water at the poles sinks and slowly  Characteristics of Ocean Currents arise
moves towards the equator. due to the interplay of the above-
 Warm-water currents travel out from the mentioned factors.
equator along the surface, flowing towards
the poles to replace the sinking cold water. The general movement of the currents
in the northern hemisphere is
Types of Ocean Currents
clockwise and in the southern  A notable exception to this trend is seen in

hemisphere, anti-clockwise. the northern part of the Indian Ocean
where the current movement changes its
 This is due to the Coriolis force which is direction in response to the seasonal
a deflective force and follows Ferrel's change in the direction of monsoon
law. winds. Page
|
309
The warm currents move towards the  For instance, heavy surface water of the
cold seas and cool currents towards the Mediterranean Sea sinks and flows
warm seas. westward past Gibraltar as a sub-surface
current.
 In the lower latitudes, the warm currents
flow on the eastern shores and cold on Effects of Ocean Currents
the western shores [food for imagination].
 The situation is reversed in the higher Ocean currents have a number of direct
latitudes. The warm currents move along and indirect influences on human
the western shores and the cold currents activities.
along the eastern shores.
Desert formation
 Convergence: warm and cold currents
meet.  Cold ocean currents have a direct effect on
 Divergence: a single current splits into desert formation in west coast regions of
multiple currents flowing in different the tropical and subtropical continents.
directions.  There is fog and most of the areas are arid
The shape and position of coasts play due to desiccating effect (loss of
an important role in guiding the moisture).
direction of currents. Rains
 The currents flow not only at the surface  Warm ocean currents bring rain to coastal
but also below the sea surface (due to areas and even interiors. Example:
salinity and temperature difference). Summer Rainfall in British Type climate.
 Warm currents flow parallel to the east  They pile up warm waters in tropics and
coasts of the continents in tropical and this warm water is the major force behind
subtropical latitudes. This results in warm tropical cyclones.
and rainy climates. These areas lie in the
western margins of the subtropical anti- Navigation
cyclones.
 Currents are referred to by their “drift”. Page
Moderating effect Usually, the currents are strongest near
|
the surface and may attain speeds over
 They are responsible for moderate five knots (1 knot = ~1.8 km). [At depths, 310
temperatures at coasts. [North Atlantic currents are generally slow with speeds
Drift brings warmness to England. Canary less than 0.5 knots].
cold current brings cooling effect to Spain,  Ships usually follow routes which are
Portugal etc.] aided by ocean currents and winds.
 Example: If a ship wants to travel from
Fishing Mexico to Philippines, it can use the route
 Mixing of cold and warm ocean currents along the North Equatorial Drift which
bear richest fishing grounds in the world. flows from east to west.
 Example: Grand Banks around  When it wants to travel from Philippines to
Newfoundland, Canada and North-Eastern Mexico, it can follow the route along the
Coast of Japan. doldrums when there is counter equatorial
 The mixing of warm and cold currents current [we will study this in next post]
help to replenish the oxygen and favor the flowing from west to east.
growth of planktons, the primary food for Explain the factors responsible for the
fish population. The best fishing grounds origin of ocean currents. How do they
of the world exist mainly in these mixing influence regional climates, fishing and
zones. navigation? [Mains 2015]
Drizzle Desert Formation and Ocean Currents
 Mixing of cold and warm ocean currents
Major hot deserts are located between
create foggy weather where precipitation
20-30 degree latitudes and on the
occurs in the form of drizzle
western side of the continents. Why?
[Newfoundland].
 The aridity of the hot deserts is mainly
Climate
due to the effects of off-shore Trade Winds,
Results in hence they are also called Trade Wind
Deserts.
 Warm and rainy climates in tropical and  The major hot deserts of the world are
subtropical latitudes [Florida, Natal etc.], located on the western coasts of
 Cold and dry climates on the western continents between latitudes 15° and
margins in the sub-tropics due to 30°N. and S (Question asked in Previous
desiccating effect, Mains Exam).
 Foggy weather and drizzle in the mixing  They include the biggest Sahara Desert
zones, (3.5 million square miles). The next biggest
 Moderate clime along the western costs in desert is the Great Australian Desert. The
the sub-tropics. other hot deserts are the Arabian Desert,
Iranian Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari and
Tropical cyclones Namib Deserts.
 The hot deserts lie along the Horse
Latitudes or the Sub-Tropical High
Pressure Belts where the air is

descending, a condition least favorable for
precipitation of any kind to take place.
 The rain-bearing Trade Winds blow off-
shore and the Westerlies that are on-
shore blow outside the desert limits. Page
 Whatever winds reach the deserts blow
from cooler to warmer regions, and their |
relative humidity is lowered, making 311
condensation almost impossible.
 There is scarcely any cloud in the
continuous blue sky. The relative
humidity is extremely low, decreasing from
60 per cent in coastal districts to less than
30 per cent in the desert interiors. Under
such conditions, every bit of moisture is
evaporated and the deserts are thus
regions of permanent drought.
Precipitation is both scarce and most
unreliable. Temperature Distribution of Oceans
 On the western coasts, the presence of
cold currents gives rise to mists and fogs  The study of the temperature of the
by chilling the on-coming air. This air is oceans is important for determining the
later warmed by contact with the hot land, 1. movement of large volumes of water
and little rain falls. (vertical and horizontal ocean currents),
 The desiccating effect of the cold 2. type and distribution of marine organisms
Peruvian Current along the Chilean coast at various depths of oceans,
is so pronounced that the mean annual 3. climate of coastal lands, etc.
rainfall for the Atacama Desert is not more
than 1.3 cm. Source of Heat in Oceans
 The sun is the principal source of energy

(Insolation).
 The ocean is also heated by the inner heat
of the ocean itself (earth’s interior is hot.
At the sea surface, the crust is only about
5 to 30 km thick). But this heat is
negligible compared to that received from
sun.
How does deep water marine organisms

survive in spite of absence of sunlight?
 Photic zone is only about few hundred

meters. It depends on lot of factors like
In this post: Temperature Distribution of turbidity, presence of algae etc..
Oceans – Factors Affecting Temperature  There are no enough primary producers
Distribution of Oceans, Vertical below few hundred meters till the ocean
Temperature Distribution of Oceans, bottom.
Horizontal Temperature Distribution of  At the sea bottom, there are bacteria that
Oceans and Range of Ocean Temperature. make use of heat supplied by earth’s
interior to prepare food. So, they are the gains this heat in the form of latent heat of
primary producers. condensation).
 Other organisms feed on these primary
producers and subsequent secondary Factors Affecting Temperature
producers. Distribution of Oceans
 So, the heat from earth supports wide
ranging deep water marine organisms.  Insolation: The average daily duration of Page
insolation and its intensity. |
But the productivity is too low compared  Heat loss: The loss of energy by reflection,
to ocean surface. scattering, evaporation and radiation. 312
 Albedo: The albedo of the sea (depending
Why is diurnal range of ocean on the angle of sun rays).
temperatures too small?, Why oceans  The physical characteristics of the sea
take more time to heat or cool? surface: Boiling point of the sea water is
increased in the case of higher salinity
 The process of heating and cooling of the
and vice versa [Salinity increased ==
oceanic water is slower than land due to
Boiling point increased == Evaporation
vertical and horizontal mixing and high
decreased].
specific heat of water.
 The presence of submarine ridges and
 (More time required to heat up a Kg of
sills [Marginal Seas]: Temperature is
water compared to heating the same unit
affected due to lesser mixing of waters on
of a solid at same temperatures and with the opposite sides of the ridges or sills.
equal energy supply).
 The shape of the ocean: The latitudinally
The ocean water is heated by three extensive seas in low latitude regions have
processes. warmer surface water than longitudinally
extensive sea [Mediterranean Sea records
1. Absorption of sun’s radiation. higher temperature than the longitudinally
2. The conventional currents: Since the extensive Gulf of California].
temperature of the earth increases with  The enclosed seas (Marginal Seas – Gulf,
increasing depth, the ocean water at great Bay etc.) in the low latitudes record
depths is heated faster than the upper relatively higher temperature than the
water layers. So, convectional oceanic open seas; whereas the enclosed seas in
circulations develop causing circulation of the high latitudes have lower temperature
heat in water. than the open seas.
3. Heat is produced due to friction caused  Local weather conditions such as
by the surface wind and the tidal currents cyclones.
which increase stress on the water body.  Unequal distribution of land and water:
The oceans in the northern hemisphere
The ocean water is cooled by receive more heat due to their contact with
larger extent of land than the oceans in
1. Back radiation (heat budget) from the
the southern hemisphere.
sea surface takes place as the solar energy
 Prevalent winds generate horizontal and
once received is reradiated as long wave
radiation (terrestrial radiation or sometimes vertical ocean currents: The
winds blowing from the land towards the
infrared radiation) from the seawater.
oceans (off-shore winds-moving away from
2. Exchange of heat between the sea and
the shore) drive warm surface water away
the atmosphere if there is temperature
from the coast resulting in the upwelling
difference.
of cold water from below (This happens
3. Evaporation: Heat is lost in the form of
near Peruvian Coast in normal years. El-
latent heat of evaporation (atmosphere
Nino).
 Contrary to this, the onshore winds (winds  Photic or euphotic zone extends from
flowing from oceans into continents) pile the upper surface to ~200 m. The photic
up warm water near the coast and this zone receives adequate solar insolation.
raises the temperature (This happens near  Aphotic zone extends from 200 m to the
the Peruvian coast during El Nino ocean bottom; this zone does not receive
event)(In normal years, North-eastern adequate sunrays. Page
Australia and Western Indonesian islands
see this kind of warm ocean waters due to Thermocline |
Walker Cell or Walker Circulation).
 Ocean currents: Warm ocean currents  The profile shows a boundary region 313
raise the temperature in cold areas while between the surface waters of the ocean
the cold currents decrease the and the deeper layers.
temperature in warm ocean areas. Gulf  The boundary usually begins around 100 -
stream (warm current) raises the 400 m below the sea surface and extends
temperature near the eastern coast of several hundred of meters downward.
North America and the West Coast of  This boundary region, from where there is
Europe while the Labrador current (cold a rapid decrease of temperature, is called
current) lowers the temperature near the the thermocline. About 90 per cent of the
north-east coast of North America (Near total volume of water is found below the
Newfoundland). All these factors influence thermocline in the deep ocean. In this
the temperature of the ocean currents zone, temperatures approach 0° C.
locally.
Vertical Temperature Distribution of

Oceans
Three-Layer System  The first layer represents the top layer of

warm oceanic water and it is about 500m
 The temperature structure of oceans over thick with temperatures ranging between
middle and low latitudes can be described 20° and 25° C. This layer, within the
as a three-layer system from surface to the tropical region, is present throughout the
bottom.
year but in mid-latitudes it develops only processes. Thus, changes in salinity or

during summer. temperature are very small below
pycnocline but are seasonal in surface
waters.
Page
|
314
Similar Terms: Thermocline, Halocline.
Thermohaline Circulation
 Winds drive ocean currents in the upper

100 meters of the ocean’s surface.
 However, ocean currents also flow
thousands of meters below the surface.
 These deep-ocean currents are driven by
differences in the water’s density, which is
 The second layer called the thermocline controlled by temperature (thermo) and
layer lies below the first layer and is salinity (haline).
characterized by rapid decrease in  This process is known as thermohaline
temperature with increasing depth. The circulation.
thermocline is 500 -1,000 m thick.  The thermohaline circulation is sometimes
 The third layer is very cold and extends up called the ocean conveyor belt, the great
to the deep ocean floor. Here the ocean conveyor, or the global conveyor
temperature becomes almost stagnant. belt.
 Ocean bottom relief greatly influences
Pycnocline thermohaline circulation.
 Pycnocline is a boundary separating two
liquid layers of different densities.
 Pycnocline exists in oceans at a depth of
100-1000 m because of large density
difference between surface waters and
deep ocean water.
 Pycnocline effectively prevents vertical
currents except in polar regions.
 Pycnocline is almost absent polar regions.
This is because of the sinking of cold
water near poles.
 Formation of pycnocline may result from
changes in salinity or temperature. Credits:
 Because the pycnocline zone is extremely https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons
stable, it acts as a barrier for surface
/4/4c/Thermohaline_Circulation_2.png  The presence of submarine barriers may

lead to different temperature conditions on
General behavior
the two sides of the barrier. For example,
at the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, the
 In the Arctic and Antarctic circles, the
surface water
temperatures are Page
close to 0° C and so
|
the temperature
change with the 315
depth is very slight
(ice is a very bad
conductor of heat).
Here, only one layer
of cold water exists,
which extends from
surface to deep ocean
floor.
The rate of decrease

of temperature with
depths is greater at
the equator than at the poles. submarine barrier (sill) has a height of
about 366 m. The subsurface water in the
 The surface temperature and its strait is at high temperature compared to
downward decrease is influenced by the water at same level in Indian ocean. The
upwelling of bottom water (Near Peruvian temperature difference is greater than
coast during normal years). nearly 20° C.
 In cold Arctic and Antarctic regions,
sinking of cold water and its movement
towards lower latitudes is observed.
Horizontal Temperature Distribution of
 In equatorial regions the surface, water Oceans
sometimes exhibits lower temperature
and salinity due to high rainfall, whereas  The average temperature of surface water
the layers below it have higher of the oceans is about 27°C and it
temperatures. gradually decreases from the equator
 The enclosed seas in both the lower and towards the poles.
higher latitudes record higher  The rate of decrease of temperature with
temperatures at the bottom. increasing latitude is generally 0.5°C per
 The enclosed seas of low latitudes like the latitude.
Sargasso Sea, the Red Sea and the  The horizontal temperature distribution is
Mediterranean Sea have high bottom shown by isothermal lines, i.e., lines
temperatures due to high insolation joining places of equal temperature.
throughout the year and lesser mixing of
 Isotherms are closely spaced when the
the warm and cold’ waters.
temperature difference is high and vice
 In the case of the high latitude enclosed versa.
seas, the bottom layers of water are
 For example, in February, isothermal lines
warmer as water of slightly higher salinity
are closely spaced in the south of
and temperature moves from outer ocean
Newfoundland, near the west coast of
as a sub-surface current.
Europe and North Sea and then isotherms
widen out to make; a bulge towards north
near the coast of Norway. The cause of example, the 11-year sunspot cycle causes
this phenomenon lies in the cold Labrador sea temperatures to rise after a 11- year
Current flowing southward along the gap.
north American coast which reduces the
temperature of the region more sharply Sunspot
than in other places in the same latitude;
at the same time the warm Gulf Stream  Sunspots are temporary phenomena on Page
proceeds towards the western coast of the photosphere of the Sun that appear |
Europe and raises the temperature of the visibly as dark spots compared to
surrounding regions. 316
west coast of Europe.
 They correspond to concentrations of
Range of Ocean Temperature magnetic field that inhibit convection
and result in reduced surface temperature
 The oceans and seas get heated and compared to the surrounding
cooled slower than the land surfaces. photosphere.
Therefore, even if the solar insolation is  Sunspots usually appear as pairs, with
maximum at noon, the ocean surface each spot having the opposite magnetic
temperature is highest at 2 p.m. polarity of the other.
 The average diurnal or daily range of  Although they are at temperatures of
temperature is barely 1 degree in oceans roughly 3,000–4,500 K (2,700–4,200 °C),
and seas. the contrast with the surrounding
 The highest temperature in surface water material at about 5,780 K (5,500 °C)
is attained at 2 p.m. and the lowest, at 5 leaves them clearly visible as dark spots.
a.m.  Sunspot activity cycles about every eleven
 The diurnal range of temperature is years. The point of highest sunspot
highest in oceans if the sky is free of activity during this cycle is known as Solar
clouds and the atmosphere is calm. Maximum, and the point of lowest activity
 The annual range of temperature is is Solar Minimum.
influenced by the annual variation of Pacific Ocean Currents
insolation, the nature of ocean currents
and the prevailing winds. Previous post: Ocean Currents – Factors
 The maximum and the minimum Responsible for the Formation of Ocean
temperatures in oceans are slightly Currents – Effects of Ocean Currents on
delayed than those of land areas (the climate, fishing, navigation, tropical
maximum being in August and the cyclones.
minimum in February [Think why intense
tropical cyclones occur mostly between Equatorial Pacific Ocean Currents
August and October – case is slightly
different in Indian Ocean due to its  Under the influence of prevailing trade
shape]). winds [tropical easterlies], the north
 The northern Pacific and northern Atlantic equatorial current and the south
oceans have a greater range of equatorial current start from the eastern
temperature than their southern parts due pacific (west coast of Central America) and
to a difference in the force of prevailing traverses a distance of 14,500 km moving
winds from the land and more extensive from east to west.
ocean currents in the southern parts of
Counter equatorial current
oceans.
 Besides annual and diurnal ranges of  This raises the level of western pacific
temperature, there are periodic (near Indonesia and Australia) ocean by
fluctuations of sea temperature also. For few centimeters. And this creates a
counter-equatorial current which flows 2. The presence of doldrums (equatorial low

between the north equatorial current and pressure belt) in between the north
the south equatorial current in west-east equatorial current and the south
direction. equatorial current. Doldrums are narrow
regions with calm (lower) atmospheric
Three factors aid the formation of conditions. Such conditions aid the
Counter-Equatorial current Page
backward movement of piled up western
pacific waters. |
1. Piling up of water in the western pacific
due to trade winds. 317
3. Piling of water in the western part of This question is a very tricky one.
oceans due to rotation of earth (this is a
very general point). Opinions can vary.
Question Prelims 2015 Should wait for Official Answer Key!
My opinion
What explains the eastward flow of the
equatorial counter-current? Point 1: Very general in nature. So, less
important.
1. The Earth’s rotation on its axis
2. Convergence of the two equatorial Point 2: This is the first step. Without
currents convergence of equatorial currents, there
3. Difference in salinity of water may not be counter equatorial current.
4. Occurrence of the belt of calm near the But convergence occur due to trade winds
equator
[winds play a superior role in the  The northern branch flows anti-clockwise
formation of ocean currents]. along the coast of British Columbia and
Alaska and is known as the Alaska
Point 3: Salinity greatly influences vertical current. The water of this current is
currents and its influence on horizontal relatively warm as compared to the
movement is less significant. So, ruled surrounding waters in this zone.
out. Page
 The southern branch of the current moves
Point 4: This is the main reason behind as a cold current along the west coast of |
counter equatorial current (the backward USA and is known as the Californian 318
movement of equatorial waters). Doldrums current. The Californian current joins the
are calm regions facilitating the backward north equatorial current to complete the
movement of water. circuit.
There is a severe clash between Points 2 East Australian current

and 4. My pick is Option D [more
probable].  Following the pattern in the northern
hemisphere, the south equatorial current
But why? Because the most important flows from east to west and turns
factor what influences the direction of southwards as the East Australian
ocean currents is wind. current. It then meets the South pacific
current near Tasmania which flows from
Kuroshio current west to east.
 The north equatorial current turns Peru current or Humboldt Current

northward off the Philippines to form the
Kuroshio current. Most of it lies in the  Reaching the south-western coast of
sub-tropical high pressure belt and its South America, it turns northward as the
northern part is under the influence of Peru current. It is a cold current, which
westerlies. finally feeds the south equatorial current,
thus completing the great circuit.
Oyashio Current and Okhotsk current  And the zone where Peru Cold current
meets the warm equatorial ocean waters is
 There are two more cold currents in the an important fishing zone. Why? Read the
northern Pacific, Oyashio flows across the topic below.
east coast of Kamchatka Peninsula to
merge with the warmer waters of Phytoplankton and Fishing
Kuroshio, and the Okhotsk current flows
past Sakhlain Islands to merge with the Mixing zones of Cold and Warm Ocean
Oyashio current off Hokkaido (Northern Currents [Grand Banks] and cold water
Japanese Island). upwelling zones [Peru coast] are the
most productive fishing grounds on
North-Pacific current earth. Why?
 From the south-east coast of Japan, under  Phytoplankton are the primary producers
the influence of prevailing westerlies, the in the marine food chain and hence they
Kuroshio current turns eastwards and are called the ‘grass of the sea’.
moves as the North-Pacific current,  Phytoplankton are predominantly
reaches the west coast of North America, microscopic, single celled organisms.
and bifurcates into two.  Some species of algae are large,
multicellular and live on the ocean
Alaska and Californian current bottom. However, they are insignificant
players in the marine ecosystem compared
to the phytoplankton as they only inhabit  And the organic material forms the
a narrow zone around the coast. building block for all animals higher up in
the food chain.
 Almost all biomass in the ocean is derived
from the phytoplankton and to a lesser
extent the benthic algae (found on the Page
bottom of a sea or lake).
 However, there is a fundamental problem |
phytoplankton in the open ocean have to 319
face. They need both sunlight and
nutrients (such as nitrate and
phosphate) to be able to photosynthesize.
 Sunlight is only available in the
uppermost layers.
 During photosynthesis, the nutrients are
quickly used up by phytoplankton so they
are not available for long periods in the
upper layers under normal circumstances.
This is indeed the case in tropical

waters, and as a result they are very
unproductive.
 To escape this problem the seawater needs

to be mixed regularly to bring the
nutrient rich deep waters up to the
sunlight zone where the phytoplankton
Why are cold and warm current mixing can grow.
zones the good fishing grounds? Why
This is one of the reasons why cold and
are tropical waters highly
warm currents convergence zones
unproductive?
[mixing happens – the collision of
currents causes mixing] and upwelling
zones are very productive.
 Furthermore, in surroundings where

atmospheric temperatures are often colder
than oceanic temperatures, the top layers
of the ocean are cooled by the atmosphere.
 This increases the density of the surface
waters and causes them to sink and
therefore causes mixing [nutrient deficient
water sinks and nutrient rich water is
upwelled].
Both of these factors play a role in

Icelandic waters, resulting in the very
 Algae and other plants are able to productive ocean environment around
photosynthesize to produce organic Iceland.
material from inorganic nutrients.
Atlantic Ocean Currents
Page
|
320
Page
|
321
Equatorial Atlantic Ocean Currents  There is a rise in water level in the

Mexican Gulf because of large amounts of
 Under the influence of prevailing trade water brought by the Mississippi river and
winds [easterly trade winds], the north branches of north and south equatorial
equatorial current and the south currents.
equatorial current start from the eastern
Atlantic (west coast of Africa), moving from Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift
east to west.
 This raises the level of western Atlantic  Antilles current creates a current that
(north of the Brazil bulge) ocean by few flows out through the Strait of Florida as
centimeters. And this creates a counter- Florida current, which mixes with
equatorial current which flows between Antilles current from the south.
the north equatorial current and the south  This combined current moves along the
equatorial current in west-east direction. east coast of USA and is known as the
Florida current upto the Cape Hatteras
and as the Gulf Stream beyond that.
 Near the Grand Banks, the Gulf Stream
Antilles current mixes with cold Labrador and East
Greenland currents and flows eastward
 The south equatorial current bifurcates
across the Atlantic as the North Atlantic
into two branches near Cape de Sao
Drift.
Roque (Brazil).
 Here, westerly movement of North Atlantic
 Part of the current enters the Caribbean
Drift is due to the influence of westerlies.
Sea along with north equatorial current
into the Mexican Gulf, while the remainder Norwegian current
passes along the eastern side of the West
Indies as the Antilles current.
 The North Atlantic Current breaks up into North Atlantic Gyre.

two branches on reaching the eastern part  All the currents deposit the marine plants
of the ocean. and refuse they carry into this sea.
 The main current, continuing as the North
Atlantic Drift, reaches the British Isles Grand Banks-Richest Fishing Grounds
from where it flows along the coast of on Earth
Page
Norway as the Norwegian current and
enters the Arctic Ocean.  The two cold currents—East Greenland |
current and the Labrador current—flow
 Norwegian current is very important as it
from the Arctic Ocean into the Atlantic 322
keeps ocean to the north of Norway partly
Ocean.
free from ice and also moderates the
extremes of climate. It is because of this  The Labrador current flows along part of
current, Russia is able to move cargo in the east coast of Canada and meets the
summers through Arctic ocean (Barents warm Gulf Stream.
Sea).  The confluence of these two currents, one
 The southerly branch flows between Spain hot and the other cold, produce the
and Azores as the cold Canary current. famous fogs around Newfoundland.
 This current finally joins the north  As a result of mixing of cold and warm
equatorial current completing the circuit waters, one of the world's most important
in the North Atlantic. fishing grounds is created.[Explained in
the previous post: Pacific Ocean Currents
 The Sargasso Sea, lying within this
– Fishing and Phytoplankton]
circuit, is full of large quantities of
seaweed and is an important geographical Brazil current
feature.
 In the South Atlantic Ocean, the south
Sargasso Sea
equatorial current, flowing from east to
west, splits into two branches near Cape
de Sao Roque (Brazil).
 The northern branch joins the north
equatorial current (a part of it flows in
Anatilles Current and other into Gulf of
Mexico), whereas the southern branch
turns southward and flows along the
South American coast as the warm Brazil
current.
 The south flowing Brazil current swings
eastward at about latitude 35°S (due to
westerlies) to join the West Wind Drift
flowing from west to east.
 The Sargasso Sea is a region in the gyre in  A small branch of West Wind Drift splits
the middle of the North Atlantic Ocean. and flows between Argentinian coast and
 It is the only sea on Earth which has no Falkland Islands and this current is
coastline. called as Falkland cold current.
 It is bounded on the  It mixes with warm Brazil current at the
1. west by the Gulf Stream; southern tip of Brazil.
2. north, by the North Atlantic Current;
3. east, by the Canary Current; and Benguela current
4. south, by the North Atlantic Equatorial
 A branch of the South Atlantic splits at
Current.
the southern tip of Africa and flows along
 This system of ocean currents forms the
the west coast of South Africa as the cold equatorial current to complete the circuit.
Benguela current, which joins the south
Page
|
323
 Also, monsoon winds in Northern Indian

ocean are peculiar to the region, which
directly influence the ocean surface water
movement [North Indian Ocean Currents].
Indian Ocean Currents and Monsoons
 The currents in the northern portion of the

Indian Ocean change their direction from
season to season in response to the
seasonal rhythm of the monsoons. The
effect of winds is comparatively more
pronounced in the Indian Ocean.
In this post: Indian Ocean Currents – Winter Circulation

Influence of Monsoon Winds on the Indian
Ocean Currents.  Under the influence of prevailing trade
winds [easterly trade winds], the north
Previous posts: Pacific Ocean Currents equatorial current and the south
and Atlantic Ocean Currents. equatorial current start from the south of
Indonesian islands, moving from east to
Indian Ocean Currents west.
 This raises the level of western Indian
 Indian ocean is half an ocean, hence the (south-east of horn of Africa) ocean by few
behavior of the North Indian Ocean centimeters. And this creates a counter-
Currents is different from that of Atlantic equatorial current which flows between
Ocean Currents or the Pacific Ocean the north equatorial current and the south
Currents. equatorial current in west-east direction.
 The north-east monsoons drive the water  In summer, due to the effects of the strong
along the coast of Bay of Bengal to south-west monsoon and the absence of
circulate in an anti-clockwise direction. the north-east trades, a strong current
 Similarly, the water along the coast of flows from west to east, which completely
Arabian Sea also circulate in an anti- obliterates the north equatorial
clockwise circulation. current. Hence, there is no counter- Page
equatorial current as well.
Summer Circulation – North Equatorial  Thus, the circulation of water in the |
Current Counter-Equatorial Current are northern part of the ocean is clockwise 324
Absent during this season.
Southern Indian Ocean Currents - Role of Ocean Salinity

Agulhas current, Mozambique current,
West Australian current
 The general pattern of circulation in

southern part of the Indian Ocean is quite
Page
similar to that of southern Atlantic and
Pacific oceans. It is less marked by the |
seasonal changes.
325
 The south equatorial current, partly led by
the corresponding current of the Pacific
Ocean, flows from east to west.
 It splits into two branches, one flowing to
the east of Madagascar known as Agulhas
current and the other between
Mozambique and Western Madagascar
coast known as Mozambique current.
 At the southern tip of Madagascar, these
two branches mix and are commonly
called as the Agulhas current. It still  Salinity determines compressibility,
continues to be a warm current, till it thermal expansion, temperature, density,
merges with the West Wind Drift. absorption of insolation, evaporation and
 The West Wind Drift, flowing across the humidity.
ocean in the higher latitudes from west to  It also influences the composition and
east, reaches the southern tip of the west movement of the sea: water and the
coast, of Australia. distribution of fish and other marine
 One of the branches of this cold current resources.
turns northwards along the west coast of
Australia. This current, known as the Share of different salts is as shown
West Australian current, flows northward below—
to feed the south equatorial current.
 sodium chloride — 77.7%
In this post: Ocean Salinity – Horizontal  magnesium chloride—10.9%
Distribution of Ocean Salinity and Vertical  magnesium sulphate —.4.7%
Distribution of Ocean Salinity.  calcium sulphate — 3.6%
 potassium sulphate — 2.5%
Previous Post: Temperature Distribution of
Oceans. Factors Affecting Ocean Salinity
Ocean Salinity
 The salinity of water in the surface layer of
oceans depend mainly on evaporation
 Salinity is the term used to define the total
and precipitation.
content of dissolved salts in sea water.
 Surface salinity is greatly influenced in
 It is calculated as the amount of salt (in
coastal regions by the fresh water flow
gm) dissolved in 1,000 gm (1 kg) of
from rivers, and in polar regions by the
seawater.
processes of freezing and thawing of ice.
 It is usually expressed as parts per
 Wind, also influences salinity of an area
thousand or ppt.
by transferring water to other areas.
 Salinity of 24.7 (24.7 o/oo) has been
 The ocean currents contribute to the
considered as the upper limit to demarcate
salinity variations.
‘brackish water’.
 Salinity, temperature and density of water 60° W. It gradually decreases towards the
are interrelated. Hence, any change in the north.
temperature or density influences the
salinity of an area.
Horizontal distribution of salinity

Page
To make life easier, I will remove the |
symbol o/oo and place only number
326
 The salinity for normal open ocean ranges
between 33 and 37.
High salinity regions

Indian Ocean
 In the land locked Red Sea (don’t confuse
this to Dead Sea which has much greater
 The average salinity of the Indian Ocean is
salinity), it is as high as 41.
35.
 In hot and dry regions, where evaporation
 The low salinity trend is observed in the
is high, the salinity sometimes reaches to
Bay of Bengal due to influx of river water
70.
by the river Ganga.
Comparatively Low salinity regions  On the contrary, the Arabian Sea shows
higher salinity due to high evaporation
 In the estuaries (enclosed mouth of a river and low influx of fresh water.
where fresh and saline water get mixed)
and the Arctic, the salinity fluctuates from Marginal seas
0 - 35, seasonally (fresh water coming
from ice caps).  The North Sea, in spite of its location in
higher latitudes, records higher salinity
Pacific due to more saline water brought by the
North Atlantic Drift.
 The salinity variation in the Pacific Ocean  Baltic Sea records low salinity due to
is mainly due to its shape and larger areal influx of river waters in large quantity.
extent.  The Mediterranean Sea records higher
salinity due to high evaporation.
Atlantic
 Salinity is, however, very low in Black Sea
due to enormous fresh water influx by
 The average salinity of the Atlantic Ocean
rivers.
is around 36-37.
 The equatorial region of the Atlantic Ocean
has a salinity of about 35.
 Near the equator, there is heavy rainfall,
high relative humidity, cloudiness and
calm air of the doldrums.
 The polar areas experience very little
evaporation and receive large amounts of
fresh water from the melting of ice. This
leads to low levels of salinity, ranging
between 20 and 32.
 Maximum salinity (37) is observed
between 20° N and 30° N and 20° W -
Inland seas and lakes  The oceans and salt lakes are becoming
more salty as time goes on because the
 The salinity of the inland Seas and lakes is rivers dump more salt into them, while
very high because of the regular supply of fresh water is lost due to evaporation.
salt by ' the rivers falling into them.
 Their water becomes progressively more Cold and warm water mixing zones
Page
saline due to evaporation.
 For instance, the salinity of the Great Salt  Salinity decreases from 35 – 31 on the |
Lake , (Utah, USA), the Dead Sea and the western parts of the northern hemisphere
Lake Van in Turkey is 220, 240 and 330 because of the influx of melted water from 327
respectively. the Arctic region.
Sub-Surface Salinity  Salinity at the surface increases by the

loss of water to ice or evaporation, or
 With depth, the salinity also varies, but decreased by the input of fresh waters,
this variation again is subject to such as from the rivers.
latitudinal difference. The decrease is also  Salinity at depth is very much fixed,
influenced by cold and warm currents. because there is no way that water is
 In high latitudes, salinity increases with ‘lost’, or the salt is ‘added.’ There is a
depth. In the middle latitudes, it increases marked difference in the salinity between
up to 35 metres and then it decreases. At the surface zones and the deep zones of
the equator, surface salinity is lower. the oceans.
 The lower salinity water rests above the
Vertical Distribution of Salinity
higher salinity dense water.
 Salinity, generally, increases with depth
 Salinity changes with depth, but the way
and there is a distinct zone called the
it changes depends upon the location of
halocline (compare this with thermocline),
the sea.
where salinity increases sharply.
 Other factors being constant, increasing  The periodical rise and fall of the sea level,
salinity of seawater causes its density to once or twice a day, mainly due to the
increase. High salinity seawater, generally, attraction of the sun and the moon, is
sinks below the lower salinity water. This called a tide.
leads to stratification by salinity.  Movement of water caused by
meteorological effects (winds and Page
Questions atmospheric pressure changes) are called
surges (storm surge during cyclones). |
Multiple choice questions
 The study of tides is very complex, 328
1. Salinity is expressed as the amount of salt spatially and temporally, as it has great
in grams dissolved in sea water per (a) 10 variations in frequency, magnitude and
gm (c) 100 gm (b) 1,000 gm (d) 10,000 gm height.
2. Which one of the following is the smallest  The moon’s gravitational pull to a great
ocean: (a) Indian Ocean (c) Atlantic Ocean extent and to a lesser extent the sun’s
(b) Arctic Ocean (d) Pacific Ocean gravitational pull, are the major causes
for the occurrence of tides.
In this post: Tides –– Tidal Bulge – Why  Another factor is centrifugal force which
there are two tidal bulges? Why is there a acts opposite to gravitational pull of
tidal bulge on the other side? Factors earth.
Controlling the Nature and Magnitude of  Tides occur due to a balance between all
Tides; Types of Tides: Semi-diurnal tide, these forces.
Diurnal tide, Mixed tide, Spring tides,
Neap tides, Ebb and Flood; Importance of Tidal Bulge - Why there are two tidal
Tides; Characteristics of Tides; Tidal bore. bulges? - Why is there a tidal bulge on
the other side?
Tides
 Together, the gravitational pull and the  On the side of the earth facing the moon, a
centrifugal force are responsible for tidal bulge occurs while on the opposite
creating the two major tidal bulges on the side though the gravitational attraction of
earth. the moon is less as it is farther away, the
centrifugal force causes tidal bulge on the https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CTQ

other side. 6ciHENgI
 On the surface of the earth, the horizontal

tide generating forces are more important
than the vertical forces in generating the
tidal bulges. Page
 The tidal bulges on wide continental |
shelves, have greater height. When tidal
bulges hit the mid-oceanic islands they 329
become low.
 The shape of bays and estuaries along a
coastline can also magnify the intensity of
tides.
 Funnel-shaped bays greatly change tidal
magnitudes. When the tide is channeled
between islands or into bays and estuaries
they are called tidal currents (tidal bore
is one such tidal current).
Tides of Bay of Fundy, Canada
 The highest tides in the world occur in the

Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, Canada. The
 The ‘tide-generating’ force is the difference tidal bulge is 15 - 16 m.
between these two forces; i.e. the  Because there are two high tides and two
gravitational attraction of the moon low tides every day (slightly more than a
and the centrifugal force. 24 hour period); then a tide must come in
 On the surface of the earth, nearest the within about a six hour period.
moon, pull or the attractive force of the
moon is greater than the centrifugal force, Types of Tides
and so there is a net force causing a bulge
towards the moon.  Tides vary in their frequency, direction
 On the opposite side of the earth, the and movement from place to place and
attractive force is less, as it is farther away also from time to time.
from the moon, the centrifugal force is  Tides may be grouped into various types
dominant. Hence, there is a net force based on their frequency of occurrence in
away from the moon. It creates the second one day or 24 hours or based on their
bulge away from the moon. height.
Factors Controlling the Nature and Tides based on Frequency

Magnitude of Tides
Semi-diurnal tide
 The movement of the moon in relation to
 The most common tidal pattern, featuring
the earth.
two high tides and two low tides each
 Changes in position of the sun and moon
day [Actually it varies between 3 tides
in relation to the earth.
to 4 tides –– 3 tides in rare cases but 4
 Uneven distribution of water over the is normal]. The successive high or low
globe. tides are approximately of the same
 Irregularities in the configuration of the height.
oceans.
Although tides occur twice a day, their Tides based on the Sun, Moon and the
interval is not exactly 12 hours. Earth Positions
Instead, they occur at regular intervals
of 12 hours and 25 minutes.  The height of rising water (high tide) varies
appreciably depending upon the position
 This is because the moon revolves around of sun and moon with respect to the earth.
the earth from west to east, and each day Page
Spring tides and neap tides come under
it moves a bit to the east if observed from this category. |
the same place on earth at the same time
on two consecutive days. Spring tides 330
 This time lag explains the tide interval of
12 hours and- 25 minutes, as tides occur  The position of both the sun and the moon
twice a day. in relation to the earth has direct bearing
 A place in England—Southampton— on tide height.
experiences tides 6-8 times a day [2 high  When the sun, the moon and the earth are
tides from North Sea + 2 high tides in a straight line, the height of the tide will
from English Channel + 2 neap tides be higher.
from North Sea + 2 neap tides from  These are called spring tides and they
English Channel]. This happens because occur twice a month, one on full moon
the North Sea and the English Channel period and another during new moon
push the water at different intervals. period.
Neap tides
 Normally, there is a seven day interval

between the spring tides and neap tides.
 At this time the sun and moon are at right
angles to each other and the forces of the
sun and moon tend to counteract one
another.
 The Moon’s attraction, though more than
twice as strong as the sun’s, is diminished
by the counteracting force of the sun’s
gravitational pull.
 Like spring tides, these tides also occur
twice a month.
Magnitude of tides based on Perigee

Diurnal tide and apogee of moon
 There is only one high tide and one low  Once in a month, when the moon’s orbit is
tide during each day. The successive high closest to the earth (perigee), unusually
and low tides are approximately of the high and low tides occur. During this time
same height. the tidal range is greater than normal.
 Two weeks later, when the moon is
Mixed tide farthest from earth (apogee), the moon’s
gravitational force is limited and the tidal
 Tides having variations in height are ranges are less than their average heights.
known as mixed tides. These tides
generally occur along the west coast of Magnitude of tides based on Perigee
North America and on many islands of and Apogee of earth
the Pacific Ocean.
 When the earth is closest to the sun Ebb and Flood

(perihelion), around 3rd January each
year, tidal ranges are also much greater,  The time between the high tide and low
with unusually high and unusually low tide, when the water level is falling, is
tides. called the ebb.
 When the earth is farthest from the sun  The time between the low tide and high
Page
(aphelion), around 4th July each year, tide, when the tide is rising, is called the
tidal ranges are much less than average. flow or flood. |
331
Gif Image: View in power point in full

screen mode
Importance of Tides
 Since tides are caused by the earth-moon-

sun positions which are known accurately,
the tides can be predicted well in
advance. This helps the navigators and
fishermen plan their activities.
Navigation
 Tidal heights are very important,

especially harbours near rivers and within
Gif Images: View in power point in full estuaries having shallow ‘bars’ [Marine
screen mode Landforms] at the entrance, which
prevent ships and boats from entering into
the harbour.
 High tides help in navigation. They raise
the water level close to the shores. This
helps the ships to arrive at the harbour
more easily.
 Tides generally help in making some of the
rivers navigable for ocean-going vessels.
London and Calcutta [Tidal Ports] have
become important ports owing to the tidal
nature of the mouths of the Thames and
Hooghly respectively.
Fishing
 The high tides also help in fishing. Many  When tidal bulges hit the mid-oceanic
more fish come closer to the shore during islands they become low.
the high tide. This enables fishermen to  The shape of bays and estuaries along a
get a plentiful catch. coastline can also magnify the intensity of
tides.
Desilting  Funnel-shaped bays greatly change tidal Page
magnitudes. Example: Bay of Fundy ––
 Tides are also helpful in desilting the |
Highest tidal range.
sediments and in removing polluted water
 The large continents on the planet, 332
from river estuaries.
however, block the westward passage of
Other the tidal bulges as the Earth rotates.
 Tidal patterns differ greatly from ocean to
 Tides are used to generate electrical power ocean and from location to location.
(in Canada, France, Russia, and China).
 A 3 MW tidal power project was Tidal bore
constructed at Durgaduani in
 Tides also occur in gulfs. The gulfs with
Sunderbans of West Bengal.
wide fronts and narrow rears experience
Characteristics of Tides higher tides.
 The in and out movement of water into a
gulf through a channels called a tidal
current.
 When a tide enters the narrow and
shallow estuary of a river, the front of the
tidal wave appears to be vertical owing to
the piling up of water of the river against
the tidal wave and the friction of the river
bed.
 The steep-nosed tide crest looks like a
vertical wall of-water rushing upstream
and is known as a tidal bore.
 The favorable conditions for tidal bore

include strength of the incoming tidal
 The tidal bulges on wide continental wave, slim and depth of the channel and
shelves have greater height. the river flow.
 In the open ocean tidal currents are  There are exceptions. The Amazon River
relatively weak. is the largest river in the world. It empties
into the Atlantic Ocean. The mouth of the  Tides are stable and can be predicted.
Amazon is not narrow, but the river still Tidal bores are less predictable and
has a strong tidal bore. A tidal bore hence can be dangerous.
develops here because the mouth of the  The tidal bores adversely affect the
river is shallow and dotted by many low- shipping and navigation in the estuarine
lying islands and sand bars. zone. Page
 In India, tidal bores are common in the  Tidal bores of considerable magnitude can
Hooghly river. Most powerful tidal bores capsize boats and ships of considerable |
occur in Qiantang River in China. size. 333
 The name ‘bore’ is because of the sound  Strong tidal bores disrupt fishing zones in
the tidal current makes when it travels estuaries and gulfs.
through narrow channels.  Tidal bores have an adverse impact on the
 Bores occur in relatively few locations ecology of the river mouth. The tidal-bore
worldwide, usually in areas with a large affected estuaries are the rich feeding
tidal range, typically more than 6 metres zones and breeding grounds of several
(20 ft) between high and low water. forms of wildlife.
 A tidal bore takes place during the flood  Animals slammed by the leading edge of a
tide and never during the ebb tide (Tidal tidal wave can be buried in the silty water.
bores almost never occur during neap For this reason, carnivores and scavengers
tides. Neap tides happen during quarter are common sights behind tidal bores.
moons, when tides are weakest).
Impact of Tidal Bore Questions
Multiple choice
1. Upward and downward movement of

ocean water is known as the:
(a) tide
(b) wave
(c) current
(d) none of the above
2. Spring tides are caused:
(a) As result of the moon and the sun

pulling the earth gravitationally in the
same direction.
(b) As result of the moon and the sun

pulling the earth gravitationally in the
opposite direction.
(c) Indention in the coast line.

(d) None of the above.
3. The distance between the earth and

the moon is minimum when the moon
is in:
(a) Aphelion corals [shallow rock created by these

depositions is called reef].
(b) Perihelion  These layers at different stages give rise to
(c) Perigee various marine landforms. One such
important landform is called coral reef.
(d) Apogee  Coral reefs over a period of time transform Page
or evolve into coral islands
4. The earth reaches its perihelion in: (Lakshadweep). |
(a) October  The corals occur in different forms and 334
colours, depending upon the nature of
(b) July salts or constituents they are made of.
 Small marine plants (algae) also deposit
(c) September calcium carbonate contributing to coral
growth.
(d) January
150 Words
 What are tides? How are tides caused?

How are tides related to navigation?
In this post: Coral Reef –– Coral Reef

Relief Features – Fringing Reefs (Shore
Reefs), Barrier Reefs and Atolls.
[Formation Of Lakshadweep Islands]
Next Post: Coral Bleaching –– Ideal

conditions for coral growth, Zooxanthellae, Coral Reef Relief Features
Cause for Coral Bleaching, Distribution of
Coral Reefs etc..  Fringing reef, barrier reef and atoll
(coral islands are formed on atolls) are
Coral Reefs the most important relief features.
 Coral reefs are built by and made up of
thousands of tiny animals—coral
“polyps”—that are related to anemones
and jellyfish.
 Polyps are shallow water organisms
which have a soft body covered by a
calcareous skeleton. The polyps extract
calcium salts from sea water to form these
hard skeletons.
 The polyps live in colonies fastened to the
rocky sea floor.
 The tubular skeletons grow upwards and
outwards as a cemented calcareous rocky
mass, collectively called corals.
 When the coral polyps die, they shed their
skeleton [coral] on which new polyps grow. Fringing Reefs (Shore Reefs)
 The cycle is repeated for over millions of
years leading to accumulation of layers of
 Fringing reefs are reefs that grow directly  The 1200-mile long Great Barrier Reef
from a shore. They are located very close off the NE coast of Australia is the world's
to land, and often form a shallow lagoon largest example of this reef type.
between the beach and the main body of  The GBR is not actually a single reef as
the reef. the name implies, but rather a very large
 A fringing reef runs as a narrow belt [1-2 complex consisting of many reefs. Page
km wide]. This type of reef grows from the
deep sea bottom with the seaward side |
sloping steeply into the deep sea. Coral 335
polyps do not extend outwards because of
sudden and large increase in depth.
 The fringing reef is by far the most
common of the three major types of coral
reefs, with numerous examples in all
major regions of coral reef development.
 Fringing reefs can be seen at the New
Hebrides Society islands off Australia and
off the southern coast of Florida. Atolls
 An atoll is a roughly circular (annular)

oceanic reef system surrounding a large
(and often deep) central lagoon.
 The lagoon has a depth 80-150 metres
and may be joined with sea water through
a number of channels cutting across the
WHAT IS A "LAGOON"? reef.
 Atolls are located at great distances from
 A lagoon - as used in the context of coral deep see platforms, where the submarine
reef typology - refers to a comparatively features may help in formation of atolls,
wide band of water that lies between the such as a submerged island or a
shore and the main area of reef volcanic cone which may reach a level
development, and contains at least some suitable for coral growth.
deep portions.  An atoll may have any one of the following
three forms-
Barrier Reefs 1. true atoll—a circular reef enclosing a
lagoon with no island;
 Barrier reefs are extensive linear reef
2. an atoll surrounding a lagoon with an
complexes that parallel a shore, and are
island;
separated from it by lagoon.
3. a coral island or an atoll island which
 This is the largest (in size, not is, in fact, an atoll reef, built by the
distribution) of the three reefs, runs for process of erosion and deposition of
hundreds of kilometres and is several waves with island crowns formed on
kilometres wide. It extends as a broken, them.
irregular ring around the coast or an
 Atolls are far more common in the
island, running almost parallel to it.
Pacific than any other ocean. The Fiji
 Barrier reefs are far less common than atoll and the Funafuti atoll in the
fringing reefs or atolls, although examples Ellice/Island are well known examples of
can be found in the tropical Atlantic as atolls. A large 'number of atolls also occur
well as the Pacific. in the Lakshadweep Islands.
 In the South Pacific, most atolls occur in 1. Step 1: A fringing reef forms first, and
mid-ocean. Examples of this reef type are starts growing in the shallow waters close
common in French Polynesia, the to a tropical island.
Caroline and Marshall Islands, 2. Step 2: Over time, the island subsides and
Micronesia, and the Cook Islands. the reef grows outwards, and the distance
 The Indian Ocean also contains numerous between the land and the reef increases.
Page
atoll formations. Examples are found in The fringing reef develops into a barrier
the Maldives and Chagos island groups, reef. |
the Seychelles, and in the Cocos Island 3. Step 3: If the island completely subsides,
336
group. all that is left is the reef. The reef retains
the approximate shape of the island it
grew around, forming a ring enclosing a
lagoon.
Formation Of Lakshadweep Islands [You

must include the concept of Hotspot]
 The basic coral reef classification scheme

described above was first proposed by
Charles Darwin, and is still widely used
today.
 Darwin theorized that fringing reefs began
to grow near the shorelines of new
islands as ecological conditions became In this post: Coral Bleaching –– Ideal
ideal for hard coral growth. conditions for coral growth, Zooxanthellae,
 Then, as the island began to gradually Cause for Coral Bleaching, Distribution of
subside into the sea, the coral was able to Coral Reefs etc..
keep pace in terms of growth and
remained in place at the sea surface, but Previous Post: Coral Reef –– Coral Reef
farther from shore; it was now a barrier Relief Features – Fringing Reefs (Shore
reef. Reefs), Barrier Reefs and Atolls,
 Eventually, the island disappeared below Development Of Major Coral Reef Types.
the sea surface, leaving only the ring of
Ideal Conditions for Coral Growth
coral encircling the central lagoon; an atoll
had formed.
 Stable climatic conditions: Corals are
highly susceptible to quick changes. They
grow in regions where climate is
significantly stable for a long period of
time.
 Perpetually warm waters: Corals thrive
in tropical waters [30°N and 30°S
Gif Image: View in power point in full latitudes, The temperature of water is
screen mode around 20°C] where diurnal and annual
temperature ranges are very narrow.
[Explain why coral reefs are absent on 1. They use the traditional cnidarian strategy
west coast of tropical continents? of capturing tiny planktonic organisms
Because of Cold Ocean Currents – corals with their tentacles (All about Phylum
like warm waters and hate cold waters] Cnidaria is given in NCERT).
2. Having a symbiotic relationship with a
 Shallow water: Coral require fairly good single cell algae known as
amount of sunlight to survive. The ideal Page
ZOOXANTHELLAE.
depths for coral growth are 45 m to 55 m  Zooxanthellae are autorophic [prepare |
below sea surface, where there is their own food] microalgaes belonging to 337
abundant sunlight available. various taxa in the Phylum
 Clear salt water: Clear salt water is Dinoflagellata.
suitable for coral growth, while both fresh
water and highly saline water are harmful. Coral == Phylum Cnidaria.
 Abundant Plankton: Adequate supply of
oxygen and microscopic marine food, Zooxanthellae == Phylum
called plankton [phytoplankton], is Dinoflagellata.
essential for growth. As the plankton is Symbiotic Relationship Between Corals
more abundant on the seaward side, And ZOOXANTHELLAE
corals grow rapidly on the seaward side.
 Little or no pollution: Corals are highly  Zooxanthellae live symbiotically within the
fragile and are vulnerable to climate coral polyp tissues and assist the coral in
change and pollution and even a minute nutrient production through its
increase in marine pollution can be photosynthetic activities.
catastrophic.  These activities provide the coral with
Distribution of Coral Reefs fixed carbon compounds for energy,
enhance calcification, and mediate
elemental nutrient flux.
 The host coral polyp in return provides its
zooxanthellae with a protected
environment to live within, and a steady
supply of carbon dioxide for its
photosynthetic processes.
 The symbiotic relationship allows the slow
Corals and Zooxanthellae growing corals to compete with the faster
growing multicellular algaes. The corals
 Many invertebrates, vertebrates, and can feed by day through photosynthesis
plants live in close association with corals, and by night through predation.
with tight resource coupling and The tissues of corals themselves are
recycling, allowing coral reefs to have actually not the beautiful colors of the
extremely high productivity and coral reef, but are instead clear. The
biodiversity, such that they are referred to corals receive their coloration from the
as ‘the Tropical Rainforests of the ZOOXANTHELLAE living within their
Oceans’. tissues.
 Scleractinian corals build skeletons of
calcium carbonate sequestered from the Coral Bleaching or Coral Reef Bleaching
water.
 Scleractinian corals come under Phylum
Cnidaria, and they receive their nutrient
and energy resources in two ways.
Page
|
338
 Disturbances affecting coral reefs include [it is no more useful for the coral and
anthropogenic and natural events. the coral will bleach it]
 Recent accelerated coral reef decline is  When corals bleach they commonly lose
related mostly to anthropogenic impacts 60-90% of their zooxanthellae and each
(overexploitation, overfishing, zooxanthellae may lose 50-80% of its
increased sedimentation and nutrient photosynthetic pigments.
overloading).  If the stress-causing bleaching is not too
 Natural disturbances which cause damage severe and if it decreases in time, the
to coral reefs include violent storms, affected corals usually regain their
flooding, high and low temperature symbiotic algae within several weeks or a
extremes, El Nino Southern Oscillation few months.
(ENSO) events, sub aerial exposures,  If zooxanthellae loss is prolonged, i.e. if
predatory outbreaks and epizootics. the stress continues and depleted
 Coral reef bleaching is a common stress zooxanthellae populations do not recover,
response of corals to many of the various the coral host eventually dies .
disturbances mentioned above.
 Bleaching occurs when Ecological Causes of Coral Bleaching
1. the densities of zooxanthellae decline
Temperature
and/or
2. the concentration of photosynthetic
 Coral species live within a relatively
pigments within the zooxanthellae fall.
narrow temperature margin, and
anomalously low and high sea
temperatures [corals are absent on the zooxanthellae loss, but could also very
west coast of tropical temperate well lead to coral death.
continents because of the cold
currents] can induce coral bleaching. Fresh Water Dilution
 Bleaching events occur during sudden
temperature drops accompanying intense  Rapid dilution of reef waters from storm-
upwelling episodes [El-Nino], seasonal generated precipitation and runoff has Page
cold-air outbreaks. been demonstrated to cause coral reef |
bleaching.
 Most reefs recovered, with low levels of
coral deaths, but damage has been severe  Generally, such bleaching events are rare 339
at places. and confined to relatively small, near
shore areas.
 This is an instance of coral reefs'
susceptibility to increased water Inorganic Nutrients
temperatures combined with OCEAN
ACIDIFICATION.  Rather than causing coral reef bleaching,
 While the rising temperatures have an increase in ambient elemental nutrient
increased the frequency and intensity of concentrations (e.g. ammonia and
bleaching, acidification has reduced nitrate) actually increases zooxanthellae
corals calcifying ability. densities 2-3 times.
 Small temperature increase over many  Although eutrophication is not directly
weeks or large increase (3-4 °C) over a few involved in zooxanthellae loss, it could
days will result in coral dysfunction. cause secondary adverse effects such as
 Coral bleaching has occurred mostly lowering of coral resistance and greater
during the summer seasons or near the susceptibility to diseases.
end of a protracted warming period.
 They are reported to have taken place Xenobiotics
during times of low wind velocity, clear
skies, calm seas and low turbidity. The  When corals are exposed to high
conditions favor localised heating and high concentrations of chemical contaminants
ultraviolet (UV) radiation. like copper, herbicides and oil, coral
 UV radiation readily penetrates clear sea bleaching happens.
waters. The corals actually contain UV- Epizootics
absorbing compounds which can block
potentially damaging UV radiation. But  Pathogen induced bleaching is different
rising temperatures mean reduction in the from other sorts of bleaching.
concentration of these UV absorbing  Most coral diseases cause patchy or whole
compounds in corals. colony death and sloughing of soft tissues,
Sub aerial Exposure resulting in a white skeleton (not to be
confused with bleached corals).
 Sudden exposure of reef flat corals to the Spatial and temporal range of coral reef
atmosphere during events such as bleaching
extreme low tides, ENSO-related sea level
drops or tectonic uplift can potentially  Nearly all of the world’s major coral reef
induce bleaching. regions (Caribbean/ western Atlantic,
 The consequent exposure to high or low eastern Pacific, central and western
temperatures, increased solar radiation, Pacific, Indian Ocean, Arabian Gulf, Red
desiccation, and sea water dilution by Sea) experienced some degree of coral
heavy rains could all play a role in bleaching and mortality during the 1980s.
 Prior to the 1980s, most mass coral organic products. The greater part of the
moralities were related to non-thermal deposits on the continental shelf and slopes is
disturbances such as storms, aerial derived from rock material let loose by
exposures during extreme low tides, and disintegration and decomposition by the
agents of weathering and carried to sea by the
Acanthaster outbreaks. Coral bleaching
agents of erosion, such as running water,
accompanied some of the mortality events wind, etc. The process and extent of Page
prior to the 1980s during periods of disintegration depends on. the nature of rock
elevated sea water temperature, but these material, climate and time taken. The larger |
disturbances were geographically isolated particles of the terrigenous deposits are found 340
and restricted to particular reefs zones. In near the shore and the finer ones carried
contrast, many of the coral bleaching deeper. The extent to which they are carried -
events observed in the 1980s occurred outwards depends on the size of rock material
over large geographic regions and at all and the strength of sea waves and currents
depths. (Fig. 3.13).
 On the basis of size of particles, the
Bleaching may also be Beneficial terrigenous deposits may be categorised into
three classes—mud, sand and gravel. Mud
 Recent research has revealed that corals refers to the finest particles which comprise
that are consistently exposed to low levels the minute particles of rock forming minerals,
principally quartz. Sand refers to the coarser
of stress may develop some kind of
particles, while gravel has even bigger
resistance to bleaching. particles.
Ocean Deposits  Volcanic Products In volcanic regions the
deposits of continental shelf and slope consist
 There are unconsolidated sediments, chiefly of products of volcanism, which are
deposited on the ocean floor. These are ocean subject to chemical and mechanical
deposits. They vary from location to location. weathering and are carried to the ocean by
The study of ocean deposits is important in actions of running water and wind. The
understanding the rocks exposed on the volcanic deposits differ from the ordinary
earth's surface which were once laid under terrigenous deposits in one respect—they are
sea. made of pyroclastic yolcanic products and
lava, rather than quartz.
 Two Types The ocean deposits can broadly be
divided into two types—the terrigenous  Organic Products Such deposits consist of
deposits and the pelagic deposits. The shells and skeletons of various plants and
terrigenous deposits are those which are animals that live and grow on the sea floor
found on the continental shelves and slopes and are changed into mud and sand by
and mainly consist of the rock material chemical and mechanical processes. They
derived because of wear and tear. The pelagic differ from the ordinary terrigenous deposits
deposits are those which are found over deep in the sense that they consist of calcium
sea plains and the deeps. These deposits carbonate only.
mainly consist of organic remains of plants
Pelagic Deposits
and animals. But this distinction between the
two types of deposits is not absolute. For
 Pelagic deposits are the most conspicuous of
instance, the terrigenous deposits may not
all deposits—covering about 75% of the total
always consist of the fragmented rock material
sea floor. This is because, except for fine
and may be carried deep into the sea. Also,
volcanic ash, little terrigenous material is
the pelagic deposits may not always consist of
carried into the deeps. The pelagic deposits
the plant and animal remains and may be
consist of both organic and inorganic material.
extended far upto the continental slope.
 Organic Material This is in the form of a kind
Terrigenous Deposits of liquid mud, called ooze, which contains
shells and skeletons of various marine
 Terrigenous deposits are derived from the organisms. The ooze is said to be calcareous
wear and tear of land and volcanic and when the shell is made of calcium carbonate.
The calcareous ooze may be either pteropod Mexico, Peru, Japan, northwestern and
ooze or globogerina ooze. Most parts of the southern Africa, and Australia. Magnetite
Indian and Atlantic Oceans have calcareous occurs in areas with deposits of volcanic
ooze as deposits (Fig. 3.13). When the shell is rock materials. Such areas are found
made of silica, the ooze is said to be siliceous along the east coast of Asia in Japan and
ooze, which can be either the diatom type or the western coast of North America. The
the radiolarian type of ooze. The southern tin ore, cassiterite, is a residue of granite Page
fringes of the Indian and the Atlantic Oceans weathering and occurs in a belt from
have the siliceous type of ooze. northern Thailand-western Malaysia to |
 Inorganic Material This is in the form of red Indonesia. It has been mined for years and 341
clay, which is apparently of a volcanic origin. provides more than 1 per cent of the
The chief constituents of red clay are silicon world's produce of tin. Gold placers occur
and aluminium dioxide, while other along the coast of Alaska on the East
constituents include iron, manganese, Pacific shelf. Platinum mixed with sand
phosphorus and radium. The red clay is the occurs in Australia, South Africa and US.
most widely spread pelagic deposit and covers Diamonds are found in sediments washed
38% of the sea floor. The red clay covers more down the rivers in some areas of Africa
than half of the Pacific floor (Fig. 3.13). and Australia.
 Oil (petroleum) and natural gas are the
Mineral Resources most well exploited (so far) of all the
mineral resources derived from the sea.
 The mineral resources, derived from the sea, They constitute upto 90 per cent of the
include both metallic and non-metallic value of minerals derived from sea. The oil
minerals which are present, either in the and natural gas resources are subsurface
dissolved form or as suspensions. The deposits found mainly on continental
dissolved salts that are extracted profitably at shelves, slopes and in small ocean basins.
present include common salt (sodium One structure that acts as a trap for oil
chloride) and the salts of magnesium and and natural gas is the salt dome. (These
bromine. The real source of minerals available domes are often also rich in sulphur.) The
in the sea is land. Precipitation carries vast main prospects for petroleum deposits are
amounts of minerals from land on its return youthful margins where some basins
journey. Sea mining, however, is upto twenty contain thick accumulations of sediments.
times more expensive than land mining. Oil may also occur at convergence zones
 The surface deposits of minerals on the and near transition faults. According to
continental shelf and slopes are found some scientists, upto 20 per cent of the oil
mixed with sand. Sands are mined to and gas resources are in the offshore
extract calcium carbonate along the areas. The oil crisis has increased the
Bahamas coast which is rich in this salt. importance of offshore exploration and
Coral sands are mined in Hawaii and Fiji. production. Major offshore oil fields are in
The beach sands of western India, coastal the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Mexico, the North
Brazil, Australia, New Zealand, Sri Lanka Sea, and off the north coast of Australia,
and the USA have zircon, monazite and the southern coast of US, and the coasts in
rutile. While Kerala's placer deposits Arctic Ocean. The western coast of India
contain 90 per cent of the world's has shown promising reserves. Relatively
monazite reserves, the eastern and unexplored reserves are known to exist
western coasts of Australia account for around Sumatra, Borneo, East Africa,
about 30 per cent of rutile. Sulphur Northwest Africa, and Australia.
reserves are known to exist in the Gulf of  Besides oil, submerged coal deposits are to
Mexico and the Mediterranean Sea. be found in Japan, UK, Africa and the
Phosphorite can be mined to produce coast of Maharashtra in India.
phosphates; it is found in shallow waters  The deep sea has two main types of
in muds and sands as well as in the form mineral deposits of economic importance:
of nodules on the continental Shelf and manganese nodules and metalliferous
slopes. Large deposits are known to occur sediments.
off the coasts of California, Florida,
 Manganese nodules (containing mainly mechanism involved is called OTEC. Belgium

cobalt, copper, nickel and manganese) are and Cuba are producing power in this way.. In
abundant in areas of low sedimentation India, a plant of 100 MW is expected to come
rates, such as abyssal plains. Estimates up at Kulsekaripattinam (Tamil Nadu coast).
are that as much as 25 per cent of the sea  Geothermal Energy This means tapping heat
floor is covered by nodules and that over from fracture zones and active volcanoes
1.5 trillion tons are in the Pacific alone, under sea. [These resources are discussed in Page
especially in the siliceous ooze area. The detail in the chapter Economic Geography.)
nodules of Atlantic and Indian Oceans are |
generally characterised by having copper, Fresh Water 342
nickel and cobalt below those generally
considered economic. Manganese nodules  The sea water could be the source of an
in Indian Ocean cover a large area, over invaluable item—fresh water. Severgl
10 million sq. km. Distribution maps desalination technologies are in operation, but
indicate that large areas in the basins as yet they are not being used on a large scale,
east of the Central Indian Ridge contains as they are costly. Electrodialysis employs
nodules with a high percentage of iron-selective membranes for the desalination
manganese, nickel and copper and these of brackish water. The energy cost of the
appear to be more promising basins. process is directly proportional to the salinity,
According to recent surveys the Central and more economical for salinities below
Indian Ocean Basin's nodules are 5,000 ppm. Flash distillation is another
associated with palae clays. method of desalinating sea water. In this
 Considerable interest has been sparked by method, heated saline water is allowed to flow
the discovery of polymetallic sulphides. through a series of chambers which are
They occur along the mid-ocean rift maintained at different pressures below
valleys, and those found near the atmospheric, and progressively decrease
Galapagos rift system contain 48 per cent towards the end of the series. In each section
sulphur, 43 per cent iron, 11 per cent of the chamber, vapour is released and then
copper and smaller quantities of zinc, tin, condensed over a bundle of tubes cooled by
molybdenum, lead and silver. The circulating sea-water inside them. Distillate of
sulphides apparently result from fresh water produced at each stage is
submarine hydrothermal precipitation gathered. The technique is in use in Saudi
along the northern boundary fault of the Arabia, Kuwait, Island, Pakistan, Chile, and
rift valley at depths exceeding 2,000 m. India. Reverse osmosis is the most widely
India has located few scattered deposits of used method. Suitable osmotic membranes
polymetallic sulphides in the central are used which reject salts and allow water to
Indian Ocean. pass through when sea water is put under
high pressure.
Energy Resources
Sea Level Change
 Energy from the ocean is derived in three
ways.  By changes in sea level, we mean the
 Energy from Tides The tides, during rise and fluctuations in the mean sea level, i.e., the
fall, release a lot of energy by striking against average level of the sea surface, the data for
the shore. This piston action can be used to which is derived from a series of continuous
operate a turbine and produce electricity. The records of tidal oscillations over a considerably
USA, the CIS, Japan and France are long period of time. Thus, the changes in sea
producing power from ticks. level may also be termed as a relative change
 Energy from Temperature in sea level. During a relative rise in sea level,
 Difference in Surface and Sub-Surface either the land or the sea surface may
Water In tropical seas, the surface undergo upliftment or subsidence, or both
temperature is about 25 °C to 30 °C, while the may rise and fall at the same time.
sub-surface temperature is 5 °C. This vertical  The major categories of change in sea level are
difference of 25 °C is enough to generate mentioned below:
electricity, but it is an expensive option. The
(i) Eustatic changes occur when the volume coastal areas. By studying the fluctuations of
of sea water changes due to factors such sea level it becomes possible to assess the
as global warming and melting of ice suitability of coastal locations for industrial
sheets (rise in sea level) or ice ages (fall in development. The fluctuations in sea level
sea level). determine the availability of land, particularly
(ii) Tectonic changes occur due to a change in in coastal areas, which are important for
the level of land. These changes occur due agricultural purposes. The submergence of Page
to the following factors: land in future could be a disaster for the
(a) Isostatic changes which take place due to human civilisation as it may endanger our |
addition or removal of load, e.g., during ice food security. By predicting climate change 343
ages, landmass subsided due to the and the possible areas to be submerged under
tremendous load exerted by the glacial ice; sea, it becomes possible for the low-lying
as a result there was an apparent rise in countries to build coastal dykes and
sea level. On the other hand, the landmass embankments. The task of mapping of areas
of Scandinavia is still rising as the glacial likely to be affected by storm surges and
ice is being removed. periodic flooding becomes possible only if we
(b) Epeirogenic movement occurs due to broad know the likely areas to be affected by future
scale tilting of continents which may result sea level rise. The construction of tidal power
in the rise of one part of the continent in generation units needs suitable locations. By
relation to the mean sea level even as the identifying the areas of possible submergence
other part may subside causing an in the near future it becomes possible for us
apparent rise in sea level. to set up tidal power generation plants in
(c) Orogenic movement is related to folding suitable locations.
and flexuring (stretching of a part of the
earth's crust) of the lithosphere which Evidence in Support of Sea Level
results in the formation of lofty mountains Change
and an apparent fall in sea level.
 Therefore the phenomenon of sea level change  The sea level changes in the Quaternary
may be summarised thus: Period are reconstructed by using the
1. The rise in sea level is accompanied by the following methods:
subsidence of land surface; rise in sea level  Elevated shorelines, such as raised beaches,
may take place while the land remains suggest a fall in sea level in that region in the
stationary or the land rises at a slower rate past. The exact age of the changes in sea level
than the sea level. is ascertained from the application of
2. Sea level remains static, but the land radiometric techniques on the materials found
subsides. in those raised beaches.
3. The sea level falls, but land subsides at a  Submarine -canyons prove that once there
faster rate. was a relative rise in sea level because they
 Similarly, the fall in sea level may be due to: are formed only in submerged conditions.
(1) sea level falling while the land surface rises  Oxygen isotopes well preserved in the
or remains static or the land subsides at a calcareous depositS of microfossils, found in
slower rate; (2) no change in sea level but land the sedimentary deposits on the ocean floor,
moving upward; (3) the land surface rising at provide information about the sea level
a faster rate than the rise of sea level. changes; the sea level change in the
Quaternary period is known from such
Relevance of the Study of Sea Level microfossil deposits. Evidence suggests that
Changes during the last few glaciations and
interglacials, the average sea level stood at
 The study of sea level changes is important. It about 50 to 60 m below the present mean sea
provides key evidences regarding climate level.
change and also enables us to draw a  The continental shelves have either organic or
benchmark for estimating the rates of tectonic inorganic deposits. Peat deposits are formed
upliftment in the past geological periods. Sea as a result of the decay of organic deposits in
level directly influences the rate and pattern of waterlog-0d conditions. Peat is formed in
erosional and depositional processes in the intertidal zones that'can be dated
radiometrically by applying carbon-14 observations), also helps us to understand the

technique. Therefore, peat deposits are also change in sediments at depth.
the source of valuable information about past  The record of pre-Quaternary sea level change
sea level changes. presented by the Exxon group shows global
 We may conclude from the above mentioned sea level changes from ay. Cretaceous Period
evidence that, during the last glaciation (about to the present. It shows the long-term rise
18,000 years ago), the sea level was 110 m to during the early Cretaceous Period was Page
140 m below the present sea level. Hence, preceded by a prolonged period of generally
large areas of the continental shelves were left low sea levels which had extended from the |
dry. It was followed by a steady rise in sea late Palaeozoic Era about 320 million years 344
level called Flandrian transgression. Between ago to the late Mesozoic Era about 150 million
18,000 and 8,000 years before present (BP— years ago. The study done by the Exxon group
`present' being 1950), i.e., during the Holocene suggests that during the late Cretaceous, the
period, the sea level rose at a much faster rate sea level rose to a maximum 250 m above the
(1 m/100 years). Although this rate of rise in present sea level. Most noteworthy are the
sea level came to a standstill about 6000 to dramatic falls in sea leVels during the
5000 years BP, the history of sea level Mesozoic and Cenozoic. The most rapid fall in
fluctuations during the past 10,000 years sea level (about 150 m) took place in the late
reveals that there were at least nine cold Oligocene Epoch.
phases in Europe. Out of these, two phases  Mechanisms of the Change in Sea Level The
have been demarcated precisely: the Medieval fluctuations of sea level involve three basic
Advance (AD 1200 to 1400) and the Little Ice mechanisms: changes in ocean water volume;
Age (AD 1550 to 1800). changes in ocean basin volume; changes in
 Evidence of pre-Quaternary sea level changes the geoid, i.e., the shape of the earth..
are obtained from various sources such as the  Changes in the volume of ocean water The
sedimentary deposits of the continents. The present sea level would rise by about 60 to 75
depth of sediments indicates the possible m
duration of the submergence of the area where  if the ice in Antarctica melts, whereas the
the sediments are deposited. The depth of the Greenland ice cap would contribute about 5 m
sediments can be known by determining their rise in sea level. It is assumed that, in such a
lithological and organic characteristics. If case, the added load of ocean water would
marine sediments are exposed subaerially due lead to the sinking of the ocean floor due to
to the rise of land or fall in sea level, the isostatic compensation. So the total rise of sea
change in sea level can be estimated by using level would be about 40-50 m. However, the.
fossil evidences. However, this technique only isostatic adjustment of the land and the ocean
suggests regional sea level changes. The sea is still not clear due to lack of data.
level changes of global extent can be  The Antarctic ice-sheet was formed during the
ascertained from the study of sea level middle and late Tertiary and it resulted in the
changes in different continents of the world. If fall of the sea level. Abotit 3 to 4 million years
the sea level fluctuations in different ago, the continents of the northern
continents are synchronous, they may be hemisphere experienced the formation of
assumed as a global sea level change. extensive ice-sheets, the first time in
Moreover, the marine sediments found on geological history. As a result of this, the sea
stable cratonic terrain indicate sea level level dropped (as the total volume of ocean
fluctuations in the past ages. water was reduced).
 Another approach of estimating sea level  On the contrary, if the ice-sheet melts, the
change is to plat the area of the continent water returns to the ocean. Generally it is
where marine strata are found. The sea level observed that in the initial stage of the melting
changes in the pre-Quaternary period can also of ice, the isostatic uplift is rapid, i.e., 3 m to
be estimated by tracing changes in the 10 m per 100 years. The land surface rises
shorelines. Seismic evidence, gathered by when the ice load is removed by melting. But
drilling boreholes (because it is generally such a process of land upliftment is slow and
difficult to gathcr information from offshore takes several thousand years because of the
sedimentary sequences by external viscous mantle and the overlying crustal block
of low elasticity. Scandinavia, for example, is
still rising after the removal of ice deposited global sea level by about 26 m due to an.
during the last Ice Age. increased volume of ocean basin.
 Change in the volume of the ocean basin  (iv) Drying, out of small ocean basins
Changes in the volume of ocean basin and the Desiccation of ocean basins of smaller size
resultant changes in sea level were an may, lead to change in global sea level. K.J.
important event of the Mesozoic Era and the Hsti in the early 1970s viewed that the
early Cenozoic Era. Such changes occur due presence of thick evaporite depasits in the Page
to the following factors. sedimentary rocks of the
 (i) Changes in the volume of mid-oceanic  Mediterranean Sea and the evidence of deep' |
ridges An important tectonic cause of sea level submarine gorges from the mouths of rivers 345
rise, changes in the volume of mid-oceanic like the Nile and the Rhone prove that the
ridges may occur due to periodic entire Mediterranean sea was evaporated
reorganisation of plate boundaries which about 5 million years BP. The water
cause variations in the total length of the ridge evaporated from the Mediterranean Sea would
system. If the lithosphere is warm, the have ultimately returned to oceans and
spreading rate increases causing an increase produced a rise in sea level. According to the
in ridge volume and vice versa. The sea level estimate of KJ. Hsti, there was a global sea
rises when the oceanic ridge increases in level rise of 5 m even after an isostatic
volume. adjustment, i.e., subsidence of ocean floor by
 Another factor is the change in the rate of sea 10 m due to the increased load of water. It is
floor spreading. Since the late Cretaceous to be mentioned that the Mediterranean Sea at
Period, there has been a steady increase in the that time was isolated from the rest of the
volume of mid-oceanic ridge. Since the ridge oceans since the Strait of Gibraltar.was closed
occupies about 12 per cent of the total volume by a local upliftment.
of ocean water, any such change in the  An analogous evidence of desiccation and sea
volume of the mid-oceanic ridge influence& level rise is found in the case of the southern
the sea level to a great extent. part of the Atlantic Ocean in its nascent stage
 (ii) Accumulation of sediments on the in the early Cretaceous period when the
ocean floor Sediments are produced by the isolated ocean basin dried out. This led to a
denudation of continents and are deposited on rise in sea level because the water of the
the ocean floor. southern part of the Atlantic Ocean returned
 The deposition of sediments may result in the to the water body of the surrounding oceans.
subsidence of the ocean floor and the removal Evidence in support of this event is found in
of sediments either through subduction or the thick evaporite deposits. The global sea
upliftment. If we do not take these two factors level rise probably reached 60 m after the
into consideration, there will be a rise in sea desiccation of the south Atlantic.
level due to the decreased volume of the ocean  Geoidal Effect Hypothesis Isostatic movement
basin. of the earth's crust suggests vertical
 Since the mid-Cretaceous Period, there has movement of the crust in response to the
been a steady growth of carbonate increased and decreased load on it. On the
accumulation in the ocean basins, mainly due other hand, geoidal effects suggest crustal
to more active growth of carbonate-secreting deformations as a result of continuous
marine organisms. It is assumed that the horizontal redistribution of mass within and
carbonate accumulation has resulted in a between ocean basins of the world in response
global rise of ocean floor by about 300 m and to an increase and decrease of load on ocean
global rise of sea level by about 55 m even basins.
after isostatic adjustments.  A model developed in the 1970s by
 (iii) Impact of orogenesis As orogenesis geophysicists and geomorphologists predicted
causes shortening and thickening of six ocean basin zones which witnessed
continental crust and a reduction in the area Holocene sea level change due to both
of continents, the sea level falls as a result of isostatic and geoidal effects. However, sea
an increase in the volume of the ocean basin. level change due to geoidal impact is still not
For example, if it is assumed that the Tibetan proved.
plateau is made of crustal layers of twice the
average thickness, it will produce a fall of Marine/Resources and their Utilisation
 Marine resources are those resources  Another biotic resource is the squid.
found within ocean waters. These Squids show a great variety of form, and
resources may be biotic or mineral. are found in all large seas from the Arctic
to the tropical maritime regions. They
Biotic Resources occur near coasts as well as in the central
part of the oceans to at least a depth of Page
 Of the biotic resources derived from the
5,000 metres. There are huge potential
sea, human beings consume fish,
reserves of squids as only a limited area— |
crustaceans, molluscs, seaweeds and
northwestern Pacific, the Mediterranean, 346
other edible forms of marine life. Marine
and the west coast of Africa—is at present
animals provide oil, fur, leather, glue and
exploited. However, squids are not
cattlefeed. Marine plants and animals are
commonly eaten in many parts of the
used in curative medicine.
world.
 Sea foods are of high nutritional value,
and, given the limited land availability for
agricultural expansion, are of great
importance in meeting the food demands
of humans in the future.
 Edible fish are of three main types, based
on the location of habitat. Pelagic fish
(mackerel, herring, anchovies, tuna) breed
near the surface of seas. Demersal fish
(haddock, cod, halibut, sole in the
temperate region, and snapper and
garoupa in tropical waters) feed on or near  Krill are small shrimp-like marine
the sea bed of the continental shelf. Then organisms inhabiting the Antarctic region.
there are the migratory anadromous fish An important feed for whales, seals,
(salmon) that live in the sea but move into squids and birds, krill stocks renew
fresh water of coastal rivers every year. themselves rapidly; so increasing catches
[Fish resources are discussed in detail in may not much affect the Antarctic
the chapter Economic Geography, under ecosystem. However, since krill decompose
`Resources'.] rapidly, the catcher vessels must have
 Whales are mammals of the ocean and technically advanced systems to enable
have been caught not only for food but for quick processing or freezing of the catch.
industrial And medicinal purposes as well.  At the base of the food chain are the
Baleen whales are used as food by planktons—phytoplanktons and zoo-
humans, in pet foods, in fertilizers, in planktons. These are the food for many
flavouring, and as oil for margarine, soap marine animal species. Benthos resources
and glycerin. Sperm whales provide include animals such as crustaceans
products used in hardening agents, (prawn, shrimp, crab, lobster) and
lubricants, and cosmetics. shellfish or molluscs (mussels, oysters).
 Aquaculture is well developed in Europe
and Asia to breed oysters, mussels and
clams. Benthos plants inClude algae.
Algae such as sea lettuces are used in
soups and salads and as flavouring. Kelp
hai traditionally been used as winter
fodder and to mulch fields along the
northwest coast of US and Canada. Kelp is
used in soups, or salted and pickled. It
has been suggested that kelp can be
cultivated fer producing methane gas and is a pursuit zone. An important feature is
used as an energy source by bioconversion the recognition of a 320-km (200-mile)
 There are many industrial uses for algae. exclusive economic zone (EEZ) which
Brown algae produce algin used as starts at the same base line as the
stabilisers in the paints industry, to territorial waters.
strengthen ceramics, and to thicken jams.  Within the EEZ the coastal state has the Page
Red algae provide agar and carrageenan. right to exploit all economic resources—fish,
Agar is an important medium for bacterial minerals, oil and gas and energy |
culture in research; it is also an ingredient production. A modified arrangement is 347
in desserts and pharmaceutical products. recognised on the continental shelf. States
Carrageenan is used as a stabiliser and may claim rights to resources in the sea-
emulsifier in ice-creams, salad dressings, bed for at least 320 km (200 miles),
puddings, and in cosmetics and although the average width of the
medicines. Agar producing algae are continental shelf is only 64 km. The state
harvested in Japan, Mexico, South may extend these rights to the edge of the
America and Africa. shelf—as much as 1280 km (800 miles) in
some cases—though this does not include
Jurisdiction over the Seas rights to the sea itself beyond the 320 km
EEZ. Beyond all the zones in which
 The issue of territorial rights of the seas individual countries can claim control are
has been discussed at United Nations the high seas. The high seas are free for
international conferences on the Law of navigation by vessels of all nations. The
the Sea. Four main decisions have been oceans may also be used freely for the
widely accepted since 1978. laying of submarine cables, and the
airspace over them is also free. The oceans
may also be freely fished by all nations,
though some international agreements
seek to- control overfishing, which
endangers some species.
Short-Term Changes in Global Sea Level
 Territorial waters are those waters over

which a state has full sovereignty and are
now recognised as extendings for 19 km
(12 miles) from the coast or from a base line
drawn round an indented coast in such a
way as to include fjords, estuaries and
land between the mainland and offshore
islands in the internal waters. Thus,
countries like Indonesia can claim the
waters between its islands. A further
contiguous zone of 19 km is recognised in
which the coastal state can take action  Short-term changes occur during a year.
against those who break the law within the Commonly, seasonal variations of 5-6 cm
true territorial waters. This, in other words, in sea level are observed in a year. But the
fluctuations of sea level reach 20-30 cm or has, to some extent, contributed to global
more in almost all coastal areas of the sea level rise.
world. Even if the causes of such short-  In the last century, about 15 per cent of
term changes are not known, the the total volume of the Greenland ice cap
fluctuations of sea level may be due to a melted. Besides these areas of ice-melt,
complex interaction of the following other glaciers are also estimated ta have Page
factors: contributed about 48 per cent of the global
 (i) Marine water density: Temperature and sea level rise. |
salinity control the density of sea water.
Long-Term Sea Level Changes 348
Low temperature and high salinity
produce high density of sea water and
lower sea level. It is due to lower  Global sea level changes which exceed 100
temperature and higher salinity that the m are possible only if the major ice-sheets
eastern part of the Pacific Ocean has a sea melt or there are substantial changes in
level 30-50 cm higher than the Atlantic the volume of the world’s mid-oceanic
Ocean. ridge. Other factors such as long-term
changes in the geoid or global hypsometry,
 (ii) Atmospheric pressure Low pressure
desiccation of small ocean basins etc. are
results in higher local sea level and vice
considered to be of lesser importance. The
versa. The sea level rises locally in places
effect of the melting of ice and changes-in
of low pressure because water is sucked in
the volume of mid-oceanic ridge cause
by the upward moving airmass.

global sea level change at a relatively

 (iii) Velocity of ocean currents Fast-flowing faster rate than the latter.
ocean currents when taking a curved path
 Explaining both the rates and magnitudes
cause a rise in sea level on their outer
of the long-term sea level changes is not
fringes. Generally, a difference of 18 cm in
very easy because of rapid sea level
sea level is observed between the two sides
changes on a global dimension which have
of a fast-flowing current.
occurred during the past few miflion
 (iv)Ice formation and fall in sea level years. The most remarkable of the past
During winter the ocean water trapped in oceanic fluctuations is the Late Oligocene
the icecaps of the northern and the Epoch sea level fall which occurred about
southern hemispheres leads to a fall in 30 million years BP. The sea level dropped
sea level. to about 150 m at an average rate of 150
 (v) Piling up of water along windward mm ka-1. The rate of fall is slow if we
coasts A local rise of sea level occurs in consider the standards of glacioeustasy
the coastal region as water is driven but too rapid if we take the factors such as
towards the coasts by an airmass, for the changes in the volume of the mid-
example, the sea level rises in south and oceanic ridge into consideration.
east Asia during the monsoon months due  An explanation of the long-term sea level
to landward movement of the airmass. change is difficult because of our lack of
 The twentieth century has observed short- knowledge about the period of origin of
term global sea level rise due to the ice-sheets in the Antarctica. However,
following factors. evidence suggests that glaciation in
 Global warming in the last century due to Antarctica started between 45 and 20
anthropogenic activities has resulted in million years BP. The most recent evidence
thermal expansion of ocean water. So, the provided by the Ocean Drilling Programme
sea level has risen by about 10 to 15 cm in (of the US) suggests that glacial activity in
the past 100 years. east Antarctica began about 35 million
 Melting of ice-sheets in the Antarctica by years BP.
about 3 per cent of its total volume of ice  Studies conducted on continental margins
suggest that a bulk of them belong to
passive margins formed by the break-up of areas, will be submerged. Even the small
Gondwana and Laurasian plate. As these islands will be wiped out. Therefore, an
margins have cooled, and the sediments estimated global population of about 1000
are deposited on such margins, they have million will be affected.
been subsiding, leading to a rise in sea  Immense damage may be caused to the
level. That is why sea level rise is being coastal structures like ports, industrial Page
observed on most passive continental establishments, etc.
margins of the world over the past 100  As a result of the rise in sea level, almost |
million years. 33 per cent of the world’s crop lands could 349
be submerged.
Impact of Sea Level Fall
 Accelerated coastal erosion may cause
damage to and destruction of beaches,
 Although the ice melt in the Antarctica
coastal dunes and bars. As a
hsts-not yet posed a serious danger for us,
consequence, a vast section of the coastal
it may prove to be dangerous in the near
land will remain unprotected against the
future if the temperature of the
direct attack of sea waves.
atmosphere continues to increase.
 Groundwater resources of the coastal
 A fall in sea level may cause changes in
regions will be severely affected by
the base levels of rivers. The rivers cut
salinisation due to marine water intrusion.
their new channels deeper than before. So
a condition of rejuvenated landforms is  The ecosystem will suffer heavy damages
found. The rivers curve deeper valleys on as the deltas, coral atolls and reefs will be
the rejuvenated land and canyons are destroyed. New coral reefs on the outer
formed even in the lower courses due to fringe of the dead corals will be formed.
the rivers’ adjustment with the new base  One of the most direct impacts of sea level
level. Moreover, due to the extended rise is the shrinkage in the drainage basin
shoreline, the drainage channels further area. For example, during the late
extend towards the sea causing further Cenozoic Era, which was a relatively warm
lengthening of the rivers. interglacial phase, the drainage basins of
 A drop in sea level causes the death of the world experienced periodic
coral reefs as the continental shelves on submergence and major shifts in the
which they are formed are left dry. So, drainage area. If the present rise in sea
fresh coral reefs emerge along the fringe of level continues, the same phenomenon
dead corals. may occur in the near future.
 In places of shallow continental shelves,  It has been postulated by
the fall in sea level leads to greater aridity geomorphologists that during a certain
in the continental hinterland due to period a beach and its adjacent sea floors
reduced surface runoff. adjust to storms and periods of low wave
energy. When the sea level rises, the same
 A fall in sea level in temperate and high
beach undergoes erosion followed by the
latitude regions causes extension of ice
deposition of sediments on the adjacent
caps and glacial tongues onto the
sea floor. Thus, the sea level rises further
continental shelves. In some cases, the
as the sea floor is elevated by sediment
glaciers have produced irregular
deposition. The coastal region of northern
topography like fjords, accumulation of
New Zealand shows that during the
debris on the shelves forming unsorted
twentieth century the mean sea level has
deposits of boulders etc. called glacial till.
risen by about 0.17 m to 0.35 m due to
Impact of Possible Rise in Sea Level the above- mentioned factor.
 As a result of rise in sea level, the mouths
 A vast segment of the populated land, viz., of drainage basins will undergo
the low-lying densely populated coastal submergence. This will lead to a
readjustment of the long-profiles of the States in use of the oceans and their resources
rivers, which are likely to show a rise. (United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea or
UNCLOS).
 The recent experiences suggest that the
islands are the worst affected by the Convention on Dumping of Wastes at
recent rise of sea level. Some of the Sea
affected islands are the Carteret Islands, Page
located on the north-east of Papua New  An inter-governmental conference on the
Guinea in the Pacific Ocean, and Tuvalu Convention on the Dumping of Wastes at Sea met |
in London in November 1972 to adopt this
Islands, about 1000 km north of Fiji in the instrument, the London Convention. 350
South Pacific.  The Convention has a global character and is
 It was to check this phenomenon of sea aimed at international control and putting an end
level rise that the ‘Oceans and Coastal to marine pollution. The definition of dumping
Areas Programme Activity Centre’ was set under the Convention relates to deliberate disposal
at sea of wastes or other materials from vessels,
up in 1987 under the aegis of the United aircraft, platforms and other man-made structures
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) or disposal of the vessels or platforms themselves.
to identify the countries facing maximum ‘Dumping’ here does not cover wastes derived from
risk of submergence. Although sea level the exploration and exploitation of sea-bed mineral
rise in the near future can be checked to resources. The provision of the Convention would
not apply when there is a need to secure the safety
some extent by taking steps against global life or of vessels in cases of force majeure.
warming, it is generally believed that it is  The Convention came into effect on August 30,
inevitable: mankind has not yet reached 1975. The secretariat duties relating to it are
the stage of a technological efficiency overseen by the IMO.
which can be entirely pollution-free and  Details and Developments The articles aim to
can cause minimal damages to the promote regional cooperation especially in the area
of monitoring and scientific research. Parties have
environment. Neither is there any undertaken to designate an authority to manage
international consensus regarding the permits, keep records and monitor the condition of
prevention of global warming. the sea. There are wastes which cannot be dumped
and others that require a special dumping permit.
The criteria on issuing of this permit is also
explained in an Annex that concerns the nature of
Law of the Sea and Marine Pollution the waste, characteristics of the dumping site and
method of disposal of the waste.
 Marine pollution refers to the emptying of  Certain important amendments were adopted by
chemicals or other particles into the ocean and its the Convention various times to deal with the
harmful effects. A critical problem arises when the emerging issues in the context of dumping of
potentially toxic chemicals stick to tiny particles wastes in the oceans.
and these are taken up by plankton and benthos  The 1978 amendment, which came into effect on
animals which are deposit or filter feeders March 11, 1979, dealt with the incineration of
concentrating upward within foodchains. As wastes at sea. Another set of amendments adopted
animal feeds usually have a high fish meal or fish at the same time (October 1978) related to
oil content, toxins can be found in consumed food introduction of new procedures for dispute
items obtained from livestock and animal settlement.
husbandry—in eggs, milk, butter, meat and
 The 1980 amendments became effective on May
margarine. A common route of entry of
19, 1990. They give the procedures to be followed
contaminants is the river where industrial wastes
when permits are issued for special dumping. They
containing toxic chemicals flow into the water
state that permits must be issued only after
stream. When particles combine chemically,
considering whether there is enough of scientific
oxygen gets depleted and this causes estuaries to
information available to gauge the impact of
become anoxic, that is, deficient of oxygen.
dumping.
 To curb marine pollution and regulate the use of
 The 1993 amendments, effective from February 20,
the world’s oceans by individual States, the
1994, banned dumping of low-level radioactive
nations of the world have come together to form
wastes into the seas. They phased out the dumping
two major conventions: one on dumping of wastes
of industrial wastes by December 31, 1995 and
at sea (Convention on the Dumping of Wastes at
called for an end to incineration of industrial
Sea, to be replaced by the 1996 Protocol) and the
wastes at sea.
other laying down rights and responsibilities of
 It is to be noted that dumping of low-level reflects concern in recent years regarding export of
radioactive wastes and industrial wastes as well as wastes which cannot be dumped at sea under the
incineration of wastes were earlier permitted by the 1972 Convention to Non-Contracting Parties.
Convention. But attitudes towards dumping have  Article 9 calls upon the Parties to designate an
changed over the years and these have been appropriate authority to issue permits in
reflected consistently in the amendments adopted. accordance with the Protocol.
The changing approach, keeping in view the need  Article 11 explains the compliance procedures
of the times, led to the adoption of the 1996 which states that, no later than two years after the Page
Protocol on November 7, 1996. coming into effect of the Protocol, the “Meeting of
|
 1996 Protocol The Protocol, which became effective Contracting Parties shall establish those
on March 24, 2006, replaces the 1972 Convention. procedures and mechanisms necessary to assess 351
It shows the major change in approach among the and promote compliance...”
nations regarding the use of the sea as a place for  Article 16 contains procedures for settling
dumping of waste materials-. disputes.
 Details of the Protocol (comparisons with the 1972  Article 26 allows for a transitional period which
Convention included) The 1996 Protocol is much enables Contracting Parties to phase in compliance
more restrictive as compared to the 1972 with the convention over a five-year period. There
Convention that allowed dumping provided certain are extended technical assistance provisions in
conditions were satisfied, the conditions varying this regard.
depending on the magnitude of danger of the  The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) is
materials to the environment, even while responsible for Secretariat duties with respect to
blacklisting some materials from being dumped at the Protocol.
all.  The Protocol has three annexes in all, two of them
 Article 3 of the Protocol calls for appropriate concerned with assessment of wastes and arbitral
preventive measures to be taken when wastes or procedures.
other matter thrown into the sea are likely to cause  Amendments to the articles shall come into force
harm “even when there is no conclusive evidence to on the 60th day after two-thirds of Contracting
prove a cause relation between inputs and their Parties 6hall have deposited an instrument of
effects.” The article states that “the polluter acceptance of the amendment with the IMO.
should, in principle, bear the cost of pollution”. Amendments to the annexes are adopted through a
The Contracting Parties must ensure that the tacit acceptance procedure and they will be
Protocol does not simply result in pollution being enforced not later than a hundred days after being
transferred from one part of the environment to adopted. The amendments are binding on all
another. Contracting Parties except those who have clearly
 Article 4 prohibits the Contracting Parties from stated their non-acceptance.
dumping “wastes or any other matter with the
exception of those listed in Annex 1”. This Annex 2006 Amendments to the Protocol
includes dredged material; sewage sludge; fish
waste or material resulting from industrial fish  Adopted on November 2, 2006, the amendments
processing operations; vessels and platforms or were enforced on February 10, 2007. The
other man-made structures at sea; inert, inorganic amendments allow the dumping of carbon dioxide
geological material; organic material of natural streams only when it is done into a sub-seabed
origin; and bulky items like iron, steel, concrete 'geological formation; the streams have an
and other similar unharmful materials for which overwhelming carbon dioxide content (they may
the concern is mainly physical impact and it also have incidental associated substances got
is.limited to those circumstances and where such from the source material and capture and
wastes are generated in small islands with isolated sequestration processes used); and wastes or other
peoples who have no access to other proper matter are not added when disposing them. The
disposal options. amendments allow storage of carbon dioxide (C0 2)
 Exceptions to the above are contained in Article 8 under the seabed but regulate the sequestration of
which allows dumping “in cases of force majeure C02 streams from C02 capture processes in sub-
caused by stress of weather, or in any case which seabed geological formations. Parties agreed that
constitutes a danger to human life or a real threat guidance for conducting it should be developed
to vessels...” within the earliest time possible. The amendments
 Article 5 prohibits incineration of wastes at sea have created a basis in international environment
(permitted by the 1972 convention but prohibited law to regulate carbon capture and storage in
under the 1993 amendments). subsealed geological formation in order to ensure
 Article 6 states that “Contracting Parties shall not their permanent isolation. It is part of the
allow the export of wastes or other matter to other measures being considered to address climate
countries for dumping or incineration at sea”. This change and ocean acidification like developing low
carbon energy forms especially for sources of Ecuador extended their rights to a distance of 200
enormous C02 emissions (power plants, steel nautical miles. Other countries extended their
factories and cement works). territorial seas up to 12 nautical miles.
 The UNCLOS held its first conference in 1956
The United Nations Convention on Law significant opinions of their own. In 1973, the third
of the Sea conference was convened in New York. It used a
consensus process rather than a majority vote to
discourage groups of nation-states dominating Page
 The UN Convention on Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) is
an international agreement that defines the rights negotiations. This conference lasted till 1982. The
|
and responsibilities of nations where use of the resulting convention, UNCLOS, came into force on
oceans’ waters by them is concerned. It was a November 16, 1994. It entered into force in 352
result of the third UN Convention (conference) on accordance with its Article 308. It is the globally
Law of the Sea which was held from 1972 to 1982 recognised regime today for dealing with all
and replaced four 1958 treaties. The UNCLOS matters relating to the law of the sea.
specifies guidelines for businesses, the  By 1967, 66 nations had established a 12-mile
environment and management of marine natural territorial limit and eight nations had set a 200-
resources. mile limit. Only 25 nations used the old 3-mile
 The UNCLOS came into force in the year 1994. In limit. Today, only a handful of countries use this 3-
1993, Guyana became the 60th state to sign the mile limit, among them Jordan, Palau and
treaty. As of today; it has been signed by 155 Singapore. Certain Australian islands, an area of
countries and the European Community. The USA Belize, some Japanese straits, some areas of Papua
has signed the treaty but its senate is yet to ratify New Guinea and a few dependencies of the UK like
it. Anguilla use the 3-mile limit.
 The UN Secretary General receives instruments of  About UNCLOS The Convention introduced
ratification and accession. The UN provides numerous provisions in significant areas, covering
support for Convention meetings. However, the UN important issues in use and management of the
does not have a direct part in the implementation world’s oceans. The crucial issues covered include
of the Convention. But organisations like the setting limits in various areas, navigation,
International Maritime Organisation and the archipelagic status and transit regimes, exclusive
International Whaling Commission have a role to economic zones, continental shelf jurisdiction,
play. deep seabed mining, the exploitation regime,
 The UNCLOS details a comprehensive regime of protection of the marine environment, scientific
law and order in the seas and oceans of the world research and dispute settlement.
and lays down rules to govern use of the oceans
and their resources. The full text of the Convention Some of the key features of the
has 320 articles and nine annexes which deal with UNCLOS are given below:
aspects like delimitation, control of environmental
pollution, marine scientific research, economic and  Internal waters cover all water and waterways on
commercial activities in the seas, technology the landward side of the baseline. (Normally, a sea
transfer and settlement of disputes between States baseline follows the low-water line, but when the
with reference to ocean matters. coastline is deeply indented, has fringing islands or
 History We can trace the beginning of UNCLOS to is highly unstable, straight baselines may be used.)
the ‘freedom of the seas’ concept of the seventeenth The coastal state is free to set laws, regulate use,
century which limited national rights to a specified and use any resource. Foreign vessels have no
belt of water extending from the coastlines of a right of passage within internal waters.
nation. This was usually three nautical miles as  Coastal states exercise sovereignty over their
laid down by the ‘cannon shot’ rule evolved by passing through waters in an expeditious and
Cornelius Bynkershoek, a Dutch jurist. All waters continuous manner, which is not “prejudicial to
that were beyond national boundaries were seen as the peace, good order or the security" of the coastal
‘international waters’. All nations were free to use state. Fishing, polluting, weapons practice, and
these waters but these belonged to no one. spying are not “innocent”, and submarines and
 Nations began to extend national claims in the other underwater vehicles are required to
early twentieth century. This was to make use of navigate^ on the surface and to show their flag.
marine resources, protect fish stocks and enforce Nations can also temporarily suspend innocent
pollution controls. A conference was held at The passage in specific areas of their territorial seas, if
Hague in 1930, called by the League of Nations. It, doing so is essential for the protection of their
however, yielded no significant results. In 1945, US security.
President Truman extended the US’ control to all  Coastal States have sovereign rights over the
natural resources of its continental shelf. In the continental shelf which may be defined as the
five years that followed, Argentina, Peru, Chile and natural prolongation of the land territory to the
continental margin’s outer edge, or 200 nautical national jurisdiction, through an International
miles from the coastal state’s baseline, whichever Seabed Authority.
is greater. State’s continental shelf may exceed 200
nautical miles until the natural prolongation ends, Some Key Features of the UNCLOS
but it may never exceed 350 nautical miles, or 100 Relating to Marine Pollution
nautical miles beyond 2,500 metre isobath, which
is a line connecting the depth of 2,500 metres.  All States have the traditional freedoms of
States have the right to harvest mineral and non- Page
navigation, overflight, fishing and scientific
living material in the subsoil of its continental research on the high seas. They must cooperate
shelf, to the exclusion of others.
|
with each other to adopt measures to manage
 The States must share with the international living resources and conserve them. 353
community part of the revenue derived from  States that border enclosed or semi-enclosed areas
exploiting resources on the continental shelf should cooperate in managing living resources,
extending beyond 200 miles. The Commission on 1 and in environmental and research policies and
the Limits of the Continental Shelf would activities.
recommend to States on the shelf’s outer  States would be held liable for damage caused by
boundaries when it extends beyond 200 nautical violation of their international obligations to
miles. combat pollution of the seas.
 special attention to protection and preservation of  In the EEZ and on the continental shelf, all marine
the marine environment (part XII, articles 192- scientific research is subject to relevant coastal
237). It covers six main sources of ocean pollution: State's consent. The coastal states, in turn, are
land-based and coastal activities, continental shelf expected to grant consent for peaceful purposes to
drilling, potential seabed mining, ocean dumping, other States.The UNCLOS lays down the basic
vessel-source pollution and pollution from or obligation of all countries to protect the marine
through the atmosphere. environment and preserve it. All States are asked
 The limits of the territorial sea, the EEZ and to cooperate, globally and regionally, to set up
continental shelf would be determined according to rules and standards and measures for the
rules applicable to land territory; rocks that cannot purpose. Coastal States have sovereign rights in a
sustain human habitation or economic life 200-nautical mile exclusive economic zone (EEZ)
 Beyond the 12 nautical mile limit there was a with regard to natural resources and some
further 12 nautical miles or 24 nautical miles from economic activities. It has rights to exercise
the territorial sea baselines limit, the contiguous jurisdiction over marine science research and
zone, in which a state could continue to enforce environmental protection. It has sovereign rights
laws regarding activities such as smuggling or over the continental shelf (the national area of the
illegal immigration. seabed), which can extend at least 200 nautical
 Land-locked and geographically disadvantaged miles from the shore for its exploration and
States can participate on an equitable basis in exploitation. Such jurisdiction allows coastal
exploiting an appropriate part of the surplus of the States to control and prevent marine pollution as a
living resources of the EEZs of coastal states of the result of dumping, land-based sources or seabed
same region or sub-region. Special protection activities subject to national jurisdiction or from
should be accorded to highly migratory species of the atmosphere where marine pollution from
fish and sea mammals. In this context, it may be foreign vessels is concerned. Coastal States can
noted that the EEZs were introduced to halt the exercise jurisdiction only for the enforcement of
increasingly heated clashes over fishing rights, laws and regulation adopted in accordance with
although oil was also becoming important. The the UNCLOS or those that relate to “accepted
success of an offshore oil platform in the Gulf of international rules and standards” adopted
Mexico in 1947 was soon repeated elsewhere in the through a competent international organisation—
world, and by 1970 it- was technically feasible to the International Maritime Organisation (IMO). Jt
operate in waters 4000 metres deep. is the ‘flag State’—the State, where a ship is
 States are bound to promote development and registered and whose flag it flies—which must
transfer of marine technology on “fair and enforce the rule adopted for marine pollution from
reasonable terms and conditions”, giving proper their vessels. This is especially a safeguard on the
regard to legitimate interests. high seas—waters beyond the national jurisdiction
 Aside from its provisions defining ocean of States.
boundaries, the Convention establishes general  The UNCLOS allows enforcement powers to the
obligations for safeguarding the marine ‘port State’—the State which is a ship’s
environment and protecting freedom of scientific destination. The port State can enforce any type of
research on the high, seas, and also creates an international rule or national regulations adopted
innovative legal regime for controlling mineral in accordance with the Convention or applicable
resource exploitation in deep seabed areas beyond international rules as a condition for the foreign
vessels entering into their waters or their ports. Migratory Fish Stocks adopted in 1995 that
This method has been developed in other introduced new measures in environmental and
conventions as well for enforcement of treaty resource protection. States have been obliged to
obligations that deal with shipping standards, assume a precautionary approach to exploitation of
marine safety and combating pollution. fisheries. Port States have been given expanded
 To regulate seabed mining, there is the powers to ensure that they properly manage
International Seabed Authority which has been fisheries resources.
established by the Convention. Through its Page
Council, the organisation assesses the potential
environmental effects of deep seabed mining Indian Geography |
operations; recommends changes; formulates 354
rules; sets up a monitoring pro amme; and In this post: Indian Geography: India –
suggests issuance of emergency ora^rs to combat Geographical Extent, Frontiers – Border
serious damage to the marine environment. States with Neighbors.
are held liable for damage caused by their own
enterprise or contractors under their jurisdiction. India As A Geographical Unit
 With time, the UN’s involvement with the law of the
sea has expanded owing to increasing awareness of
the ocean-related problems and emergence of an
understanding among States that global problems
are inter-related. We may here mention the efforts
done at major international conferences like the
UN Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED) at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil that emphasised
on th$ protection and preservation of the oceans’
environment in harmony with the. rational use of
their living resources. An intergovernmental
conference was held under UN auspices to resolve
the conflict between coastal states and distant-
water fishing States over straddling and migratory
fish stocks in areas adjacent to the 200 nautical
mile EEZs. A result of their conference was the
Agreement on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly
East-West Extent of Main Land India 68° 7' east to 97° 25' east longitude
(Including Pak occupied Kashmir-POK):
South-North Extent of Main Land India: 8° 4' north to 37° 6' north latitude
Locational Extent: 8° 4' N to 37° 6' N latitude and 68° 7' E to
97° 25' East longitude.
 With an area of 32,87,263 sq km, India is

the seventh largest country of the world.
 India accounts for about 2.4 per cent of
the total surface area of the world.
 The Tropic of Cancer passes through the
middle of the country dividing it into two Page
latitudinal halves.
 The area to the north of Tropic of Cancer |
is nearly twice the area which lies to the 355
south of it.
 South of 22° north latitude, the country
tapers off over 800 km into the Indian
Ocean as a peninsula.
East-West time difference is nearly 2

hrs.
 The earth moves [rotation and revolution]

 The southernmost point of the country is around its axis through 360° in 24 hours.
the Pygmalion Point or Indira Point is Thus, a difference of 1° longitude will
located at 6° 45' N latitude. make a difference of 4 minutes in time.
 North-south extent from Indira Col in  Therefore the difference of local time
Kashmir to Kanniyakumari is 3,214 between western-most point and eastern-
km. most point is 30 x 4 = 120 minutes or 2
 East-west width from the Rann of hours.
Kachachh to Arunachal Pradesh is
2,933 km.
India, Tropical or Temperate Country?  But India has always been treated as a
tropical country for two different reasons –
 The temperate part (north of Tropic of physical and cultural.
Cancer) is twice the area of tropical part.
Physical Geographical Reasons  India's longest border is with

BANGLADESH while the shortest border is
 The country is separated from the rest of with Afghanistan.
Asia by Himalayas.  The length of India’s land borders with
 Its climate is dominated by the tropical neighboring countries is as under
monsoons and the temperate air masses
are blocked by Himalayas. Border with China Page
 Entire area south of the Himalayas is |
essentially tropical from climatic point of  This is the second longest border of
view: Although the night temperatures in India, next only to its border with 356
Winter at several places in North India Bangladesh.
may come down to the level of those  Five Indian states, namely Jammu and
prevailing in temperate lands, yet clear Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
skies and intense insolation raise the day Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh touch the
temperatures to a tropical level. Indian boundary with China.
 The Sino-Indian border is generally
Cultural Geographical Reasons divided into three sectors namely : (i) the
Western sector, (ii) the Middle sector, and
 Settlements, diseases, agricultural and
(iii) the Eastern sector.
primary economic activities are all tropical
in nature. The Western Sector
It is primarily because of Himalayas that  Separates Jammu and Kashmir state of
India is a tropical country. India from the Sinkiang (Xinjiang)
province of China.
India's Frontiers
 The western sector boundary is largely the
Data from Ministry Of Home Affairs outcome of the British policy towards the
(Department Of Border Management) state of Jammu and Kashmir.
 China claims the Aksai Chin district, the
 India has 15106.7 Km of land border Changmo valley, Pangong Tso and the
running through 92 districts in 17 States Sponggar Tso area of north-east Ladakh
and a coastline of 7516.6 Km [6100 km as well as a strip of about 5,000 sq km
of mainland coastline + coastline of down the entire length of eastern Ladakh.
1197 Indian islands] touching 13 States  China also claims a part of Huza-Gilgit
and Union Territories (UTs). area in North Kashmir (ceded to it in 1963
by Pakistan).
The Middle Sector
 Two Indian states of Himachal Pradesh

and Uttarakhand touch this border.
The Eastern Sector
 Barring Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,  The 1,140 km long boundary between

Jharkhand, Delhi and Haryana, all other India and China runs from the eastern
States in the country have one or more limit of Bhutan to a point near Talu-Pass
international borders or a coastline and at the trijunction of India, Tibet and
can be regarded as frontline States from Myanmar.
the point of view of border management.  This line is usually referred to as the Mc
Mahon Line after Sir Henry Mc Mahon,
then foreign secretary of British India, who
negotiated the boundary agreement The India-Bangladesh Border

between Great Britain and Tibet at Shimla
accord in 1913-14.  India's 4,096 km long border with
Bangladesh is the longest.
The India-Nepal Boundary  This boundary has been determined under
the Radcliffe Award which divided the
 Five states of India, namely Uttarakhand, Page
erstwhile province of Bengal into two
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and parts. |
Sikkim touch the Nepalese border with
India. The border is a porous one with India-Myanmar Boundary 357
unrestricted movement of goods and
people between Indian and Nepal.  This boundary runs roughly along the
 Major portion of Indo-Nepalese border watershed between the Brahmaputra and
runs in the east-west direction almost Ayeyarwady [Irrawaddy].
along the foothill of the Shiwalik Range.  It passes through thickly forested regions,
with Mizo Hills, Manipur and Nagaland on
The India-Bhutan Boundary the Indian side and Chin Hills, Naga Hills
and Kachin state on the Myanmar side.
 Quite peaceful border and there is no
boundary dispute between the two India-Sri Lanka Boundary
countries.
 India and Sri Lanka are separated from
The Indo-Pakistan Boundary each other by a narrow and shallow sea
called Palk Strait.
 The Indo-Pakistan boundary is the result  Dhanushkodi on the Tamil Nadu coast in
of partition of the country in 1947 under India is only 32 km away from
the Radcliffe award of which Sir Cyril Talaimanar in Jaffna peninsula in Sri
Radcliffe was the chairman. Lanka. These two points are joined by a
 Jammu and Kashmir, Sir Creek are the group of islets forming Adam's Bridge.
major disputed regions.
In this post: Archaean Rock System,
Archaean Gneisses and Schists, Dharwar
System, Purana Rock System, Cuddapah
System, Vindhyan System, Dravidian Rock
System, Carboniferous rocks,
Carboniferous Coal, Aryan Rock System,
Gondwana System, Gondwana Coal,
Jurassic System, Deccan Trap, Tertiary
System etc..
Rock System Based on Geological

History Of India
1. The Archaean Rock System.

2. The Purana Rock System.
3. The Dravidian Rock System.
4. The Aryan Rock System.
Page
|
358
Archaean Rock System (Pre-Cambrian These rocks are:

Rocks)
 Oldest rocks [pre-Cambrian era] [formed
 Rocks formed prior to the Cambrian about 4 billion years ago].
system.  Rocks formed due to solidification of
 The Archaean rock system includes: molten magma – the earth’s surface was
very hot then.
Archaean Gneisses and Schists [4  Known as the ‘Basement Complex’ [They
Billion Years] are the oldest and forms the base for new
layers]
Gneiss == Mineral composition varies from  Azoic or unfossiliferous,
granite to gabbro.  Foliated (consisting of thin sheets),
Schists == mostly crystalline, include  Thoroughly crystalline (because they are
mica, talc, hornblende, chlorite, etc. volcanic in origin),
 Plutonic intrusions (volcanic rocks found  Unfossiliferous clay, slates, sandstones

deep inside). and limestones was deposited in synclinal
basins [depression between two folds {Fold
mountain}].
 Outcrops best observed in Cuddapah
district of Andhra Pradesh. Page
 These rocks contain ores of iron,
manganese, copper, cobalt, nickel, etc. |
 They contain large deposits of cement 359
grade limestones.
Vindhyan System (1300-600 million

years)
 This system derives its name from the

great Vindhyan mountains.
 The system comprises of ancient
sedimentary rocks (4000 m thick)
superimposed on the Archaean base.
 Mostly Unfossiliferous.
 Large area of this belt is covered by the
Deccan trap.
 The Vindhayan system have diamond
bearing regions from which Panna and
Golconda diamonds have been mined.
 It is devoid of metalliferous minerals
Dharwar System [4 – 1 Billion Years]
but provides large quantities of durable
 Formation period ranges from 4 billion stones, ornamental stones, limestone,
years ago to – 1 billion years ago. pure glass making sand etc..
 Highly metamorphosed sedimentary Dravidian Rock System (Palaeozoic)
rock-system. [formed due to
metamorphosis of sediments of Archaean  Formed about 600 – 300 million years
gneisses and schists]. ago.
 They are the oldest metamorphosed  Found in the Extra Peninsular region
rocks. (Himalayas and Ganga plain) and are
 Found in abundance in the Dharwar very rare in Peninsular India. [The name
district of Karnataka. ‘Dravidian’ doesn’t mean they are found in
 Economically the most important rocks South India]
because they possess valuable minerals  Abundant fossils.
like high grade iron-ore, manganese,  The rocks of Cambrian, Ordovician,
copper, lead, gold, etc. Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous
periods are fall under Dravidian system.
Purana Rock System (1400 – 600
(All these are not important, only
Million Years)
Carboniferous is important)
 Includes two divisions: the Cuddapah Carboniferous rocks (350 million years)
System and the Vindhyan System.
 The Carboniferous rocks (350 million
Cuddapah System
years) comprise mainly of limestone, shale
and quartzite.
 Mount Everest is composed of Upper  The marine transgression in the latter part
Carboniferous limestones. of the Jurassic gave rise to thick series of
 Coal formation started in the shallow water deposits in Rajasthan and
Carboniferous age. in Kuchchh.
 Carboniferous in geology means coal  Coral limestone, sandstone, conglomerates
bearing. [most of the coal found in India is and shales occur in Kuchchh. Page
not of Carboniferous period; High quality  Another transgression on the east coast of
coal of Great Lakes Region-USA, U.K and the Peninsula is found between Guntur |
Ruhr region is Carboniferous coal]. and Rajahmundry. 360
Aryan Rock System Deccan Trap
 Upper Carboniferous to the Recent.  Volcanic outburst over a vast area of the
Peninsular India from the end of the
Gondwana System Cretaceous till the beginning of the
Eocene gave rise to Deccan Traps.
 The Gondwana System [derives its name  Basaltic lava flowed out of fissures
Gonds, the most primitive people of covering a vast area of about ten lakh sq
Telangana and Andhra Pradesh] km.
 They are deposits laid down in synclinal  These volcanic deposits have flat top and
troughs on ancient plateau surface. steep sides and therefore called ‘trap’
 As the sediments accumulated, the loaded meaning a ‘stair’ or ‘step’ in Swedish.
troughs subsided.  The process of weathering and erosion
 Fresh water and sediments accumulated (denudation) since millions of years has
in these trough and terrestrial plants and reduced the Deccan Trap to almost half of
animals thrived. its original size.
 This happened since Permian period (250  Present Deccan Trap covers about 5 lakh
million years ago). sq km mainly in parts of Kuchchh,
Saurashtra, Maharashtra, the Malwa
Gondwana Coal
plateau and northern Karnataka.
 Gondwana rocks contain nearly 98 per  Thickness of the Deccan Traps is 3,000
cent of India’s coal reserves. metres along the west which is reduced to
 Gondwana coal is much younger than the 600-800 metres towards the south, 800
Carboniferous coal and hence it’s carbon metres in Kuchchh and only 150 metres at
content is low. the eastern limit.
 They have rich deposits of iron ore,  The weathering of these rocks for a long
copper, uranium and antimony also. time has given birth to black cotton soil
 Sandstones, slates and conglomerates are known as ‘regur’.
used as building materials. The Deccan Trap has been divided into
Jurassic System three groups:
Group Found in Inter-trappean Layers of volcanic

beds ash
The Upper Trap Maharashtra and Present Present
Saurashtra
The Middle Trap Central India and Very rare to Present
Malwa absent
The Lower Trap Present Very rare to absent
Tertiary System  Eocene to Pliocene about 60 to 7 million
years ago.
 The tertiary is the most significant period plateau, Kuchchh-Kathiawar region

in India's geological history because the (Gujarat) etc..
Himalayas were born and India's present  It is the oldest and the most stable
form came into being in this period. landmass of India.
In his post: Major Physical Divisions of Himalayas

India – Himalayas - Himalayan Ranges: Page
Shiwaliks or outer Himalayas, Lesser or  Includes the Himalayas, Purvanchal and |
Middle Himalayas, Greater Himalayas, their extensions Arakan Yoma (Myanmar)
Trans-Himalayas or Tibetan Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar Islands (but we 361
and Eastern Hills or Purvanchal. will consider these as islands only).
 It is the youngest and highly unstable
Major Physical Divisions of India landmass of India. [Continent – Continent
Convergence]
1. The Himalayas (young fold mountains),  Tectonic movements are very common.
2. Indo-Gangetic Plain (monotonous
topography – featureless topography), Indo-Gangetic Plain
3. The Peninsular Plateau (one of the most
stable landmasses; one of the oldest  Between Peninsular and Himalayan
plateaus of the world), region.
4. Coastal Plains (Sediments due to fluvial  Most youthful, monotonous [lack of change
action). or variety] region prone to tectonic forces.
5. The Indian Islands [Coral Islands == coral
reef built up on atolls – Lakshadweep. Coastal Plains
Tectonic == Andaman and Nicobar Islands
– Interaction between Indian Plate and  Eastern Coastal Plains and Western
Eurasian plate] and Coastal Plains.
 Formed due to consolidation of sediments
brought by rivers (fluvial deposits).
 Highly stable just like peninsular plateau.
Indian Islands
 Two major groups – Lakshadweep and,

Andaman and Nicobar islands.
 Lakshadweep [Hotspot] are group of atolls
occupied by coral reefs. No significant
volcanism or tectonic activity in recent
past. Highly vulnerable to sea-level rise.
 Andaman and Nicobar islands –
Continuation of Arakan Yoma. Has active
volcanoes and is tectonically active.
Type of Topography Extent in %

Mountainous (more than 10.7
2135 m above sea level)
Hilly area (305 – 2135 m 18.6
Peninsular Plateau above sea level)
Plateau (305 – 915 m 27.7
 Includes the entire south India, central above sea level)
India, Aravalis, Rajmahal hills, Meghalaya Plains 43
Division of the Himalayas  The width of the Shiwaliks varies from

50 km in Himachal Pradesh to less than
Formation of Himalayas explained in 15 km in Arunachal Pradesh.
Continent – Continent Convergence.  They are almost unbroken chain of low
hills except for a gap of 80-90 km which is
1. Shiwaliks or outer Himalayas
occupied by the valley of the Tista River Page
2. Lesser or Middle Himalayas
and Raidak River.
3. The Greater Himalayas
 Shiwalik range from North-East India up |
4. The Trans-Himalayas – Tibetan
to Nepal are covered with thick forests but 362
Himalayas.
the forest cover decreases towards west
5. The Eastern Hills – Purvanchal: A chain
from Nepal (The quantum of rainfall
of hills in North-East India.
decreases from east to west in Shiwaliks
Himalayan Ranges and Ganga Plains).
 The southern slopes of Shiwalik range in
 Series of several parallel or converging Punjab and Himachal Pradesh are almost
ranges. devoid of forest cover. These slopes are
 The ranges are separated by deep valleys highly dissected by seasonal streams
creating a highly dissected topography called Chos.
[(of a plateau or upland) divided by a  Valleys are part of synclines and hills are
number of deep valleys]. part of anticlines or antisynclines.
 The southern slopes have steep
gradients and northern slopes have
comparatively gentler slopes. [Scaling
Mount Everest is less hectic from the
northern side. But China puts restrictions
so climbers take the steeper southern
slopes from Nepal]
 Most of the Himalayan ranges fall in India,
Nepal and Bhutan. The northern slopes
are partly situated in Tibet (trans-
Himalayas) while the western extremity Formation (Formation of Himalayas
lies in Pakistan, Afghanistan and Central already explained)
Asia.
 Himalayas between Tibet and Ganga Plain  Shiwaliks were formed last of all the
is a succession of three parallel ranges. ranges (2-20 million years ago).
 The Shiwaliks are consolidated sands,
Shiwalik Range gravels and conglomerate deposits
[Alluvial fans] which were brought by the
 Also known as Outer Himalayas. rivers flowing from the higher ranges.
 Located in between the Great Plains and  These deposits were folded and hardened
Lesser Himalayas. due to compression offered by the
 The altitude varies from 600 to 1500 northward movement of Indian plate.
metres.
 Runs for a distance of 2,400 km from the The Shiwaliks are known by different
Potwar Plateau to the Brahmaputra names in different areas
valley.
 The southern slopes are steep while the Region Name of Shiwaliks
northern slopes are gentle. Jammu Region Jammu Hills
Dafla, Miri, Abor Arunachal Pradesh
and Mishmi Hills
The Dhang Uttarakhand  In Uttarakhand, the Middle Himalayas are

Range, Dundwa marked by the Mussoorie and the Nag
Range Tibba ranges.
Churia Ghat Hills Nepal  The Mahabharat Lekh, in southern Nepal
Explain the formation of Duns (Duras) is a continuation of the Mussoorie Range
 East of the Kosi River, the Sapt Kosi, Page
 Shiwalik Hills were formed by the Sikkim, Bhutan, Miri, Abor and Mishmi
accumulation of conglomerates (sand, hills represent the lower Himalayas. |
stone, silt, gravel, debris etc.).  The Middle Himalayan ranges are more 363
 These conglomerates, in the initial stages friendly to human contact.
of deposition, obstructed the courses of
the rivers draining from the higher Majority of the Himalayan hill resorts
reaches of the Himalayas and formed like Shimla, Mussoorie, Ranikhet,
temporary lakes. Nainital, Almora and Darjeeling, etc. are
 With passage of time, these temporary located here.
lakes accumulated more and more
Important ranges Region
conglomerates. The conglomerates were
of Lesser
well settled at the bottom of the lakes.
Himalayas
 When the rivers were able to cut their
The Pir Panjal Jammu and
courses through the lakes filled with
Range Kashmir (They are
conglomerate deposits, the lakes were
to the south of
drained away leaving behind plains called
Kashmir Valley)
‘duns’ or ‘doons’ in the west and ‘duars’
The Dhaola Dhar Himachal Pradesh
in the east.
Range
 Dehra Dun in Uttarakhand is the best
The Mussoorie Uttarakhand
example [75 km long and 15-20 km wide]
Range and The Nag
 Kotah, Patli Kothri, Chumbi, Kyarda,
Tiba Range
Chaukhamba, Udhampur and Kotli are
Mahabharat Lekh Nepal
other important duns.
The Pir Panjal range
Middle or the Lesser Himalaya
 The Pir Panjal range in Kashmir is the
 In between the Shiwaliks in the south and longest and the most important range.
the Greater Himalayas in the north.  It extends from the Jhelum river to the
 Runs almost parallel to both the ranges. upper Beas river for over 300 km.
 It is also called the Himachal or Lower  It rises to 5,000 metres and contains
Himalaya. mostly volcanic rocks.
 Lower Himalayan ranges are 60-80 km
Passes in Pir Panjal
wide and about 2400 km in length.
 Elevations vary from 3,500 to 4,500 m  Pir Panjal Pass (3,480 m), the Bidil (4,270
above sea level. m), Golabghar Pass (3,812 m) and Banihal
 Many peaks are more than 5,050 m above Pass (2,835 m).
sea level and are snow covered throughout  The Banihal Pass is used by the Jammu-
the year. Srinagar highway and Jammu-Baramula
 Lower Himalayas have steep, bare railway.
southern slopes [steep slopes prevents  The Kishanganga, the Jhelum and the
soil formation] and more gentle, forest Chenab cut through the range.
covered northern slopes.  Southeast of the Ravi, the Pir Panjal
continues as Dhaola Dhar range, passing
through Dalhousie, Dharmshala, and parallel to the slope (along the dip).
Shimla.
The Great Himalaya
Important Valleys
 Also known as Inner Himalaya, Central
 Between the Pir Panjal and the Zaskar Himalaya or Himadri.
Range of the main Himalayas, lies the  Average elevation of 6,100 m above sea Page
valley of Kashmir. (average elevation is level and an average width of about 25 |
1,585 m above mean sea level) km.
 The synclinal basin of the valley is floored  It is mainly formed of the central 364
with alluvial, lacustrine [lake deposits], crystallines (granites and gneisses)
fluvial [river action] and glacial deposits. overlain by metamorphosed sediments
{Fluvial Landforms, Glacial Landforms} [limestone]. {Rock System}
 Jehlum River meanders through these  The folds in this range are asymmetrical
deposits and cuts a deep gorge in Pir with steep south slope and gentle north
Panjal through which it drains. (Kashmir slope giving 'hog back (a long, steep hill or
is like a basin with very few outlets) mountain ridge)' topography.
 In Himachal Pradesh there is Kangra  This mountain arc convexes to the south
Valley. It is a strike valley and extends just like the other two.
from the foot of the Dhaola Dhar Range to  Terminates abruptly at the syntaxial
the south of Beas. bends. One in the Nanga Parbat in north-
 On the other hand, the Kulu Valley in the west and the other in the Namcha Barwa
upper course of the Ravi is transverse in the north-east.
valley.  This mountain range boasts of the tallest
peaks of the world, most of which remain
Strike valley vs. Transverse valley
under perpetual snow.
Regional name of Region

Mount Everest
Sagarmatha (The Nepal
Goddess of the Sky)
Chomlungma China (Tibet)
(Mother of the World)
 Mount Everest was first located by George
Everest, the then Surveyor General of
India in 1841 and in 1852 it was
established as the highest peak of the
world by the Great Trigonometrical Survey
of India.
Passes in the Greater Himalayas
 The passes because they are generally

higher than 4,570 m above sea level and
 A valley perpendicular to the slope or are snowbound for most of the year.
parallel to the ridge [also called as
longitudinal valley]
 In contrast, transverse streams cut valleys
State Passes of Greater Himalayas
Jammu and Kashmir1. Burzil Pass
2. Zoji La [La means pass]
Himachal Pradesh 1. Bara Lacha La

2. Shipki La [The Hindustan-Tibet Road connecting Shimla with
Gartok in Western Tibet]
Uttarakhand 1. Thaga La
2. Niti Pass
3. Lipu Lekh Page
Sikkim 1. Nathu La
2. Jelep La [important trade route connecting Kalimpong (near |
Darjeeling) with Lhasa in Tibet, passes through Jelep La (4,386 365
m)]
The Trans Himalayas m)[Godwin Austen or Qogir] is the
second highest peak in the world and the
 The Himalayan ranges immediately north highest peak in the Indian Union.
of the Great Himalayan range.  The Ladakh Plateau lies to the north-east
 Also called the Tibetan Himalaya because of the Karakoram Range. It has been
most of it lies in Tibet. dissected into a number of plains and
 The Zaskar, the Ladakh, the Kailas and mountains [Soda Plains, Aksai Chin,
the Karakoram are the main ranges. Lingzi Tang, Depsang Plains and Chang
 It stretches for a distance of about 1,000 Chenmo]
km in east-west direction.
Purvanchal or Eastern Hills
 Average elevation is 3000 m above mean
sea level.
 Eastern Hills or The Purvanchal are the
 The average width of this region is 40 km
southward extension of Himalayas
at the extremities and about 225 km in
running along the north-eastern edge of
the central part.
India.
 The Nanga Parbat (8126 m) is an
 At the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas take
important range which is in The Zaskar
a sudden southward bend and form a
Range.
series of comparatively low hills which are
 North of the Zaskar Range and running
collectively called as the Purvanchal.
parallel to it is the Ladakh Range. Only a
 Purvanchal hills are convex to the west.
few peaks of this range attain heights of
 They run along the India-Myanmar Border
over 6000 metres.
extending from Arunachal Pradesh in the
 The Kailas Range (Gangdise in Chinese)
north to Mizoram in the south.
in western Tibet is an offshoot of the
 Patkai Bum hills are made up of strong
Ladakh Range. The highest peak is Mount
sandstone; elevation varying from 2,000 m
Kailas (6714 m). River Indus originates
to 3,000 m; merges into Naga Hills where
from the northern slopes of the Kailas
Saramati (3,826 m) is the highest peak.
range.
 Patkai Bum and Naga Hills form the
 The northern most range of the Trans-
watershed between India and Myanmar.
Himalayan Ranges in India is the Great
Karakoram Range also known as the  South of Naga Hills are the Manipur hills
Krishnagiri range. which are generally less than 2,500
metres in elevation.
 Karakoram Range extends eastwards
from the Pamir for about 800 km. It is a  The Barail range separates Naga Hills from
range with lofty peaks [elevation 5,500 m Manipur Hills.
and above]. It is the abode of some of the  Further south the Barail Range swings to
greatest glaciers of the world outside the west into Jaintia, Khasi and Garo hills
polar regions. which are an eastward continuation of the
 Some of the peaks are more than 8,000 Indian peninsular block. They are
metre above sea level. K2 (8,611
separated from the main block by Ganga hills) which have an elevation of less than
and Brahmaputra rivers. 1,500 metres. The highest point is the
 South of the Manipur Hills are the Mizo Blue Mountain (2,157 m) in the south.
Hills (previously known as the Lushai
Page
|
366
Page
|
367
Syntaxial Bends of the Himalayas  The western syntaxial bend occurs near
the Naga Parbat (Karakoram range)
 Himalayas extend in the east-west where the Indus river has cut a deep
direction from the Indus gorge in the west gorge.
to the Brahmaputra gorge in the east.  The eastern syntaxial bend occurs near
 Himalayan ranges take sharp southward the Namche Barwa.
bends at these gorges. These bends are
called syntaxial bends of the Himalayas. In this post: Himalayas – Regional
Divisions – Punjab Himalayas, Assam
Himalayas, Western Himalayas, Central Western Himalayas

Himalayas and Eastern Himalayas.
 Between the Indus in the west and the
Himalayas – Regional Divisions Kali river in the east (880 km).
 Spread across three states of Jammu and
Punjab Himalayas Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and
Page
Uttarakhand.
 Between the Indus and the Satluj rivers
 It encompasses three physiographic |
[560 km long].
provinces namely Kashmir Himalaya, 368
 All the major rivers of Indus river system Himachal Himalaya and Kumaon
flow through Punjab Himalayas. Himalaya (Uttarakhand Himalayas).
 A large portion of Punjab Himalayas is in  The Ladakh plateau and the Kashmir
Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal valley are two important areas of the
Pradesh. Hence they are also called the Kashmir Himalayan region.
Kashmir and Himachal Himalaya.
 In Himachal Himalayas, The Greater
 Karakoram, Ladakh, Pir Panjal, Zaskar Himalaya is represented by the Zaskar
and Dhaola Dhar are the major ranges in range, lesser Himalaya by Pir Panjal and
this section. Dhauladhar ranges and the Outer
 The general elevation falls westwards. Himalaya by the Shiwalik range.
 The southern slopes are rugged, steep and
forested while the northern slopes are
bare, gentle and show plains with lakes.
 The Kumaon Himalayas lie in
Uttarakhand and extend from the Satluj
to the Kali river.
 The Lesser Himalayas in Kumaon
Himalaya is represented by the Mussoorie
and Nag Tiba ranges.
 The Shiwalik in this region runs south of
the Mussoori range between the Ganga
and the Yamuna rivers.
 The flat valleys between the Lesser
Himalaya and the Shiwalik range are
called ‘doons’ or ‘Duns’ of which Dehra
Dun is the most famous.
Central Himalayas
Assam Himalayas  800 km between river Kali in the west and

river Tista in the east.
 Spreads over Sikkim, Assam and  The Great Himalaya range attains
Arunachal Pradesh. maximum height in this portion.
 Elevation here is much lesser than that of  Some of the world famous peaks Mt.
the Nepal Himalayas. Everest, Kanchenjunga, Makalu,
 The southern slopes are very steep but the Annapurna, Gosainthan and Dhaulagiri
northern slopes are gentle. are located here.
 The Lesser Himalayas are very narrow  The Lesser Himalaya is known as
and are very close to the Great Mahabharat Lekh in this region.
Himalayas.  The range is crossed by rivers like
Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, etc.
 In between the Great and the Lesser are 150 to 200 km away from the plain
Himalayas, there are Kathmandu and areas.
Pokhra lacustrine valleys (previously,
they were lakes). In this post: Important Valleys in
 The Shiwalik range come very close to the Himalayas – Karewas, Snow in Himalayas
lesser Himalaya towards the east and is – Snowline, Glaciers in Himalayas and
Significance of the Himalayas. Page
almost non-existent beyond Narayani
(Gandak). |
Important Valleys in Himalayas
Eastern Himalayas 369
The most important valleys in the
 This part of the Himalayas lies between Himalayan region are
the Tista river in the west and the  the valley of Kashmir and the Karewas
Brahmaputra river in the east and (),
stretches for a distance of about 720 km.  the Kangra and Kulu valley in Himachal
 Also known as the Assam Himalayas, the Pradesh;
Eastern Himalayas occupy mainly the  the Dun valley (Doon valley, Dehradun
areas of Arunachal Pradesh and Bhutan. valley); the Bhagirathi valley (near
 The Assam Himalayas show a marked Gangotri) and the Mandakini valley (near
dominance of fluvial erosion due to heavy Kedarnath) in Uttarakhand and
rainfall.  the Kathmandu valley in Nepal.
 The Himalayas take a sudden southward
turn after the Dihang gorge and the hill Karewas
ranges running in more or less north-
south direction along India's border with  Karewas are lacustrine deposits [deposits
Myanmar are collectively known as the in lake] in the Valley of Kashmir and in
Purvanchal. Bhadarwah Valley of the Jammu Division.
 These are the flat topped mounds that
These are known by various local border the Kashmir Valley on all sides.
names such as Patkai Bum, Naga hills,  They are characterized with fossils of
Kohima hills, Manipur hills, Mizo hills mammals and at places by peat.
(previously known as the Lushai hills), Formation
Tripura hills and Barail range.
 During the Pleistocene Period (1 million
 The extension of the Purvanchal Himalaya
years ago), the entire Valley of Kashmir
continues southwards upto Andaman and
was under water.
Nicobar Islands through the Myanmar
range (Arakan Yoma) and even upto the  Subsequently, due to endogenetic forces,
Indonesian archipelago. the Baramullah Gorge was created and
the lake was drained through this gorge.
 In the eastern section the Himalayas rise
abruptly from the plains of Bengal and  The deposits left in the process are known
Oudh and suddenly attain great elevations as karewas.
within a short distance from the foot of the  The thickness of karewas is about 1400
mountains. Thus the peaks of m.
Kanchenjunga and Everest are only a few  In fact, the karewas have been elevated,
kilometres from the plains and are clearly dissected and removed by subaerial
visible from there. denudation as well as by the Jhelum river
 In contrast, the western Himalayas rise giving them the present position.
gradually from the plains through a series Economic Significance
of ranges. Their peaks of perpetual snow
 The karewas are mainly devoted to the this range. The southern side of this range
cultivation of saffron, almond, walnut, has many gigantic glaciers.
apple and orchards.  The 75 km long Siachen Glacier in
 The karewas, devoted to saffron Nubra valley has the distinction of being
cultivation are fetching good income to the largest glacier outside the polar and
the growers. the sub-polar regions. Page
 The second largest is the 74 km long
Snow in Himalayas - Snowline Fedchenko Glacier (Pamirs) |
 Third largest is the Hispar Glacier. It is 62 370
 In Eastern Himalayas and Kumaon km long and occupies a tributary of the
Himalays the snowline is around 3,500 m Hunza River.
above sea level whereas in western
Himalays snowline is about 2,500 m above Glaciers of the Pir Panjal Range
sea level.
 This difference in snowline is partly due to  The glaciers of the Pir Panjal Range are
the increase in latitude from 28° N in less numerous and smaller in size as
Kanchenjunga to 36° N in the Karakoram. compared to those of the Karakoram
 But the major factor is precipitation. Range.
Precipitation in western Himalayas is  The longest Sonapani Glacier in the
comparatively low and occurs mostly as Chandra Valley of Lahul and Spiti region
snowfall where as in eastern Himalayas is only 15 km long.
the precipitation is greater and occurs
mostly in the form of rain. Glaciers of the Kumaon-Garhwal Region
 In the Great Himalayan ranges, the snow
 In the Kumaon-Garhwal region of the
line is at lower elevation on the
Himalayas, the largest is the 30 km long
southern slopes than on the northern
Gangotri Glacier which is the source of the
slopes because the southern slopes are
holy Ganga.
steeper and receive more precipitation as
compared to the northern slopes. Garhwal Region
Glaciers in Himalayas
 There are about 15,000 glaciers in the

Himalayas.
 Total area of Himalayas is about five lakh
square kilometres (Area of India is nearly
32 lakh sq km). About 33,000 sq km area
is covered by snow.
 The snow line (the lowest level of perpetual
snow) varies in different parts of the
Himalayas depending upon latitude,
amount of precipitation and local
topography.
Glaciers of the Karakoram Range
 Maximum development of glaciers occurs

in the Karakoram range.
 Some of the largest glaciers outside the  Lying in the Himalayas, it is bounded on
polar and sub-polar regions are found in the north by Tibet, on the east by Kumaon
region, on the south by Uttar Pradesh
state, and on the northwest by Himachal [we will study this in detail later in
Pradesh state. drainage system]
 It includes the districts of Chamoli,  All the rivers are perennial supplying
Dehradun, Haridwar, Pauri water year round.
Garhwal, Rudraprayag, Tehri Garhwal,
and Uttarkashi. Fertile Soil
Page
Glaciers of Central Nepal
 The swift flowing rivers from Himalayas |
 Zemu and the Kanchenjunga glaciers are bring enormous amount of silt (alluvium)
the major ones. which constantly enrich the Ganaga and 371
Bramhaputra plains.
Significance of the Himalayas
Hydroelectricity
Influence on Indian Climate
 Due to its natural topography and swift
 They intercept the summer monsoons flowing perennial rivers, the Himalayan
coming from the Bay of Bengal and region offers several natural sites with
Arabian Sea causing precipitation in the great hydroelectric power generation
entire Ganga Plains, North-Eastern Hills. potential.
 They direct the monsoon winds towards  Many hydroelectric power plants have
north-western India (Punjab, Haryana already been constructed.
etc.. But these regions receive most of the  But all this comes at a great
rainfall due to Western Disturbances environmental costs.
coming from the Mediterranean regions).
Forest Wealth
 They protect northern-plains from the
cold continental air masses of central  The Himalayan host rich coniferous and
Asia. evergreen forests. Lower levels have
 The Himalayas influence the path of Sub- tropical evergreen forests and higher levels
tropical Jet stream flowing in the region. have Alpine vegetation (Coniferous).
They split the jet stream and this split jet  The Himalayan forests provide fuel wood
stream plays an important role in bring and a large variety of timber for industries.
monsoons to India.
 Himalayan forests host wide variety of
 Had there been no Himalayas, the whole medicinal plants.
of India would have been a desert and its
 Several patches are covered with grass
winters would have been very severe.
offering rich pastures for grazing animals.
[Mechanism of monsoons will be explained
in detail later] Agriculture
Defense  Due to rugged and sloped terrain, the
Himalayas are not potential agricultural
 The Himalayas are a natural defense
sites.
barrier.
 Some slopes are terraced for cultivation.
 But the Chinese aggression on India in
Rice is the main crop on the terraced
1962 has reduced the defense significance
slopes. The other crops are wheat, maize,
of the Himalayas.
potatoes, etc.
Source of Rivers  Tea is a unique crop which can be grown
only on the Shiwalik hill slopes in the
 Rivers that feed nearly half a billion region.
population of India originate in Himalayas.  Fruit cultivation is a major occupation. A
wide variety of fruits such as apples,
pears, grapes, mulberry, walnut, cherries,
peaches, apricot, etc. are also grown in the Himalayan region.
Page
|
372
Tourism  The increasing popularity of winter sports

has increased the rush of tourists in
 Himalayan ranges have a large number of winters.
tourist spots.  Srinagar, Dalhousie, Dharamshala,
 The hilly areas in the Himalayas are not Chamba, Shimla, Kulu, Manali,
affected by hot winds like loo. Hence they Mussoorie, Nainital, Ranikhet, Almora,
offer cool and comfortable climate. Darjeeling, Mirik, Gangtok, etc. are
important tourist centres in the Himalayas.
Page
|
373
Cultural Tourism
 Himalayas host many Hindu

and Buddist shrines.
 Kailas, Amarnath,
Badrinath, Kedarnath,
Vaishnu Devi, Jwalaji,
Uttarkashi, Gangotri,
Yamunotri, etc. are
important places of
pilgrimage.
Mineral Resources in
Himalayas
 Geosynclinical deposits in
tertiary rocks are regions of
potential coal and oil reserves. (present hydroelectric power projects have
 Coal is found in Kashmir, Copper, lead, already proved this).
zinc, gold, silver, limestone, semi-precious
and precious stones occur at some places Major Passes in India and Indian Sub-
in the Himalayas. continent
 But the exploitation of these resources
require advanced technologies which are Main Passes of the Himalayas
not yet available.
 Also, disturbing such a fragile  Most of the passes remain closed in winter
environment leads to more pain than gain (Nov – Apr) due to heavy snow fall.
Passes of the Western Himalayas
Jammu and Kashmir

NAME SIGNIFICANCE COMMENTS
(CONNECTS)
Mintaka Pass Kashmir and China  Trijunction of India-China and Afghanistan
border
Parpik Pass Kashmir and China  East of Mintaka pass on the Indo-China border Page
Khunjerab Kashmir and China  Indo-China border
|
Pass
Aghil Pass Ladakh region of India 5000 m above sea level. 374
with the Xinjiang  north of K2 Peak (the highest peak in India and
(Sinkiang) Province of the second highest peak in the world)
China
Banihal Pass Jammu and Srinigar  2832 m
 across the Pir-Panjal Range
 remains snow covered during winter season
 The road from Jammu to Srinagar transversed Banihal Pass until 1956
when Jawahar Tunnel was constructed under the pass. The road now
passes through the tunnel and the Banihal Pass is no longer used for
road transport.
 Another 11 km long tunnel provides railway link between Banihal and
Kazigund. It was thrown open to railway transport in July, 2013
Chang-La Ladakh with Tibet  altitude of 5360 m
 This has a temple dedicated to Chang-La Baba
after whom the temple has been named
Khardung La near Leh in the  5602 m
Ladakh range The world's highest motorable road passes
through this pass
 remains closed in winter due to heavy snowfall
Lanak La India and China  this pass provides passage between Ladak and
(Akasai-Chin area of Lhasa. A road to connect Xinjiang Province with
Jammu and Kashmir) Tibet has been constructed by the Chinese
Pir-Panjal across the Pir Panjal provides the shortest and the easiest metal
pass range road between Jammu and Kashmir Valley. But
this route had to be closed down as a result of
partition of the subcontinent
Qara Tag La Indo-China borer  located at an elevation of over six thousand
across the Karakoram metres
Range
Imis La Ladakh region of India
and Tibet in China
Pensi La vital link between the remains closed to traffic from November to mid-
Kashmir Valley and May due to heavy snowfall
Kargil
Zoji La important road link  The road passing through this pass has been
between Srinagar on designated at the National Highway (NH-1D)
one side and Kargil  Border Road Organisation (BRO) is responsible
and Leh on the other for maintaining the road and cleaning it off snow
side during winter. In spite of all these efforts, the
road through this pass remains closed from
December to mid-May
Himachal Pradesh
Bara Lacha La Himachal Pradesh  Elevation: 4,890 m
and Jammu and  National highway connecting Mandi in Himachal
Kashmir Pradesh with Leh in Jammu and Kashmir passes
through this pass. Being situated at high Page
altitude, it remains snow covered in winter and is
not used as a transport route. |
Debsa Pass link between Kullu  elevation of 5270 m above sea level 375
and Spiti districts  It offers a much easier and shorter alternative
route to traditional Pin-Parbati Pass route
between Kullu and Spiti
Rohtang Pass road link between  Elevation: 3979 m
Kullu, Lahul and Spiti Border Road Organisation (BRO) is responsible
Valleys for constructing and maintaining roads in this
area. Rohtang pass is a great tourist
attraction and traffic jams are very common
because this route is widely used by military,
public and private vehicles.
Shipki La Himachal Pradesh  Elevation: 6000 m
and Tibet  Remains closed in winter season (Nov - Apr)
Uttarakhand
Lipu Lekh trijunction of This pass is used by pilgrims to Kailash-
Uttarakhand (India), Mansarowar.
Tibet (China) and
Nepal borders
Mana Pass Uttarakhand with  elevation of 5610
Tibet  Situated a little north of the holy place of
Badhrinath
 Remains closed in winter season (Nov - Apr)
Mangsha Uttarakhand with It is used by pilgrims going to Kailash-
Dhura Tibet Mansarowar
Niti Pass Uttarakhand with  Remains closed in winter season (Nov - Apr)
Tibet
Muling La Uttarakhand and  situated in the north of Gangotri at an
Tibet elevation of 5669 m in the Great Himalayas
Passes of the Eastern Himalayas
Sikkim
Nathu La Sikkim with Tibet 
altitude of 4310 m

it forms part of an offshoot of the ancient Silk
Route
 an important trade route between India and
China
 It was closed after the Chinese aggression on
India in 1962 but was reopened in 2006 as the
governments of the two countries decided to
enhance their trade through land routes
Jelep La  altitude of 4538 m
Sikkim-Bhutan border
 passes through Chumbi Valley

 important link between Sikkim and Lhasa
Arunachal Pradesh
Bom Di La Arunachal Pradesh  altitude of 4331 m
with Bhutan  Situated at an altitude of 4331 m near the
western boundary of Bhutan in the Greater Page
Himalayas, this pass connects Arunachal
|
Pradesh with Lhasa
376
Dihang Pass Arunachal Pradesh  elevation of more than 4000 m it provides

and Myanmar. passage
Yonggyap Arunachal Pradesh 
Pass with Tibet
Dipher Pass trijunction of India,  easy access between Arunachal Pradesh and
China and Myanmar Mandalay in Myanmar. It is an important land
trade route between India and Myanmar and
remains open throughout the year.
Kumjawng Arunachal Pradesh
Pass with Myanmar
Hpungan Pass Arunachal Pradesh
with Myanmar
Chankan Pass Arunachal Pradesh
with Myanmar
In this post: Formation of Indo – Gangetic compressed due to northern movement of
– Brahmaputra Plain, Features of Indo – Indian Plate.
Gangetic – Brahmaputra Plain,  Northern movement of Indian Plate also
Geomorphological features of Indo – created a trough to the south of
Gangetic – Brahmaputra Plain: Bhabar, Himalayas.
Terai, Bhangar, Khadar and Reh or Kollar.
Depositional Activity
Formation of Indo – Gangetic –
Brahmaputra Plain  During the initial stages of upliftment of
sediments, the already existing rivers
 The formation of Indo-Gangetic plain is changed their course several times and
closely related to the formation of they were rejuvenated each time
Himalayas. (perpetual youth stage of rivers {Fluvial
Landforms}).
Formation of Indo – Gangetic –  The rejuvenation is associated with
Brahmaputra trough intense headward and vertical
downcutting of the soft strata overlying
 The rivers which were previously flowing the harder rock stratum.
into Tethys sea (Before Indian Plate
 Headward erosion and vertical erosion of
collided with Eurasian Plate – continental
the river valley in the initial stages, lateral
drift, plate tectonics) deposited huge
erosion in later stages contributed huge
amount of sediments in the Tethys
amount of conglomerates (detritus)(rock
Geosyncline. [Geosyncline – a huge
debris, silt, clay etc.) which were carried
depression]
downslope.
 Himalayas are formed out of these
sediments which were uplifted, folded and
 [Head ward erosion == Erosion at the direction of the stream flow, and so causes
origin of a stream channel, which causes the stream channel to lengthen]
the origin to move back away from the
Page
|
377
 These conglomerates were deposited in the convergent boundary (the region of

depression (Indo-Gangetic Trough or present day Himalayas).
Indo-Gangetic syncline) (the base of the
geosyncline is a hard crystalline rock) New rivers and more alluvium
between peninsular India and the
 The raising of Himalayas and subsequent

formation of glaciers gave rise to many
new rivers. These rivers along with glacial
erosion {Glacial Landforms}, supplied more
alluvium which intensified the filling of the
depression. Page
 With the accumulation of more and more
sediments (conglomerates), the Tethys sea |
started receding. 378
 With passage of the time, the depression
was completely filled with alluvium, gravel,
rock debris (conglomerates) and the
Tethys completely disappeared leaving
behind a monotonous aggradational plain.
 [monotonous == featureless topography;
aggradational plain == plain formed due
to depositional activity. Indo-Gangetic
plain is a monotonous aggradational plain
formed due to fluvial depositions].
 Upper peninsular rivers have also
contributed to the formation of plains, but
to a very small extent.
 During the recent times (since few million
years), depositional work of three major
river systems viz., the Indus, the Ganga
and the Brahmaputra have become
predominant.
 Hence this arcuate (curved) plain is also
known as Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra
Plain.
Features of Indo – Gangetic –  Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain is the

Brahmaputra Plain largest alluvial tract of the world.
 It stretches for about 3,200 km from the  They show a remarkable continuity from
mouth of the Indus to the mouth of the the Indus to the Tista.
Ganga. Indian sector of the plain accounts  Rivers descending from the Himalayas
for 2,400 km. deposit their load along the foothills in the
 The northern boundary is well marked by form of alluvial fans.
the Shiwaliks and the southern boundary  These alluvial fans have merged together Page
is a wavy irregular line along the northern to build up the bhabar belt.
edge of the Peninsular India.  The porosity of bhabar is the most unique |
 The western boarder is marked by feature. 379
Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges. On the  The porosity is due to deposition of huge
eastern side, the plains are bordered by number of pebbles and rock debris
Purvanchal hills. across the alluvial fans.
 The width of the plain varies from region  The streams disappear once they reach
to region. It is widest in the west where it the bhabar region because of this porosity.
stretches for about 500 km. Its width  Therefore, the area is marked by dry river
decreases in the east. courses except in the rainy season.
 The thickness of the alluvium deposits  The Bhabar belt is comparatively narrow
also vary from place to place. The in the east and extensive in the western
maximum depth of the alluvium up to the and north-western hilly region.
basement rocks is about 6,100 m (not
uniform and varies greatly from place to The area is not suitable for agriculture
place). and only big trees with large roots
 The cones or alluvial fans of Kosi in the thrive in this belt.
north and those of Son in the south
The Terai
exhibit greater alluvial thickness while the
intra-cone areas have relatively shallower
 Terai is an ill-drained, damp (marshy)
deposits.
and thickly forested narrow tract to the
 Extreme horizontality of this monotonous south of Bhabar running parallel to it.
plain is its chief characteristic.
 The Terai is about15-30 km wide.
 Its average elevation is about 200 m above
 The underground streams of the Bhabar
mean sea level, highest elevation being
belt re-emerge in this belt.
291 m above mean sea level near Ambala
(This elevation forms the drainage This thickly forested region provides
divide or watershed between Indus shelter to a variety of wild life. [Jim
system and Ganga system). Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand
 Its average gradient from Saharanpur to and Kaziranga National Park in Assam
Kolkata is only 20 cm per km and it lie in terai region]
decreases to 15 cm per km from Varanasi
to the Ganga delta.
Geomorphological features of Indo –

Gangetic – Brahmaputra Plain
The Bhabar
 It is a narrow, porous, northern most  The Terai is more marked in the eastern
stretch of Indo-Gangetic plain. part than in the west because the eastern
 It is about 8-16 km wide running in east- parts receive comparatively higher amount
west direction along the foothills (alluvial of rainfall.
fans) of the Shiwaliks.
 Most of the Terai land, especially in 3. Punjab Plain.

Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand, 4. Ganga Plain.
has been turned into agricultural land 5. Brahmaputra Plain.
which gives good crops of sugarcane, rice 6. Ganga – Brahmaputra Delta
and wheat.
Sindh Plain [Pakistan]
The Bhangar Page
 Mainly formed of Bhangar Plains. |
 The Bhangar is the older alluvium along  Dhors: Long narrow depressions which are
the river beds forming terraces higher the remnants of the course of former 380
than the flood plain. rivers.
 The terraces are often impregnated with  Dhand: Alkaline lakes on some dhors.
calcareous concretions known as
‘KANKAR’. Rajasthan Plain
 ‘The Barind plains’ in the deltaic region
of Bengal and the ‘bhur formations’ in  Occupied by Thar or the Great Indian
the middle Ganga and Yamuna doab are Desert.
regional variations of Bhangar.  This plain is an undulating plain [wave
like] whose average elevation is about 325
[Bhur denotes an elevated piece of land m above mean sea level.
situated along the banks of the Ganga  The desert region is called Marusthali and
river especially in the upper Ganga- forms a greater part of the Marwar plain.
Yamuna Doab. This has been formed due  It has a few outcrops of gneisses, schists
to accumulation of wind-blown sands and granites which proves that
during the hot dry months of the year] geologically it is a part of the Peninsular
Plateau. It is only at the surface that it
 Bhangar contains fossils of animals like looks like an aggradational plain.
rhinoceros, hippopotamus, elephants, etc.  In general, the eastern part of the
The Khadar Marusthali is rocky while its western part
is covered by shifting sand dunes locally
 The Khadar is composed of newer known as dhrian.
alluvium and forms the flood plains  The eastern part of the Thar Desert up to
along the river banks. the Aravali Range is a semi-arid plain
 A new layer of alluvium is deposited by known as Rajasthan Bagar.
river flood almost every year.  It is drained by a number of short
 This makes them the most fertile soils of seasonal streams originating from the
Ganges. Aravali and supports agriculture in some
patches of fertile tracts.
Reh or Kollar  Luni is an important seasonal stream
which flows into Rann of Kuchchh. The
 Reh or Kollar comprises saline tract north of the Luni is known as thali
efflorescences of drier areas in Haryana. or sandy plain.
 Reh areas have spread in recent times
with increase in irrigation (capillary action Saline Lakes
brings salts to the surface).
 North of the Luni, there is inland drainage
having several saline lakes. They are a
source of common salt and many other
Regional Divisions of the Great Plains salts.
1. Sindh Plain
2. Rajasthan Plain.
 Sambhar, Didwana, Degana, Kuchaman,  The peninsular rivers such as Chambal,

etc. are some of the important lakes. The Betwa, Ken, Son, etc. joining the Ganga
largest is the Sambhar lake near Jaipur. river system have also contributed to the
formation of this plain.
Punjab Plain  The general slope of the entire plain is to
the east and south east. Page
 This plain is formed by five important
 Rivers flow sluggishly in the lower sections
rivers of Indus system.
of Ganges as a result of which the area is |
 The plain is primarily made up of ‘doabs’ marked by local prominences such as 381
—the land between two rivers. levees, bluffs, oxbow lakes, marshes,
 The depositional process by the rivers has ravines, etc. {Fluvial Landforms, Arid
united these doabs giving an homogenous Landfroms}
appearance.  Almost all the rivers keep on shifting their
 Punjab literally means "(The Land of) Five courses making this area prone to
Waters" referring to the following rivers: frequent floods. The Kosi river is very
the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, notorious in this respect. It has long been
and Beas. called the ‘Sorrow of Bihar’.
 The total area of this plain is about 1.75
lakh sq km. Regional divisions of Ganga plains
 The average elevation of the plain is about
250 m above mean sea level.  Rohilkhand plains
 The eastern boundary of Punjab Haryana  Avadh Plains
plain is marked by subsurface Delhi-  Mithila Plain
Aravali ridge.  Magadh Plain.
 The northern part of this plain [Shiwalik
Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta
hills] has been intensively eroded by
numerous streams called Chos. This has  This is the largest delta in the world.
led to enormous gullying [Arid Landforms].
 The Ganga river divides itself into several
 To the south of the Satluj river there is channels in the delta area. The slope of
Malwa plain of Punjab. the land here is a mere 2 cm per km. Two
 The area between the Ghaggar and the thirds of the area is below 30 m above
Yamuna rivers lies in Haryana and often mean sea level. [Highly vulnerable to sea
termed as ‘Haryana Tract’. It acts as level changes]
water-divide between the Yamuna and the  The seaward face of the delta is studded
Satluj rivers. with a large number of estuaries, mud
 The only river between the Yamuna and flats, mangrove swamps, sandbanks,
the Satluj is the Ghaggar which is islands and forelands.
considered to be the present day  Large part of the coastal delta is covered
Successor of the legendary Saraswati
tidal forests. These are called the
River Sunderbans because of the predominance
Ganga Plain of Sundri tree here.
Brahmaputra Plain
 This is the largest unit of the Great Plain
of India stretching from Delhi to Kolkata  This is also known as the Brahmaputra
(about 3.75 lakh sq km). valley or Assam Valley or Assam Plain as
 The Ganga along with its large number of most of the Brahmaputra valley is situated
tributaries originating in the Himalayans in Assam.
have brought large quantities of alluvium  Its western boundary is formed by the
from the mountains and deposited it here Indo-Bangladesh border as well as the
to build this extensive plain.
boundary of the lower Ganga Plain. Its Plateau, Telangana plateau and
eastern boundary is formed by Chhattisgarh Plain.
Purvanchal hills.
 It is an aggradational plain built up by Peninsular Plateau
the depositional work of the Brahmaputra
and its tributaries. Features of the Peninsular Plateau
Page
 The innumerable tributaries of the
 Roughly triangular in shape with its base |
Brahmaputra river coming from the north
coinciding with the southern edge of the
form a number of alluvial fans.
great plain of North India. Apex of the 382
Consequently, the tributaries branch out
triangular plateau is at Kanniyakumari.
in many channels giving birth to river
 It covers a total area of about 16 lakh sq
meandering leading to formation of bill
km (India as a whole is 32 lakh sq km).
and ox-bow lakes.
 The average height of the plateau is 600-
 There are large marshy tracts in this area.
900 m above sea level (varies from region
The alluvial fans formed by the coarse
to region).
alluvial debris have led to the formation of
terai or semi-terai conditions.  Most of the peninsular rivers flow west to
east indicating it’s general slope.
Significance of the Plain  Narmada-Tapti are the exceptions which
flow from east to west in a rift (rift is
 This one fourth of the land of the country caused by divergent boundary (Go back
hosts half of the Indian population. to Interaction of plates).
 Fertile alluvial soils, flat surface, slow  The Peninsular Plateau is a one of the
moving perennial rivers and favorable oldest landforms of earth.
climate facilitate intense agricultural  It is a highly stable block composed mostly
activity. of the Archaean gneisses and schists
 The extensive use of irrigation has made {Rock System}.
Punjab, Haryana and western part of  It has been a stable shield which has gone
Uttar Pradesh the granary of India through little structural changes since its
(Prairies are called the granaries of the formation.
world).  Since few hundred million years,
 The entire plain except the Thar Desert, Peninsular block has been a land area and
has a close network of roads and railways has never been submerged beneath the
which has led to large scale sea except in a few places.
industrialization and urbanization.  Peninsular Plateau is an aggregation of
 Cultural tourism: There are many several smaller plateaus, hill ranges
religious places along the banks of the interspersed with river basins and valleys.
sacred rivers like the Ganga and the
Yamuna which are very dear to Hindus. Minor Plateaus in the Peninsular
Here flourished the religions of Budha and Plateau
Mahavira and the movements of Bhakti
and Sufism. Marwar Plateau or Mewar Plateau
In this post: Peninsular Plateau – Features  It is the plateau of eastern Rajasthan.

of the Peninsular Plateau – Marwar [Marwar plain is to the west of Aravalis
Plateau or Mewar Plateau, Central whereas Marwar plateau is to the east].
Highland, Bundelkhand Upland, Malwa  The average elevation is 250-500 m above
Plateau, Baghelkhand, Chotanagpur sea level and it slopes down eastwards.
Plateau, Meghalaya Plateau, Deccan  It is made up of sandstone, shales and
Plateau, Maharashtra Plateau, Karnataka limestones of the Vindhayan period.
Page
|
383
 The Banas river, along with its tributaries and fall in the land form. Ex: Prairies of
[Berach river, Khari rivers] originate in USA]
the Aravali Range and flow towards
northwest into Chambal river. The Central Highland
erosional activity of these rives make the
plateau top appear like a rolling plain.  Also called the Madhya Bharat Pathar or
Madhya Bharat Plateau.
[Rolling Plain: ‘Rolling plains’ are not  It is to the east of the Marwar or Mewar
completely flat: there are slight rises Upland.
 Most of plateau comprises the basin of the other towards the Bay of Bengal (Chambal
Chambal river which flows in a rift and Betwa, joining the Yamuna).
valley.  In the north it is drained by the Chambal
 The Kali Sindh, flowing from Rana and many of its right bank tributaries like
Prataph Sagar, The Banas flowing the Kali, the Sindh and the Parbati. It also
through Mewar plateau and The Parwan includes the upper courses of the Sindh, Page
and the Parbati flowing from Madhya the Ken and the Betwa.
Pradesh are its main tributaries.  It is composed of extensive lava flow and |
 It is a rolling plateau with rounded hills is covered with black soils. 384
composed of sandstone. Thick forests grow  The general slope is towards the north
here. [decreases from 600 m in the south to less
 To the north are the ravines or badlands than 500 m in the north]
of the Chambal river [They are typical to  This is a rolling plateau dissected by
Chambal river basin]{ Arid landforms}. rivers. In the north, the plateau is marked
by the Chambal ravines.
Bundelkhand Upland
Baghelkhand
 Yamuna river to the north, Madhya
Bharat Pathar to the west, Vindhyan  North of the Maikal Range is the
Scarplands to the east and south-east and Baghelkhand.
Malwa Plateau to the south.  Made of limestones and sandstones on the
 It is the old dissected (divided by a number of west and granite in the east.
deep valleys) upland of the ‘Bundelkhand  It is bounded by the Son river on the
gneiss’ comprising of granite and gneiss. north.
 Spreads over five districts of Uttar Pradesh  The central part of the plateau acts as a
and four districts of Madhya Pradesh. water divide between the Son drainage
 Average elevation of 300-600 m above sea system in the north and the Mahanadi
level, this area slopes down from the river system in the south.
Vindhyan Scarp toward the Yamuna River.  The region is uneven with general
 The area is marked by a chain of hillocks elevation varying from 150 m to 1,200 m.
(small hill) made of granite and sandstone.  The Bhanrer and Kaimur are located
 The erosional work of the rivers flowing close to the trough-axis.
here have converted it into an undulating  The general horizontality of the strata
(wave like surface) area and rendered it shows that this area has not undergone
unfit for cultivation. any major disturbance.
 The region is characterized by senile
(characteristic of or caused by old age) topography. Chotanagpur Plateau
 Streams like Betwa, Dhasan and Ken flow
through the plateau.  Chotanagpur plateau represents the
north-eastern projection of the Indian
Malwa Plateau Peninsula.
 Mostly in Jharkhand, northern part of
 The Malwa Plateau roughly forms a Chhatisgarh and Purulia district of West
triangle based on the Vindhyan Hills, Bengal.
bounded by the Aravali Range in the west  The Son river flows in the north-west of
and Madhya Bharat Pathar to the north the plateau and joins the Ganga.
and Bundelkhand to the east.  The average elevation of the plateau is 700
 This plateau has two systems of drainage; m above sea level.
one towards the Arabian sea (The  This plateau is composed mainly of
Narmada, the Tapi and the Mahi), and the Gondwana rocks.
 The plateau is drained by numerous rivers  The plateau slopes down to Brahmaputra
and streams in different directions and valley in the north and the Surma and
presents a radial drainage pattern. Meghna valleys in the south.
{Drainage Pattern}  Its western boundary more or less
 Rivers like the Damodar, the coincides with the Bangladesh border.
Subarnrekaha, the North Koel, the South  The western, central and the eastern parts Page
Koel and the Barkar have developed of the plateau are known as the Garo Hills
extensive drainage basins. (900 m), the Khasi-Jaintia Hills (1,500 m) |
 The Damodar river flows through the and the Mikir Hills (700 m). 385
middle of this region in a rift valley from  Shillong (1,961 m) is the highest point
west to east. Here are found the of the plateau.
Gondwana coal fields which provide bulk
of coal in India. Deccan Plateau
 North of the Damodar river is the
Hazaribagh plateau with an average  It covers an area of about five lakh sq
elevation of 600 m above mean sea level. km.
This plateau has isolated hills. It looks like  It is triangular in shape and is bounded
a peneplain due to large scale erosion. by the Satpura and the Vindhya in the
 The Ranchi Plateau to the south of the north-west, the Mahadev and the Maikal
Damodar Valley rises to about 600 m in the north, the Western Ghats in the
above mean sea level. Most of the surface west and the Eastern Ghats in the east.
is rolling where the city of Ranchi (661 m)  Its average elevation is 600 m.
is located.  It rises to 1000 m in the south but dips to
 At places it is interruped by monadnocks 500 m in the north.
(an isolated hill or ridge of erosion-resistant rock rising  Its general slope is from west to east
above a peneplain. Ex: Ayers Rock in Australia) and which is indicated by the flow of its major
conical hills. rivers.
 The Rajmahal Hills forming the north  Rivers have further subdivided this
eastern edge of the Chotanagpur Plateau plateau into a number of smaller plateaus.
are mostly made of basalt and are covered
Maharashtra Plateau
by lava flows {Basaltic Lava}.
 They run in north-south direction and rise  The Maharashtra Plateau lies in
to average elevation of 400 m (highest Maharashtra.
mount is 567 m). These hills have been
 It forms the northern part of the Deccan
dissected into separate plateaus.
Plateau.
Meghalaya Plateau  Much of the region is underlain by
basaltic rocks of lava origin [Most of the
 The peninsular plateau extends further Deccan Traps lies in this region].
east beyond the Rajmahal hills to from  The area looks like a rolling plain due to
Meghalaya or the Shillong plateau. weathering.
 Garo-Rajmahal Gap separates this  The horizontal lava sheets have led to the
plateau from the main block. formation of typical Deccan Trap
 This gap was formed by down-faulting topography [step like].
(normal fault: a block of earth slides  The broad and shallow valleys of the
downwards). It was later filled by Godavari, the Bhima and the Krishna are
sediments deposited by the Ganga and flanked [bordered on the opposite sides] by
Brahmaputa. flat-topped steep sided hills and ridges.
 The plateau is formed by Archaean  The entire area is covered by black cotton
quartzites, shales and schists. soil known as regur.
Karnataka Plateau  The region was once ruled by

Haithaivanshi Rajputs from whose thirty
 The Karnataka Plateau is also known as six forts (Chhattisgarh) it derives its name.
the Mysore plateau.  The basin is laid with nearly horizontal
 Lies to the south of the Maharashtra beds of limestone and shales.
plateau.  The general elevation of the plain ranges Page
 The area looks like a rolling plateau with from 250 m in the east to 330 m in the
an average elevation of 600-900 m. west. |
 It is highly dissected by numerous rivers
rising from the Western Ghats. In this post: Hills of Peninsular India - 386
 The general trend of the hills is either Aravalis, Vindhyas, Satpuras, Western
parallel to the Western Ghats or across it. Ghats, Sahyadris, Eastern Ghats. Hill
 The highest peak (1913 m) is at Ranges of the Peninsular Plateau - Aravali
Mulangiri in Baba Budan Hills in Range, Vindhyan Range, Satpura Range,
Chikmaglur district. Western Ghats [Sahyadris] and Eastern
 The plateau is divided into two parts Ghats.
called Malnad and Maidan. Hill Ranges of the Peninsular Plateau
 The Malnad in Kannada means hill
country. It is dissected into deep valleys  Most of the hills in the peninsular region
covered with dense forests. are of the relict type (residual hills).
 The Maidan on the other hand is formed of  They are the remnants of the hills and
rolling plain with low granite hills. horsts formed many million years ago
 The plateau tapers between the Western (horst: uplifted block; graben: subsided
Ghats and the Eastern Ghats in the south block).
and merges with the Niligiri hills there.  The plateaus of the Peninsular region are
separated from one another by these hill
Telangana plateau
ranges and various river valleys.
 The Telangana plateau consists of Aravali Range
Archaean gneisses.
 It’s average elevation is 500-600 m.  They are aligned in north-east to south-
 The southern part is higher than its west direction.
northern counterpart.  They run for about 800 km between Delhi
 The region is drained by three river and Palanpur in Gujarat.
systems, the Godavari, the Krishna and  They are one of the oldest (very old) fold
the Penneru. mountains of the world and the oldest in
 The entire plateau is divided into Ghats India. {Fold Mountains – Block Mountains}
and the Peneplains (a vast featureless,  After its formation in Archaean Era
undulating plain which the last stage of (several 100 million years ago), its
deposition process). summits were nourishing glaciers and
several summits were probably higher
Chhattisgarh Plain
than the present day Himalayas.
 The Chhattisgarh plain is the only plain  Now they are relict (remnants after severe
worth the name in the Peninsular plateau. weathering and erosion since millions of
years) of the world's oldest mountain
 It is a saucer shaped depression drained
formed as a result of folding (Archaean
by the upper Mahanadi.
Era).
 The whole basin lies between the Maikala
 They continue up to Hariddwar buried
Range and the Odisha hills.
under the alluvium of Ganga Plains.
Page
|
387
 The range is conspicuous in Rajasthan Gulf of Khambhat and the other into
(continuous range south of Ajmer where it Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
rises to 900 m.) but becomes less distinct  It’s general elevation is only 400-600 m,
in Haryana and Delhi (characterized by a with few hills well above 1,000 m.
chain of detached and discontinuous  At the south-west extremity the range
ridges beyond Ajmer). rises to over 1,000 m. Here Mt. Abu
 According to some geographers, one (1,158 m), a small hilly block, is
Branch of the Aravalis extends to the separated from the main range by the
Lakshadweep Archipelago through the valley of the Banas. Guru Sikhar (1,722
m), the highest peak, is situated in Mt.  Amarkantak (1,127 m) is another

Abu. important peak.
 Pipli Ghat, Dewair and Desuri passes
allow movement by roads and railways. Western Ghats (or The Sahyadris)
Vindhyan Range  They form the western edge of the Deccan

tableland. Page
 The Vindhyan Range, overlooking (have a  Run from the Tapi valley (21° N latitude) to |
view of from above) the Narmada valley, rises a little north of Kanniyakumari (11° N
as an escarpment (a long, steep slope at the edge latitude) for a distance of 1,600 km. 388
of a plateau or separating areas of land at different  The Western Ghats are steep-sided,
heights) flanking (neighboring on one side) terraced, flat-topped hills presenting a
the northern edge of the Narmada-Son stepped topography facing the Arabian
Trough (the rift through which the Sea coast.
Narmada river flows)(trough is opposite of  This is due to the horizontally bedded
ridge. It is a narrow depression). lavas, which on weathering, have given a
 It runs more or less parallel to the characteristic ‘landing stair aspect’ to
Narmada Valley in an east-west direction the relief of this mountain chain.
from Jobat in Gujarat to Sasaram in Bihar  The Western Ghats abruptly rise as a
for a distance of over 1,200 km. sheer wall to an average elevation of 1,000
 The general elevation of the Vindhyan m from the Western Coastal Plain.
Range is 300 to 650 m.  But they slope gently on their eastern
 Most parts of the Vindhayan Range are flank and hardly appear to be a mountain
composed of horizontally bedded when viewed from the Deccan tableland.
sedimentary rocks of ancient age. {Rock  South of Malabar, the Nilgiris, Anamalai,
System} etc. present quite different landscape due
 The Vindhyas are continued eastwards as to the difference in geological structure.
the Bharner and Kaimur hills.
 This range acts as a watershed between The northern section
the Ganga system and the river systems of
south India.  The northern section of the Ghats from
 The rivers Chambal, Betwa and Ken rise Tapi valley to a little north of Goa is made
within 30 km of the Narmada. of horizontal sheets of Deccan lavas
(Deccan Traps).
Satpura Range  The average height of this section of the
Ghats is 1,200 m above mean sea level,
 Satpura range is a series of seven but some peaks attain more heights.
mountains (‘Sat’ = seven and ‘pura’ =  Kalasubai (1,646 m) near Igatpuri, Salher
mountains) (1,567 m) about 90 km north of Nashik,
 It runs in an east-west direction south of Mahabaleshwar (1,438 m) and
the Vindhyas and in between the Narmada Harishchandragarh (1,424 m) are
and the Tapi, roughly parallel to these important peaks.
rivers.  Thal ghat and Bhor ghat are important
 It stretches for a distance of about 900 passes which provide passage by road and
km. rail between the Konkan Plains in the
 Parts of the Satpuras have been folded west and the Deccan Plateau in the east.
and upheaved. They are regarded as
structural uplift or ‘horst’. [Konkan coast == Maharashtra coast
 Dhupgarh (1,350 m) near Pachmarhi on and Goa coast;
Mahadev Hills is the highest peak.
Malabar Coast == Kerala and Karnataka east and the Cardamom Hills or the
coast] Ealaimalai to the south.
The Middle Sahyadri Eastern Ghats
 The Middle Sahyadri runs from 16°N  Eastern Ghats run almost parallel to the
latitude upto Nilgiri hills. east coast of India leaving broad plains Page
 This part is made of granites and gneisses. between their base and the coast. |
 This area is covered with dense forests.  It is a chain of highly broken and detached
 The western scarp is considerably hills starting from the Mahanadi in 389
dissected by headward erosion of the west Odisha to the Vagai in Tamil Nadu. They
flowing streams. almost disappear between the Godavari
 The average height is 1200 m but many and the Krishna.
peaks exceed 1500 m.  They neither have structural unity nor
 The Vavul Mala (2,339 m), the physiographic continuity. Therefore these
Kudremukh (1,892 m) and Pashpagiri hill groups are generally treated as
(1,714 m) are important peaks. independent units.
 The Nilgiri Hills which join the Sahyadris  It is only in the northern part, between the
near the trijunction of Karnataka, Kerala Mahanadi and the Godavari that the
and TN, rise abruptly to over 2,000 m. Eastern Ghats exhibit true mountain
 They mark the junction of the Western character. This part comprises the Maliya
Ghats with Eastern Ghats. and the Madugula Konda ranges.
 Doda Betta (2,637 m) and Makurti  The peaks and ridges of the Maliya range
(2,554 m) are important peaks of this have a general elevation of 900-1,200 m
area. and Mahendra Giri (1,501 m) is the
tallest peak here.
The southern section  The Madugula Konda range has higher
elevations ranging from 1,100 m and
 The southern part of the Western Ghats is 1,400 m with several peaks exceeding
separated from the main Sahyadri range 1,600 m. Jindhagada Peak (1690
by Pal ghat Gap [Palakkad Gap]. m) in Araku Valley Arma Konda (1,680
 The high ranges terminate abruptly on m), Gali Konda (1,643 m) and Sinkram
either side of this gap. Gutta (1,620 m) are important peaks.
 Pal ghat Gap it is a rift valley. This gap is  Between the Godavari and the Krishna
used by a number of roads and railway rivers, the Eastern Ghats lose their hilly
lines to connect the plains of Tamil Nadu character and are occupied by Gondwana
with the coastal plain of Kerala. formations (KG Basin is here).
 It is through this gap that moist-bearing  The Eastern Ghats reappear as more or
clouds of the south-west monsoon can less a continuous hill range in Cuddapah
penetrate some distance inland, bringing and Kurnool districts of Andhra Pradesh
rain to Mysore region. where they are called as Nallamalai
 South of the Pal ghat Gap there is an Range [Naxalite hideout in AP] with
intricate system of steep and rugged general elevation of 600-850 m.
slopes on both the eastern and western  The southern part of this range is called
sides of the Ghats. the Palkodna range.
 Anai Mudi (2,695 m) is the highest peak  To the south, the hills and plateaus attain
in the whole of southern India. very low altitudes; only Javadi Hills and
 Three ranges radiate in different directions the Shevroy-Kalrayan Hills form two
from Anai Mudi. These ranges are the distinct features of 1,000 m elevation.
Anaimalai (1800-2000 m) to the north,
the Palani (900-1,200 m) to the north-
 The Biligiri Rangan Hills in Coimbatore  India has a coastline of 7516.6 Km [6100
district attain a height of 1,279 m. km of mainland coastline + coastline of
 Further south, the Eastern Ghats merge 1197 Indian islands] touching 13 States
with the Western Ghats. and Union Territories (UTs).
 The straight and regular coastline of India
Significance of the Peninsular Plateau is the result of faulting of the Page
Gondwanaland during the Cretaceous
 There are huge deposits of iron, period. {Continental Drift} |
manganese. copper, bauxite, chromium,  As such the coast of India does not offer 390
mica, gold, etc. many sites for good natural harbours.
 98 per cent of the Gondwana coal deposits
of India are found in the Peninsular [Indented coastlines of Europe provide
Plateau. good natural harbours whereas African
 Besides there are large reserves of slate, and Indian coastlines are not indented].
shale, sandstones, marbles, etc.
 A large part of north-west plateau is  The Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea
covered with fertile black lava soil which is came into being during the Cretaceous or
extremely useful for growing cotton. early Tertiary period after the
 Some hilly regions in south India are disintegration of Gondwanaland.
suitable for the cultivation of plantation East Coast of India
crops like tea, coffee, rubber, etc..
 Some low lying areas of the plateau are  Lies between the Eastern Ghats and the
suitable for growing rice. Bay of Bengal.
 The highlands of the plateau are covered  It extends from the Ganga delta to
with different types of forests which Kanniyakumari.
provide a large variety of forest products.  It is marked by deltas of rivers like the
 The rivers originating in the Western Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and
Ghats offer great opportunity for the Cauvery.
developing hydroelectricity and providing  Chilka lake and the Pulicat lake (lagoon)
irrigation facilities to the agricultural are the important geographical features of
crops. east coast.
 The plateau is also known for its hill
resorts such as Udagamangalam (Ooty), Regional Names of The East Coast of
Panchmarhi, Kodaikanal, India
Mahabaleshwar, Khandala, Matheron,
Mount Abu, etc.  In Orissa (Odisha) it is known as Utkal
coast.
In this post: Coastline of India – Indian  From the southern limit of the Utkal plain,
Coastline - East Coast of India, West stretch the Andhra coast.
Coast of India, Coastlines: Coastlines of  In the south of the Andhra plain is the
Emergence and Submergence; Western Tamil Nadu coast.
Coastal Plains Kutch and Kathiawar  The Tamil Nadu coast and parts of Andhra
region: Gujarat Plain, Konkan Plain, coast together are known as Coramandal
Karnataka Coastal Plain and Kerala Plain; Coast or Payan Ghat [False Divi Point in
Eastern Coastal Plains of India: Utkal AP (Krishna River Delta) in the north to
Plain, Andhra Plain and Tamil Nadu Plain; Kanyakumari in the south.].
Significance of the Coastal Plains.
West Coast of India
Coastline of India – Indian Coastline
2. Coastline of Submergence
Coastlines of Emergence
and Submergence
 Coastline of emergence is
formed either by an uplift Page
of the land or by the |
lowering of the sea level.
Coastline of submergence 391
is an exact opposite case.
 Bars, spits, lagoons, salt
marshes, beaches, sea
cliffs and arches are the
typical features of
emergence. {Marine
Landforms}
 The east coast of India,
 The west coast strip extends from the Gulf especially its south-eastern part (Tamil
of Cambay (Gulf of Khambhat) in the Nadu coast), appears to be a coast of
north to Cape Comorin (Kanniyakumari). emergence.
 Starting from north to south, it is divided  The west coast of India, on the other hand,
into (i) the Konkan coast, (ii) the is both emergent and submergent.
Karnataka coast and (iii) the Kerala cost.  The northern portion of the coast is
 It is made up of alluvium brought down by submerged as a result of faulting and the
the short streams originating from the southern portion, that is the Kerala coast,
Western Ghats. is an example of an emergent coast.
 It is dotted with a large number of coves 1. Coramandal coast (Tamil Nadu) ==>
(a very small bay), creeks (a narrow, sheltered Coastline of emergence
waterway such as an inlet in a shoreline or channel in a 2. Malabar coast (Kerala Coast) ==>
marsh) and a few estuaries. {Marine Coastline of emergence
Landforms} 3. Konkan coast (Maharashtra and Goa
 The estuaries, of the Narmada and the Coast) ==> Coastline of submergence.
Tapi are the major ones. Western Coastal Plains of India
 The Kerala coast (Malabar Coast) has
some lakes, lagoons and backwaters, the  Rann of Kachchh in the north to
largest being the Vembanad Lake. Kanniyakumari in the South.
 These are narrow plains with an average
Regional Names of The West Coast of width of about 65 km.
India
Kutch and Kathiawar region
 Konkan coast == Maharashtra coast and
Goa coast;  Kutch and Kathiawar, though an
 Malabar Coast == Kerala and Karnataka extension of Peninsular plateau (because
coast. Kathiawar is made of the Deccan Lava and
there are tertiary rocks in the Kutch area),
Coastlines they are still treated as integral part of the
Western Coastal Plains as they are now
Already explained in Marine Landforms. I levelled down.
am discussing here for continuity.  The Kutch Peninsula was an island
surrounded by seas and lagoons. These
1. Coastline of Emergence
seas and lagoons were later filled by  Goa to Mangalore.

sediment brought by the Indus River  It is a narrow plain with an average width
which used to flow through this area. Lack of 30-50 km, the maximum being 70 km
of rains in recent times has turned it into near Mangalore.
arid and semi-arid landscape.  At some places the streams originating in
 Salt-soaked plain to the north of Kutch is the Western Ghats descend along steep Page
the Great Rann. Its southern slopes and make waterfalls.
continuation, known as the Little Rann  The Sharavati while descending over such |
lies on the coast and south-east of a steep slope makes an impressive 392
Kachchh. waterfall known as Gersoppa (Jog) Falls
 The Kathiawar Peninsula lies to the south which is 271 m high. [Angel falls (979 m)
of the Kachchh. The central part is a in Venezuela is the highest waterfall on
highland of Mandav Hills from which earth. Tugela Falls (948 m) in
small streams radiate in all directions Drakensberg mountains in South Africa is
(Radial Drainage). Mt. Girnar (1,117 m) the second highest.]
is the highest point and is of volcanic  Marine topography is quite marked on the
origin. coast.
 The Gir Range is located in the southern
part of the Kathiawar peninsula. It is Kerala Plain
covered with dense forests and is famous
as home of the Gir lion.  The Kerala Plain also known as the
Malabar Plain.
Gujarat Plain  Between Mangalore and Kanniyakumari.
 This is much wider than the Karnataka
 The Gujarat Plain lies east of Kachchh and plain. It is a low lying plain.
Kathiawar and slopes towards the west  The existence of lakes, lagoons,
and south west. backwaters, spits, etc. is a significant
 Formed by the rivers Narmada, Tapi, characteristic of the Kerala coast.
Mahi and Sabarmati, the plain includes  The backwaters, locally known as kayals
the southern part of Gujarat and the are the shallow lagoons or inlets of the
coastal areas of the Gulf of Khambhat. sea, lying parallel to the coastline.
 The eastern part of this plain is fertile  The largest among these is the Vembanad
enough to support agriculture, but the Lake which is about 75 km long and 5-10
greater part near the coast is covered by km wide and gives rise to a 55 km long
windblown loess (heaps of sand). spit {Marine Landforms}.
Konkan Plain Eastern Coastal Plains of India
 The Konkan Plain south of the Gujarat  Extending from the Subarnarekha river
plain extends from Daman to Goa (50 to along the West Bengal-Odisha border to
80 km wide). Kanniyakumari.
 It has some features of marine erosion  A major part of the plains is formed as a
including cliffs, shoals, reefs and islands result of the alluvial fillings of the littoral
in the Arabian Sea. zone (relating to or on the shore of the sea or a lake)
 The Thane creek around Mumbai is an by the rivers Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna
important embayment (a recess in a coastline and Cauvery comprising some of the
forming a bay) which provides an excellent largest deltas.
natural harbour.  In contrast to the West Coastal Plains,
Karnataka Coastal Plain these are extensive plains with an
average width of 120 km.
 This plain is known as the Northern  The fertile soil and large scale irrigation
Circars between the Mahanadi and the facilities have made the Cauvery delta the
Krishna rivers and Carnatic between the granary of South India.
Krishna and the Cauvery rivers.
Significance of the Coastal Plains
Utkal Plain
 Large parts of the coastal plains of India Page
 The Utkal Plain comprises coastal areas of are covered by fertile soils on which |
Odisha. different crops are grown. Rice is the main
 It includes the Mahanadi delta. crop of these areas. 393
 The most prominent physiographic feature  Coconut trees grow all along the coast.
of this plain is the Chilka Lake.  The entire length of the coast is dotted
 It is the biggest lake in the country and with big and small ports which help in
its area varies between 780 sq km in carrying out trade.
winter to 1,144 sq km in the monsoon  The sedimentary rocks of these plains are
months. said to contain large deposits of mineral
 South of Chilka Lake, low hills dot the oil (KG Basin).
plain.  The sands of Kerala coast have large
quantity of MONAZITE which is used for
Andhra Plain nuclear power.
 Fishing is an important occupation of the
 South of the Utkal Plain and extends upto
people living in the coastal areas.
Pulicat Lake. This lake has been barred
 Low lying areas of Gujarat are famous for
by a long sand spit known as Sriharikota
producing salt.
Island (ISRO launch facility).
 Kerala backwaters are important tourist
 The most significant feature of this plain is
destinations.
the delta formation by the rivers Godavari
 Goa provides good beaches. This is also an
and Krishna.
important tourist destination.
 The two deltas have merged with each
other and formed a single physiographic In this post: Indian Islands - Andaman
unit. and Nicobar islands - Lakshadweep
 The combined delta has advanced by Islands - New Moore Island.
about 35 km towards the sea during the
recent years. This is clear from the present Indian Islands
location of the Kolleru Lake which was
once a lagoon at the shore but now lies far  The major islands groups of India are
inland {Coastline of Emergence}. Andaman and Nicobar Archipelago (A
 This part of the plain has a straight coast chain of islands similar in origin) in Bay of
and badly lacks good harbours with the Bengal and Lakshadweep islands in
exception of Vishakhapatnam and Arabian Sea.
Machilipatnam.  Andaman and Nicobar Islands were
formed due to collision between Indian
Tamil Nadu Plain Plate and Burma Minor Plate [part of
Eurasian Plate][Similar to formation of
 The Tamil Nadu Plain stretches for 675 Himalayas].
km from Pulicat lake to Kanniyakumari  Andaman and Nicobar Islands are
along the coast of Tamil Nadu. Its average southward extension of Arakan Yoma
width is 100 km. range [Myanmar][Arakan Yoma in itself
 The most important feature of this plain is is an extension of Purvanchal Hills].
the Cauvery delta where the plain is 130  Lakshadweep Islands are coral islands.
km wide. These islands are a part Reunion Hotspot
volcanism. [Both these concepts are E to 94° 15' E for a distance of about 590
explained in previous posts] km.
Island Groups of Reunion Hotspot  The Andaman islands are divided into
three main islands i.e. North, Middle and
South.
 Duncan passage separates Little Page
Andaman from South Andaman.
 The Great Andaman group of islands in |
the north is separated by the Ten Degree 394
Channel from the Nicobar group in the
south [Prelims 2014].
 Port Blair, the capital of Andaman
Nicobar Islands lies in the South
Andaman.
 Among the Nicobar islands, the Great
Nicobar is the largest. It is the
southernmost island and is very close to
Sumatra island of Indonesia. The Car
Nicobar is the northernmost.
 Most of these islands are made of tertiary
sandstone, limestone and shale resting on
basic and ultrabasic volcanoes [Similar to
 Other than these two groups there are
Himalayas].
islands in Indo-Gangetic Delta [they are
 THE BARREN AND NARCONDAM
more a part of delta than islands] and
ISLANDS, north of Port Blair, are volcanic
between India and Sri Lanka [Remnants of
islands [these are the only active
Adams Bridge; formed due to
volcanoes in India][There are no active
submergence].
volcanoes in main land India].
 Some of the islands are fringed with coral
reefs. Many of them are covered with thick
forests. Most of the islands are
mountainous.
 Saddle peak (737 m) in North Andaman
is the highest peak.
Lakshadweep Islands
 In the Arabian Sea, there are three types

of islands.
(1) Amindivi Islands (consisting of six main
islands of Amini, Keltan, Chetlat, Kadmat,
Bitra and Perumul Par). [don’t have to
Andaman and Nicobar islands
remember all these names]
(2) Laccadive Islands (consisting of five
 This archipelago is composed of 265 big
major islands of Androth, Kalpeni,
and small islands [203 Andaman islands +
Kavaratti, Pitti and Suheli Par) and
62 Nicobar Islands][Numbers are just for
(3) Minicoy.
understanding. You need not remember
 At present these islands are collectively
trivial facts].
known as Lakshadweep.
 The Andaman and Nicobar islands extend
 The Lakshadweep Islands are a group of
from 6° 45' N to 13° 45' N and from 92° 10'
25 small islands.
Page
|
395
 They are widely scattered about 200-500

km south-west of the Kerala coast.
 Amendivi Islands are the northern most
while the Minicoy island is the
southernmost.
 All are tiny islands of coral origin {Atoll}
and are surrounded by fringing reefs.
 The largest and the most advanced is the
Minicoy island with an area of 4.53 sq
km.
 Most of the islands have low elevation and
do not rise more than five metre above sea
level (Extremely Vulnerable to sea level
change).
 Their topography is flat and relief features
such as hills, streams, valleys, etc. are
absent.
New Moore Island
 It is a small uninhabited offshore sandbar

landform {Marine Landforms} in the Bay of
Bengal, off the coast of the Ganges- covered by the basin and channeling it to
Brahmaputra Delta region. a single point.
 It emerged in the Bay of Bengal in the
aftermath of the Bhola cyclone in 1970.
It keeps on emerging and disappearing.
 Although the island was uninhabited and Page
there were no permanent settlements or
stations located on it, both India and |
Bangladesh claimed sovereignty over it 396
because of speculation over the
existence of oil and natural gas in the
region.
 The issue of sovereignty was also a part of
the larger dispute over the Radcliffe
Award methodology of settling the
maritime boundary between the two
nations  In closed ("endorheic") drainage basins
the water converges to a single point
inside the basin, known as a sink, which
may be a permanent lake [Lake Aral], dry
lake [some desert lakes], or a point where
surface water is lost underground [sink
holes in Karst landforms]. Other
Examples: Lake Chad [Africa], Dead Sea
etc.
Drainage Divide
Drainage basin, Drainage Divide,

Difference between a River Basin and a
Watershed. Drainage patterns –
Discordant drainage patterns and
Concordant Drainage Patterns.
Drainage basin
 Other terms that are used to describe

drainage basins are catchment,  Adjacent drainage basins are separated
catchment area, catchment basin, from one another by a drainage divide.
drainage area, river basin, and water Drainage divide is usually a ridge or a
basin. high platform.
 The drainage basin includes both the  Drainage divide is conspicuous in case of
streams and rivers and the land surface. youthful topography [Himalayas] and it
 The drainage basin acts as a funnel by is not well marked in plains [Ganga plains]
collecting all the water within the area and senile topography [old featureless
landforms – Rolling plateaus of Peninsular
region though which South Indian rivers This is Wiki stuff. So can’t guarantee
flow]. accuracy..
Some important drainage basins across

the world
Page
Basin Area
Basin Type Continent Drains to |
km2
397
Amazon River Primary River South America Atlantic Ocean 6,144,727
Mediterranean
Hudson Bay North America Atlantic Ocean 3,861,400
sea
Congo River Primary River Africa Atlantic Ocean 3,730,474
(endorheic basin
Caspian Sea Lake Asia/Europe 3,626,000
== not outlet)
Mediterranean
Nile River Primary River Africa 3,254,555
Sea
Mississippi-
Primary River North America Gulf of Mexico 3,202,230
Missouri River
n/a (endorheic
Lake Chad Lake Africa 2,497,918
basin)
Mediterranean Mediterranean
Black Sea multiple 2,400,000
sea Sea
Niger River Primary River Africa Atlantic Ocean 2,261,763
Yangtze
River (Chang Primary River Asia Pacific Ocean 1,722,155
Jiang)
Mediterranean
Baltic Sea Europe Atlantic Ocean[4] 1,700,000
sea
Ganges–
Primary River Asia Bay of Bengal 1,621,000
Brahmaputra
Indus River Primary River Asia Arabian Sea 1,081,733
Difference between a River Basin and a  Both river basins and watersheds are
Watershed areas of land that drain to a particular
water body, such as a lake, stream, river
or estuary.
 In a river basin, all the water drains to a  When a river flowing over a softer rock
large river. The term watershed is used to stratum reaches the harder basal rocks
describe a smaller area of land that drains but continues to follow the initial slope, it
to a smaller stream, lake or wetland. There seems to have no relation with the harder
are many smaller watersheds within a rock bed. This type of drainage is called
river basin. superimposed drainage. Page
 Example: watershed of Yamuna + water  Usually, the drainage patterns (dendritic,
shed of Chambal + watershed of Gandak + trellis, etc.) are strongly influenced by the |
…. = Drainage basin of Ganga. hardness and softness of the rock and 398
patterns of faults or fractures.
Drainage patterns  Sometimes, however, the land rises rapidly
relative to the base level of the stream.
 Based on the shape and formation of river This increases the gradient of the stream
patters, there are different drainage and therefore, gives the stream more
patterns. erosive power.
Discordant drainage patterns  The stream has enough erosive power that
it cuts its way through any kind of
 A drainage pattern is described as bedrock, maintaining its former
discordant if it does not correlate to the drainage pattern.
topology [surface relief features] and  You get a situation, then, where the
geology [geological features based on both drainage pattern does not correspond to
Endogenetic movements and exogenetic the hardness or softness of the bedrock or
movements] of the area. to the locations of faults and fractures.
 In simple words: In a discordant drainage  In other words, it is a drainage pattern
pattern, the river follows its initial path which exhibits discordance with the
irrespective of the changes in topography. underlying rock structure because it
 Discordant drainage patterns are originally developed on a cover of rocks
classified into two main types: antecedent that has now disappeared due to
and superimposed. denudation.
 Consequently, river directions relate to the
Antecedent Drainage or Inconsequent former cover rocks and, as the latter were
Drainage being eroded, the rivers have been able to
retain their courses unaffected by the
 A part of a river slope and the surrounding newly exposed structures.
area gets uplifted and the river sticks to
its original slope, cutting through the The stream pattern is thus superposed on,
uplifted portion like a saw [Vertical erosion or placed on structural features that were
or Vertical down cutting], and forming previously buried.
deep gorges: this type of drainage is called
 The Damodar, the Subarnarekha, the
Antecedent drainage.
Chambal, the Banas and the rivers
Example: Indus, Sutlej, Brahmaputra flowing at the Rewa Plateau present some
and other Himalayan rivers that are good examples of superimposed drainage.
older than the Himalayas themselves.  Examples: The Damodar, the
There are usually called as Subarnarekha, the Chambal, the Banas
ANTECEDENT RIVERS. and the rivers flowing at the Rewa
Plateau, rivers of eastern USA and
Superimposed or Epigenetic southern France.
(Discordant) or Superinduced Drainage  [In simple words, the river flow becomes
independent of present Topography. It
flows in its initial paths without being  A tributary stream that is eroded along an
influenced by changing topography]. underlying belt of non-resistant rock after
the main drainage pattern (Consequent
Antecedent Drainage == Cut through the River) has been established is known as a
newly formed landform and maintain the subsequent river.
same path == Himalayan Rivers.  The Chambal, Sind, Ken, Betwa, Tons Page
Superimposed Drainage == Cut deeper and Son meet the Yamuna and the Ganga
through the existing landform and at right angles. They are the subsequent |
maintain the same path == Some medium drainage of the Ganga drainage system. 399
scale rivers of the Northern and Eastern  These streams have generally developed
peninsular India. after the original stream.
Antecedent Drainage == The soil formed Dendritic or Pinnate Drainage

is weak and it is easily eroded by the Pattern
rivers.
Superimposed Drainage == The rivers

have high erosive power so that they can
cut through the underlying strata.
Usually, rivers in both these drainage

types flow through a highly sloping
surface.
Concordant Drainage Patterns
 A drainage pattern is described as

concordant if it correlates to the
topology and geology of the area.
 In simple words: In a concordant drainage
pattern, the path of the river is highly  This is an irregular tree branch shaped
dependent on the slope of the river and pattern.
topography.  Drainage which is branching or ramifying
 Concordant drainage patterns are the (branch out or cause to branch out) thereby giving
most commonly found drainage patterns the appearance of a tree.
and are classified into many types.  A dendritic pattern develops in a terrain
which has uniform lithology, and where
Consequent Rivers faulting and jointing are insignificant.
 Examples: Indus, Godavari, Mahanadi,
 The rivers which follow the general Cauvery, Krishna.
direction of slope are known as the
consequent rivers. Trellis Drainage Pattern
 Most of the rivers of peninsular India are
consequent rivers.  In this type of pattern the short
 For example, rivers like Godavari, subsequent streams meet the main stream
Krishna and Cauvery, descending from at right angles, and differential erosion
the Western Ghats and flowing into the through soft rocks paves the way for
Bay of Bengal, are some of the consequent tributaries.
rivers of Peninsular India.  Examples: The old folded mountains of the
Singhbhum (Chotanagpur Plateau) and
Subsequent Rivers Seine and its tributaries in Paris basin
(France) have a drainage of trellis pattern.
 Example: Colorado river (USA), streams

found is the Vindhyan Mountains of India.
Radial Drainage Pattern
 The tributaries from a summit follow the

slope downwards and drain down in all Page
directions. |
 Examples: Streams of Saurashtra region,
Central French Plateau, Mt. 400
Kilimanjaro.
 A good example of a radial drainage
pattern is provided by the rivers
originating from the Amarkantak
Mountain.
Angular Drainage Pattern
 The tributaries join the main stream at

acute angles.
 This pattern is common in Himalayan  Rivers like Narmada, Son and Mahanadi
foothill regions. originating from Amarkantak Hills flow in
different directions and are good examples
Rectangular Drainage Pattern
of radial pattern.
 Radial drainage patterns are also found/in
the Girnar Hills (Kathiwar, Gujarat), and
Mikir Hills of Assam.
Annular Drainage Pattern
 The main stream bends at right angles

and the tributaries join at right angles
creating rectangular patterns.
 This pattern has a subsequent origin.
 When the upland has an outer soft Deranged Drainage Pattern

stratum, the radial streams develop
subsequent tributaries which try to follow  This is an uncoordinated pattern of
a circular drainage around the summit. drainage characteristic of a region recently
 Example: Black Hill streams of South vacated by an ice-sheet.
Dakota.  This type of drainage is found in the
Page
 This is not a very common drainage glaciated valleys of Karakoram.
pattern in India. Some examples of this |
Barbed Drainage Pattern
are however found in Pithoragarh 401
(Uttarakhand), Nilgiri Hills in Tamil
 A pattern of drainage in which the
Nadu and Kerala.
confluence of a tributary with the main
Parallel Drainage Pattern river is characterized by a discordant
junction—as if the tributary intends to
flow upstream and not downstream.
 This pattern is the result of capture of the
main river which completely reverses its
direction of flow, while the tributaries
continue to point in the direction of former
flow.
 The Arun River (Nepal), a tributary of the
Kosi is an interesting example of barbed
drainage pattern.
In this post: Contribution of Water by

Various Rivers, Classification of Drainage
Systems of India and Major River System
 The tributaries seem to be running or Drainage Systems in India.
parallel to each other in a uniformly
sloping region. Contribution of Water by Various Rivers
 Example: Rivers of lesser Himalayas and
The small and swift rivers originating in River % Contribution of
the Western Ghats that flow into Arabian water
Sea.
Brahmaputra ~ 40
Centripetal Drainage Pattern Ganga ~ 25
Godavari ~ 6.4
Mahanadi ~ 3.5
Krishna ~ 3.4
Narmada ~ 2.9
Rest ~ 20
 In a low lying basin the streams converge Classification of Drainage Systems of

from all sides. India
 Examples: streams of Ladakh, Tibet, and
Drainage Systems Based on the Size of
the Baghmati and its tributaries in Nepal.
the Catchment Area
Division Size of catchment  Himalayan rivers, Deccan rivers and

area in sq km Coastal rivers that drain into the sea.
Major river 20,000  Rivers of the inland drainage basin
(endorheic basin). Streams like the
Medium river 20,000 – 2,000 Sambhar in western Rajasthan are mainly
seasonal in character, draining into the Page
Minor river 2,000 and below inland basins and salt lakes. In the Rann
of Kutch, the only river that flows through |
Drainage Systems Based on Origin the salt desert is the Luni. 402
 The Himalayan Rivers: Perennial rivers: Drainage Systems Based on Orientation
Indus, the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and to the sea
their tributaries.
 The Peninsular Rivers: Non-Perennial  The Bay of Bengal drainage (Rivers that
rivers: Mahanadi, the Godavari, the drain into Bay of Bengal)(East flowing
Krishna, the Cauvery, the Narmada and rivers)
the Tapi and their tributaries.  Arabian sea drainage (Rivers that drain
into Arabian sea)(West flowing rivers).
Drainage Systems Based on the Type of  The rivers Narmada (India’s holiest river)
Drainage and Tapti flow almost parallel to each
other but empty themselves in opposite
The river systems of India can be classified
directions (West flowing). The two rivers
into four groups viz.
make the valley rich in alluvial soil and
teak forests cover much of the land.
The Bay of Bengal drainage Arabian Sea drainage
Rivers that drain into Bay of Bengal Rivers that drain into Arabian sea
East flowing rivers West flowing rivers
~ 77 per cent of the drainage area of the ~ 23 per cent of the drainage area of the
country is oriented towards the Bay of country is oriented towards the Arabian sea
Bengal
The Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the The Indus, the Narmada, the Tapi, the
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the Sabarmati, the Mahi and the large number
Cauvery, the Penneru, the Penneiyar, the of swift flowing western coast rivers
Vaigai, etc. descending from the Sahyadris.
 The area covered by The Bay of Bengal Haryana and Punjab receive very low
drainage and Arabian Sea drainage are rainfall].
not proportional to the amount of water  The Eastern drainage or the Bay of Bengal
that drains trough them. drainage receives rainfall both from South-
west and North-east monsoons.
Over 90 per cent of the water drains
into the Bay of Bengal; the rest is  Most of the Himalayan waters (perennial
drained into the Arabian Sea or forms rivers) flow into eastern drainage (Ganges
inland drainage. and Brahmaputra).
 Indian Rivers that flow into Arabian Sea
Lop sided distribution are seasonal or non-perennial (Luni,
Narmada, etc.).
 The Arabian Sea drainage or Western  Occurrence of more cyclonic rainfall in the
drainage receive less rainfall [Rajasthan, eastern parts is another major reason.
Page
|
403
Page
|
404
Major River System or Drainage  Narmada River System

Systems in India  Tapti River System
Himalayan River systems Himalayan River Systems
 Indus River System  The Indus, the Ganga and the

 Brahmaputra River System Brahmaputra comprise the Himalayan
 Ganga River System river systems.
 The Himalayan Rivers existed even before
Peninsular River Systems the formation of Himalayas i.e. before the
 Godavari River System collision of Indian Plate with the
Eurasian plate. {Antecedent Drainage}
 Krishna River System
 They were flowing into the Tethys Sea.
 Cauvery River System
These rivers had their source in the now
 Mahanadi River System
Tibetan region.
West Flowing Peninsular River Systems
Page
|
405
 The deep gorges of the Indus, the Satluj, (Vertical down cutting was significant and
the Brahmaputra etc. clearly indicate that was occurring at a rate faster than the
these rivers are older than the rising of Himalayas), thus cutting deep
Himalayas. gorges.
 They continued to flow throughout the  Thus, many of the Himalayan Rivers are
building phase of the Himalayas; their typical examples of antecedent drainage.
banks rising steeply while the beds went Indus River System
lower and lower due to vertical erosion
Sindhu Sanskrit  ‘The Indus Valley Civilization’ was born

Sinthos Greek around this river.
Sindus Latin  It flows in north-west direction from its
Major Source Length source (Glaciers of Kailas Range –
Rivers of Kailash range in Tibet near Lake
Indus Manasarovar) till the Nanga Parbhat Page
River Range.
System  It’s length is about 2,900 km. Its total |
drainage area is about 1,165,000 square 406
Indus Glaciers of Kailas 2880 km
km [more than half of it lies in semiarid
Range (Close to total.
plains of Pakistan]. It is joined by Dhar
Manasarovar Lake) 710 km
River near Indo-China border.
in India  After entering J&K it flows between the
Ladakh and the Zaskar Ranges. It flows
Jhelum Verinag 720 km through the regions of Ladakh, Baltistan
and Gilgit.
Chenab Bara Lacha Pass 1180 km
 The gradient of the river in J&K is very
gentle (about 30 cm per km).
Ravi Near Rohtang Pass 725 km
 Average elevation at which the Indus flows
Beas Near Rohtang Pass 460 km through JK is about 4000 m above sea
level.
Satluj Manasarovar- 1450 km  It is joined by the Zaskar River at Leh
Rakas Lakes total (these kind of points are important for
prelims).
List of important 1050 km
 Near Skardu, it is joined by the Shyok at
passes given in in India
an elevation of about 2,700 m.
previous posts
 The Gilgit, Gartang, Dras, Shiger, Hunza
are the other Himalayan tributaries of the
Indus.
 It crosses the Himalayas (ends its
mountainous journey) through a 5181 m
deep gorge near Attock, lying north of the
Nanga Parbat. It takes a sharp southerly
bend here (syntaxial bend).
 Kabul river from Afghanistan joins Indus
near Attock. Thereafter it flows through
the Potwar plateau and crosses the Salt
Range (South Eastern edge of Potwar
Plateau).
 Some of the important tributaries below
Attock include the Kurram, Toch and the
Zhob-Gomal.
 Just above Mithankot, the Indus receives
from Panjnad (Panchnad), the
accumulated waters of the five eastern
Indus River tributaries—the Jhelum, the Chenab, the
Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj.
 India got her name from Indus.  The river empties into the Arabian Sea
south of Karachi after forming a huge
delta.
Major Tributaries of Indus River
Page
|
407
Jhelum River  At Muzaffarabad, the river takes a sharp

hairpin bend southward.
 The Jhelum has its source in a spring at  Thereafter, it forms the India-Pakistan
Verinag in the south-eastern part of the boundary for 170 km and emerges at the
Kashmir Valley. Potwar Plateau near Mirpur.
 It flows northwards into Wular Lake  After flowing through the spurs of the Salt
(north-western part of Kashmir Valley). Range it debouches (emerge from a
From Wular Lake, it changes its course confined space into a wide, open area)
southwards. At Baramulla the river enters on the plains near the city of Jhelum.
a gorge in the hills.  It joins the Chenab at Trimmu.
 The river forms steep-sided narrow gorge  The river is navigable for about 160 km
through Pir Panjal Range below out of a total length of 724 km.
Baramula.
Chenab River  The Satluj rises from the Manasarovar-

Rakas Lakes in western Tibet at a height
 The Chenab originates from near the Bara of 4,570 m within 80 km of the source of
Lacha Pass in the Lahul-Spiti part of the the Indus.
Zaskar Range.  Like the Indus, it takes a north-westerly
 Two small streams on opposite sides of the course upto the Shipki La on the Tibet- Page
pass, namely Chandra and Bhaga, form Himachal Pradesh boundary.
its headwaters at an altitude of 4,900 m.  It cuts deep gorges where it pierces the |
 The united stream Chandrabhaga flows in Great Himalaya and the other Himalayan 408
the north-west direction through the ranges.
Pangi valley, parallel to the Pir Panjal  Before entering the Punjab plain, it cuts a
range. gorge in Naina Devi Dhar, where the
 Near Kistwar, it cuts a deep gorge. famous Bhakra dam has been
 It enters the plain area near Akhnur in constructed.
Jammu and Kashmir.  After entering the plain at Rupnagar
 From here it through the plains of (Ropar), it turns westwards and is joined
Pakistani Punjab to reach Panchnad by the Beas at Harike.
where it joins the Satluj after receiving the  From near Ferozepur to Fazilka it forms
waters of Jhelum and Ravi rivers. the boundary between India and Pakistan
Ravi River for nearly 120 km.
 During its onward journey it receives the
 The Ravi has its source in Kullu hills near collective drainage of the Ravi, Chenab
the Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh. and Jhelum rivers. It joins the Indus a few
 It drains the area between the Pir Panjal kilometres above Mithankot.
and the Dhaola Dhar ranges.  Out of its total length of 1,450 km, it flows
 After crossing Chamba, it takes a south- for 1,050 km in Indian territory.
westerly turn and cuts a deep gorge in the Indus water treaty
Dhaola Dhar range.
 It enters Punjab Plains near Madhopur  The waters of the Indus river system are
and later enters Pakistan below Amritsar. shared by India and Pakistan according to
 It debouches into the Chenab a little above the Indus Water Treaty signed between the
Rangpur in Pakistani Punjab. two countries on 19th September, 1960.
Beas River  According to this treaty, India can utilize
only 20 per cent of its total discharge of
 The Beas originates near the Rohtang water.
Pass, at a height of 4,062 m above sea In this post: Ganga River System - Ganga
level, on the southern end of the Pir River: Ganga – Brahmaputra Delta.
Panjal Range, close to the source of the
Ravi. Right Bank Tributaries of The Ganga:
 It crosses the Dhaola Dhar range and it Yamuna River, Chambal River, Banas
takes a south-westerly direction and River, Betwa River, Ken River, Son River,
meets the Satluj river at Harike in Damodar river.
Punjab.
Left Bank Tributaries of The Ganga River,
 It is a comparatively small river which is
Ramganga River, Ghaghra River, Kali
only 460 km long but lies entirely within
River, Gandak River, Burhi Gandak, Kosi
the Indian territory.
River.
Satluj River
Brahmaputra River System.
Ganga River System
Page
|
409
River Source
Bhagirathi (Ganga) Gangotri glacier
Yamuna Yamnotri glacier on the Bandarpunch Peak
Chambal Janapao Hills in the Vindhya Range
Banas Aravali Range
Betwa Bhopal district
Ken Barner Range

Son Amarkantak Plateau
Damodar (‘Sorrow of Bengal’) Chotanagpur plateau
Ramganga River Garhwal district of Uttarakhand
Ghaghra River Gurla Mandhata peak, south of
Manasarovar in Tibet (river of the trans- Page
Himalayan origin)
The Kali River (border between Nepal and Glaciers of trans-Himalayas |
Uttarakhand) 410
Gandak River Tibet-Nepal border
Burhi Gandak Sumesar hills near the India-Nepal border
Kosi (‘Sorrow of Bihar’) Tumar, Arun and Sun Kosi unite at Triveni
north of the Mahabharata Range to form the
Kosi.
Ganga River  Alaknanda River joins Bhagirathi at

Devaprayag.
 The Ganga originates as Bhagirathi from  From Devapryag the river is called as
the Gangotri glacier in Uttar Kashi Ganga.
District of Uttarakhand at an elevation of
7,010 m.
 The Ganges was ranked as the fifth most polluted river of the world in 2007.
 Pollution threatens many fish species and amphibian species and the endangered Ganges
river dolphin (Blind Dolphin).
 The Ganga Action Plan, an environmental initiative to clean up the river, has been a major
failure thus far, due to corruption, lack of technical expertise, poor environmental
planning, and lack of support from religious authorities.
Major tributaries of Alaknanda Major tributaries of Bhagirathi
 East Trisul (joins Alaknanda at Karan Prayag)  Bheling
 Pindar (rises from Nanda Devi)
 Mandakini or Kali Ganga (joins Alaknanda at Rudra Page
Prayag)
 Dhauliganga |
 Bishenganga. 411
[Kishenganga is the tributary of Jhelum]
 Ganga debouches [emerge from a confined  The delta is made of a web of
space into a wide, open area] from the distributaries and islands and is covered
hills into plain area at Haridwar. by dense forests called the Sunderbans.
 It is joined by the Yamuna at Allahabad.  A major part of the delta is a low-lying
 Near Rajmahal Hills it turns to the south- swamp which is flooded by marine water
east. during high tide.
 At Farraka, it bifurcates into Bhagirathi-
Hugli in West Bengal and Padma- Right Bank Tributaries of The Ganga
Meghna in Bangladesh (it ceases to be
known as the Ganga after Farraka).  Most of them except Yamuna originate in
the peninsular region.
 Brahmaputra (or the Jamuna as it is
known here) joins Padma-Meghna at Yamuna River
Goalundo.
 The total length of the Ganga river from its  Largest and the most important tributary.
source to its mouth (measured along the  It originates from the Yamnotri glacier on
Hugli) is 2,525 km. the Bandarpunch Peak in the Garhwal
region in Uttarakhand at an elevation of
Ganga – Brahmaputra Delta
about 6,000 meters.
 Before entering the Bay of Bengal, the  It cuts across the Nag Tibba, the
Ganga, along with the Brahmaputra, Mussoorie and the Shiwalik ranges.
forms the largest delta of the world  It emerges out of the hilly area and enters
between the Bhagirathi/Hugli and the plains near Tajewala.
Padma/Meghna covering an area of  Its main affluent in the upper reaches is
58,752 sq km. the Tons which also rises from the
 The coastline of delta is a highly indented Bandarpunch glacier.
area.  It joins Yamuna below Kalsi before the
latter leaves the hills.
 At this site, the water carried by the Tons
is twice the water carried by the Yamuna.
Non – Peninsular Tributaries Peninsular Tributaries
1. Rishiganga Most of the Peninsular rivers flow into
2. Uma the Yamuna between Agra and
3. Hanuman Ganga and Allahabad.
4. Tons join it in the mountains. 1. Chambal
5. Hindon joins at Ghaziabad in the plain area 2. Sind
3. Betwa
4. Ken.
 It unites with the Ganga near Triveni  The total length of the Yamuna from its
Sangam, Allahabad. origin till Allahabad is 1,376 km.
 It creates the highly fertile alluvial, itself and the Ganges in the Indo-Gangetic
Yamuna-Ganges Doab region between plain.
Page
|
412
Chambal River  The river flows much below its banks due
to severe erosion because of poor rainfall
 The Chambal rises in the highlands of and numerous deep ravines have been
Janapao Hills (700 m) in the Vindhyan formed in the Chambal Valley, giving rise
Range. to badland topography. {Arid Landforms}
 It flows through the Malwa Plateau.  The total length of the river is 1,050 km.
 It joins the Yamuna in Etawah district of
Uttar Pradesh. Dams on the Chambal
 The Gandhi Sagar dam is the first of the  The Ken river rising from the Barner
four dams built on the Chambal River, Range of Madhya Pradesh joins the
located on the Rajasthan-Madhya Pradesh Yamuna near Chila.
border.
 The Rana Pratap Sagar dam is a dam The Son
located 52 km downstream of Gandhi
 The Son River rises in the Amarkantak Page
Sagar dam on across the Chambal River in
Plateau. |
Chittorgarh district in Rajasthan.
 Its source is close to the origin of the
 The Jawahar Sagar Dam is the third dam 413
Narmada.
in the series of Chambal Valley Projects,
located 29 km upstream of Kota city and  It passes along the Kaimur Range.
26 km downstream of Rana Pratap Sagar  It joins the Ganga near Danapur in Patna
dam. district of Bihar.
 The Kota Barrage is the fourth in the  It flows for a distance of 784 km from its
series of Chambal Valley Projects, located source.
about 0.8 km upstream of Kota City in  The important tributaries of the Son are
Rajasthan. the Johilla, the Gopat, the Rihand, the
 Water released after power generation at Kanhar and the North Koel. Almost all the
Gandhi Sagar dam, Rana Pratap Sagar tributaries join it on its right bank.
dam and Jawahar Sagar Dams, is diverted Damodar river
by Kota Barrage for irrigation in Rajasthan
and in Madhya Pradesh through canals.  The Damodar river rises in the hills of the
Keoladeo National Park is supplied with Chotanagpur plateau and flows through
water from Chambal river irrigation a rift valley.
project.  Rich in mineral resources, the valley is
home to large-scale mining and industrial
The Banas activity.
 It has a number of tributaries and
 The Banas is a tributary of the Chambal. subtributaries, such as Barakar, Konar,
 It originates in the southern part of the Bokaro, Haharo, etc.
Aravali Range.  The Barakar is the most important
 It join the Chambal on Rajasthan – tributary of the Damodar.
Madhya Pradesh border near Sawai  Several dams have been constructed in
Madhopur. the valley, for the generation of
hydroelectric power. The valley is called
The Sind “the Ruhr of India”.
 The first dam was built across the Barakar
 The Sind originates in Vidisha Plateau of
River, a tributary of the Damodar river.
Madhya Pradesh.
 It used to cause devastating floods as a
 It flows for a distance of 415 km before it
result of which it earned the name
joins the Yamuna.
‘Sorrow of Bengal’. Now the river is
The Betwa tamed by constructing numerous dams.
 It joins the Hugli River 48 km below
 The Betwa rises in Bhopal district Kolkata.
(Vindhyan Range) and joins the Yamuna  The total length of the river is 541 km.
near Hamirpur.
 It has a total length of 590 km. Left Bank Tributaries of The Ganga
 The Dhasan is its important tributary. River
The Ken  These rivers originate in the Himalayas.
 The major tributaries apart from the  It receives a large number of tributaries in
Yamuna, are the Ramganga, the Gomati, Nepal Himalaya.
the Ghaghra, the Gandak, the Burhi  Its important tributaries are the Kali
Gandak, the Bagmati, and the Kosi. Gandak, the Mayangadi, the Bari and
the Trishuli.
Ramganga River  It debouches into the plains at Tribeni. Page
 It flows into Ganga at Hajipur in Bihar.
 The Ramganga river rises in the Garhwal |
district of Uttarakhand. Burhi Gandak
 It enters the Ganga Plain near Kalagarh. 414
 It joins the Ganga at Kannauj.  Originates from the western slopes of
 The Khoh, the Gangan, the Aril, the Kosi, Sumesar hills near the India-Nepal
and the Deoha (Gorra) are important border.
tributaries of Ramganga.  It joins the Ganga near Monghyr town.
Ghaghra River Kosi River
 Its source is near Gurla Mandhata peak,  The Kosi river consists of seven streams
south of Manasarovar in Tibet (river of namely Sut Kosi, Tamba Kosi, Talkha,
the trans-Himalayan origin). Doodh Kosi, Botia Kosi, Arun and
 It is known as the Karnaili in Western Tamber and is popularly known as
Nepal. Saptkaushiki.
 Its important tributaries are the Sarda,  These streams flow through eastern Nepal
the Sarju (Ayodhya is located on its which is known as the Sapt Kaushik
bank) and the Rapti. region.
 The Ghaghara joins the Ganga a few  The sources of seven streams of the Kosi
kilometres downstream of Chhapra in are located in snow covered areas which
Bihar. also receive heavy rainfall.
 After reaching the plain area, its stream  Consequently, huge volume of water flows
gets divided into many branches of which, with tremendous speed.
Koriyab and Garwa are important.  Seven streams mingle with each other to
 The river bed is sandy and sudden bends form three streams named the Tumar,
start occurring in the stream. Arun and Sun Kosi.
 The river has a high flood frequency and  They unite at Triveni north of the
has shifted its course several times. Mahabharata Range to form the Kosi.
 The river enters the Tarai of Nepal after
Kali River cutting a narrow gorge in the
Mahabharata Range.
 Rises in the high glaciers of trans-
 The joins the Ganga near Kursela.
Himalaya.
 Soon after debouching onto the plain the
 It forms the boundary between Nepal and
river becomes sluggish.
Kumaon.
 Large scale deposition of eroded material
 It is known as the Sarda after it reaches
takes place in the plain region.
the plains near Tanakpur.
 The river channel is braided and it shifts
 It joins the Ghaghara.
its course frequently. This has resulted in
Gandak River frequent devastating floods and has
converted large tracts of cultivable land
 Originates near the Tibet-Nepal border at into waste land in Bihar. Thus the river is
a height of 7,620 m often termed as the ‘Sorrow of Bihar’.
 In order to tame this river, a barrage was  Embankments for flood control have been
constructed in 1965 near Hanuman Nagar constructed as a joint venture of India and
in Nepal. Nepal.
Brahmaputra River System
Region Name Page

Tibet Tsangpo (meaning 'The Purifier') |
China Yarlung Zangbo Jiangin
Assam Valley Dihang or Siong, South of Sadiya: Brahmaputra 415
Bangladesh Jamuna River
Padma River: Combined Waters of Ganga and Brahmaputra
Meghana: From the confluence of Padma and Meghna [View image
above]
 The Brahmaputra (meaning the son of  In the north-eastern parts of Assam
Brahma). Valley, it is joined by two important
 It is 2,900 km in length. tributaries viz, the Dibang (or Sikang)
 Source: Chemayungdung glacier (Kailas from the north and Lohit from the south.
Range) at an elevation of about 5,150 m.  From Sadiya (Assam Valley) onwards, this
It’s source is very close to the sources of mighty river is known as the
Indus and Satluj. Brahmaputra.
 Mariam La separates the source of the  The main streams merging with the
Brahmaputra from the Manasarovar Lake. Brahmaputra from the north are,
 Brahmaputra flows eastwards in Southern Subansiri, Kameng, Dhansiri (north),
Tibet for about 1,800 km. Raidak, Tista etc..
 In Tibet it passes through the depression  The Tista was a tributary of the Ganga
formed by the Indus-Tsangpo Structure prior to the floods of 1787 after which it
Zone between the Great Himalayas in the diverted its course eastwards to join the
south and the Kailas Range in the north. Brahmaputra.
 Inspite of the exceptionally high altitude,  The Brahmaputra has a braided channel
the Tsangpo has a gentle slope. The river (flow into shallow interconnected channels
is sluggish and has a wide navigable divided by deposited earth) for most of its
channel for about 640 km. passage through Assam where channels
 It receives a large number of tributaries in keep shifting. It carries a lot of silt and
Tibet. The first major tributary is the Raga there is excessive meandering.
Tsangpo meeting the Tsangpo near  The river is nearly 16 km wide at
Lhatse Dzong. Dibrugarh and forms many islands, the
 The river Ngangchu flows through the most important of which is MAJULI. It is
trade centre of Gyantse in the south and 90 km long and measures 20 km at its
joins the main river. widest.
 Towards the end of its journey in Tibet, its  With rainfall concentrated during the
course abruptly takes a south ward turn monsoon months only the river has to
around Namcha Barwa (7,756 carry enormous quantities of water and
m)(Syntaxial Bend). silt which results in disastrous floods. The
 Here it cuts across the eastern Himalaya Brahmaputra is thus truly a River of
through the Dihang or Siang Gorge and Sorrow.
emerges from the mountains near Sadiya  The river is navigable for a distance of
in the Assam Valley. 1,384 km upto Dibrugarh from its mouth
 Here it first flows under the name of Siong and serves as an excellent inland water
and then as the Dihang. transport route.
 Brahmaputra bends southwards and  Most of the major rivers of the peninsula
enters Bangladesh near Dhubri. such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the
 It flows for a distance of 270 km in the Krishna and the Cauvery flow eastwards
name of Jamuna river and joins the and drain into the Bay of Bengal. These
Ganga at Goalundo. rivers make deltas at their mouths.
 The united stream of the Jamuna and the  But the west flowing rivers of Narmada Page
Ganga flows further in the name of and Tapi as well as those originating from
Padma. the Western Ghats and falling in the |
 About 105 km further downstream, the Arabian Sea form estuaries in place of 416
Padma is joined on the left bank by the deltas.
Meghna, originating in the mountainous  There are few places where rivers form
region of Assam. superimposed and rejuvenated drainage
 From the confluence of Padma and which are represented by waterfalls.
Meghna, the combined river is known as  Examples: The Jog on the Sharvati (289
the Meghna which makes a very broad m), Yenna of Mahabaleshwar (183 m),
estuary before pouring into the Bay of Sivasamundram on the Cauvery (101 m),
Bengal. Gokak on the Gokak (55 m), Kapildhara
(23 m) and Dhuandar (15 m) on the
In this post: Peninsular River System or Narmada are the major waterfalls in the
Peninsular Drainage – Evolution of the Peninsular India.
Peninsular Drainage, Peninsular River
Systems, Himalayan River System vs. Evolution of the Peninsular Drainage
Peninsular River System.
Theory 1
Peninsular River System or Peninsular
Drainage  Geologists believe that the Sahyadri-
Aravali axis was the main water divide in
 Peninsula rivers are much older than the the past.
Himalayan rivers {Discordant}.  According to one hypothesis, the existing
 The peninsular drainage is mainly peninsula is the remaining half of bigger
Concordant except for few rivers in the landmass.
upper peninsular region.  The Western Ghats were located in the
 They are non-perennial rivers with a middle of this landmass.
maximum discharge in the rainy season.  So one drainage was towards east flowing
 The peninsular rivers have reached into Bay of Bengal and the other towards
mature stage {Fluvial Landforms} and west draining into Arabian Sea.
have almost reached their base level.  The western part of the Peninsula cracked
[Vertical downcutting is negligible]. and submerged in the Arabian Sea during
 The rivers are characterized by broad and the early Tertiary period (coinciding
shallow valleys. with the formation of Himalayas).
 The river banks have gentle slopes except  During the collision of the Indian plate,
for a limited tract where faulting forms the Peninsular block was subjected to
steep sides. subsidence in few regions creating a series
 The main water divide in peninsular of rifts (trough, faults).
rivers is formed by the Western Ghats, The now west flowing rivers of the
which run from north to south close to the Peninsula, namely the Narmada and the
western coast. Tapi flow through these rifts.
 The velocity of water in the rivers and the
load carrying capacity of the streams is  Straight coastline, steep western slope of
low due to low gradient. the Western Ghats, and the absence of
delta formations on the western coast Peninsula, barring a few exceptions such
makes this theory a possibility. as waterfalls.
Theory 2 Peninsular River Systems
 It is believed that the west flowing  Rivers that drain into Bay of Bengal:
peninsular rivers do not flow in the valleys The Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Page
formed by the rivers themselves. Krishna, the Cauvery and several smaller
|
 Rather they have occupied two fault rifts rivers drains south-east into the Bay of
in rocks running parallel to the Vindhyas. Bengal. 417
 These faults are supposed to be caused by  Rivers that drain into Arabian Sea: The
bend of the northern part of the Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi flowing
Peninsula at the time of upheaval of the west as well as several small streams
Himalayas. originating from the Western Ghats flow
 Peninsular block, south of the cracks, westwards into the Arabian Sea.
tilted slightly eastwards during the event  Rivers that drain into the Ganges:
thus giving the orientation to the entire Tributaries of the Ganga and the Yamuna
drainage towards the Bay of Bengal. such as the Chambal, the Betwa, the Ken,
 Criticism: Tilting should have increased the Son and the Damodar flow in the
the gradient of the river valleys and north-easterly direction.
caused some rejuvenation of the rivers. Himalayan River System vs. Peninsular
This type of phenomenon is absent in the River System
The Himalayan River System The Peninsular River System
These rivets originate from the lofty These rivers originate in the
Himalayan ranges and are named Peninsular Plateau and are named as
as the Himalayan rivers. Peninsular rivers.
Catchment These rivers have large basins and These rivers have small basins and
area catchment areas. The total basin catchment areas. The Godavari has
area of the Indus, the Ganga and the largest basin area of 3.12 lakh
the Brahmaputra is 11.78, 8.61 and square kilometres only which is less
5.8 lakh square kilometres than one-third the basin area of the
respectively. Indus.
Valleys The Himalayan rivers flow through The Peninsular rivers flow in
deep V - shaped valleys called comparatively shallow valleys. These
gorges. These gorges have been are more or less completely graded
carved out by down cutting carried valleys. The rivers have little erosional
on side by side with the uplift of the activity to perform.
Himalayas.
Drainage These are examples of antecedent These are examples of consequent

Type drainage. drainage.
Water Flow The Himalayan rivers are perennial The Peninsular rivers receive water
in nature, i.e., water flows only from rainfall and water flows in
throughout the year in these rivers. these rivers in rainy season only.
These rivers receive water both from Therefore, these rivers are seasonal or
the monsoons and snow-melt. The non-perennial. As such these rivers
perennial nature of these rivers are much less useful for irrigation.
makes them useful for irrigation.
Stage These rivers flow across the young These rivers have been flowing in one
fold mountains and are still in a of the oldest plateaus of the world and
youthful stage. have reached maturity.
Page
Meanders The upper reaches of the Himalayan The hard rock surface and non- |
rivers are highly tortuous. When alluvial character of the plateau
they enter the plains, there is a permits little scope for the 418
sudden reduction in the speed of formation of meanders. As such, the
flow of water. Under these rivers of the Peninsular Plateau follow
circumstances these rivers form more or less straight courses.
meanders and often shift their
beds.
Deltas and The Himalayan rivers form big Some of the Peninsular rivers, such as
Estuaries deltas at their mouths. The Ganga- the Narmada and the Tapi form
Brahmaputra delta is the largest in estuaries.
the world. Other rivers such as the Mahanadi,
the Godavari, the Krishna and the
Cauvery form deltas.
Several small streams originating from
the Western Ghats and flowing
towards the west enter the Arabian
Sea without forming any delta.
In this post: East Flowing Peninsular Pradesh, draining an area of 1.4 lakh
Rivers: Godavari – Krishna – Mahanadi. Sq.km.
Rivers, Tributaries and River Basins.  It is bounded by the Central India hills on
the north, by the Eastern Ghats on the
East Flowing Peninsular Rivers south and east and by the Maikala range
on the west.
 Mahanadi River  The Mahanadi (“Great River”) follows a
 Godavari River total course of 560 miles (900 km).
 Krishna River  It has its source in the northern foothills
 Kaveri (Cauvery) River of Dandakaranya in Raipur District of
 Pennar River Chhattisgarh at an elevation of 442 m.
 Subarnarekha River  The Mahanadi is one of the major rivers of
 Brahamani River the peninsular rivers, in water potential
 Sarada River and flood producing capacity, it ranks
 Ponnaiyar River second to the Godavari.
 Vaigai River  Other small streams between the
Mahanadi and the Rushikulya draining
Mahanadi River directly into the Chilka Lake also forms
the part of the basin.
 The Mahanadi basin extends over states of
 The major part of basin is covered with
Chhattisgarh and Odisha and
agricultural land accounting to 54.27% of
comparatively smaller portions of
the total area.
Jharkhand, Maharashtra and Madhya
 It is one of the most-active silt- Tributaries of Mahanadi River

depositing streams in the Indian
subcontinent.  Its upper course lies in the saucer-shaped
 After receiving the Seonath River, it turns basin called the ‘Chhattisgarh Plain’.
east and enters Odisha state.  This basin is surrounded by hills on the
 At Sambalpur the Hirakud Dam (one of north, west and south as a result of which
Page
the largest dams in India) on the river has a large number of tributaries join the main
formed a man-made lake 35 miles (55 km) river from these sides. |
long.  Left bank Tributaries: The Seonath, the
419
 It enters the Odisha plains near Cuttack Hasdeo, the Mand and the Ib.
and enters the Bay of Bengal at False  Right bank Tributaries: The Ong, the Tel
Point by several channels. and the Jonk.
 Puri, at one of its mouths, is a famous
pilgrimage site.
Projects on Mahanadi River Industry in Mahanadi River Basin
 Two important projects completed during  Three important urban centes in the basin
pre-plan period in the basin are the are Raipur, Durg and Cuttack.
Mahanadi main canal and Tandula  Mahanadi basin, because of its rich
reservoir in Chhattisgarh. mineral resource and adequate power
 During the plan period, the Hirakud dam, resource, has a favorable industrial
Mahanadi delta project, Hasdeo Bango, climate.
Mahanadi Reservoir Project were  The Important industries presently
completed. existing in the basin are the Iron and
Steel plant at Bhilai, aluminium  The Manjra (724 km) is the only important
factories at Hirakud and Korba, paper right bank tributary. It joins the Godavari
mill near Cuttack and cement factory at after passing through the Nizam Sagar.
Sundargarh.  Left Bank Tributaries: Dharna, Penganga,
 Other industries based primarily on Wainganga, Wardha, Pranahita
agricultural produce are sugar and textile [conveying the combined waters of Page
mills. Penganga, the Wardha and Wainganga],
 Mining of coal, iron and manganese are Pench, Kanhan, Sabari, Indravati etc. |
other industrial activities.  Right Bank Tributaries: Pravara, Mula, 420
Floods in Mahanadi River Basin Manjra, Peddavagu, Maner etc.
 Below Rajahmundry, the river divides
 The basin is subject to severe flooding itself into two main streams, the Gautami
occasionally in the delta area due to Godavari on the east and the Vashishta
inadequate carrying capacity of the Godavari on the west and forms a large
channels. delta before it pours into the Bay of
 The multi-purpose Hirakud dam provides Bengal.
some amount of flood relief by storing part  The delta of the Godavari is of lobate type
of flood water. with a round bulge and many
 However, the problem still persists and a distributaries.
lasting solution need to be evolved. Mineral Resources in Godavari Basin
Godavari River
 The upper reaches of the Godavari
 The Godavari is the largest river system drainage basin are occupied by the
of the Peninsular India and is revered as Deccan Traps containing minerals like
Dakshina Ganga. magnetite, epidote, biotite, zircon,
 The Godavari basin extends over states of chlorite etc (metallic minerals)..
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,  The middle part of the basin is principally
Chhattisgarh and Odisha in addition to composed of phyllites, quartzites,
smaller parts in Madhya Pradesh, amphiboles and granites (rocks).
Karnataka and Union territory of  The downstream part of the middle basin
Puducherry (Yanam) having a total area of is occupied mainly by sediments and
~ 3 lakh Sq.km. rocks of the Gondwana group.
 The basin is bounded by Satmala hills,  The Gondwanas are principally detritals
the Ajanta range and the Mahadeo hills (waste or debris, in particular organic
on the north, by the Eastern Ghats on the matter produced by decomposition or
south and the east and by the Western loose matter produced by erosion) with
Ghats on the west. some thick coal seams. [Singareni Coal
 The Godavari River rises from Seam]
Trimbakeshwar in the Nashik district of  The Eastern Ghats dominate the lower
Maharashtra about 80 km from the part of the drainage basin and are formed
Arabian Sea at an elevation of 1,067 m. mainly from the Khondalites.
 The total length of Godavari from its origin Projects on Godavari River
to outfall into the Bay of Bengal is 1,465
km.  Important projects completed duing the
Tributaries of Godavari River plan period are Srirama Sagar, Godavari
barrage, Upper Penganga, Jaikwadi,
 The left bank tributaries are more in Upper Wainganga, Upper Indravati,
number and larger in size than the right Upper Wardha.
bank tributaries.
Page
|
421
 Among the on-going projects, the  Godavari basin faces flooding problem in
prominent ones are Prnahita-Chevala and its lower reaches.
Polavaram.  The coastal areas are cyclone-prone.
 The delta areas face drainage congestion
Industry in Godavari Basin due to flat topography.
 A large portion of Maharashtra falling
 The major urban Centers in the basin are
(Marathwada) in the basin is drought
Nagpur, Aurangabad, Nashik,
prone.
Rajhmundry.
 Nashik and Aurangabad have large Krishna River
number of industries especially
automobile.  The Krishna is the second largest east
 Other than this, the industries in the flowing river of the Peninsula.
basin are mostly based on agricultural  The Krishna Basin extends over Andhra
produce such as rice milling, cotton Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka
spinning and weaving, sugar and oil having a total area of ~2.6 lakh Sq.km.
extraction.  It is bounded by Balaghat range on the
 Cement and some small engineering north, by the Eastern Ghats on the south
industries also exist in the basin. and the east and by the Western Ghats on
the west.
Floods and Droughts in Godavari Basin
 The Krishna River rises from the Western
Ghats near Jor village of Satara district
of Maharashtra at an altitude of 1,337 m Resources in Krishna Basin

just north of Mahabaleshwar.
 The total length of river from origin to its  The basin has rich mineral deposits and
outfall into the Bay of Bengal is 1,400 km. there is good potential for industrial
 The major part of basin is covered with development.
agricultural land accounting to 75.86% of  Iron and steel, cement, sugar cane
Page
the total area. vegetable oil extraction and rice milling are
 The Krishna forms a large delta with a important industrial activities at present |
shoreline of about 120 km. The Krishna in the basin.
422
delta appears to merge with that formed  Recently oil has been struck in this basin
by the Godavari and extends about 35 km which is bound to have an effect on the
into the sea. future industrial scenario of this basin.
Tributaries of Krishna River Industry in Krishna Basin
 Right bank: the Ghatprabha, the  The major Urban Centers in the Basin are
Malprabha and the Tungabhadra. Pune, Hyderabad.
 Left Bank: the Bhima, the Musi and the  Hyderabad is the state capital of
Munneru. Telangana and is now a major IT hub.
 The Koyna is a small tributary but is  Pune in Maharashtra has number of
known for Koyna Dam. This dam was automobile and IT industry and is major
perhaps the main cause of the devastating education centre.
earthquake (6.4 on richter scale) in 1967 Drought and Floods in Krishna Basin
that killed 150 people.
 The Bhima originates from the Matheron  Some parts of the basin, especially the
Hills and joins the Krishna near Raichur Rayalaseema area of Andhra Pradesh,
after for a distance of 861 km. Bellary, Raichur, Dharwar, Chitradurga,
 The Tungabhadra is formed by the Belgaum and Bijapur districts of
unification of the Tunga and the Bhadra Karnataka and Pune, Sholapur,
originating from Gangamula in the Osmanabad and Ahmedanagar districts of
Central Sahyadri. Its total length is 531 Maharashtra are drought-prone.
km.  The delta area of the basin is subject to
 At Wazirabad, it receives its last important flooding. It has been observed that the
tributary, the Musi, on whose banks the river bed in delta area is continuously
city of Hyderabad is located. raised due to silt deposition resulting in
Projects on Krishna River reduction in carrying capacity of the
channel.
 Important ones are the Tungabhadra,  The coastal cyclonic rainfall of high
Ghataprabha, Nagarjunasagar, intensity and short duration makes the
Malaprabha, Bhima, Bhadra and Telugu flood problem worse.
Ganga. Cauvery River
 The major Hydro Power stations in the
basin are Koyna, Tungabhadara, Sri  The Kaveri (Cauvery) is designated as the
Sailam, Nagarjuna Sagar, Almatti, ‘Dakshina Ganga’ or ‘the Ganga of the
Naryanpur, Bhadra. South’.
 Tunagabhadra is a major inter-States  The Cauvery River rises at an elevation of
project in the basin. In order to operate 1,341 m at Talakaveri on the Brahmagiri
the project and to regulate the flows range near Cherangala village of Kodagu
among the beneficiary States of Karnataka (Coorg) district of Karnataka.
and Andhara Pradesh.
Page
|
423
 The total length of the river from origin to  The delta area is the most fertile tract in
outfall is 800 km. the basin. The principal soil types found in
 The Cauvery basin extends over states of the basin are black soils, red soils,
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and Union laterites, alluvial soils, forest soils and
Territory of Puducherry draining an area mixed soils. Red soils occupy large areas
of 81 thousand Sq.km. in the basin. Alluvial soils are found in the
 It is bounded by the Western Ghats on the delta areas.
west, by the Eastern Ghats on the east  The basin in Karnataka receives rainfall
and the south and by the ridges mainly from the S-W Monsoon and
separating it from Krishna basin and partially from N-E Monsoon. The basin in
Pennar basin on the north. Tamil Nadu receives good flows from the
 The Nilgiris, an offshore of Western ghats, North-East Monsoon.
extend Eastwards to the Eastern ghats  Its upper catchment area receives rainfall
and divide the basin into two natural and during summer by the south-west
political regions i.e., Karnataka plateau in monsoon and the lower catchment area
the North and the Tamil Nadu plateau in during winter season by the retreating
the South. north-east monsoon.
 Physiographically, the basin can be  It is, therefore almost a perennial river
divided into three parts – the Westen with comparatively less fluctuations in
Ghats, the Plateau of Mysore and the flow and is very useful for irrigation and
Delta. hydroelectric power generation.
 Thus the Cauvery is one of the best  After flowing for about 16 Kms, the two
regulated rivers and 90 to 95 per cent of branches join again to form ‘Srirangam
its irrigation and power production Island’.
potential already stands harnessed.  On the Cauvery branch lies the "Grand
 The river drains into the Bay of Bengal. Anicut" said to have been constructed by
The major part of basin is covered with a Chola King in 1st Century A.D. Page
agricultural land accounting to 66.21% of  Below the Grand Anicut, the Cauvery
the total area. branch splits into two, Cauvery and |
Tributaries of the Cauvery River Vennar. 424
 These branches divide and sub-divide into
 Left Bank: the Harangi, the Hemavati, small branches and form a network all
the Shimsha and the Arkavati. over the delta.
 Right Bank: Lakshmantirtha, the Floods in Cauvery Basin
Kabbani, the Suvarnavati, the Bhavani,
the Noyil and the Amaravati joins from  The Cauvery basin is fan shaped in
right. Karnataka and leaf shaped in Tamil Nadu.
 The river descends from the South The run-off does not drain off quickly
Karnataka Plateau to the Tamil Nadu because of its shape and therefore no fast
Plains through the Sivasamudram raising floods occur in the basin.
waterfalls (101 m high).
 At Shivanasamudram, the river branches Projects on Cauvery River
off into two parts and falls through a
height of 91 m. in a series of falls and  During the pre-plan period many projects
rapids. were completed in this basin which
included Krishnarajasagar in Karnataka,
 The falls at this point is utilized for power
Mettur dam and Cauvery delta system
generation by the power station at
in Tamil Nadu.
Shivanasamudram.
 Lower Bhavani, Hemavati, Harangi,
 The two branches of the river join after the
Kabini are important projects completed
fall and flow through a wide gorge which is
duing the plan period.
known as ‘Mekedatu’ (Goats leap) and
continues its journey to form the Industry in Cauvery Basin
boundary between Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu States for a distance of 64 km.  The city of Bangalore is situated just
 At Hogennekkal Falls, it takes Southerly outside this basin.
direction and enters the Mettur  Important industries in the basin include
Reservoir. cotton textile industry in Coimbatore
 A tributary called Bhavani joins Cauvery and Mysore, cement factories in
on the Right bank about 45 Kms below Coimbatore and Trichinapally and
Mettur Reservoir. Thereafter it enters the industries based on mineral and metals.
plains of Tamil Nadu.  The Salem steel plant and many
 Two more tributaries Noyil and engineering industies in Coimbatore and
Amaravathi join on the right bank and Trichinapally are also situated in this
here the river widens with sandy bed and basin.
flows as ‘Akhanda Cauvery’.
Pennar River
 Immediately after crossing Tiruchirapalli
district, the river divides into two parts,
 The Pennar (also known as Uttara
the Northern branch being called ‘The
Pinakini) is one of the major rivers of the
Coleron’ and Southern branch remains as
peninsula.
Cauvery and from here the Cauvery Delta
begins.
Page
|
425
 The Pennar rises in the Chenna Kasava  The major part of basin is covered with
hill of the Nandidurg range, in agriculture accounting to 58.64% of the
Chikkaballapura district of Karnataka total area.
and flows towards east eventually draining
into the Bay of Bengal. Tributaries of Pennar River
 The total length of the river from origin to
its outfall in the Bay of Bengal is 597 km.  Left Bank: the Jayamangali, the Kunderu
and the Sagileru.
 Located in peninsular India, the Pennar
basin extends over states of Andhra  Right bank: the Chiravati, the Papagni
Pradesh and Karnataka having an area of and the Cheyyeru.
~55 thousand Sq.km Projects on Pennar River
 The fan shaped basin is bounded by the
Erramala range on the north, by the  Tungabhadra high level canal in Krishna
Nallamala and Velikonda ranges of the basin irrigated areas in Pennar basin also.
Eastern Ghats on the east, by the The only major project in the basin is the
Nandidurg hills on the south and by the Somasila project.
narrow ridge separating it from the
Vedavati valley of the Krishna Basin on Industry in Pennar Basin
the west.
 The other hill ranges in the basin to the  The only important town in the basin is
south of the river are the Seshachalam Nellore.
[famous for Red Sanders] and Paliconda
ranges.
Page
|
426
Page
|
427
Page
|
428
 With limited water and power potential  The Brahmani river comes into existence
and mineral resources, the scope for by the confluence of the Koel and the
industrial development is limited in the Sankh rivers near Rourkela. It has a total
basin. length of 800 km.
 There are no major industries. The  The basin is bounded in the North by
existing small industries are mostly based Chhotanagpur plateau, in the West and
on agricultural produce such as cotton South by the Mahanadi basin and in the
weaving, sugar mills, oil mills, rice mills East by the Bay of Bengal.
etc.  The basin flows through Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh and Orissa States and
Subarnarekha drains into Bay of Bengal.
 The Subarnarekha originates from the Sarada River
Ranchi Plateau in Jharkhand forming the
boundary between West Bengal and  The river Sarada, an East flowing medium
Odisha in its lower course. sized river, lies in the district of
 It joins Bay of Bengal forming an estuary Visakhapatnam of Andhra Pradesh.
between the Ganga and Mahanadi deltas. Ponnaiyar River
Its total length is 395 km.
Brahamani River  The Ponnaiyar is a small stream which is
confined to the coastal area only.
 It covers a small area in the state of Tamil  The Sabarmati, Mahi and Luni are other
Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. rivers of the Peninsular India which flow
 The Basin is bounded on the North -West westwards.
and South by various ranges of the  Hundreds of small streams originating in
Eastern Ghats like the Velikonda Range, the Western Ghats flow swiftly westwards
the Nagari hills, the Javadu hills, the and join the Arabian Sea. Page
Shevaroy hills, the Chitteri hills and the  It is interesting to note that the Peninsular
Kalrayan hills and in the East by the Bay rivers which fall into the Arabian Sea do |
of Bengal. not form deltas, but only estuaries. 429
Vaigai River {Fluvial Depositional Landforms}
 This is due to the fact that the west
 South of the Cauvery delta, there are flowing rivers, especially the Narmada and
several streams, of which the Vaigai is the the Tapi flow through hard rocks and
longest. hence do not carry any good amount of
 The Vaigai basin is an important basin silt.
among the 12 basins lying between the  Moreover, the tributaries of these rivers
Cauvery and Kanyakumari. are very small and hence they don’t
 This basin is bounded by the contribute any silt.
Varushanadu hills, the Andipatti hills, the  Hence these rivers are not able to form
Cardaman hills and the Palani hills on the distributaries or a delta before they enter
West and by the Palk strait and Palk Bay the sea.
on the East. Estuary
 The Vaigai drains an area of 7,741 Sq.Km,
which entirely lies in the state of Tamil
Nadu.
In this post: West Flowing Rivers of The

Peninsular India – Narmada – Tapti –
Sabarmati – Mahi – Luni – Ghaggar River
[Inland Drainage]. West flowing Rivers of
the Sahyadris (Western Ghats)
West Flowing Rivers of The Peninsular

India
 The west flowing rivers of the Peninsular

India are fewer and smaller as compared
to their east flowing counterparts.
 The two major west flowing rivers are the
Narmada and the Tapi.
 This exceptional behavior is because these
rivers didn’t form valleys and instead they
flow through faults (linear rift, rift valley,
trough) created due to the bending of the
northern peninsula during the formation
process of Himalayas.  An estuary is a partially enclosed body of
 These faults run parallel to the Vindhyas water along the coast where freshwater
and the Satpuras. from rivers and streams meets and mixes
with salt water from the ocean. [Primary
productivity in estuaries is very high.
Fishing is a dominant occupation around
estuaries. Most of the estuaries are good  Narmada basin extends over states of
bird sanctuaries]. Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra
 Estuaries and the lands surrounding them and Chhattisgarh having an area ~1 Lakh
are places of transition from land to sea Sq.km.
and freshwater to salt water.  It is bounded by the Vindhyas on the
 Although influenced by the tides, they are north, Maikala range on the east, Page
protected from the full force of ocean Satpuras on the south and by the Arabian
waves, winds, and storms by such land Sea on the west. |
forms as barrier islands or peninsulas.  Its total length from its source in 430
[You know why estuaries make good Amarkantak to its estuary in the Gulf of
ports?] Khambhat is 1,310 km.
 Estuarine environments are among the  The hilly regions are in the upper part of
most productive on earth, creating more the basin, and lower middle reaches are
organic matter each year than broad and fertile areas well suited for
comparably-sized areas of forest, cultivation.
grassland, or agricultural land.  Jabalpur is the only important urban
 The tidal, sheltered waters of estuaries centre in the basin.
also support unique communities of  The river slopes down near Jabalpur
plants and animals especially adapted for where it cascades (a small waterfall,
life at the margin of the sea. especially one in a series) 15 m into a
 Estuaries have important commercial gorge to form the Dhuan Dhar (Cloud of
value and their resources provide Mist) Falls.
economic benefits for tourism, fisheries,  Since the gorge is composed of marble, it
and recreational activities. is popularly known as the Marble Rocks.
 The protected coastal waters of estuaries  It makes two waterfalls of 12 m each at
also support important public Mandhar and Dardi. Near Maheshwar the
infrastructure, serving as harbors and river again descends from another small
ports vital for shipping and fall of 8 m, known as the Sahasradhara
transportation. Falls.
 Estuaries also perform other valuable  There are several islands in the estuary of
services. Water draining from uplands the Narmada of which Aliabet is the
carries sediments, nutrients, and other largest.
pollutants to estuaries. As the water flows  The Narmada is navigable upto 112 km
through wetlands such as swamps and from its mouth.
salt marshes, much of the sediments and
pollutants are filtered out. Tributaries of Narmada River
 Salt marsh grasses and other estuarine
 Since the river flows through a narrow
plants also help prevent erosion and
valley confined by precipitous (dangerously
stabilize shorelines [Mangroves].
high or steep) hills, it does not have many
Narmada River tributaries.
 The absence of tributaries is especially
 Narmada is the largest west flowing river noted on the right bank of the river where
of the peninsular India. the Hiran is the only exception.
 Narmada flows westwards through a rift  The other right bank tributaries are the
valley between the Vindhyan Range on Orsang, the Barna and the Kolar.
the north and the Satpura Range on the  A few left bank tributaries drain the
south. northern slopes of the Satpura Range and
 It rises from Maikala range near join the Narmada at different places.
Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh, at an
elevation of about 1057 m.
 The major Hydro Power Project in the Omkareshwar, Bargi & Maheshwar.
basin are Indira Sagar, Sardar Sarovar,
Page
|
431
Tapti River plains; the hilly regions comprising

Satpura, Satmalas, Mahadeo, Ajanta and
 The Tapti (also known as the Tapi) is the Gawilgarh hills are well forested.
second largest west flowing river of the  The plain covers the Khandesh areas
Peninsular India and is known as 'the (Khandesh is a region of central India,
twin' or 'the handmaid' of the Narmada. which forms the northwestern portion of
 It originates near Multai reserve forest in Maharashtra state) which are broad and
Madhya Pradesh at an elevation of 752 m. fertile suitable for cultivation primarily.
 Flows for about 724 km before outfalling
into the Arabian Sea through the Gulf of Tributaries of Tapti River
Cambay [Gulf of Khambhat].
 Right Bank: the Suki, the Gomai, the
 The Tapti River along with its tributaries
Arunavati and the Aner.
flows over the plains of Vidharbha,
Khandesh and Gujarat and over large  Left Bank: the Vaghur, the Amravati, the
areas in the state of Maharashtra and a Buray, the Panjhra, the Bori, the Girna,
small area in Madhya Pradesh and the Purna, the Mona and the Sipna.
Gujarat. Projects on Tapti River
 The basin extends over states of Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat having  Hathnur Dam of Upper Tapi Project
an area of ~ 65,000 Sq.km (Maharashtra)
 Situated in the Deccan plateau, the basin  Kakrapar weir and Ukai Dam of Ukai
is bounded by the Satpura range on the Project (Gujarat)
north, Mahadev hills on the east, Ajanta  Girna Dam and Dahigam Weir of Girna
Range and the Satmala hills on the south Project (Maharashtra)
and by the Arabian Sea on the west.
 The hilly region of the basin is well Industry in the Tapti Basin
forested while the plains are broad and
fertile areas suitable for cultivation.  Important industries in the basin are
 There are two well defined physical textile factories in Surat and paper and
regions, in the basin, viz hilly region and news print factory at Nepanagar.
Page
|
432
Page
|
433
Sabarmati River  Projects: Sabarmati reservoir (Dharoi),

Hathmati reservoir and Meshwo reservoir
 The Sabarmati is the name given to the project are major projects completed
combined streams the Sabar and during the plan period.
Hathmati.
 The Sabarmati basin extends over states Industry in Sabarmati Basin
of Rajasthan and Gujarat having an area
of 21,674 Sq km.  Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad are the
 The basin is bounded by Aravalli hills on important urban centers in the basin.
the north and north-east, by Rann of  Ahmedabad is an industrial city situated
Kutch on the west and by Gulf of on the banks of Sabarmati.
Khambhat on the south.  Important industries are textiles, leather
 The basin is roughly triangular in shape and leather goods, plastic, rubber goods,
with the Sabarmati River as the base and paper, newsprint, automobile, machine
the source of the Vatrak River as the apex tools, drugs and pharmaceuticals etc.
point.  The industrial city of Ahmedabad poses
 Sabarmati originates from Aravalli hills at the danger of water pollution.
an elevation of 762 m near village Tepur, Mahi River
in Udaipur district of Rajasthan.
 The total length of river from origin to  The Mahi basin extends over states of
outfall into the Arabian Sea is 371 km. Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat
 The major part of basin is covered with having total area of 34,842 Sq km.
agriculture accounting to 74.68% of the  It is bounded by Aravalli hills on the
total area. north and the north-west, by Malwa
 Rainfall varies from a meager few mm in Plateau on the east, by the Vindhyas on
Saurastra to over 1000 mm in southern the south and by the Gulf of Khambhat on
part. the west.
 Left bank tributaries: the Wakal, the  Mahi is one of the major interstate west
Hathmati and the Vatrak. flowing rivers of India.
 Right bank tributaries: the Sei.  It originates from the northern slopes of
Vindhyas at an altitude of 500 m in Dhar
district of Madhya Pradesh.
 The total length of Mahi is 583 km.  Most of its tributaries drain the steep
 It drains into the Arabian Sea through the north west of Aravalli hills and join it on
Gulf of Khambhat. left side. Its total catchment area falls in
 The major part of basin is covered with Rajasthan.
agricultural land accounting to 63.63% of  The peculiarity of this river is that it tends
the total area to increase its width rather than Page
 Hydro Power stations are located in Mahi deepening the bed because the banks are
Bajaj Sagar dam and at Kadana Dam. of soils, which are easily erodible whereas |
 Vadodara is the only important urban beds are of sand. The floods develop and 434
centre in the basin. There are not many disappear so rapidly that they have no
industries in the basin. time to scour the bed.
 Some of the industries are cotton textile,
paper, newsprint, drugs and
pharmaceuticals. Most of these industries West flowing Rivers of the Sahyadris
are located at Tatlam. (Western Ghats)
Luni River  About six hundred small streams originate

from the Western Ghats and flow
 The Luni or the Salt River (Lonari or westwards to fall into the Arabian Sea.
Lavanavari in Sanskrit) is named so  The western slopes of the Western Ghats
because its water is brackish below receive heavy rainfall from the south-west
Balotra. monsoons and are able to feed such a
 Luni is the only river basin of any large number of streams.
significance in Western Rajasthan, which  Although only about 3% of the areal extent
form the bulk of arid zone. flow swiftly down the steep slope and some
 Luni originates from western slopes of the of them make waterfalls.
Aravalli ranges at an elevation of 772 m  The Jog or Gersoppa Falls (289 m) made
near Ajmer flowing in South West by the Sharavati river is the most famous
direction and traversing a course of 511 waterfall of India.
km in Rajasthan, it finally flow into the
Rann of Kachchh (it gets lost in the
marsh).
Page
|
435
Page
|
436
Page
|
437
 It gets lost in the dry sands of

Rajasthan near Hanumangarh after
traversing a distance of 465 km.
 Earlier, this river was an affluent of
the Indus, the dry bed of the old
channel is still traceable. Page
 Its main tributaries are the Tangri,
the Markanda, the Saraswati and |
the Chaitanya. 438
 It contains a lot more water in rainy
season when its bed becomes 10 km
wide at places.
 Most of the streams draining
western slopes of the Aravalli Range
dry up immediately after they enter
the sandy arid areas to the west of
this range.
Usability of Rivers
 Source of fresh water, irrigation,

hydro-electric production,
navigation etc.
 The Himalayas, Vindhyas,
Satpuras, Aravalis, Maikala,
Chhotanagpur plateau, Meghalaya
plateau, Purvachal, Western and
the Eastern Ghats offer possibilities
of large scale water power
development.
 Sixty per cent of the total river flow
is concentrated in the Himalayan
rivers, 16 per cent in the Central
Indian rivers (the Narmada, the
Tapi, the Mahanadi, etc.), and the
rest in the rivers of the Deccan
plateau.
 The Ganga and the Brahmaputra in
Ghaggar River – Inland Drainage the north and northeastern part of the
country, the Mahanadi in Odisha, the
 Some rivers of India are not able to reach Godavari and the Krishna in Andhra and
the sea and constitute inland drainage. Telangana the Narmada and the Tapi in
 Large parts of the Rajasthan desert and Gujarat, and the lakes and tidal creeks in
parts of Aksai Chin in Ladakh have coastal states possess some of the
inland drainage. important and useful waterways of the
 The Ghaggar is the most important river country.
of inland drainage. It is a seasonal stream  In the past they were of great importance,
which rises on the lower slopes of the which suffered a great deal with the
Himalayas and forms boundary between advent of rail and roads.
Haryana and Punjab.
 Withdrawal of large quantities of water for  South-west monsoons are formed due to
irrigation resulted in dwindling flow of intense low pressure system formed over
many rivers. the Tibetan plateau.
 The most important navigable risers are  North-east monsoons are associated with
the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and the high pressure cells over Tibetan and
Mahanadi. The Godavari, the Krishna, the Siberian plateaus. Page
Narmada and the Tapi are navigable near  South-west monsoons bring intense
their mouths only. rainfall to most of the regions in India and |
north-east monsoons bring rainfall to 439
mainly south-eastern coast of India
(Southern coast of Seemandhra and the
coast of Tamil Nadu.).
Indian Monsoons – Factors responsible for  Countries like India, Indonesia,
south-west monsoon and north-east Bangladesh, Myanmar etc. receive most
monsoon formation. Mechanism of Indian of the annual rainfall during south-west
Monsoons. Indian Monsoons – ITCZ [Inter- monsoon season where as South East
Tropical Convergence Zone]. China, Japan etc., during north-east
rainfall season.
Indian Monsoons
Factors responsible for south-west
 The term monsoon has been derived from monsoon formation
the Arabic word mausin or from the
Malayan word monsin meaning ‘season’.  Intense heating of Tibetan plateau during
 Monsoons are seasonal winds (Rhythmic summer months.
wind movements)(Periodic Winds) which  Permanent high pressure cell in the South
reverse their direction with the change of Indian Ocean (east to north-east of
season. Madagascar in summer).
 The monsoon is a double system of
seasonal winds – They flow from sea to Factors that influence the onset of
land during the summer and from land to south-west monsoons
sea during winter.
 Some scholars tend to treat the monsoon  Above points +
winds as land and sea breeze on a large  Subtropical Jet Stream (STJ).
scale.  Tropical Easterly Jet (African Easterly Jet).
 Monsoons are peculiar to Indian  Inter Tropical Convergence Zone.
Subcontinent, South East Asia, parts of
Factors that influence the intensity of
Central Western Africa etc..
south-west monsoons
 They are more pronounced in the Indian
Subcontinent compared to any other
 Strengths of Low pressure over Tibet and
region.
high pressure over southern Indian Ocean.
 Indian Monsoons are Convection cells on
 Somali Jet (Findlater Jet).
a very large scale.
 Somali Current (Findlater Current).
 They are periodic or secondary winds
 Indian Ocean branch of Walker Cell.
which seasonal reversal in wind
direction.  Indian Ocean Dipole.
 India receives south-west monsoon winds Factors responsible for north-east
in summer and north-east monsoon winds monsoon formation
in winter.
 Formation and strengthening of high Indian Monsoons – Classical Theory: Sir

pressure cells over Tibetan plateau and Edmund Halley’s Theory
Siberian Plateau in winter.
 Westward migration and subsequent Summer Monsoon
weakening of high pressure cell in the
Southern Indian Ocean.  In summer the sun’s apparent path is
vertically over the Tropic of Cancer Page
 Migration of ITCZ to the south of India.
resulting in high temperature and low |
All these will be discussed in detail. pressure in Central Asia.
 The pressure is sufficiently high over 440
Mechanism of Indian Monsoons Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. Hence
winds flowed from Oceans flow towards
 The origin of monsoons is not fully landmass in summer.
understood.  This air flow from sea to land bring heavy
 There are several theories that tried to rainfall to the Indian subcontinent.
explain the mechanism of monsoons.
Winter Monsoon
Classical Theory
 In winter the sun’s apparent path is
 Monsoons are mentioned in scriptures like vertically over the Tropic of Capricorn.
the Rig Veda. But these scriptures didn’t  The north western part of India grows
make any mention of the monsoon colder than Arabian Sea and Bay of
mechanism. Bengal and the flow of the monsoon is
 The first scientific study of the monsoon reversed.
winds was done by Arab traders.  The basic idea behind Classical theory is
 Arab traders used the sea route to carry similar to land and sea breeze formation
out trade with India and monsoon except that in the case of monsoons the
patterns were of prime importance for day and night are replaced by summer
them. and winter.
 In the tenth century, Al Masudi, an Arab
Drawbacks: The monsoons do not develop
explorer, gave an account of the reversal
equally everywhere on earth and the
of ocean currents and the monsoon
thermal concept of Halley fails to explain
winds over the north Indian Ocean.
the intricacies of the monsoons such as
 In seventeenth century, Sir Edmund
the sudden burst of monsoons, delay in
Halley explained the monsoon as resulting
on set of monsoons sometimes, etc..
from thermal contrasts between
continents and oceans due to their Indian Monsoons – Modern theory: Air
differential heating. Mass Theory
Modern Theories  According to this theory, the monsoon is

simply a modification of the planetary
 Besides differential heating, the
winds of the tropics.
development of monsoon is influenced by
 The theory is based on the migration of
the shape of the continents, orography
ITCZ based on seasons.
(mountains), and the conditions of air
circulation in the upper troposphere Indian Monsoons – Role of ITCZ [Inter-
{jet streams}. Tropical Convergence Zone]
 Therefore, Halley's theory has lost much of
its significance and modern theories based  The southeast trade winds in the southern
on air masses and jet stream are hemisphere and the northeast trade winds
becoming more relevant. in the northern hemisphere meet each
other near the equator.
 The meeting place of these winds is known blowing in southwest to northeast

as the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone direction under the influence of Coriolis
(ITCZ). force.
 These displaced trade winds are called
south-west monsoons when they blow over
the Indian sub-continent. Page
 The front where the south-west monsoons
meet the north-east trade winds is known |
as the Monsoon Front (ITCZ). Rainfall 441
occurs along this front.
 In the month of July the ITCZ shifts to
20°- 25° N latitude and is located in the
Indo-Gangetic Plain and the south-west
monsoons blow from the Arabian Sea and
the Bay of Bengal. The ITCZ in this
position is often called the Monsoon
Trough [maximum rainfall].
 The seasonal shift of the ITCZ has given
the concept of Northern Inter-Tropical
Convergence Zone (NITCZ) in summer
(July – rainy season) and Southern Inter-
Tropical Convergence Zone (SITCZ) in
winter (Jan – dry season).
 NITCZ is the zone of clouds and heavy
rainfall that effect India.
Indian Monsoon Mechanism – Jet Stream

Theory. Role of Sub-Tropical Jet Stream
(STJ). Why no south-west monsoons
during winter? Why no south-west
monsoons in March – May (summer)?
Indian Monsoon Mechanism – Jet

Stream Theory
Indian Monsoon Mechanism – Modern

Theory: Jet Stream Theory.
 This is the region of ascending air,  Jet stream Theory is the latest theory
maximum clouds and heavy rainfall. regarding the origin of the monsoons and
 The location of ITCZ shifts north and has earned worldwide acceptance from the
south of equator with the change of meteorologists.
season.  To understand how Jet streams affect
 In the summer season, the sun shines Indian monsoons, we need to know the
vertically over the Tropic of Cancer and basic mechanism of Jet Stream induced
the ITCZ shifts northwards. weather conditions.
 The southeast trade winds of the southern
hemisphere cross the equator and start How Jet Streams Affect Weather?
 Jet streams have distinct peaks (ridges)  The winds leaving the jet streak are
and troughs. rapidly diverging, creating a lower
 Ridges occur where the warm air mass pressure at the upper level (Tropopause)
pushes against the cold air mass. Troughs in the atmosphere. The air below rapidly
occur where cold air mass drops into replaces the upper outflowing winds. This
warm air. in turn creates the low pressure at the Page
 The region on earth below the trough is at surface. This surface low pressure creates
low pressure and the region below ridge is conditions where the surrounding surface |
at high pressure. winds rush inwards. The Coriolis effect 442
creates the cyclonic rotation (cyclonic
vortex) that is associated with depressions
[low pressure cells].
 The winds entering the jet streak are
rapidly converging because of the high
in the atmosphere. This convergence at
upper troposphere leads to divergence
(high pressure) at the surface (anticyclonic
condition).
 This condition occurs due to weakening of  The Coriolis effect creates the anticyclonic
jet stream due to lesser temperature rotation that is associated with clear
contrast between sub-tropics and weather.
temperate region (Our concern is STJ
only). But how does this mechanism of jet
 Usually the trough region [the region streams influence Indian Monsoons?
exactly below the jet stream trough]
creates cyclonic condition (low pressure) Indian Monsoon Mechanism – Role of
at the surface of earth whereas the ridge Sub-Tropical Jet Stream (STJ)
regions creates anticyclonic condition.
 Troughs create upper level divergence  Sub-Tropical Jet stream plays a significant
which is associated with convergence at role in both hindering the monsoon winds
the surface (low pressure – cyclonic as well as in quick onset of monsoons.
conditions) and ridges create upper level STJ – Sub-Tropical Jet Stream
convergence which is associated with
divergence at the surface (high pressure –  Sub-Tropical Jet stream is a narrow band
cyclonic conditions). of fast moving air flowing from west to
 These ridges and troughs give rise to jet east [Westerlies].
streaks which are also responsible for  STJ in northern hemisphere flows between
cyclonic and anticyclonic weather 25° to 35° N in the upper troposphere at a
conditions at the surface. height of about 12-14 km (all this already
discussed in previous posts on Jet
Streams). (Here we will consider STJ only.
Polar Jet has no influence on Indian
monsoons).
 The wind speeds in a westerly jet stream
are commonly 150 to 300 km p.h. with
extreme values reaching 400 km p.h.
The burst of monsoons depends upon

the upper air circulation which is
dominated by STJ.
Seasonal Migration of Sub-Tropical Jet  Some of the depressions continue

Stream – STJ eastwards, redeveloping in the zone of jet
stream confluence about 30° N, 105° E
 In winter STJ flows along the southern (near east coast of China).
slopes of the Himalayas but in summer it  Winter rain and heat storms in north-
shifts northwards, rather dramatically, and western plains and occasional heavy Page
flows along the northern edge of Himalayas snowfall in hilly regions are caused by
in early June and in late summer (July- these disturbances. |
August) along the northern edge of the  These are generally followed by cold waves 443
Tibetan Plateau. in the whole of northern plains.
 The periodic movement of the Jet stream is
often the indicator of the onset (STJ shits to  The southern branch is stronger, with an
the north of Himalayas in a matter of days) average speed of about 240 km compared
and subsequent withdrawal (STJ returns with 70 to 90 km p.h. of the northern
back to its position – south of Himalayas) of branch.
the monsoon.  Air subsiding beneath this upper westerly
 Northward movement of the subtropical jet current gives dry out blowing northerly
is the first indication of the onset of the winds from the subtropical anticyclone
monsoon over India. over northwestern India and Pakistan.
Sub-Tropical Jet Stream – STJ in Why no south-west monsoons during

Winter winter?
 Westerly jet stream blows at a very high  Reason 1: ITCZ has left India (the winds
speed during winter over the sub-tropical that blow over India are mostly offshore ––
zone. land to land or land to ocean –– so they
 This jet stream is bifurcated by the carry no moisture).
Himalayan ranges and Tibetan Plateau.  Reason 2: During winter, the southern
 The two branches reunite off the east branch of STJ is strong and is to the
coast of China. south of Himalayas. The ridge of the jet
 The northern branch of this jet stream lies over north-western India and is
blows along the northern edge of the associated with strong divergence of winds
Tibetan Plateau. and creates a high pressure region (sub-
 The southern branch blows to the south of tropical high pressure belt) over entire
the Himalayan ranges along 25° north north India. [This is how the mechanism of
latitude. jet streams influence Indian Monsoons in
 A strong latitudinal thermal gradient winter season]
(differences in temperature), along with  Reason 3: There is already a strong high
other factors, is responsible for the pressure over Tibet. [High Pressure due to
development of southerly jet. STJ + High Pressure over Tibet = strong
divergence = no rainfall]
Western Disturbances
Sub-Tropical Jet Stream – STJ in
 Meteorologists believe that southern Summer
branch of jet stream exercises a significant
influence on the winter weather conditions  With the beginning of summer in the
in India. month of March, the STJ [upper
 The upper jet is responsible for steering of westerlies] start their northward march.
the western depressions [Western  The southerly branch of STJ remains
Disturbances] from the Mediterranean positioned south of Tibet, although
Sea. weakening in intensity.
 The weather over northern India becomes  During the summer season in the
hot, dry and squally due to larger Northern Hemisphere, low pressure areas
incoming solar radiation and hot winds develop at the ground surface near
like loo. Peshawar (Pakistan) and north-west India
 Over India, the Equatorial Trough (ITCZ) due to intense heating of ground surface
pushes northwards with the weakening of during April, May, and June. Page
the STJ [upper westerlies] south of Tibet,  As long as the position of the upper air jet
but the burst of the monsoon does not stream is maintained above the surface |
take place until the upper-air circulation low pressure (to the south of Himalayas), 444
has switched to its summer pattern. the dynamic anti-cyclonic conditions
 By the end of May the southern jet breaks persist over north-west India.
and later it is diverted to the north of Tibet  The winds descending from the upper air
Plateau and there is sudden burst of high pressure [because of the trough of
monsoons (the ridge moves northwards STJ] obstructs the ascent of winds from
into Central Asia = high pressure over the surface low pressure areas, with the
north-west India moves northwards into result that the weather remains warm and
Central Asia = makes way for south-west dry.
monsoon winds). An Easterly jet emerges  This is why the months of April and May
over peninsular India with the northward are generally dry and rainless in spite of
migration of STJ. high temperatures (low pressure on land)
 The upper air circulations are reversed and high evaporation.
with the emergence of Easterly jet
[convergence in upper layers is replaced
by divergence == divergence in lower Indian Monsoons – Role of Tropical
layers is replaced with convergence == Easterly Jet (TEJ) [African Easterly Jet],
high pressure at lower layers is replaced Indian Monsoons – Role of Tibet, Indian
by low pressure system]. The easterly Monsoons – Role of Somali Jet and Indian
winds become very active in the upper Monsoons – Role of Indian Ocean Dipole.
troposphere and they are associated with
westerly winds in the lower troposphere Indian Monsoons – Role of Tropical
(south-west monsoon winds). Easterly Jet (TEJ) [African Easterly Jet]
 Western and eastern jets flow to the north
and south of the Himalayas respectively.  The establishment and maintenance of the
The eastern jet becomes powerful and is TEJ is not fully understood but it is
stationed at 15° N latitude. believed that the jet may be caused by the
 This results in more active south-west uniquely high temperatures and heights
monsoon and heavy rainfall is caused. over the Tibetan Plateau during summer.
 The TEJ plays an important role in kick
Why no south-west monsoons in March starting southwest monsoon.
– May (summer)?  This jet descends over the Indian Ocean
(near Madagascar) and intensifies its high
 There is good sun’s insolation from March
pressure cell so as to move as south-west
– May but still there is no s-w monsoons.
monsoon.
Reason: The ridge region of Southern
Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ)
branch of STJ creates strong
divergence (high pressure) in north-  There are major high velocity winds in the
west India. The diverging air blocks lower troposphere called low-level jets
incoming winds and prevents strong (LLJs).
convergence of winds along ITCZ.
 In the tropics, the most prominent of these  Therefore, any year of thick and
are the Somali Jet and the African widespread snow over Tibet will be
Easterly Jet [Tropical Easterly Jet]. followed by a year of weak monsoon
 The TEJ is a unique and dominant feature and less rainfall.
of the northern hemispheric summer over
southern Asia and northern Africa. The Indian Monsoons – Role of Tibet
Page
TEJ is found near between 5° and 20°N.
 It is fairly persistent in its direction, and  The Tibetan Plateau is an enormous block |
intensity from June through the beginning of highland acting as a formidable barrier.
of October. It’s position fluctuates between  Due to its protruded height it receives 2- 445
5° and 20°N. 3°C more insolation than the neighboring
 TEJ comes into existence quickly after the areas.
STJ has shifted to the north of the  The plateau affects the atmosphere in two
Himalayas (Early June). ways: (a) as a mechanical barrier, and (b)
 TEJ flows from east to west over as a high- level heat sources.
peninsular India at 6 – 9 km and over the  At the beginning of June the subtropical
Northern African region. jet stream is completely withdrawn from
 The formation of TEJ results in the India and occupies a position along 40° N
reversal of upper air circulation (to the north of Tibetan Plateau).
patterns [High pressure switches to low  The plateau accentuates the northward
pressure] and leads to the quick onset of displacement of the jet stream. Hence the
monsoons. burst of monsoon in June is prompted by
 Recent observations have revealed that the the Himalayas and not by the thermally
intensity and duration of heating of induced low pressure cell over Tibet.
Tibetan Plateau has a direct bearing on (Tibetan plateau is responsible for
the amount of rainfall in India by the south-west monsoons. But it is the STJ
monsoons. that facilitates sudden outburst of
monsoons with its sudden northward
migration)
 In the middle of October the plateau
proves to be the most important factor in
causing the advance of the jet south of the
Himalayas or bifurcating it into two parts.
 The winter Tibetan Plateau cools rapidly
and produces a high pressure cell.
(Cyclonic condition over Tibet ceases and
an anticyclonic condition is established).
The high pressure cell over Tibet
strengthens N-E monsoons.
 Tibet gets heated in summer and is 2°C to
3°C warmer than the air over the adjoining
regions.
 When the summer temperature of air over  Because the Tibet Plateau is a source of
Tibet remains high for a sufficiently long heat for the atmosphere, it generates an
time, it helps in strengthening the easterly area of rising air (convergence)(intense low
jet and results in heavy rainfall in India. pressure cell).
 The easterly jet does not come into  During its ascent the air spreads outwards
existence if the snow over the Tibet in upper troposphere (divergence) and
Plateau does not melt. This hampers gradually sinks (subsidence) over the
the occurrence of rainfall in India. equatorial part of the Indian Ocean.
 It finally approaches the west coast of  It picks up moisture from the Indian
India as a return current from a south- Ocean and causes rainfall in India and
westerly direction and is termed as adjoining countries.
equatorial westerlies.
Page
|
446
Indian Monsoons – Role of Somali Jet  Temporary jet streams are narrow winds
with speeds more than 94 kph in the
 Polar and subtropical jet streams are the upper, middle and sometimes in lower
permanent jet streams which greatly troposphere. They are few. Important ones
influence the weather of temperate are Somali Jet and The African Easterly jet
regions. or Tropical Easterly Jet.
 These two jet streams play an important  Indian ocean Dipole is a recently
role in the formation and progression of discovered phenomena that has a
Indian Monsoons. significant influence on Indian monsoons.
 The progress of the southwest monsoon  Indian ocean Dipole is a SST anomaly
towards India is greatly aided by the onset (Sea Surface Temperature Anomaly –
of Somali jet that transits Kenya, Somalia different from normal) that occurs Page
and Sahel. occasionally in Northern or Equatorial
 It was observed to flow from Mauritius and Indian Ocean Region (IOR). |
the northern part of the island of  The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is defined 447
Madagascar before reaching the coast of by the difference in sea surface
Kenya at about 3º S. temperature between two areas (or poles,
 It strengthens permanent high near hence a dipole) – a western pole in the
Madagascar and also helps to drive S-W Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean) and
monsoons towards India at a greater an eastern pole in the eastern Indian
pace and intensity. Ocean south of Indonesia.
 The importance of the low level jet arises  IOD develops in the equatorial region of
from the fact that its path around 9º
N coincides with a zone of coastal
upwelling.
 As the strong winds drive away the
surface coastal waters towards the
east, extremely cold water from the
depths of the sea rise upwards to
preserve the continuity of mass.
 The peculiar feature of Somali
Current is reversal in direction with
the onset of the summer monsoon.
 In winter, this current is from north
to the south running southwards
from the coast of Arabia to the east
African coastline; but with the advent
of the summer monsoon it reverses its
direction and flows from the south to
the north.
Indian Ocean from April to May peaking in

October.
 With a positive IOD winds over the Indian
Ocean blow from east to west (from Bay of
Bengal towards Arabian Sea). This results
in the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean
near African Coast) being much warmer
and eastern Indian Ocean around
Indonesia becoming colder and dry.
Indian Monsoons – Role of Indian Ocean  In the negative dipole year, reverse
Dipole happens making Indonesia much warmer
and rainier.
 Positive IOD is good for Indian Monsoons  Its movement towards the north is one of
as more evaporation occurs in warm the main features associated with the
water. onset of the monsoon over India.
 Similar to ENSO, the atmospheric  With the northward shift of SJT, an
component of the IOD is named as Easterly Jet is formed over the Indian
Equatorial Indian Ocean Oscillation plains. It generally forms in the first week Page
(EQUINOO)(Oscillation of pressure cells of June and lasts till late October.
between Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea).  It can be traced in the upper troposphere |
 During the positive phase of the right up to the west coast of Africa. 448
‘Equatorial Indian Ocean Oscillation  The northward shift of SJT and ICTZ
(EQUINOO),’ there is enhanced cloud moves the subtropical high pressure belt
formation and rainfall in western part of to the north of the Tibetan Plateau and the
the equatorial ocean near the African Easterly Jet creates a low pressure region
coast while such activity is suppressed in the Indian plains (Easterly Jet creates
near Sumatra. anticyclonic conditions in upper
 While EQUINOO and IOD go in step troposphere).
during strong positive IOD events, they do  This low pressure in the northern plains
not always do so. coupled with the intense low of the
 Indian Monsoons |ITCZ|Inter-Tropical Tibetan Plateau leads to the sudden onset
Convergence Zone of south-west monsoons (1st of Jun – 20th
 Indian Monsoons Mechanism|Jet Stream of June).
Theory  The monsoon cell is situated between the
 Indian Monsoons – Easterly Indian Ocean (North of Madagascar)(High
Jet|Tibet|Somali Jet Pressure Cell) and Tibetan plateau (Low
 Indian Monsoons – South West|North Pressure Cell).
East Monsoons <-- You are Here  In summer the sub-tropical easterly jet
fluctuates between the plains region of
How Jet Streams affect the Monsoons India and peninsular India varying the
in the Indian Sub-Continent? intensity of rainfall from location to
location.
Summing up all the points above.  During March to May, the building up of
 As the summer time approaches, there is this cell is blocked by the STJ which tends
increased solar heating of the Indian to blow to the south of the Himalayas
subcontinent and the Tibetan Plateau. (Northwest India and Plains region are
occupied by Subtropical High Pressure
 In the peak summer months (25th of May
Belt. This high pressure belt undermines
– 10th of Jun), with the apparent
the influence of low pressure cell over
northward movement of the sun, the
Tibet).
southern branch of the SJT, which flows
to the south of the Himalayas, shifts to the  As long as the STJ is in this position the
north of the Himalayas. development of summer monsoons is
inhibited (the high pressure belt stays over
 When the sun’s position is about to reach
north India).
the Tropic of Cancer (June), the SJT shifts
to the north of the Tibetan Plateau (1st of  With the STJ out of the way (high pressure
Jun – 20th of June). The ITCZ is close to belt migrates to the north of Tibet) the sub
its peak position over the Tibetan Plateau. continental monsoon cell develops (Somali
Jet) very quickly indeed, often in a matter
 The altitude of the mountains initially
of a few days.
disrupts the jet but once it has cleared the
summits it is able to reform over central  Warmth and moisture are fed into the cell
Asia. by a lower level tropical jet stream which
brings with it air masses laden with Meteorological Organization (WMO) joining
moisture from the Indian Ocean. the meteorology programme.
 The end of the monsoon season is brought
about when the atmosphere over the ISMEX
Tibetan Plateau begins to cool (August –  Two more experiments were conducted,
October), this enables the STJ to jointly, by India and the former USSR in Page
transition back across the Himalayas. 1973 and 1977, with limited participation
 With the southward shift of ITCZ, |
from other countries.
subtropical high pressure belt returns  These experiments are known as the Indo- 449
back to the Indian plains and the rainfall Soviet Monsoon Experiment (ISMEX) and
ceases. Monsoon-77 respectively.
 This leads to the formation of a
anticyclonic winter monsoon cell typified MONEX
by sinking air masses over India and
relatively moisture free winds that blow  Data collection effort was made under the
seaward. aegis of MONEX-1979.
 This gives rise to relatively settled and dry  It was organised jointly by many
weather over India during the winter researching organizations and the World
months. Meteorological Organisation (WMO) under
their World Weather Watch (WWW)
Projects to understand monsoons programme.
 It is so far the largest scientific effort made
 First attempt was made during to understand monsoons.
International India Ocean Expedition  Details are not necessary. Remember the
(HOE) from 1962 to 1965. names. They can be asked in prelims.
 It was organized jointly by the MONEX was asked in previous papers.
International Council of Scientific Unions
(ICSU), Scientific Committee on Ocean
Research (SCOR) and UNESCO with World
Page
|
450
Page
|
451
Page
|
452
Page
|
453
Page
|
454
Page
|
455
Western Disturbances - Weather  The ridge of the jet stream creates

associated and Importance of Western anticyclonic (with clockwise air
Disturbances. Cloudburst in Jammu and circulation) conditions over North-West
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand. India.
 Consequently, the winds tend to descend
Western Disturbances over the north-western parts of India,
resulting into the development of
 In the winter season, the sub-tropical jet atmospheric stability and dry conditions
(STJ) is bifurcated into two branches due (anticyclonic condition = no rainfall).
to physical obstruction of the Himalayas
 But the sub-tropical jet (STJ) causes
and Tibetan Plateau.
periodic changes in general weather
 One branch is flows to the south of the conditions.
Himalayas, while the second branch is
 The STJ drives the temperate low
positioned to the north of the Tibetan
pressures over Mediterranean Sea towards
Plateau.
east across Afghanistan, Pakistan and
reach north-west India.
 These storms are residual frontal
cyclones which move at the height of
2000 metres from the mean sea level.
 On an average, 4 to 6 cyclonic waves
reach north-western India between
October and April each year.
Weather associated with Western

Disturbances
 The arrival of these temperate storms

[remnants of temperate cyclones] [western
disturbances] causes precipitation  Western Disturbances also bring heavy

leading to an abrupt decrease in air snowfall in the Himalayan Region and a
temperature over North-West India. cold wave to north Indian plains.
 The weather becomes clear after the
western disturbances passes away.
Page
|
456
Importance of Western Disturbances
 The western disturbances affect weather Cloudburst in Jammu and Kashmir,

conditions during the winter season up to Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand
Patna (Bihar) and give occasional rainfall
which is highly beneficial for the  A cloudburst is an intense torrential
standing rabi crops, (wheat, barley, rainfall brought by a thunderstorm that
mustard, gram, lentil, etc.). lasts for a relatively short duration (few
minutes to few hours).
 Cloudburst leads to flash floods and
causes lot of damage to life and property.
 Every intense rainfall is not a Cloudburst.
Cloudburst specifically occurs when an air
mass with high humidity is struck at a
place due to various reasons.
Page
|
457
 In 2010, South-Western strip of Russia  In addition, southern desert heat from

(Caucasus Region, Moscow etc.) saw central Asia, the Arabian Peninsula and
higher than normal temperatures (highest North Africa began to flow northward,
in in the last 100 years) and there were which strengthened this ridge of STJ and
numerous cloudbursts in Jammu and tightened its hold over the region.
Kashmir.
 A strong upper-atmospheric high was
located over European Russia towards the
beginning of summer.
 It diverted the jet stream (meandering of
Sub-Tropical Jet Stream) and its rain-
giving train (trough) of summer storms
farther north than usual, giving much of
Southern European Russia drought
conditions.
 The stalled system prevented weather

systems being drawn across Russia and
the obstacle acted as a barrier trapping
hot air to the south and cold air to the
north.
 The consequence of this static mass of hot and dry climate) rather than just a
air was the heat wave that devastated tropical or half temperate climate.
Russia.
 With the jet stream stalled the Sub-
Tropical Jet was unable to transit across
the Himalayas as it would do ordinarily, Page
the monsoon cell to the south, fed by
warmer waters in the Indian Ocean, had |
nowhere to go and as a consequence it 458
deposited vast amounts of rain over
Pakistan, Himalchal Pradesh and Jammu
and Kashmir and this led to extensive
flooding.
Indian Climate – Climate of India –

Features of Indian Climate – Factors
Influencing The Climate Of India: Features of Indian Climate
Physiography, Monsoon Winds, El Nino
etc..  India has high Regional Climatic Diversity
because of its topographical diversity
What type of Climate Does India Have? (location, altitude, distance from sea and
relief).
 India’s climate closely resembles the
climate that of a tropical country although Rainfall
its northern part (north of tropic of cancer)
is situated in the temperate belt.  The climate in most of the regions is
 Indian subcontinent is separated from the characterized by distinct wet and dry
rest of Asia by the lofty Himalayan seasons. Some places like Thar desert,
ranges which block the cold air masses Ladakh have no wet season.
moving southwards from Central Asia.  Mean annual rainfall varies substantially
 As a result, during winters, the northern from region to region. Mawsynram and
half of India is warmer by 3°C to 8°C than Cherrapunji in Meghalaya receives
other areas located on same latitudes. around 1,000 cm of annual rainfall while
at Jaisalmer the annual rainfall rarely
 During summer, due to over the head
exceeds 12 cm.
position of the sun, the climate in the
southern parts resemble equatorial dry  The Ganga delta and the coastal plains of
climate. Odisha see intense rainfall in July and
August while the Coromandel Coast goes
 The north Indian plains are under the
dry during these months.
influence of hot dry wind called ‘loo’
blowing from the Thar, Baloch and  Places like Goa, Hyderabad and Patna
Iranian Deserts, increasing the receive south-west monsoon rains by the
temperatures to a level comparable to that first quarter of June while the rains are
of the southern parts of the country. awaited till early July at places in
Northwest India.
 Thus the whole of India, south of the
Himalayas can be climatically treated as a Temperature
tropical country.
 The seasonal reversal of winds in Arabian  Diurnal and annual temperature ranges
Sea and Bay of Bengal give India a typical are substantial.
tropical monsoon climate.  Highest diurnal temperature ranges occur
 So Indian climate, to be precise, is in the Thar desert and the highest annual
tropical monsoon type (a distinct wet
temperature ranges are recorded in the  Coastal regions have moderate or equable
Himalayan regions. or maritime climate where as interior
 Both diurnal and mean annual locations are deprived of the moderating
temperature ranges are least in coastal influence of the sea and experience
regions. extreme or continental climate.
 In December, the temperature may dip to  The monsoon winds first reach the coastal Page
– 40°C at some places in J&K while in regions and hence bring good amount of
many coastal regions average temperature rainfall. |
is 20-25°C. 459
Himalayas
 Winters are moderately cold in most of the
regions while the summers are extremely  The Himalayas act as a climatic divide
hot. between India and Central Asia.
 Himalayan regions experience brutal  During winter, Himalayas protect India
winters while the summers are moderate. from cold and dry air masses of Central
Factors Influencing Indian Climate Asia.
 During monsoon months these mountain
 Latitudinal location ranges act as an effective physical
 Distance from the Sea barrier for rain bearing south-west
monsoon winds.
 The Himalayas
 Himalayas divide the Bay of Bengal
 Physiography
branch of monsoon winds into two
 Monsoon Winds
branches – one branch flowing along the
 Upper Air Circulation
plain regions towards north-west India
 El Nino and La Nina and the other towards South-East Asia.
 Tropical Cyclones and Western  If the Himalayas were not present, the
Disturbances monsoon winds would simply move into
Latitudinal location China and most of the north India would
have been a desert.
 The mainland of India extends between Why rainfall decreases form east to
8°N to 37°N. west in plains region (Indus-Ganga
 Areas south of the Tropic of Cancer are in Plains)?
tropics and hence receive high solar
insolation. The summer temperatures are  In summer, there are many minor low
extreme and winters temperatures are pressure cells that exist all over the plain
moderate in most of the regions. region.
 The northern parts on the other hand lie  As the monsoon winds move from east to
in the warm temperate zone. They receive west the moisture levels decrease due to
comparatively less solar insolation. But successive rainfall at each low pressure
summer are equally hot in north India regions.
because of hot local wind called ‘loo’.  By the time winds reach western parts of
Winter are very cold due to cold waves the plains (Delhi, Haryana etc.) all the
brought by the western disturbances. moisture in the monsoon winds in
 Some places in Himalayas record low exhausted.
temperatures particularly in winter.
Then how come Haryana and Punjab
 Coastal regions see moderate climatic not deserts like Rajasthan?
conditions irrespective of latitudinal
position.  They receive rainfall due to Western
Distance from the Sea Disturbances in winter. (In summer the
rainfall is very low.)
Physiography  Mawsynram and Cherrapunji are the

wettest places on earth with mean annual
 Physiography is the most important factor rainfall over 1000 cm.
that determines the mean annual rainfall  Copious rainfall in these places is due to
received by a region. funneling effect followed by orographic
Why are some parts in peninsular India upliftment. [Funneling effect = clouds are Page
semi-arid? channeled into a narrow region between
mountains and hence the cloud density is |
 Places on the windward side of an extraordinary] 460
orographic barrier receive great amount of
rainfall where as those on the leeward side
remain arid to semi-arid due to rain-
shadow effect.
 Example: The south-west monsoon winds
from the Arabian sea strike almost
perpendicular at the Western Ghats and
cause copious rainfall in the Western
Coastal plain and the western slopes of
the Western Ghats.
 On the contrary, vast areas of
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana,
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu lie in Monsoon Winds
rain-shadow or leeward side of the
Western Ghats and receive scanty rainfall.  The most dominating factor of the Indian
climate is the 'monsoon winds'.
Why no significant rainfall in Gujarat
and Rajasthan? Explain the formation Important features of Indian Monsoons
of Thar Desert? are
1. Sudden onset (sudden burst)

 Monsoons winds flowing in Rajasthan and
2. Gradual progress
Gujarat are not obstructed by any
3. Gradual retreat
orographic barrier and hence these
4. Seasonal reversal of winds
regions receive no rainfall.
 The complete reversal of the monsoon
 [Monsoon winds blow almost parallel to
winds brings about a sudden change in
Aravalis and hence there is no orographic
the seasons.
rainfall].
 The harsh summer season suddenly giving
 [No convection cell or vertical wind
way to monsoon or rainy season.
movements arise in Rajasthan and
 The south-west monsoons from the
Gujarat: Monsoon winds blow towards low
Arabian sea and the Bay of Bengal bring
pressure cells in Tibet and hence only
rainfall to the entire country.
horizontal wind movements exist in
Gujarat and Rajasthan]  The north-eastern winter monsoon do not
cause much rainfall except along the
 [Sub-tropical high pressure belt: In winter
Caromandel coast (TN coast) after getting
the region experiences strong divergence
moisture from the Bay of Bengal.
because of the STJ – Sub-Tropical Jet.]
Upper Air Circulation
How come Cherrapunji and Mawsynram
receive abnormally high rainfall?
 The changes in the upper air circulation
over Indian landmass is brought about by
Jet streams. (Explained in detail in
Indian Monsoons)
Westerly Jet Stream  They influence the winter weather

conditions over most of Northern-plains
 Westerly jet stream blows at a very high and Western Himalayan region.
speed during winter over the sub-tropical
zone. El-Nino, La Nina and ENSO
 Southern branch of the jet stream El Nino Page
exercises a significant influence on the
winter weather conditions in India.  Adversely affects monsoon rainfall and |
 This jet stream is responsible for bringing cyclogenesis in Bay of Bengal. 461
western disturbances from the  Good for cyclogenesis in Arabian Sea.
Mediterranean region in to the Indian sub-  Droughts are common during El Nino
continent. events due to less monsoonal and cyclonic
 Winter rain and heat storms in north- rainfall.
western plains and occasional heavy
snowfall in hilly regions are caused by La Nina
these disturbances.
 These are generally followed by cold waves  Good for monsoons and cyclogenesis in
in the whole of northern plains. Bay of Bengal.
 Suppressed cyclogenesis in Arabian Sea.
Easterly Jet Stream  Floods are common.
 Reversal in upper air circulation takes ENSO
place in summer due to the apparent shift
of the sun's vertical rays in the northern  Southern Oscillation is simply the
hemisphere. oscillation or alternating positions of low
 The westerly jet stream is replaced by the pressure and high pressure cells over
easterly jet stream which owes its origin to eastern and western Pacific.
the heating of the Tibet plateau.  Southern Oscillation coinciding with El
 This helps in the sudden onset of the Nino is called ENSO or El Nino Southern
south-west monsoons. Oscillation. (SO usually coincides with EL
Nino. This why El Nino is usually referred
Tropical Cyclones and Western to as ENSO)
Disturbances  ENSO = [warm water in eastern Pacific +
low pressure over eastern Pacific] + [cool
 Tropical cyclones originate in the Bay of water in western Pacific + high pressure in
Bengal and Arabian Sea and the influence western Pacific]
large parts of the peninsular India.  Climatic conditions same as El Nino.
 Majority of the cyclones originate in the
Bay of Bengal and influence the weather
conditions during the south-west
monsoon season (low intensity
cyclones). Winter Season – Summer Season – Indian
 Some cyclones are born during the Climate: Pressure, Winds, Rainfall,
retreating monsoon season, i.e., in Temperature, Cyclones, Western
October and November (high intensity Disturbances. Loo, Andhis, Norwesters,
cyclones) and influence the weather Thunderstorms, etc..
conditions along the eastern coast of
Indian Climate – Seasons
India.
 The western disturbances originate over
 The cold weather season or winter season,
the Mediterranean sea and travel eastward
under the influence of westerly jet stream.
 The hot weather season or summer

season,
 The south-west monsoon season or Rainy
season, and
 The season of the retreating monsoon or
cool season. Page
Winter Season in India |
 November – March. January is the 462

coldest month.
 Sun’s apparent path is to the south of
equator.
 Clear sky, pleasant weather, low
temperature, low humidity, high range
of temperature, cool and slow north-
east trade winds.
 The diurnal range of temperature,
especially in interior parts of the country,
is very high.
Temperature in Winter Season
 The winds start blowing from high
pressure area of north-west to low
 The isotherm of 20°C runs roughly parallel
pressure area of south-east. The wind
to the Tropic of Cancer.
velocity is low due to low pressure
 To the south of this isotherm the
gradient.
temperatures are above 20°C. Here there
 The path of the winds depend on pressure
is no distinctly defined winter weather.
gradient and physiography.
Some parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu
typically experiences temperatures near Western Disturbances in Winter Season
30°C.
 To the north mean temperatures are below  The spell of fine weather over north-
21°C and the winter weather is distinct. western and northern India is often
 The mean minimum temperature is about broken due to inflow of western
5°C over north-west India and 10°C over disturbances.
the Gangetic plains.  They intensify over Rajasthan, Punjab,
 Dras Valley in Kashmir is the coldest and Haryana.
place in India. The minimum temperature  They move eastwards across the sub-
recorded at Dras was – 45°C in 1908. Himalayan belt up to Arunachal Pradesh.
 They cause light rain in the Indus-Ganga
Pressure in Winter Season
plains and snowfall in the Himalayan belt.
 High air pressure prevails over large parts  After the passage of the disturbance,
of north-west India due to low widespread fog and cold waves lowering
temperatures coupled with divergence the minimum temperature by 5° to 10°C
induced by the ridge of the STJ. below normal are experienced.
 Pressure is comparatively lower in south  Fog lowers visibility and causes great
India. inconvenience for transportation.
Andhra Pradesh. Thereafter, it gradually

decreases.
 The western disturbances also cause a
little rainfall in north-west India.
 The amount of rainfall gradually decreases
from the north and north-west to east (it is Page
opposite in rainy season).
 The northeastern part of India also gets |
rainfall during the winter months. 463
Summer Season in India
 March to June.
 High temperature and low humidity are
the chief characteristics.
 Sometimes referred to as pre-monsoon
period.
Temperature in Summer Season
 High sun’s insolation due to apparent

Tropical Cyclones in Winter Season
movement of sun between the equator and
the Tropic of Cancer.
 This is the season of least tropical cyclone
activity.  The southern parts of the country are
distinctly warmer in March and April
 The frequency of tropical cyclones
whereas in June, north India has higher
decreases with the advancement of the
temperatures.
season.
 In March, the highest temperatures occur
 This is due to low sea surface
in the southern parts (40-45°C).
temperature and exit of ITCZ farthest
south.  In April the highest temperature of about
45°C is recorded in the northern parts of
 The storms which are born in the Bay of
Madhya Pradesh.
Bengal strike Tamil Nadu and bring heavy
rainfall.  In May the highest temperature shifts to
Rajasthan where temperatures as high as
 Some of them cross the southern
48°C may be recorded.
peninsula over to the Arabian Sea.
 In June the maximum temperature is in
 Some storms originate in the Arabian Sea
Punjab and Haryana.
and move towards either north or west.
 The highest temperatures recorded are
Precipitation in Winter Season 50.5°C at Alwar on 10th May, 1956 and
50.6°C at Ganganagar on 14th June,
 The retreating winter monsoons pick up 1935.
some moisture while crossing the Bay of  The highest temperatures are recorded
Bengal and cause winter rainfall in just before the onset of the southwest
Tamil Nadu, south Andhra Pradesh, monsoons (late May).
south-east Karnataka and south-east  The diurnal range of temperature is also
Kerala (Usually in the first weeks of very high. It may be as high as 18°C in
November). some parts.
 The highest seasonal rainfall of about 75  The maximum summer temperatures are
cm between October and December. comparatively lower in the costal and
 Most of it occurs along the south-eastern southern peninsular regions due to
coast of Tamil Nadu and adjoining parts of moderating effect of the sea.
Page
|
464
Page
|
465
 The temperatures along the west coast are  There is large contrast between land and
comparatively lower than those prevailing sea temperatures.
on the east coast due to the prevailing  Northern and central parts of India
westerly winds. experience heat waves in this season.
[A heat wave is an abnormally high  But strong dynamically induced

temperature experienced by a regions. divergence over north-west India prevents
Temperature increase of the order of 6° to the onset of south-west monsoons.
7°C above normal is termed as 'moderate'
Winds in Summer Season
and 8°C and more as 'severe' heat wave]
 Most of the heat waves develop over  There is a marked change in the direction Page
Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana (location and speed of the winds from winter.
|
far away from the sea). From here they  The winds are by and large light and
spread over Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. variable. 466
 The strong north westerly winds (caused Loo
due to strong divergence in north-west
India) with a long land journey over hot  Loo winds originate over Iranian, Baloch
regions check the onward march of the and Thar deserts.
sea breeze over eastern coastal belt and  In May and June, high temperature in
create heat wave conditions over Odisha northwest India builds steep pressure
and Andhra Pradesh. gradient.
 The heat waves strike by the end of April  Hot, dust laden and strong wind known as
and their maximum occurrence is in May. loo blows.
They last till the onset of southwest  Loo normally starts blowing by 9.00 A.M.,
monsoon. increases gradually and reaches maximum
 The normal duration of heat waves is 4 to intensity in the afternoon.
5 days. However, heat waves are rare over  It blows with an average speed of 30-40
the peninsula south of 13°N latitude due km per hour and persists for days.
to maritime conditions prevailing there.
Andhis
 The strong dust storms resulting from the

convective phenomena are locally known
as andhis (blinding storms). They move
like a solid wall of dust and sand.
 The wind velocity often reaches 50-60
kmph and the visibility is reduced to a few
metres.
 Such dust storms are common in
Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu
region, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and
Madhya Pradesh.
 They are short lived. The squall and
showers which follow these storms bring
down the temperature sharply
temporarily.
Frontal Thunderstorms in Summer
Season
 The strong convectional movements

related to the westerly jet stream lead to
Pressure in Summer Season thunderstorms in eastern and north-
eastern part of the country.
 The atmospheric pressure is low all over
the country due to high temperature.
 They normally originate over Chota  Approximately 4, 3 and 2 western

Nagpur plateau and are carried eastwards disturbances visit north-west India in
by westerly winds. March, April and May respectively.
 The areas with highest incidence of  They cause snowfall in higher reaches of
thunderstorms are Assam, Arunachal the Himalayas.
Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur, Page
Tropical Cyclones in Summer Season
Tripura, Meghalaya, West Bengal and the
adjoining areas of Odisha and Jharkhand. |
 Tropical cyclones originate in the Bay of
Norwesters and Thunderstorms in Bengal and Arabian Sea. 467
Summer Season  A few cyclones are formed in the Bay of
Bengal in the month of March but they do
 In West Bengal and the adjoining areas of not affect the mainland of India.
Jharkhand, Odisha and Assam, the  Their frequency rises steeply in April and
direction of squalls is mainly from the the number of cyclones originating in May
northwest, and they are called is more than double than those originating
norwesters. in April.
 They are often very violent with squall  About three-fourths of the tropical
speeds of 60 to 80 km per hour. cyclones are born in the Bay of Bengal and
 Hailstones sometimes accompany showers the rest originate in the Arabian Sea.
and occasionally attain the size of a golf  Most of the depressions in April originate
ball. to the south of 10°N while those
 They cause heavy damage to standing originating in May are born to the north of
crops, trees, buildings, livestock and even this latitude.
lead to loss of human lives.  Most of the storms of this season initially
 However, they are, sometimes, useful for move west or north-west but later they
tea, jute and rice cultivation. In Assam, recurve northeast and strike Bangladesh
these storms are known as ‘Barodoli and the Arakan Coast of Myanmar.
Chheerha’.  Very few hit Indian coast while some
 The period of maximum occurrence of dissipate over the sea itself.
these storms is the month of Vaisakh  The whole of the east coast of India, the
(mid-March to mid-April) and hence, they coastal areas of Bangladesh and Arakan
are locally known as Kalabaisakhis, the Coast of Myanmar are liable to be hit by
black storms or a mass of dark clouds of tropical storms in May.
Vaiasakha.  Many of them are quite severe and cause
Convectional Thunderstorms in heavy damage to life and property.
Summer Season  In the Arabian Sea, major storms are
formed in May between 7° and 12° N
 In the south the thunderstorms occur in latitudes.
Kerala (Mango Showers) and adjoining  Most of them move away from the Indian
parts of Karnataka (Blossom Showers) coast in a north-westerly direction and
and Tamil Nadu, particularly during dissipate in the sea.
evenings and nights.  Few originate close to the Indian coast.
They move towards the north-east and hit
Western Disturbances in Summer
somewhere along the west coast of India.
Season
Precipitation in Summer Season
 Their frequency and intensity gradually
decrease with advancement of summer.  This season is not totally rainless (only
one per cent of the annual rainfall).
Page
|
468
 In the northeastern parts of the country,  The precipitation in Kashmir is mainly in

dust storms bring little rainfall. the form of snow caused by western
disturbances.
 The norwesters bring some rainfall in  The temperature remains less uniform
Assam, West Bengal and Odisha. The throughout the rainy season.
intensity of rainfall is high.  The temperature rises in September with
 The rainfall brought by the norwesters is the cease of south-west monsoons.
known as the spring storm showers.  There is rise in temperature whenever
 This small amount of rainfall is very useful there is break in the monsoons. Page
for the cultivation of tea, jute and rice and  The diurnal range of temperature is small
is known as tea showers in Assam. due to clouds and rains. |
 Coastal areas of Kerala and Karnataka  The highest temperatures are experienced 469
receive rainfall from thunderstorms. at places west of the Aravali [38° to 40°C].
 Such showers are called mango showers This is due to lack of clouds and hot
in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh continental air masses.
because they are very beneficial to mango  Other parts of Northwest India also have
crop. temperatures above 30°C.
 In Karnataka they are called cherry  The temperatures are quite low over the
blossoms due to their effect on the coffee Western Ghats due to heavy rainfall.
plantations.  The coastal areas of Tamil Nadu and
Rainy Season – South West Monsoon adjoining parts of Andhra Pradesh have
Season – North East Monsoon Season temperatures above 30°C as they receive
little rainfall during this season.
ISOLINE: imaginary lines joining Pressure and Winds During South West
regions with equal rainfall or any other Monsoon Season
parameter.
ISOBAR: imaginary lines joining regions  Low pressure conditions prevail over
with equal pressure. northwest India due to high temperature.
 ITCZ (monsoon trough) lies along the
ISOTHERM: imaginary lines joining Ganga plain. There are frequent changes
regions with equal temperature. in its location depending upon the weather
conditions.
ISOHYET: imaginary lines joining  The atmospheric pressure increases
regions with equal rainfall. steadily southwards.
Rainy Season – South West Monsoon  Over the peninsular region, due to
Season pressure gradient between north and
south, winds blow in a southwest to
 South West Monsoon Season – June to northeast direction from Arabian sea and
mid-September. Bay of Bengal.
 South West Monsoon Season is also  Their direction undergoes a change in
known as hot-wet season. Indo-Gangetic plain where they move from
 Sudden onset is the important feature of east to west.
South West Monsoons. Rainfall During South West Monsoon
 With the onset of monsoons, temperature Season
falls drastically and humidity levels rise.
 Three fourths of the total annual rainfall is
Temperature during South West
received during this season.
Monsoon Season
 The average rainfall over the plains of
 Sudden onset of South West Monsoons India in this season is about 87 per cent.
leads to significant fall in temperature [3°  Normal date of the arrival of the monsoon
to 6°C]. is 20th May in Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
Page
|
470
 The advance of the monsoon is much  The normal date of onset of the southwest
faster in the Bay of Bengal than in the monsoon over Kerala i.e. the first place
Arabian Sea.
of entry in the mainland of India is 1st  The Bay of Bengal branch spreads rather
June. rapidly over most of Assam. The normal
 The monsoons advance quickly date of its arrival at Kolkata is 7th June.
accompanied with a lot of thunder,  On reaching the foothills of the Himalayas
lightning and heavy downpour. This the Bay branch is deflected westward by
sudden onset of rain is termed as the Himalayan barrier and it advances Page
monsoon burst. up the Gangetic plain.
 Sometimes monsoons are delayed or they  The two branches merge with each other |
come much earlier than normal. mostly around Delhi to form a single 471
 Normally the onset occurs between 29th current.
May and 7th June.  Both the branches reach Delhi more or
 The earliest onset was on 11th May in less at the same time.
1918 and 1955, while the most delayed  The combined current gradually extends
onset was on 18th June in 1972. to west Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab,
Rajasthan and finally to Himachal
Pradesh and Kashmir.
South West Monsoon – Arabian Sea  By the end of June the monsoon is usually
branch and Bay of Bengal branch established over most parts of the country.
 By mid-July, the monsoon extends into
 Monsoon winds beyond south Kerala Kashmir and the remaining parts of the
progress in the form of two branches viz. country.
the Arabian Sea branch and the Bay of  By this time it reaches Kashmir, it has
Bengal branch. shed most of its moisture.
 Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon is
much powerful than the Bay of Bengal
branch for reasons:
1. The Arabian Sea is larger than the Bay
of Bengal, and
2. the entire Arabian Sea current advances
towards India, whereas only a part of
the Bay of Bengal current enters India,
the remainder proceeding to Myanmar,
Thailand and Malaysia.
The Arabian Sea branch of the southwest
monsoons is divided into three distinct
streams on arriving in the mainland of
India.
 The first stream strikes the west coast of
India and gives extremely heavy rainfall of
over 250 cm. It strike perpendicular to
Western Ghats causing plentiful
Orographic Rainfall [400 to 500 cm
annual rainfall on the windward side].
 Rainfall is drastically reduced to about 30-
 The Arabian Sea branch gradually 50 cm on the leeward side of the crest.
advances northwards. It reaches Mumbai  There is a narrow belt of marked aridity on
by 10th June. the immediate leeward side of the Western
Ghats. But once it is passed, the air starts
rising again and the amount of rainfall 1. rain shadow effect of the Arabian Sea
increases further east. current and
 The second stream enters Narmada—Tapi 2. Bay of Bengal current which flows
troughs (narrow rift valley) and reaches parallel to the coast.
central India. It does not cause much rain Break in the South West Monsoons
near the coast due to the absence of major Page
orographic obstacle across the rift. Some  During the Monsoon season, there are
parts of central India receive rainfall from periods when the Monsoon trough shifts |
this stream (Ex: Nagpur). to the foothills of Himalayas, which leads 472
 The third stream moves parallel to the to sharp decrease in rainfall over most
Aravali Range without causing much parts of the country but increase along the
rainfall. Consequently the whole of Himalayas and parts of Northeast India
Rajasthan is a desert area. and Southern Peninsula.
 However, some orographic effect is occurs  During July and August, there are certain
on the south-eastern edge of the Aravali periods when the monsoons become weak.
Range. Mt. Abu gets about 170 cm rainfall Rainfall practically ceases over the country
while the surrounding plains have only 60 outside the Himalayan belt and southeast
to 80 cm rainfall. peninsula. This is known as break in the
The Bay of Bengal Branch of the southwest monsoon.
monsoon is divided into two distinct  Breaks are likely to occur during the
streams. second week of August and last for a
week.
 The first stream crosses the Ganga-
 The breaks are believed to be brought
Brahmaputra delta and reaches
about by the northward shifting of the
Meghalaya. Here that the orographic
monsoon trough (minimum low
effect results in intense rainfall.
pressure cell in ITCZ). The axis of the
Cherrapunji receives an annual rainfall of
trough lies at the foothills of the
1,102 cm, major portion of which occurs
Himalayas during the break period.
from June to August.
 Mawsynram (present champion) located The monsoon trough is a portion of the
at 1,329 m above sea level just 16 km to Intertropical Convergence Zone as depicted
the west of Cherrapunji (X champion) by a line on a weather map showing the
records higher annual rainfall of 1,221 locations of minimum sea level pressure,
cm. and as such, is a convergence zone
 Both the stations are located on the between the wind patterns of the southern
southern slopes of the Khasi hills at the and northern hemispheres.
northern end of a deep valley running
 During the break period, heavy rainfall
from south to north.
occurs over the sub-Himalayan regions
 The second stream of the Bay of Bengal
and the southern slopes of the Himalayas.
branch moves along Himalayan foothills
 On an average one or two breaks do occur
as they are deflected to the west by the
during the rainy season. 85 out of 100
Himalaya and brings widespread rainfall
years there is a break in the monsoons.
to Ganga plain.
 The rainfall by this stream is characterized Depressions in South West Monsoon
by a steady decline as we move from east Season
to west up the plain. [Previous Prelims
Question]  A major part of the South West Monsoon
 The Tamil Nadu coast remains relatively rainfall is generated by depressions
dry during the south-west monsoon period [intense low pressure] originating in the
because of
Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. Some North East Monsoon Season –
depressions develop over land also. Retreating Monsoon Season
 About 3-4 depressions are formed per
month from June to September.  Starts with the beginning of the
 Almost all of them are sucked inward withdrawal of southwest monsoon [middle
through the deltas of great rivers [They of September – November].
Page
need moisture to be alive], the Ganga, the  The monsoons withdraw from the extreme
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and north-west end of the country in |
the Cauvery and cause heavy rain in these September, from the peninsula by October 473
areas. and from the extreme south-eastern tip by
 The location of depressions strongly December.
coincide with the latitudinal position of  In Punjab the south-west monsoons reach
ITCZ. in the first week of July and withdraw
 Most of the depression originate to the from there in the second week of
west of 90⁰ E in Bay of Bengal and move in September.
north-west direction.  The south-west monsoons reach
 In the Arabian Sea in June-July, the Coromandel coast in the first week of June
depressions move either in north-west or and withdraw from there only in the
in northerly direction and may affect west middle of December.
Gujarat or Maharashtra.  Unlike the sudden burst of the advancing
 Storms during August and September are monsoons, the withdrawal is rather
rare and are formed close to Maharashtra- gradual and takes about three months.
Gujarat coast. Advance and Withdrawal of South West
 Most of the rainfall in central and Monsoons
northern parts of the country is caused by
these depressions.
 The absence of depressions or a change in
Temperature during Retreating
their tracks result in deficit or no rain.
Monsoon Season
Chief Characteristics of South West
Monsoon Rainfall  With retreat of the monsoons, the clouds
disappear and the sky becomes clear.
 Major part of monsoon rains are received  The day temperature starts falling steeply.
between June and September.  The diurnal range of temperature
 Monsoonal rainfall is largely governed by increases due to lack of cloud cover.
relief and is orographic in its mode.
Pressure and Winds during Retreating
 The amount of rainfall decreases with
Monsoon Season
increasing distance from the sea.
 The rainless interval during south west  As the monsoons retreat, the monsoon
monsoon season is known as ‘breaks’. The trough weakens and gradually shifts
breaks in rainfall are related to tropical southward. Consequently the pressure
cyclones which originate in the Bay of gradient is low.
Bengal.  Unlike south-west monsoon, the onset of
 There are large scale spatial variations in the north monsoon is not clearly defined.
the distribution of rainfall.  The direction of winds over large parts of
 Monsoons often fail to keep date. the country is influenced by the local
Sometimes the monsoons withdraw before pressure conditions.
the scheduled time causing considerable
damage to the crops. Cyclones during Retreating Monsoon
Season
 Most severe and devastating tropical later recurve and move towards the north-
cyclones originate in the Indian seas east.
especially in the Bay of Bengal.  Near 55 per cent of the Bay storms cross
 The highest frequency of the cyclones is in or affect the Indian coast.
the month of October and the first half of  The area’s most vulnerable to these
November. storms include the coastal belts of Tamil Page
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West
More cyclones are born in October and
Bengal. |
then in November and more cyclones
originate in the Bay of Bengal than in  Many of the cyclones which strike the 474
the Arabian Sea. eastern coast of India, south of 15°N
latitude cross the southern Peninsula and
 In October, the Cyclones of the Bay of enter Arabian Sea.
Bengal originate between 8°N and 14°N.  During this process, they may weaken,
 Initially they move in a west or but on re-entry over the Arabian sea they
northwesterly direction, but many of them intensify into cyclonic storms.
Page
|
475
 The storms of Arabian sea originate Precipitation during Retreating

between 12°N and 17°N latitudes in Monsoon Season
October and between 8° N and 13° N
latitudes in November.  The humidity and cloud cover are much
 Generally they move away from the coast reduced with the retreat of the south-west
in a north-westerly direction. But about monsoons and most parts of the country
25% of them later recurve northeast and remain without much rainfall.
strike the Maharashtra or Gujarat coast.  October-November is the main rainy
 In north-west India the western season in Tamil Nadu and adjoining
disturbances produce clouding and light areas of Andhra Pradesh to the south of
rainfall in the otherwise fine weather. the Krishna delta as well as a secondary
 The precipitation is in the form of snow in rainy period for Kerala.
higher reaches of Jammu and Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh and in Kumaon Hills.
Page
|
476
 The retreating monsoons absorb moisture Annual Rainfall [South West Monsoons
while passing over the Bay of Bengal and + Retreating Monsoons]
cause this rainfall.
Areas of very high rainfall Temperate and Tropical – Koeppen’s

Classification of Climatic Regions of India.
 Areas receiving an annual rainfall of 200
cm and above. Climatic Regions of India
 These include western side of Western
Ghats [Thiruvananthapuram in the south  India has tropical monsoon climate with
to Mumbai in the north]. large regional variations in terms of Page
 The average annual rainfall in this belt is rainfall and temperature. |
200-400 cm.  While classifying Indian climatic regions,
 Assam, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram, most geographers have given more 477
Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, parts of importance to rainfall than to
Manipur, Tripura and north-eastern tip of temperature as variations in rainfall are
West Bengal also receive 200 cm or more, much more marked than those of
with isolated pockets receiving over 400 temperature.
cm. Here we will see two classifications -
Meghalaya (the abode of clouds) is the Stamp's and Koeppen’s. For GS this is
wettest part of the country with more than enough.
Mawsynram and Cherrapunji getting Stamp's Classification of Climatic
1,221 and 1,102 cm of annual rainfall Regions of India
respectively.
Areas of high rainfall
 100-200 cm annual rainfall.

 Eastern slopes of the Western Ghats,
major part of the northern plain, Odisha,
Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and
Tamil Nadu.
Isohyet (the line joining places of equal
rainfall).
Areas of low rainfall
 50-100 cm annual rainfall.

 Large parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra.
western Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, eastern Rajasthan,
Punjab, Haryana and parts of Uttar
Pradesh.
Areas of very low rainfall
 These are desert and semi-desert areas

receiving less than 50 cm of annual  Stamp used 18°C isotherm of mean
rainfall. monthly temperature for January to divide
 They include large areas of western the country into two broad climatic
Rajasthan, Kachchh and most of Ladakh regions, viz., temperate or continental
region of Jammu and Kashmir. zone in the north and tropical zone in
the south.
Climatic Regions of India – Stamp’s
Classification of Climatic Regions of India:
 This line runs roughly across the root of 3. The arid low land
the peninsula, more or less along or 4. The region of moderate rainfall
parallel to the Tropic of Cancer. 5. The transitional zone
 The two major climatic regions are further Tropical India
divided into eleven regions depending
upon the amount of rainfall and 1. Region of very heavy rainfall Page
temperature. 2. Region of heavy rainfall
3. Region of moderate rainfall |
Temperate or Continental India
4. The Konkan Coast 478
1. The Himalayan region (heavy rainfall) 5. The Malabar Coast
2. The north-western region (moderate 6. Tamil Nadu
rainfall)
Temperate or Continental India
Region Avg Temperature Annual Rainfall
Himalayan Region Sumer = 4°-7°C East = Over 200 cm
Winter = 13°-18°C West = much less
North-western Region Summer = 16°C Below 200 cm
Northern parts of Punjab and southern Winter = 24°C
parts of Jammu and Kashmir
Arid Lowland Winter = 16° to 24°C Below 40 cm
Thar desert of Rajasthan, south western Summer = 48°C
part of Haryana and Kachchh of Gujarat
Region of moderate rainfall Winter = 15°-18°C 40 - 80 cm
Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, Summer = 33°-35°C
Union Territory of Delhi, north-west Plateau
area of Madhya Pradesh and eastern
Rajasthan
Transitional Zone Winter = 15°-19°C 100 -150 cm
Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar Summer = 30° - 35°C
Tropical India
Region of very heavy rainfall Winter = 18°C in Over 200
Meghalaya, Assam, Tripura, Mizoram and Summer = 32°-35°C
Nagaland
Region of heavy rainfall Winter = 18°-24°C 100 - 200 cm
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Gangetic West Summer = 29°-35°C
Bengal, Odisha and coastal Andhra Pradesh
Region of moderate rainfall Winter = 18°-24°C 50 -100 cm
between Western and Eastern Ghats Summer = 32°C in
Konkan Coast Annual = 24°-27°C. Over 200 cm
Mumbai in the north to Goa in the south
Malabar Coast Annual = 27°C Over 250 cm
Goa to Kanniyakumari
Tamil Nadu Annual = 24°C 100 to 150 cm
Tamil Nadu and adjoining areas of Andhra (Retreating
Pradesh monsoon)
Koeppen’s Classification of Climatic  Koeppen’s Classification of Climatic
Regions of India Regions of India is an empirical
classification based on mean annual and
mean monthly temperature and f: no dry season

precipitation data. w: dry season in winter
 Koeppen identified a close relationship
between the distribution of vegetation and s: dry season in summer
climate. g: Ganges type of annual march of
 He selected certain values of temperature temperature; hottest month comes Page
and precipitation and related them to the before the solstice and the summer
distribution of vegetation and used these rainy season. |
values for classifying the climates.
h: average annual temperature under 479
 Koeppen recognized five major climatic
18°C
groups, four of them are based on
temperature and one on precipitation. m (monsoon): short dry season.
 The capital letters:  The capital letters S and W are employed
1. A, C, D and E delineate humid climates to designate the two subdivisions of dry
and climate:
2. B dry climates. 1. semi-arid or Steppe (S) and
[Don’t have to remember all these 2. arid or desert (W).
alphabets. Only remember the climatic  Capital letters T and F are similarly used
regions and their characteristics. That’s to designate the two subdivisions of polar
enough climate
1. tundra (T) and
Alphabet codes will help you to remember 2. icecap (F).
the concept in the long run. But if you found
them hard, just ignore them]
 The climatic groups are subdivided into

types, designated by small letters, based
on seasonality of precipitation and
temperature characteristics.
 The seasons of dryness are indicated by
the small letters : f, m, w and s, where
a) f - no dry season,
b) m - monsoon climate,
c) w - winter dry season and
d) s - summer dry season.
 The above mentioned major climatic types
are further subdivided depending upon
the seasonal distribution of rainfall or
degree of dryness or cold.
a: hot summer, average temperature of
the warmest month over 22°C
c: cool summer, average temperature of
the warmest month under 22°C
Page
|
480
 Koeppen divided India into nine climatic

regions making use of the above scheme.
Koeppen’s Scheme – Climatic Regions of India
Climate type Region Annual rainfall
Amw Western coastal region, south of Mumbai over 300 cm
(Monsoon type with
short dry winter
season)
As Coromandel coast = Coastal Tamil Nadu 75 - 100 cm
(Monsoon type with and adjoining areas of Andhra Pradesh [wet winters, dry
dry season in high summers]
sun period)
Aw Most parts of the peninsular plateau barring 75 cm
(Tropical Savanah Coromandel and Malabar coastal strips
type)
BShw Some rain shadow areas of Western Ghats, 12 to 25 cm
(Semi-arid Steppe large part of Rajasthan and contiguous
type) areas of Haryana and Gujarat
BWhw Most of western Rajasthan less than 12 cm
(Hot desert type)
Cwg Most parts of the Ganga Plain, eastern 100 - 200 cm
(Monsoon type with Rajasthan, Assam and in Malwa Plateau
dry winters)
Dfc Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and parts of ~200 cm
(Cold, Humid Assam
winters type with

shorter summer)
Et Mountain areas of Uttarakhand Rainfall varies from
(Tundra Type) The average temperature varies from 0 to year to year.
10°C
E Higher areas of Jammu & Kashmir and Precipitation occurs Page
(Polar Type) Himachal Pradesh in which the temperature in the form of snow
of the warmest month varies from 0° to |
10°C 481
Source: Indian Geography KULLAR
Natural Vegetation of India  The main climatic factors are rainfall and
temperature. The amount of annual
 Climate, soil and topography are the rainfall has a great bearing on the type of
major factors that influence Natural vegetation.
Vegetation of a place.
Annual Rainfall Type of Vegetation
200 cm or more Evergreen Rain Forests
100 to 200 cm Monsoon Deciduous Forests
50 to 100 cm Drier Deciduous or Tropical Savanna
25 to 50 cm Dry Thorny Scrub (Semi-arid)
Below 25 cm Desert (Arid)
 Temperature is the major factor in  Soil is an equally determining factor in few

Himalayas and other hilly regions with an regions. Mangrove forests, swamp
elevation of more than 900 metres. forests are some of the examples where
 As the temperature falls with altitude in soil is the major factor.
the Himalayan region the vegetal cover  Topography is responsible for certain
changes with altitude from tropical to minor types e.g. alpine flora, tidal
sub-tropical, temperate and finally forests, etc..
alpine.
Page
|
482
Classification Of Natural Vegetation of 1. Tropical Dry Evergreen

India 2. Tropical Dry Deciduous
3. Tropical Thorn
 Classification of Natural Vegetation of
India is primarily based on spatial and C. Montane Sub-tropical Forests
annual variations in rainfall. Temperature, 1. Sub-tropical broad leaved hill
soil and topography are also considered. 2. Sub-tropical moist hill (pine)
 India's vegetation can be divided into 5 3. Sub-tropical dry evergreen
main types and 16 sub-types as given
below. D. Montane Temperate Forests
A. Moist Tropical Forests 1. Montane Wet Temperate
2. Himalayan Moist Temperate
1. Tropical Wet Evergreen 3. Himalayan Dry Temperate
2. Tropical Semi-Evergreen
3. Tropical Moist Deciduous E. Alpine Forests
4. Littoral and Swamp
1. Sub-Alpine
B. Dry Tropical Forest 2. Moist Alpine scrub
3. Dry Alpine scrub
Forest Type in India % of Total Area

Tropical Moist Deciduous 37
Tropical Dry Deciduous 28
Tropical Wet Evergreen 8
Sub-Tropical Moist Hill 6 Page
Tropical Semi-Evergreen 4 |
Rest below 4 %
483
Moist Tropical Forests morphology looks like a green carpet when
viewed from above.
Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests or Rain
Forests
Climatic Conditions
1. Annual rainfall exceeds 250 cm

2. The annual temperature is about 25°-27°C
3. The average annual humidity exceeds 77
per cent and
4. The dry season is distinctly short.
Characteristics  Less undergrowth: The sun light cannot

reach the ground due to thick canopy. The
 Evergreen: Due to high heat and high undergrowth is formed mainly of
humidity, the trees of these forests do not bamboos, ferns, climbers, orchids, etc.
shed their leaves together.
 Mesosphytic: Plants adopted to neither Distribution
too dry nor too wet type climate.
1. Western side of the Western Ghats (500 to
What are mesophytes? 1370 metres above sea level).
2. Some regions in the Purvanchal hills.
 Unlike hydrophytic plants, such as water 3. In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
lily or pondweed, that grow in saturated
soil or water, or xerophytic plants, such Timber
as cactus, that grow in extremely dry soil,
 Hardwood: The timber of these forests is
mesophytes are ordinary plants that exist
fine-grained, hard and durable.
between the two extremes.
 It has high commercial value but it is
 Mesophytic environments are marked by
highly challenging to exploit due to dense
average to hot temperatures and soil that
undergrowth, absence of pure stands
is neither too dry nor too wet.
and lack of transport facilities [Read
 Lofty: The trees often reach 45 – 60 metres previous posts on Climatic regions to
in height. understand how lumbering industry
 Thick Canopy: From the air, the tropical works in Equatorial Rainforests
rain forest appears like a thick canopy of (hardwood) and Taiga Climatic (softwood)
foliage, broken only where it is crossed by conditions].
large rivers or cleared for cultivation.  The important species of these forests are
 All plants struggle upwards (most mahogany, mesua, white cedar, jamun,
ephiphytes) for sunlight resulting in a canes, bamboo etc.
peculiar layer arrangement. The entire Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests
 They are transitional forests between Timber

tropical wet evergreen forests and tropical
deciduous forests.  Hardwood: Similar to that in tropical
 They are comparatively drier areas evergreen forests except that these forests
compared to tropical wet evergreen forests. are less dense with more pure stands
(timber industry here is better than in
Climatic Conditions evergreen forests). Page
|
 Annual rainfall is 200-250 cm Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests
 Mean annual temperature varies from 484
24°C to 27°C Climatic Conditions
 The relative humidity is about 75 per cent
 Annual rainfall 100 to 200 cm.
 The dry season is not short like in tropical
 Mean annual temperature of about 27°C
evergreen forests.
 The average annual relative humidity of 60
Distribution to 75 per cent.
 Spring (between winter and summer) and
 Western coast summer are dry.
 Assam
 Lower slopes of the Eastern Himalayas Characteristics
 Odisha and  The trees drop their leaves during the
 Andamans. spring and early summer when sufficient
Characteristics moisture is not available.
 The general appearance is bare in extreme
 The semi-evergreen forests are less dense. summers (April-May).
 They are more gregarious [living in  Tropical moist deciduous forests present
flocks or colonies – more pure stands] irregular top storey [25 to 60 m].
than the wet evergreen forests.  Heavily buttressed trees and fairly
 These forests are characterized by many complete undergrowth.
species.  These forests occupy a much larger area
 Trees usually have buttressed trunks than the evergreen forests but large tracts
with abundant epiphytes. under these forests have been cleared for
cultivation.
Distribution
 Belt running along the Western Ghats

surrounding the belt of evergreen forests.
 A strip along the Shiwalik range including
terai and bhabar from 77° E to 88° E.
 Manipur and Mizoram.
 Hills of eastern Madhya Pradesh and
Chhattisgarh.
 Chota Nagpur Plateau.
 Most of Odisha.
Buttressed Trunks
 Parts of West Bengal and
 The important species are laurel,  Andaman and Nicobar islands.
rosewood, mesua, thorny bamboo –
Timber
Western Ghats, white cedar, Indian
chestnut, champa, mango, etc. –  These provide valuable timer like Teak.
Himalayan region.
 The main species found in these forests  Annual rainfall of 100 cm [mostly from the
are teak, sal, laurel, rosewood, amla, north-east monsoon winds in October –
jamun, bamboo, etc. December].
 It is comparatively easy to exploit these  Mean annual temperature is about 28°C.
forests due to their high degree of  The mean humidity is about 75 per cent.
gregariousness (more pure stands).  The growth of evergreen forests in areas of Page
such low rainfall is a bit strange.
Littoral and Swamp Forests |
Characteristics
 They can survive and grow both in fresh 485
as well as brackish water (The mixture of  Short statured trees, up to 12 m high,
seawater and fresh water in estuaries is with complete canopy.
called brackish water and its salinity can  Bamboos and grasses not conspicuous.
range from 0.5 to 35 ppt).  The important species are jamun,
 Occur in and around the deltas, estuaries tamarind, neem, etc.
and creeks prone to tidal influences  Most of the land under these forests has
(delta or tidal forests). been cleared for agriculture or casuarina
 Littoral (relating to or on the shore of the plantations.
sea or a lake) forests occur at several
places along the coast. Casuarina plantation
 Swamp forests are confined to the deltas
of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Godavari,
the Krishna and the Cauvery.
 Dense mangroves occur all along the
coastline in sheltered estuaries, tidal
creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and
mudflats. It provides useful fuel wood.
 The most pronounced and the densest is
the Sunderban in the Ganga delta where
the predominant species is Sundri
(Heriteera).
Timber  It resembles feathery conifer in general

appearance.
 It provides hard and durable timber which  They are rapid-growing, carefree species
is used for construction, building for sites and climates as varied as coastal
purposes and making boats. sand dunes, high mountain slopes, hot
 The important species found in these humid tropics, and semi-arid regions.
forests are Sundri, agar, rhizophora, screw  They have the ability to fix atmospheric
pines, canes and palms, etc. nitrogen. It grows 15 to 25 metres in
Dry Tropical Forests height on an average.
Distribution
Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests
 Casuarina is the most popular farm
Distribution forestry in the states of Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Odisha,
 Along the coasts of Tamil Nadu.
Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Karnataka.
Climatic Conditions
Benefits
 Reduces damage in the event of natural
calamities. Kanniyakumari except in Rajasthan,

 Line planting in the coastal areas helps in Western Ghats and West Bengal.
controlling the wind force.  The important species are teak, axlewood,
 It is also used for tourism promotion in rosewood, common bamboo, red sanders,
view of its ornamental appearance. laurel, satinwood, etc.
 It provides top quality firewood.  Large tracts of this forest have been Page
 The wood is suitable for paper pulp and cleared for agricultural purposes.
useful raw material for the manufacture of  These forests have suffer from over |
paper for writing, printing, and wrapping. grazing, fire, etc. 486
 It is got some serious medicinal values as
well. Tropical Thorn Forests
Wasteland development Climatic Conditions
 The characteristics which make it a  Annual rainfall less than 75 cm.

suitable species for wasteland  Humidity is less than 50 per cent.
development include adaptability to wide  Mean temperature is 25°-30°C.
range of habitats, fast growth, salt
tolerant, drought resistant, ability to Characteristics
reclaim land and stabilize sand dunes.  The trees are low (6 to 10 metres
 Intercrops such as groundnut, cucumber, maximum) and widely scattered.
watermelons, sesamum, and pulses can  Acacias and Euphorbias are very
also be raised along with the plantation. prominent.
Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests  The Indian wild date is common. Some
grasses also grow in the rainy season.
Climatic Conditions
Distribution
 Annual rainfall is 100-150 cm.
 Rajasthan, south-western Punjab, western
Characteristics Haryana, Kachchh and neighbouring parts
of Saurashtra.
 These are similar to moist deciduous  Here they degenerate into desert type in
forests and shed their leaves in dry the Thar desert.
season.  Such forests also grow on the leeside of
 The major difference is that they can grow the Western Ghats covering large areas of
in areas of comparatively less rainfall. Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana,
 They represent a transitional type - moist Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
deciduous on the wetter side and thorn  The important species are neem, babul,
forests on the drier side. cactii, etc.
 They have closed but uneven canopy.
 The forests are composed of a mixture of a Montane Sub-Tropical Forests
few species of deciduous trees rising up to
a height of 20 metres. Sub-tropical Broad-leaved Hill Forests
 Undergrowth: Enough light reaches the
Climatic conditions
ground to permit the growth of grass and
climbers.  Mean annual rainfall is 75 cm to 125 cm.
Distribution  Average annual temperature is 18°-21°C.
 Humidity is 80 per cent.
 They occur in an irregular wide strip
running from the foot of the Himalayas to Distribution
 Eastern Himalayas to the east of 88°E Climatic Conditions

longitude at altitudes varying from 1000 to
2000 m.  Annual rainfall is 50-100 cm (15 to 25 cm
in December-March).
Characteristics  The summers are sufficiently hot and
winters are very cold.
 Forests of evergreen species. Page
 Commonly found species are evergreen Characteristics
|
oaks, chestnuts, ash, beech, sals and
pines.  Low scrub forest with small evergreen 487
 Climbers and epiphytes [a plant that stunted trees and shrubs.
grows non-parasitically on a tree or other  Olive, acacia modesta and pistacia are the
plant] are common. most predominant species.
 These forests are not so distinct in the Montane Temperate Forests
southern parts of the country. They occur
only in the Nilgiri and Palni hills at 1070- Montane Wet Temperate Forests
1525 metres above sea level.
 It is a "stunted rain-forest" and is not so Climatic Conditions
luxuriant as the true tropical evergreen.
 The higher parts of the Western Ghats  Grows at a height of 1800 to 3000 m
such as Mahabaleshwar, the summits of above sea level
the Satpura and the Maikal Range,  Mean annual rainfall is 150 cm to 300 cm
highlands of Bastar and Mt. Abu in the  Mean annual temperature is about 11°C
Aravali Range carry sub-types of these to 14°C and the
forests.  Average relative humidity is over 80 per
cent.
Sub-tropical Moist Pine Forests
Distribution
Distribution
 Higher hills of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, in
 Western Himalayas between 73°E and the Eastern Himalayan region.
88°E longitudes at elevations between
1000 to 2000 metres above sea level. Characteristics
 Some hilly regions of Arunachal Pradesh,
 These are closed evergreen forests. Trunks
Manipur, Naga Hills and Khasi Hills.
have large girth.
Timber  Branches are clothed with mosses, ferns
and other epiphytes.
 Chir or Chil is the most dominant tree  The trees rarely achieve a height of more
which forms pure stands. than 6 metres.
 It provides valuable timber for furniture,  Deodar, Chilauni, Indian chestnut, birch,
boxes and buildings. plum, machilus, cinnamomum, litsea,
 It is also used for producing resin and magnolia, blue pine, oak, hemlock, etc.
turpentine. are important species.
Sub-tropical Dry Evergreen Forests Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests
Distribution Climatic Conditions

 Found in the Bhabar, the Shiwaliks and  Annual rainfall varies from 150 cm to 250
the western Himalayas up to about 1000 cm
metres above sea level.
Distribution
 Occurs in the temperate zone of the  It is a mixture of coniferous and broad-

Himalayas between 1500 and 3300 leaved trees in which the coniferous trees
metres. attain a height of about 30 m while the
 Cover the entire length of this mountain broad leaved trees reach only 10 m.
range in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,  Fir, spruce, rhododendron, etc. are
Uttarakhand, Darjeeling and Sikkim. important species. Page
 The moist alpine scrub is a low evergreen
Characteristics dense growth of rhododendron, birch etc. |
 Mainly composed of coniferous species. which occurs from 3,000 metres and 488
extends upto snowline.
 Species occur in mostly pure strands.
 The dry alpine scrub is the uppermost
 Trees are 30 to 50 m high.
limit of scrub xerophytic, dwarf shrubs,
 Pines, cedars, silver firs, spruce, etc. are
over 3,500 metres above sea level and
most important trees.
found in dry zone. Juniper, honeysuckle,
 They form high but fairly open forest with artemesia etc. are important species.
shrubby undergrowth including oaks,
rhododendrons and some bamboos. Soil – Soil Types: Sandy-Clayey-Loamy.
Soil Profile – Soil Horizon: O horizon, A
Timber Horizon, E horizon, B Horizon, C Horizon
 It provides fine wood which is of much use or Parent rock, R Horizon or Bedrock.
for construction, timber and railway Soil
sleepers.
Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests  Soil is the thin top layer on the earth’s
crust comprising rock particles mixed with
Climatic Conditions organic matter.
 Pedology is the study of soils in their
 Precipitation is below 100 cm and is natural environment. Pedogenesis is the
mostly in the form of snow. natural process of soil formation that
includes a variety of processes such as
Characteristics weathering, leaching, calcification etc..
 Coniferous forests with xerophytic shrubs  The Soil formation is mainly related to the
in which deodar, oak, ash, olive, etc are parent rock material, surface relief,
the main trees. climate and natural vegetation.
 The soil is formed by the breaking down of
Distribution rocks by the action of wind, water and
climate. This process is called
 Such forests are found in the inner dry weathering.
ranges of the Himalayas where south-west
monsoon is very feeble. Soil Types – Sandy-Clayey-Loamy
 Such areas are in Ladakh, Lahul,
Chamba, Kinnaur, Garhwal and Sikkim.  The soil is classified on the basis of the
proportion of particles of various sizes.
Alpine Forests (a) If soil contains greater proportion of big
particles it is called sandy soil.
 Altitudes ranging between 2,900 to 3,500. (b) If the proportion of fine particles is
 These forests can be divided into: (1) sub- relatively higher, then it is called clayey
alpine; (2) moist alpine scrub and (3) dry soil.
alpine scrub. (c) If the amount of large and fine particles is
 The sub-alpine forests occur lower alpine about the same, then the soil is called
scrub and grasslands. loamy.
1. Water can drain quickly through the minerals. The humus makes the soil fertile
spaces between the sand particles. So, and provides nutrients to growing plants.
sandy soils tend to be light, well aerated  This layer is generally soft, porous and
and dry. can retain more water. It is called the
2. Clay particles, being much smaller, pack topsoil or the A-horizon.
tightly together, leaving little space for air.  The next layer has a lesser amount of Page
Unlike sandy soil, water can be held in the humus but more of minerals. This layer is
tiny gaps between the particles of clay. So generally harder and more compact and is |
clay soils have little air. But they are called the B-horizon or the middle layer. 489
heavy as they hold more water than the  The third layer is the C-horizon, which is
sandy soils. made up of small lumps of rocks with
3. The best topsoil for growing plants is cracks.
loam. Loamy soil is a mixture of sand, clay
and another type of soil particle known as O Horizon
silt. Silt occurs as a deposit in river beds.
The size of the silt particles is between  Layers dominated by organic material.
those of sand and clay. The loamy soil also  Some O layers consist of undecomposed or
has humus in it. It has the right water partially decomposed litter (such as
holding capacity for the growth of plants. leaves, needles, twigs, moss, and lichens).
 Clayey and loamy soils are both  They may be on top of either mineral or
suitable for growing cereals like wheat, organic soils.
and gram. Such soils are good at
retaining water. A Horizon or Surface soil
 For paddy, soils rich in clay and organic
 It is the part of top soil.
matter and having a good capacity to
 In this layer, organic matter is mixed with
retain water are ideal.
mineral matter.
 For lentils (masoor) and other pulses,
 It is the layer of mineral soil with the most
loamy soils, which drain water easily,
organic matter accumulation and soil life.
are required.
 This layer is depleted of (eluviated of) iron,
 For cotton, sandy loam or loam, which
clay, aluminum, organic compounds, and
drain water easily and can hold plenty
other soluble constituents.
of air, are more suitable.
 When depletion is pronounced, a lighter
Soil Profile – Soil Horizon colored "E" subsurface soil horizon is
apparent at the base of the "A" horizon.
 A vertical section through different layers
of the soil is called the soil profile. E horizon
 Each layer differs in feel (texture), colour,
 "E" stands for eluviated layer.
depth and chemical composition. These
 It is the horizon that has been
layers are referred to as horizons.
significantly leached of clay, iron, and
 A soil horizon is a layer generally parallel
aluminum oxides, which leaves a
to the soil surface, whose physical
concentration of resistant minerals, such
characteristics differ from the layers above
as quartz, in the sand and silt sizes.
and beneath.
 These are present only in older, well-
 Horizons are defined in most cases by
developed soils, and generally occur
obvious physical features, chiefly colour
between the A and B horizons.
and texture.
 The uppermost horizon is generally dark
in colour as it is rich in humus and
Page
|
490
B Horizon or Subsoil  These areas of bedrock are under 50 feet

of the other profiles.
 It is subsurface layer reflecting chemical
or physical alteration of parent material. Soil formation in Indian Conditions –
 This layer accumulates all the leached Factors that influence soil formation:
minerals from A and E horizon. Parent Material – Gondwana rocks &
 Thus iron, clay, aluminum and organic Deccan basalts, Relief, Climate & Natural
compounds accumulate in this horizon Vegetation.
[illuviation (opposite of eluviation)]. Factors that influence soil formation in
C Horizon or Parent rock Indian Conditions
 Weathered parent material accumulates in  Parent Material

this layer, i.e. the parent material in  Relief
sedimentary deposits.  Climate
 It is a layer of large unbroken rocks.  Natural Vegetation
 This layer may accumulate the more
soluble compounds (inorganic material).
R Horizon or Bedrock
 This layer denotes the layer of partially

weathered bedrock at the base of the soil
profile.
 Unlike the above layers, R horizons largely
comprise continuous masses of hard rock.
 Soils formed in situ will exhibit strong
similarities to this bedrock layer.
Parent Material
 The rocks from which soils are formed are  The soil is mostly devoid of metalliferous
called parent materials. minerals.
 In most of the cases, the parent material
determines the colouration, mineral Gondwana rocks
composition and texture of the soil.
 These rocks are also sedimentary in
 In some cases, the soil formed may or may Page
nature and they are much younger.
not have the same physical properties of
 On weathering they give rise to |
the parent rock.
comparatively less mature soils.
 Climatic factors induce chemical changes
 The soil is more or less of uniform 491
which also affect physical properties of the
character but of low fertility.
soil.
 The surface rocks are exposed to the Deccan basalts
process of weathering. In this process, the
rocks are converted into fine grains and  Volcanic outburst over a vast area of the
provide a base for the soil formation. Peninsular India many hundred million
 In Indian Conditions, parent material is years ago gave rise to Deccan Traps.
generally categorized into:  Basaltic lava flowed out of fissures
1. Ancient crystalline and metamorphic covering a vast area of about ten lakh sq
rocks km.
2. Cuddapah and Vindhyan rocks  Basalts are rich in titanium, magnetite,
3. Gondwana rocks aluminium and magnesium.
4. Deccan basalts  Consequently the weathering of these
5. Tertiary and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks has given rise to soils of darker
rocks of extra peninsular India {Rock colour.
System}  The is fertile with high moisture holding
capacity and is popularly known as
Ancient crystalline and metamorphic
‘regur’ or black cotton soil.
rocks
Tertiary and Mesozoic sedimentary
 They are the Oldest rocks [(pre-Cambrian rocks
era)(formed due to solidification of molten
magma about 4billion years ago)].  Rocks of extra peninsular (plains and
 They form the ‘Basement Complex’ of Himalayas) India have given rise to soils
peninsular India. with high porosity.
 They are basically granites, gniesses and  These soils are generally immature recent
schists. and sub recent rocks, result in alluvial
 These rocks are rich in ferromagnetic soils on weathering.
materials and give rise to red soils on  Alluvial fertile soils consist of fine silts and
weathering. clay. These soils have little relation with
 The red colour of these soils is due to the the original rocks.
presence of iron oxide.  On the other hand, the soils of peninsular
plateau are generally coarse-grained and
Cuddapah and Vindhyan rocks
are closely related to the parent rocks. The
 They are ancient sedimentary rocks (4000 peninsular soils are generally less fertile.
m thick). Relief
 On weathering they give calcareous
[containing calcium carbonate; chalky] and  The relief is the most important factor for
argillaceous [consisting of or containing clay] soil formation in places with steep slopes
soils. like the hilly regions, edges of plateaus
etc.
 Soil erosion on barren slopes is rampant carbonate and has low soil organic
and it hinders soil formation. Example: matter].
Chambal ravines, higher reaches of  In cold climates of the Himalayan region,
Himalayas where there is minimal or no the process of vegetation decay is very
forest cover (most on the steep southern slow and the soils are acidic in nature.
slopes) etc.
 The areas of low relief or gentle slope In areas of heavy rainfall and high Page
generally experience deposition and have temperature, the soils are red or |
deep soils. Example: Indo-Gangetic plain. lateritic. Why?
492
 The exceptions in the plateau are river  Torrential rainfall during the rainy season
basins where the soil layers are washes the upper soil and leaches the
sufficiently deep. materials into deeper horizon.
Climate  During the dry summer season the
evaporation exceeds precipitation and
 Temperature and rainfall are the most through capillary action iron and
important factors in soil formation. aluminium oxides are transported to the
 They determine the effectiveness of surface making the soil red.
weathering of the parent material, the  In areas of alternate wet and dry climate,
quantity of water seeping through the soil the leached material which goes deep
and the type of micro-organisms present down in the horizon is brought up and the
therein. blazing sun bakes the top soil so hard that
 Two different parent materials may it resembles a brick. Therefore, this soil is
develop the same soil in the same type of called lateritic which literally means
climate. Similarly, the same parent brick.
material may produce two different types
Natural Vegetation
of soils in two different types of climates.
 The crystalline granites produce  Natural vegetation reflects the combined
laterite soil in relatively moist parts of effects of relief and climate.
the monsoonal region and non-laterite  The formation and development of soil is
soil in drier areas. very much influenced by the growth of
 Hot summer and low rainfall develops vegetation.
black soil as is found in some parts of  The decayed leaf material adds much
Tamil Nadu irrespective of the parent needed humus to soil thereby increasing
rock. its fertility.
 In Rajasthan, both granite and  The densely forested areas contain some of
sandstone give birth to sandy soil under the best soils in India. There is a close
arid climate. relationship between the vegetation types
 In arid and semi-arid regions, evaporation and soil types in India.
always exceeds precipitation. There is little
vegetation and the soils badly lack humus Major Soil Groups of India – Alluvial Soils
content. Hence the soils are invariably of – Black Soils – Characteristics, Chemical
light colour. properties, Distribution, Crops, Geological
 In Rajasthan and the adjoining arid and divisions: Bhabar, Terai, Bhangar,
semi-arid regions, excess of evaporation Khadar.
makes soils lime accumulating. Hence the
soil is pedocal in nature [Pedocal is a Major Soil Groups of India
subdivision of the zonal soil order. It is a
class of soil which forms in semiarid and  Geologically, Indian soils can broadly be
arid regions. It is rich in calcium divided into soils of peninsular India and
soils of extra-peninsular India.
 The soils of Peninsular India are formed by  Major groups:

the decomposition of rocks in situ, i.e. (1) Alluvial soils,
directly from the underlying rocks. (2) Black soils,
 Soils of Peninsular India are transported (3) Red soils,
and re-deposited to a limited extent and (4) Laterite and Lateritic soils,
are known as sedentary soils. (5) Forest and Mountain soils, Page
 The soils of the Extra-Peninsula are (6) Arid and Desert soils,
formed due to the depositional work of (7) Saline and Alkaline soils and |
rivers and wind. They are very deep. They (8) Peaty and Marshy soils. 493
are often referred to as transported or
azonal soils.
Alluvial Soils  They are immature and have weak

profiles due to their recent origin.
 Alluvial soils are formed mainly due to silt  Most of the soil is loamy. Sandy and
deposited by Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra clayey soils are not uncommon.
rivers. In coastal regions some alluvial  Pebbly and gravelly soils are rare. Kankar
deposits are formed due to wave action. (calcareous concretions) beds are present
 Rocks of the Himalayas form the parent in some regions along the river terraces.
material. Thus the parent material of  The soil is porous because of its loamy
these soils is of transported origin. (equal proportion of sand and clay) nature.
 They are the largest soil group covering  Porosity and texture provide good drainage
about 15 lakh sq km or about 45.6 per and other conditions favorable for
cent of the total area. agriculture.
 They support more than 40% of the India’s  These soils are constantly replenished by
population by providing the most the recurrent floods.
productive agricultural lands.
Chemical properties of Alluvial Soils
Characteristics of Alluvial Soils
 The proportion of nitrogen is generally low.  The streams disappear once they reach
 The proportion of Potash, phosphoric acid the bhabar region because of this porosity.
and alkalies are adequate Therefore, the area is marked by dry river
 The proportion of Iron oxide and lime vary courses except in the rainy season.
within a wide range.  The area is not suitable for agriculture
and only big trees with large roots Page
Distribution of Alluvial Soils in India thrive in this belt.
|
 They occur all along the Indo-Gangetic- Terai
Brahmaputra plains except in few places 494
where the top layer is covered by desert  Terai is an ill-drained, damp (marshy)
sand. and thickly forested narrow tract (15-30
 They also occur in deltas of the Mahanadi, km wide) to the south of Bhabar running
the Godavari, the Krishna and the parallel to it.
Cauvery, where they are called deltaic  The underground streams of the Bhabar
alluvium (coastal alluvium) belt re-emerge in this belt. It is a swampy
 Some alluvial soils are found in the lowland with silty soils.
Narmada, Tapi valleys and Northern parts  The terai soils are rich in nitrogen and
of Gujarat. organic matter but are deficient in
phosphate.
Crops in Alluvial Soils  These soils are generally covered by tall
grasses and forests but are suitable for a
 They are mostly flat and regular soils and number of crops such as wheat, rice,
are best suited for agriculture. sugarcane, jute etc..
 They are best suited to irrigation and  This thickly forested region provides
respond well to canal and well/tube-well shelter to a variety of wild life.
irrigation.
 They yield splendid crops of rice, wheat, Bhangar
sugarcane, tobacco, cotton, jute, maize,
oilseeds, vegetables and fruits.  The Bhangar is the older alluvium along
the river beds forming terraces higher
Geological divisions of alluvial soils than the flood plain (about 30 metres
above the flood level).
 Geologically, the alluvium of the Great  It is of a more clayey composition and is
plain of India is divided into newer or generally dark colored.
younger khadar and older bhangar soils.  A few metres below the terrace of the
Bhabar bhangar are beds of lime nodules known
as kankar.
 The bhabar belt is about 8-16 km wide
Khadar
running along the Shiwalik foothills. It is a
porous, northern most stretch of Indo-  The Khadar is composed of newer
Gangetic plain. alluvium and forms the flood plains along
 Rivers descending from the Himalayas the river banks.
deposit their load along the foothills in the  The banks are flooded almost every year
form of alluvial fans. These alluvial fans and a new layer of alluvium is deposited
(often pebbly soils) have merged together with every flood. This makes them the
to build up the bhabar belt. most fertile soils of Ganges.
 The porosity of bhabar is the most unique  They are sandy clays and loams, more dry
feature. The porosity is due to deposition and leached, less calcareous and
of huge number of pebbles and rock debris carbonaceous (less kankary). A new layer
across the alluvial fans.
of alluvium is deposited by river flood a mixture of red and black may be found
almost every year. in this group of soils.
Black Soils Chemical Composition of Black Soils
 The parent material for most of the black  10 per cent of alumina,
soil are the volcanic rocks that were  9-10 per cent of iron oxide, Page
formed in the Deccan Plateau (Deccan and  6-8 per cent of lime and magnesium |
the Rajmahal trap). carbonates,
 In Tamil Nadu, gneisses and schists form  Potash is variable (less than 0.5 per cent) 495
the parent material. The former are and
sufficiently deep while the later are  phosphates, nitrogen and humus are
generally shallow. low.
 These are the region of high temperature
and low rainfall. It is, therefore, a soil Distribution of Black Soils
group typical to the dry and hot regions of
the Peninsula.  Spread over 5.46 lakh sq km (16.6 per
cent of the total area) across
Characteristics of Black Soils Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, parts of
Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh,
 A typical black soil is highly argillaceous Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.
[Geology (of rocks or sediment) consisting of or
containing clay] with a large clay factor, 62 Crops in Black Soils
per cent or more.
 In general, black soils of uplands are of  These soils are best suited for cotton crop.
low fertility while those in the valleys are Hence these soils are called as regur and
very fertile. black cotton soils.
 The black soil is highly retentive of  Other major crops grown on the black
moisture. It swells greatly on soils include wheat, jowar, linseed,
accumulating moisture. Strenuous effort virginia tobacco, castor, sunflower and
is required to work on such soil in rainy millets.
season as it gets very sticky.  Rice and sugarcane are equally important
 In summer, the moisture evaporates, the where irrigation facilities are available.
soil shrinks and is seamed with broad and  Large varieties of vegetables and fruits are
deep cracks. The lower layers can still also successfully grown on the black soils.
retain moisture. The cracks permits  This soil has been used for growing a
oxygenation of the soil to sufficient depths variety of crops for centuries without
and the soil has extraordinary fertility. adding fertilizers and manures, with little
or no evidence of exhaustion.
Colour of Black Soils
Indian Soil Types: Red Soils, Laterite –
 The black colour is due to the presence of Lateritic Soils, Forest – Mountain Soils,
a small proportion of titaniferous Arid – Desert Soils, Saline – Alkaline Soils,
magnetite or iron and black Peaty – Marshy Soils.
constituents of the parent rock.
Previous post: Alluvial Soil – Black Soil.
 In Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra
Pradesh, the black colour is derived from Red Soils
crystalline schists and basic gneisses.
 Various tints of the black colour such as  Red soils along with its minor groups form
deep black, medium black, shallow black , the largest soil group of India.
 The main parent rocks are crystalline and West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh; Aravalis and
metamorphic rocks like acid granites, the eastern half of Rajasthan (Mewar or
gneisses and quartzites. Marwar Plateau), parts of North-Eastern
states.
Characteristics of Red Soils
Crops in Red Soils
 The texture of these soils can vary from Page
sand to clay, the majority being loams.  The red soils are mostly loamy and hence |
 On the uplands, the red soils are poor, cannot retain water like the black soils.
gravelly, and porous. But in the lower  The red soils, with the proper use of 496
areas they are rich, deep dark and fertile. fertilizers and irrigation techniques, give
good yield of cotton, wheat, rice, pulses,
Chemical Composition of Red Soils millets, tobacco, oil seeds, potatoes and
fruits.
 They are acidic mainly due to the nature
of the parent rocks. The alkali content is Laterite – Lateritic Soils
fair.
 They are poor in lime, magnesia,  Laterite soils are mostly the end products
phosphates, nitrogen and humus. of weathering.
 They are fairly rich in potash and  They are formed under conditions of high
potassium. temperature and heavy rainfall with
alternate wet and dry periods.
Color of Red Soils  Heavy rainfall promotes leaching
(nutrients gets washed away by water)
 The red colour is due to the presence of of soil whereby lime and silica are leached
iron oxide. away and a soil rich in oxides of iron and
 When limestone, granites, gneisses and aluminium compounds is left behind.
quartzites are eroded the clay enclosed  ‘Laterite’ means brick in Latin. They
within the rocks remains intact with other harden greatly on loosing moisture.
forms of non-soluble materials.  Laterite soils are red in colour due to little
 In oxidizing conditions, rust or iron oxide clay and more gravel of red sand-stones.
develops in the clay, when the soil is
present above the water table giving the Chemical composition of Laterite –
soil a characteristic red colour. Lateritic Soils
 The colour is more due to the wide
diffusion rather than high percentage of  Laterite soils are rich in bauxite or ferric
iron oxide content. oxides.
 They are very poor in lime, magnesia,
Distribution of Red Soils potash and nitrogen.
 Sometimes, the phosphate content may
 These soils mostly occur in the regions of be high in the form of iron phosphate.
low rainfall.
 In wetter places, there may be higher
 They occupy about 3.5 lakh sq km (10.6 content of humus.
per cent) of the total area of the country.
 These soils are spread on almost the whole Distribution of Laterite – Lateritic Soils
of Tamil Nadu.
 Other regions with red soil include parts of  Laterite soils cover an area of 2.48 lakh sq
Karnataka, south-east of Maharashtra, km.
Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya  Continuous stretch of laterite soil is found
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Chota on the summits of Western Ghats at 1000
Nagpur plateau; parts of south Bihar, to 1500 m above mean sea level, Eastern
Ghats, the Rajmahal Hills, Vindhyan, slopes are very steep and exposed to
Satpuras and Malwa Plateau. denudation and hence do not support soil
 They also occur at lower levels and in formation.
valleys in several other parts of the  Forest soils occur in Western and Eastern
country. Ghats also.
 They are well developed in south
Maharashtra, parts of Karnataka etc. and Chemical properties of Forest – Page
are widely scattered in other regions. Mountain Soils |
Crops in Laterite – Lateritic Soils  The forest soils are very rich in humus. 497
 They are deficient in potash, phosphorus
 Laterite soils lack fertility due to intensive and lime.
leaching.  They require good deal of fertilizers for
 When manured and irrigated, some high yields.
laterites are suitable for growing
plantation crops like tea, coffee, rubber, Crops in Forest – Mountain Soils
cinchona, coconut, arecanut, etc.
 In some areas, these soils support grazing  They are suitable for plantations of tea,
grounds and scrub forests. coffee, spices and tropical fruits in
peninsular forest region.
Economic value of Laterite – Lateritic  Wheat, maize, barley and temperate fruits
Soils are grown in the Himalayan forest region.
 Laterite and lateritic soils provide valuable Arid – Desert Soils

building material.
 These soils can be easily cut into cakes  The desert soils consist of Aeolian sand
but hardens like iron when exposed to air. (90 to 95 per cent) and clay (5 to 10 per
 As it is the end-product of weathering, it cent).
cannot be weathered much further and is  They cover a total area of 1.42 lakh sq km
durable. (4.32%).
 The presence of sand inhibits soil growth.
Forest – Mountain Soils Desertification of neighboring soils is
common due to intrusion of desert sand
 These soils occupy about 2.85 lakh sq km under the influence of wind [Aeolian
or 8.67% of the total land area of India. sand].
 They are mainly heterogeneous soils
found on the hill slopes covered by forests. Distribution of Arid – Desert Soils
 The formation of these soils is mainly
 Occur in arid and semi-arid regions of
governed by the characteristic deposition
Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana. The sand
of organic matter derived from forests and
here is blown from the Indus basin and
their character changes with parent
the coast by the prevailing south-west
rocks, ground-configuration and climate.
monsoon winds.
 Consequently, they differ greatly even if
 Sandy soils without clay factor are also
they occur in close proximity to one
common in coastal regions of Odisha,
another.
Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Distribution of Forest – Mountain Soils
Chemical properties of Arid – Desert
 In the Himalayan region, such soils are Soils
mainly found in valleys, less steep and
 They are usually poor in organic matter.
north facing slopes. The south facing
 Some desert soils are alkaline with  Capillary action is the ability of a liquid to
varying degree of soluble salts like flow in narrow spaces without the
calcium carbonate. assistance of, and in opposition to,
 Calcium content increases downwards external forces like gravity.
and the subsoil has ten times more  The force behind capillary action is
calcium. surface tension. Page
 The phosphate content of these soils is as
high as in normal alluvial soils. |
 Nitrogen is originally low but some of it is 498
available in the form of nitrates.
Crops of Arid – Desert Soils
 Phosphates and nitrates make these soil

fertile wherever moisture is available.
 There is a possibility of reclaiming these Surface tension
soils if proper irrigation facilities are  Surface tension is the elastic tendency of
available. liquids (a membrane like surface) that
 In large areas, only the drought resistant makes them acquire the least surface area
and salt tolerant crops such as barley, possible.
cotton, millets, maize and pulses are  Surface tension causes insects (e.g. water
grown. striders), usually denser than water, to
float and stride on the water surface.
Saline – Alkaline Soils
 Surface tension offers the necessary
 In Saline and Alkaline Soils, the top soil is buoyant force (buoyancy) required for an
impregnated (soak or saturate with a object to float in water [Ships flots
substance) with saline and alkaline because of difference in density as well
efflorescences (become covered with salt surface tension].
particles).
 Undecomposed rock fragments, on
weathering, give rise to sodium,
magnesium and calcium salts and
sulphurous acid.
 Some of the salts are transported in
solution by the rivers.
 In regions with low water table, the salts What gives water droplet its shape?
percolate into sub soil and in regions with  When a water droplet is freely falling, it
good drainage, the salts are wasted away acquires a spherical shape.
by flowing water.  When a water drop is on a surface, it
 But in places where the drainage system acquires the shape of a hemisphere (half a
is poor, the water with high salt sphere).
concentration becomes stagnant and  All this is due to surface tension.
deposits all the salts in the top soil once
the water evaporates.
 In regions with high sub-soil water table,
injurious salts are transferred from below
by the capillary action as a result of
evaporation in dry season.
Capillary action This kind of trivial GK can help in many
exams.  They are deficient in potash and

Distribution of Saline – Alkaline Soils phosphate.
 Saline and Alkaline Soils occupy 68,000 Crops of Peaty – Marshy Soils
sq km of area.
 These soils are found in canal irrigated  Most of the peaty soils are under water
areas and in areas of high sub-soil water during the rainy season but as soon the Page
table. rains cease, they are put under paddy |
 Parts of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, cultivation.
499
Karnataka, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Characteristics of Indian Soils
Haryana, Punjab (side effects of improper
or excess irrigation), Rajasthan and  Most soils are old and mature. Soils of the
Maharashtra have this kind of soils. peninsular plateau are much older than
 The accumulation of these salts makes the the soils of the great northern plain.
soil infertile and renders it unfit for  Indian soils are largely deficient in
agriculture. nitrogen, mineral salts, humus and
 In Gujarat, the areas around the Gulf of other organic materials.
Khambhat are affected by the sea tides  Plains and valleys have thick layers of
carrying salt-laden deposits. Vast areas soils while hilly and plateau areas depict
comprising the estuaries of the Narmada, thin soil cover.
the Tapi, the Mahi and the Sabarmati  Some soils like alluvial and black soils are
have thus become infertile. fertile while some other soils such as
 Along the coastline, saline sea waters laterite, desert and alkaline soils lack in
infiltrate into coastal regions during storm fertility and do not yield good harvest.
surges (when cyclones make landfall) and  Indian soils have been used for cultivation
makes the soil unfit for cultivation. The for hundreds of years and have lost much
low lying regions of coastal Andhra of their fertility.
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu face this kind of
soil degradation. Problems Of Indian Soils
Peaty – Marshy Soils  Soil erosion (Himalayan region, Chambal
Ravines etc.), deficiency in fertility (Red,
 These are soils with large amount of lateritic and other soils), desertification
organic matter and considerable (around Thar desert, rain-shadow regions
amount of soluble salts. like parts of Karnataka, Telangana etc.),
 The most humid regions have this type of waterlogging (Punjab-Haryana plain)
soil. salinity and alkalinity (excessively
 They are black, heavy and highly acidic. irrigated regions of Punjab, Haryana,
Karnataka etc.), wasteland, over
Distribution of Peaty – Marshy Soils
exploitation of soils due to increase in
 Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of population and rise in living standards
Kerala where it is called kari. and encroachment of agricultural land
due to urban and transport development.
 Also occur in the coastal areas of Odisha
and Tamil Nadu, Sunderbans of West Soil Degradation – Soil Erosion,
Bengal, in Bihar and Almora district of Deforestation, Overgrazing, Faulty
Uttarakhand. Methods of Agriculture, Soil Salinity and
Soil Alkalinity, Desertification &
Chemical Properties of Peaty – Marshy
Waterlogging.
Soils
Soil Degradation
 Soil degradation is the decline in soil chemical (salinity and alkalinity, pollution)
quality caused by its improper use, and biological deterioration (pollution and
usually for agricultural, pastoral, deterioration of vegetal cover).
industrial or urban purposes.
 Soil degradation is a serious global We will see pollution and soil degradation
environmental problem and may be white studying environment.
Page
exacerbated by climate change. It For now we will study about the rest.
encompasses physical (soil erosion), |
500
Pic: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/  Soil erosion is the removal of top soil by

agents like wind and water.
Soil Erosion  Top soil has most of the nutrients
necessary for a plant’s growth. With
depth, the fertility of the soil decreases. the top layer. In estuaries, tidal bores
Thus, erosion results in reduction of cause extensive damage to the
fertility of the soil by washing away the surrounding banks. This is called sea
fertile top layer. erosion.
 Erosion by wind and water is much  In the higher reaches of the Himalayan
quicker than the soil formation process. region, soil erosion is caused by sowing Page
So once fertile soil layer is lost, it requires moving glaciers. This is called glacial
a lot of time and resources to restore it. erosion. |
 Prevention is a more practical measure. It 501
is less time and resource consuming. Wind Erosion
 In India’s case, the problem of soil erosion
 Wind erosion or Aeolian erosion is quite
is particularly severe due to over
significant in arid and semi-arid regions.
dependence on agriculture and improper
land management.  Winds usually blow at high speeds in
deserts due to absence of trees (physical
 Notable Quotable: “Soil erosion is
obstruction).
essentially a problem created by man
and also faced by man himself.”  These winds remove the fertile, arable,
loose soils leaving behind a depression
Water Erosion devoid of top soil (the depression
formation in deserts is the first step in
 Water erosion leads to rilling, gullying, Oasis formation. Oasis forms in
sheet-wash and rain peeling. depressions when there is underground
 If erosion continues unchecked for a long water that gets accumulated above rocks).
time, numerous finger-shaped grooves  Desertification around desert regions is
may develop in the silt laden soils. The due to wind erosion.
whole pattern resembles the shape of a  Wind erosion is accentuated when the soil
tree. This is called rill erosion. is dry, soils are subjected to overgrazing
 With further erosion of the soil, the rills and devoid of vegetation cover.
deepen and become enlarged and are  Very fine and medium sands are moved by
turned into gullies. Gullies formed over a wind in a succession of bounds and leaps,
large area gives rise to badland known as saltation.
topography (Chambal Ravines).  Coarse sand is not usually airborne but
 When a gully bed is eroded further, the rather is rolled along the soil surface. This
bed gradually deepens and flattens out type of erosion is called surface creep.
and a ravine is formed. The depth of a  Very coarse sand and gravels are too large
ravine may extend to 30 metres or more. to be rolled by wind, so wind-eroded soils
 Further erosion of ravine beds gives rise to have surfaces covered with coarse
canyons. Canyons are few hundred fragments larger than 1.00 mm in
meters deep and wide. (Grand Canyon on diameter. This kind of arid soil surface is
Colorado River). known as desert pavement.
 When the entire top sheet of soil is washed
away by water or by wind, leaving behind Extent Of Soil Erosion In India
barren rock, it is called sheet erosion.
Sheet erosion attacks a large area of top  80 million hectares or about one-fourth of
soil and renders the land almost unfit for our total area is exposed to wind and
cultivation. water erosion.
 In the coastal areas, waves dash along the  One-eighth of land has undergone serious
coast and cause heavy damage to soil. erosion.
During the landfall of cyclones, storm  Wind erosion is a serious problem in arid
surges destroy beaches and wash away and semi-arid parts of north west India.
 About one-ninth of land is subject to  The large scale damage to soil in Shiwalik
severe wind erosion in Rajasthan and range, the Chos of Punjab, the ravines of
adjoining areas of Punjab, Haryana, Chambal valley are due to deforestation.
Gujarat and Western Uttar Pradesh.
 It is estimated that 34 lakh tonnes of Major Causes of Deforestation
fertile soils is removed by wind every year.
 Indiscriminate felling of trees as a result of Page
 The loss due to water erosion is 53.34
agricultural operations, urbanization, |
million hectares annually.
industrialization, infrastructure
Factors affecting Soil Erosion development, mining operations, and use 502
of wood for domestic and other purposes,
 Intensity and duration of rainfall, have resulted in depletion of forests.
 Wind speed,
Shifting cultivation
 Nature of soil and the physiography,
 Strong winds in dry areas,  In this practice a patch of land is cleared,
 Human density, vegetation is burned and the ash is mixed
 Deforestation, with the soil thus adding nutrients to the
 Overgrazing, soil.
 Faulty methods of agriculture,  This patch of land is used for raising crops
 Diversion of natural drainage courses, for two to three years, and the yield is
 Wrong orientation of roads and railways, modest.
embankments and bridges.  Then this area is abandoned and is left to
recover its fertility, and the same practice
Effects of Soil Erosion is repeated elsewhere on a fresh piece of
land.
 Fertile top soil is eroded.  This agricultural practice has become
 Flooding and leaching result in loss of totally unsustainable due to raid increase
mineral nutrients. in population pressure in the forested
 Ground water level is lowered. areas.
 There is decrease in soil moisture.
 Desertification. Development project and Mining
 Frequency and intensity of floods and
 Population pressure and development
drought increases.
agenda have resulted in indiscriminate
 Rivers, canals and tanks are silted and development of infrastructure, water
their water holding capacity decreases. reservoirs and dams, hydro power
 The incidence and damaging power of projects, roads and railways etc. This led
landslides increases. to greater deforestation.
Deforestation  Open cast mining has resulted in
deforestation all over the world.
 Population explosion has created pressure Plantation Boom
on forest land and resources and this
causes deforestation. Deforestation  Increase in demand for cocoa, coffee, tea,
accentuates soil erosion (soil degradation). sugar, palm oil, rubber etc. have resulted
 Roots of trees and plants bind the soil in deforestation in the tropical rainforests.
particles and regulate the flow of water,
thus saving soil from erosion. Fuel Requirements
Deforestation make soil vulnerable to wind
and water erosion.  The increasing demand for firewood with
ever. growing population increases greater
pressure on the forests, which results in  Much of the mining activity in India is
increased intensity of deforestation. being carried out in forest regions. The
obvious result is deforestation and soil
Demand for Forest Resources erosion.
 Population pressure coupled with changes  Underground mining also significantly
in standard of living have increased the denudes forests because timber is used for Page
demand for forest resources. supporting the roofs of mine galleries.
 A large number of abandoned mines are |
Raw Materials lying in bad shape and are under 503
extensive gully erosion leading to
 Wood is used as a raw material by various degradation of the habitat.
industries for making paper, plywood,  Deforestation affects the biota and
furniture, match sticks, boxes, crates, neighboring ecosystems, soil erosion, land
packing cases, etc. degradation, alteration of ground water
 Industries also obtain their raw materials channels, pollution and scarce.
from plants such as drugs, scents and
perfumes, resin, gums, waxes, turpentine, Overgrazing
latex and rubber, tannis, alkaloids, bees
wax.  During the rainy season, there is plenty of
 This exerted tremendous pressure on vegetation and animals get enough fodder.
forest ecosystem and their unrestricted  But during the dry period, there is
exploitation for various other raw shortage of fodder and the grass is grazed
materials is the main cause of degradation to the ground and torn out by the roots by
of the forest ecosystem. animals.
 This leads to loose structure of the soil
Other Causes and the soil is easily washed away by
rains.
 Deforestation also results from
 Moreover, soil is pulverized (reduce to fine
overgrazing, agriculture, mining,
particles) by the hoofs of animals, and thus
urbanization, flood, fire, pest, diseases,
proves detrimental to top soil when heavy
defense and communication activities.
showers fall on it.
Effects of Deforestation  Soil erosion due to overgrazing is a
common site in the hilly areas.
 Closed forests (based on canopy level)
have being diminished due to Faulty Methods of Agriculture
deforestation leading to increase in
degraded forests.  Much of the soil erosion in India is caused
 Forests recycle moisture (natural motors) by faulty methods of agriculture.
from soil into their immediate atmosphere  Wrong ploughing, lack of crop rotation
by transpiration where it again and practice of shifting cultivation are the
precipitates as rain. most adversely affecting methods of
 Deforestation results in an immediate agriculture.
lowering of ground water level (low  If the fields are ploughed along the slope,
percolation due to quick surface runoff on there is no obstruction to the flow of water
barren lands) and in long-term reduction and the water washes away the top soil
of precipitation. easily.
 Due to deforestation, this natural reuse  In some parts of the country, the same
cycle is broken and water is lost through crop is grown year after year which spoils
rapid run off. the chemical balance of the soil. This soil
is exhausted and is easily eroded by wind
or water.
 Shifting cultivation practiced in some the salts of saline soils both soils occur in
areas in the north-eastern states. In this the same areas.
method, a piece of forest land is cleared by  Sandy soils are more prone to alkalinity
felling and burning of trees and crops are and the loamy soils to salinity-alkalinity.
grown. The removal of the forest cover  It is estimated that about 80 lakh hectares
leads to the exposure of the soil to rains of land (2.43% of the country's total area) Page
and sun which results in heavy loss of top is affected by the problem of salinity and
soil, especially on the hill slopes. alkalinity. |
 Vast tracts of canal irrigated areas in 504
Soil Salinity and Soil Alkalinity Uttar Pradesh. Punjab and Haryana; arid
regions of Rajasthan, semi-arid areas of
 In Saline and Alkaline Soils, the top soil is Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,
impregnated (soak or saturate with a substance) Telangana and Karnataka etc. are facing
with saline and alkaline efflorescences this problem.
(become covered with salt particles).
 Although Indira Gandhi canal in
 Undecomposed rock fragments, on Rajasthan has turned the sandy desert
weathering, give rise to sodium, into a granary, it has given birth to serious
magnesium and calcium salts and problems of salinity and alkalinity.
sulphurous acid.
 Some of the salts are transported in Effects of salinity and alkalinity
solution by the rivers.
 In regions with low water table (due to  Salinity and alkalinity have adverse effect
over irrigation in canal irrigated areas), the on soil and reduce soil fertility.
salts percolate into sub soil and in regions  Cultivation is not possible on saline soils
with good drainage, the salts are wasted unless they are flushed out with large
away by flowing water. quantities of irrigation water to leach out
 But in places where the drainage system the salts.
is poor, the water with high salt  Choice of crops is limited to salinity
concentration becomes stagnant and tolerant crops like cotton, barley etc..
deposits all the salts in the top soil once  Quality of fodder and food produced in
the water evaporates. poor in quality.
 In regions with high sub-soil water table,  Salinity and alkalinity create difficulties in
injurious salts are transferred from below building and road construction.
by the capillary action as a result of  These cause floods due to reduced
evaporation in dry season. percolation of water.
 In canal irrigated areas plenty of the water
is available and the farmers indulge in Steps to treat salinity and alkalinity
over irrigation of their fields.
 Under such conditions, the ground water  Providing outlets for lands to drain out
level rises and saline and alkaline excess water and lower water table.
efflorescences consisting of salts of  Seal leakages from canals, tanks and
sodium, calcium and magnesium appear other water bodies by lining them.
on the surface as a layer of white salt  Making judicious use of irrigation
through capillary action. facilities.
 Alkalinity implies the dominance of  Improve vegetal cover to avoid further
sodium salts, specially sodium degradation by planting salt tolerant
carbonate. vegetation.
 Although salts of alkali are somewhat  Crop rotation..
different in their chemical properties from  Liberal application of gypsum to convert
the alkalies into soluble compounds.
 Alkali can be removed by adding sulphuric  Increase in frequency and intensity of

acid or acid forming substances like droughts.
sulphur and pyrite.
 Organic residues such as rice husks and Measures of Controlling Desertification
rice straw can be added to promote
formation of mild acid as a result of their  Intensive tree plantation in the transition
zones. Page
decomposition.
 Flushing the salt by flooding the fields  Mulching shifting sand dunes in deserts |
with excess water. However, this practice with different plant species. Mulches serve
can lead to accumulation of saline water as an effective physical barrier to the 505
in the downstream area. moving sand.
 Grazing should be controlled and new
Desertification pastures should be developed.
 Indiscriminate felling of trees should be
 Desertification is the spread of desert like banned.
conditions in arid or semi-arid areas due  Alternative sources of fuel can reduce the
to man's influence or climatic change. demand for fuelwood.
 A large part of the arid and semi-arid  Sandy and wastelands should be put to
region lying between the Indus and the proper use by judicious planning.
Aravali range is affected by spreading
desert conditions. Waterlogging
 Desert soils suffer maximum erosion by
wind. The sand carried by wind is  The flat surfaces and depressions results
deposited on the adjoining fertile lands in waterlogging.
whose fertility dwindles and slowly the  Waterlogged soils are soaked with water
fertile land start merging with the accumulated during rainy season or due
advancing desert. to leakage from various water sources.
 It has been estimated that the Thar Desert  Extent of waterlogged soils is about 12
is advancing at an alarming rate of about million hectares in India – half of which
0.5 km per year. lies along the coast and the other half in
 The process of desertification is attributed the inland area.
to uncontrolled grazing, reckless felling of  Waterlogging is believed to be one of the
trees and growing population. Climate chief causes of salinity.
change have also contributed to the  Proper layout of drainage schemes is the
spread of deserts. only way to overcome the menace of
waterlogging.
Ecological implications of  The basic methods of removing excess
desertification water from waterlogged soils are (a)
surface drainage and (b) vertical drainage.
 Drifting of sand and its accumulation on (a) Surface Drainage. Surface drainage
fertile agricultural land. involves the disposal of excess water over
 Excessive soil erosion by wind and to ground surface through an open drainage
some extent by water. system with an adequate outlet.
 Deposition of sand in rivers, lakes and (b) Vertical Drainage. Any bore or well from
other water bodies thereby decreasing which the underlying water is extracted is
their water containing capacity. defined as vertical drainage. It works well
 Lowering of water table leading to acute in Indo-Gangetic plain where the pumped
water shortage. water is used for irrigating the neighboring
 Increase in area under wastelands. regions.
 Decrease in agricultural production.
Soil Conservation – Crop Rotation, Strip Strip Cropping

Cropping, Use of Early Maturing Varieties,
Contour Ploughing, Checking Shifting  Crops may be cultivated in alternate
Cultivation, Ploughing the Land in Right strips, parallel to one another. Some strips
Direction, Mulching, Contour barriers, may be allowed to lie fallow while in others
Terrace farming, Contour Bunding, different crops may be sown.
Page
Intercropping, Contour ploughing, Shelter  Various crops are harvested at different
belts or Windbreaks, Sand fences, intervals. This ensures that at no time of |
Afforestation, Checking Overgrazing. the year the entire area is left bare or
506
exposed.
Soil Conservation  The tall growing crops act as wind breaks
and the strips which are often parallel to
 Soil conservation is the prevention of soil the contours help in increasing water
from erosion or reduced fertility caused by absorption by the soil by slowing down
overuse, acidification, salinization or other run off.
chemical soil contamination.
 Soil erosion is the greatest single evil to Use of Early Maturing Varieties
Indian agriculture and animal husbandry.
 Notable Quotable from Kullar’s Indian  Early maturing varieties of crops take less
Geography: “With soil conservation people time to mature and thus put lesser
rise and with its destruction they fall. pressure on the soil. In this way it can
Neglect of soil is like killing the hen that help in reducing the soil erosion.
lays the golden egg.”
Contour Ploughing
Crop Rotation
 If ploughing is done at right angles to the
 Adopting sustainable agricultural hill slope, the ridges and furrows break
practices is the most important measure the flow of water down the hill.
to conserve soil.  This prevents excessive soil loss as gullies
 In many parts of India, a particular crop is are less likely to develop and also reduce
sown in the same field year after year. run-off so that plants receive more water.
This practice leads to exhaustion of
certain nutrients in the soil making it Checking Shifting Cultivation
infertile.
 Checking and reducing shifting cultivation
 Crop rotation is a practice in which a
by persuading the tribal people to switch
different crop is cultivated on a piece of
over to settled agriculture is a very
land each year.
effective method of soil conservation.
 This helps to conserve soil fertility as
 This can be done by making arrangements
different crops require different nutrients
for their resettlement which involves the
from the soil. Crop rotation will provide
provision of residential accommodation,
enough time to restore lost nutrients.
agricultural implements, seeds, manures,
 For example, potatoes require much
cattle and reclaimed land.
potash but wheat requires nitrate. Thus it
is best to alternate crops in the field. Ploughing the Land in Right Direction
 Legumes such as peas, beans, and many
other plants, add nitrates to the soil by  Ploughing the land in a direction
converting free nitrogen in the air into perpendicular to wind direction also
nitrogenous nodules on their roots. Thus if reduces wind velocity and protects the top
they are included in the crop rotation soil from erosion.
nitrogenous fertilizers can be dispensed
with. Mulching
 The bare ground (top soil) between plants crops. They can reduce surface run-off
is covered with a protective layer of and soil erosion.
organic matter like grass clippings, straw,
etc.
Benefits
Page
 Protects the soil from erosion.
|
 It helps to retain soil moisture.
 Reduces compaction from the impact of 507
heavy rains. Contour Bunding
 Conserves moisture, reducing the need for
frequent watering.  Contour bunding involves the
 Maintains a more even soil temperature. construction of banks along the contours.
 Prevents weed growth.  Terracing and contour bunding which
 Organic mulches also improve the divide the hill slope into numerous small
condition of the soil. As these mulches slopes, check the flow of water, promote
slowly decompose, they provide organic absorption of water by soil and save soil
matter which helps keep the soil loose. from erosion.
 Retaining walls of terraces control the flow
Contour barriers of water and help in reducing soil erosion.
 Stones, grass, soil are used to build Intercropping

barriers along contours. Trenches are
made in front of the barriers to collect  Different crops are grown in alternate rows
water. and are sown at different times to protect
 They intercept downslope flowing water the soil from rain wash.
and soil particles. These barriers slow
Contour ploughing
down the water movement and reduce its
erosive force. They also filter out and trap  Ploughing parallel to the contours of a hill
many of the suspended soil particles, slope to form a natural barrier for water to
keeping them from being washed out of flow down the slope
the field.
 A long term advantage of barriers is that Shelter belts or Windbreaks
soil tends to build up behind them,
creating a terrace effect. Barriers can be  In the coastal and dry regions, rows of
classified as live (strips of living plants), trees are planted to check the wind
dead (rocks, crop residues), or mixed (a movement to protect soil cover.
combination of the previous two).
Rock dam
 Rocks are piled up across a channel to

slow down the flow of water. This prevents
gullies and further soil loss.
Terrace farming
 In terracing, a number of terraces are cut

along the hill slope.
 These are made on the steep slopes so
that flat surfaces are available to grow
Sand fences across the rivers in proper places. This

checks the speed of water and saves soil
 Sand fences are barriers made of small, from erosion.
evenly spaced wooden slats or fabric. They  But indiscriminate dam construction can
are erected to reduce wind velocity and to worsen the condition by creating floods
trap blowing sand. Sand fences can be and landslides like it happens in the Page
used as perimeter controls around open Himalayan region.
construction sites to keep sediments from |
being blown offsite by the wind. Economic Geography 508
Iron Ore – Raw Material, Commonly found
impurities in Iron Ore, What exactly
happens in a blast furnace? Beneficiation.
Iron Ore Distribution Across the World.
Factors that influence the location of

Iron and Steel industry
 Raw materials – iron ore, coal, limestone,

Afforestation
etc.
 It includes the prevention of forest  Transportation and other infrastructure –
destruction along with growing new forests road, rail, ports etc.
or increase area under forests.  Investment and Entrepreneurship =
 A minimum area 20 to 25 per cent of banking facilities, human capital for
forest land was considered healthy for soil managerial roles.
and water conservation for the whole  Land.
country.  Labour – unskilled to semi-skilled
 It was raised to 33 per cent in the second workforce for manual operations, skilled
five year plan – 20 per cent for the plains workforce for technical operations.
and 60 per cent for hilly and mountainous  Market – construction industry,
regions. automobile industry etc.
 Government policy – Development agenda,
Checking Overgrazing land acquisition, ease of doing business =
labor laws, unambiguous and fair taxation
 Overgrazing accentuates erosion. During policy, least government interference, less
the dry period, there is shortage of fodder red tapeism, quick environmental
and the grass is grazed to the ground and clearance [Read more from:
torn out to the roots by animals. Soil is www.mrunal.org/geography].
pulverized (reduce to fine particles) by the hoofs
of animals. All this leads to weak top Iron Ore – Raw Material
layer.
 So overgrazing needs to be checked to The below data is important for
prevent soil erosion. Prelims [Will be helpful to answer some
 This can be done by creating separate logic based questions in mains]
grazing grounds and producing larger
 To understand about the factors that
quantities of fodder.
influence the location of Iron and Steel
Dams Industry, we have to understand about
iron ore smelting.
 Much of the soil erosion by river floods  Smelting is a process of converting ore to
can be avoided by constructing dams metal by removing impurities.
Commonly found impurities in Iron Ore Of the impurities, some are beneficial
when present in small quantities while the
Silicon others are harmful no matter what their
proportion is.
 Found in small quantities.
 Slightly raises the Strength and Hardness So, the unwanted impurities must be
of Steel. removed and this is done by smelting Page
 Acts as a de-oxidizing Agent ==> small iron ore in a blast furnace. |
quantities is good. [Oxides decrease the
What exactly happens in a blast 509
strength of Iron]
furnace?
Sulphur
 In a blast furnace, fuel (coke), iron ore,
 A VERY harmful element. and flux (limestone) are continuously
 Forms Iron Sulphide which is a very supplied through the top of the furnace.
brittle substance.  A hot blast of air (sometimes with oxygen
 Greatly reducing the Strength of Steel ==> enrichment) is blown into the lower
very bad. section.
 In a blast furnace, iron oxides are
Phosphorous converted into liquid iron called "hot
metal".
 Combines with Iron to form a Phosphide.
 It increases the hardness and Tensile [Oxides make iron brittle. To make iron
strength of Steel. strong the oxides need to be removed]
 It SERIOUSLY affects the ductility and
Inputs in to blast furnace
resistance to shock or impact ==> bad.
Lead  Ore  iron ore,

 Fuel  coke,
 Added to all classes of Steel to improve the  Flux  limestone,
machinability of the Steel.
 It improves tool life ==> small quantities Output
is good.  Final product  liquid slag, liquid iron
Manganese (pig iron) and gases.
Beneficiation = Improve Concentration

 A powerful and most effective de-
of Iron
oxidant.
 Has a good effect on Sulphur ==> small  Ore is either Hematite (Fe2O3) or
quantities is good. Magnetite (Fe3O4) and the iron content
Tin ranges from 50% to 70%.
 This iron rich ore can be charged directly
 It forms a low melting point brittle film into a blast furnace without any further
round the grain boundaries making the processing.
Steel practically useless ==> very bad.  Iron ore that contains a lower iron content
must be processed or beneficiated to
Oxygen increase its iron content.
 Has a bad influence on the properties of [Beneficiation  Improves the

steel ==> very bad. [Oxides make Iron concentration of iron ore]
and steel weak]
Why coke and not coal in smelting?
 To separate impurities, iron needs to be So CO and CO2 are the gaseous

melted. pollutants coming out of blast furnace.
 The coke is the fuel that melts iron.
Pig Iron
 Coal has many impurities and the most
dangerous one is SULPHUR.
 Pig iron is the intermediate product of
 Coal is cooked to produce coke. This Page
smelting iron ore.
process is called destructive distillation.
 Iron (Fe) = 93.5 - 95.0% |
 Coke is a fuel with few impurities and a
 Silicon (Si) = 0.30 - 0.90%
high carbon content. 510
 Sulfur (S) = 0.025 - 0.050%
 The cooked coal, called coke contains 90
 Manganese (Mn) = 0.55 - 0.75%
to 93% carbon, some ash and sulfur but
compared to raw coal is very strong.  Phosphorus (P) = 0.03 - 0.09%
 Titanium (Ti) = 0.02 - 0.06%
Role of limestone = Remove Sulphur  CARBON (C) = 4.1 - 4.4% [The strength of
steel can be varied by varying the carbon
 It is acts as flux (a substance mixed with content]
a solid to lower the melting point,
especially in smelting). Cast iron
 Limestone melts and reacts with Sulphur
to form Slag (All solid and liquid  Carbon content greater than 2%.
impurities).  Carbon (C) and silicon (Si) are the main
alloying elements.
[Limestone marries Sulphur and takes  Cast iron tends to be brittle.
it away from Iron == Very Good]  Applications: automotive industry parts,
cast iron pan.
CaCO3 = CaO + CO2
Steel
The CaO formed from this reaction is used
to remove sulfur from the iron.  Carbon content is up to 2.1% (by
FeS + CaO + C = CaS + FeO + CO weight).
Stainless steel
 The CaS [newly married couple] becomes
part of the slag.
 Steel alloy with a minimum of 10.5%
 The slag is also formed from any
chromium content by mass.
remaining Silica (SiO2), Alumina (Al2O3),
 Nickel is another important element of
Magnesia (MgO) or Calcia (CaO) that
steel alloy.
entered with the iron ore or coke.
 Also contains manganese, molybdenum,
 The liquid slag then trickles to the bottom
and other metals.
of the furnace where it floats on top of
 Stainless steel does not readily corrode,
the liquid iron since it is less dense.
rust or stain with water as ordinary steel
Reduction = Remove Oxygen does.
 Oxygen in the iron oxides is reduced Wrought iron

(removed) by a series of chemical
 Cast iron assumes its finished shape the
reactions.
moment the liquid iron alloy cools down in
1) 3Fe2O3 + CO = CO2 + 2Fe3O4
the mold.
2) Fe3O4 + CO = CO2 + 3 FeO
3) FeO + CO = CO2 + Fe  Wrought iron is a very different material
made by mixing liquid iron with some
CO or CARBON MONOXIDE is produced slag.
by burning coke.
 The result is an iron alloy with a much in large quantities in the mid-19th
lower carbon content. century.
 Wrought iron is softer than cast iron and
much less tough, so you can heat it up to Iron Ore Distribution Across the World
shape it relatively easily, and it's also
Iron Ore in China – Manchuria,
much less prone to rusting.
Sinkiang, Si-kiang, Shandog Peninsula Page
 Wrought iron is what people used to use
before they really mastered making steel |
511
Iron Ore in Europe – Ruhr, South Whales, Krivoy Rog, Bilbao, Lorraine
Iron ore Africa Transvaal, Liberia
Page
|
512
Iron ore in Russia, Kazakhstan – Ural region, Magnitogorsk
Iron Ore in North America – Great Lakes [Mesabi Region], Labrador
Page
|
513
Iron Ore in South America – Carajas, Itabira, Minas Geriais
Iron Ore in Australia – Pilbara Region, Koolyanobbing, Iron Duke, Iron Knob
Page
|
514
Types of Iron Ore – Haematite, Magnetite,  Dharward and Cuddapah systems.

Limonite & Siderite. Distribution of Iron  Magnetic quality.
Ore in India – Iron ore in Orissa,  Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka & Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
other states.
Limonite
Previous post: Iron Ore Distribution
across the World.  Inferior ores; yellowish in colour; 40 to 60
per cent iron metal.
Types of Iron Ore
 Damuda series in Raniganj coal field,
Garhwal in Uttarakhand, Mirzapur in
 Haematite, Magnetite, Limonite & Siderite.
Uttar Pradesh and Kangra valley of
Haematite Himachal Pradesh.
 Advantage == open cast mines == easy
 Reddish; best quality; 70 per cent and cheap mining.
metallic content.
Siderite
 Found in Dharwad and Cuddapah rock
systems of the peninsular India.
 ‘Iron carbonate’; inferior quality; less than
 80 per cent of haematite reserves are in 40 per cent iron.
Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and
 Contains many impurities {previous post};
Andhra Pradesh.
mining is not economically variable.
 In the western section, Karnataka,
 However, it is self-fluxing due to presence
Maharashtra and Goa has this kind of ore.
of lime.
Magnetite
Iron Ore Distribution in India
 Black ore; 60 to 70 per cent metallic
 Hematite and magnetite are the two
content.
most important iron ores in India
Exact Numbers not Haematite Magnetite

important. Remember 1st
and 2nd position.
Reserves ~18,000 million tonnes ~10,500 million tonnes
Which type of iron ore is Page

abundant in India? |
1. Haematite 515
2. Magnetite
Major states Odisha 33% Karnataka 73%
Jharkhand 26% Andhra Pradesh 14%
Chhattisgarh 18% Rajasthan 5%
Rest in Andhra Pradesh, TN 4.9%

Assam, Bihar,
Maharashtra, MP, Rest in Assam, Bihar, Goa,
Rajasthan, UP Jharkhand, Kerala, MH, Meghalaya
and Nagaland
Iron Ore in Orissa
 The ores are rich in haematites.

 India's richest haematite deposits are
located in Barabil-Koira valley.
 Others: Sundargarh, Mayurbhanj,
Cuttack, Sambalpur, Keonjhar and
Koraput districts.
Iron Ore in Chhattisgarh
 Bailadila mine is the largest mechanised

mine in Asia [Ore benefication only done
here]
 A 270 km long slurry (a semi-liquid mixture)
pipeline from the Bailadila to Vizag plant
Q1. Statements transports the ore slurry.
 Smelting is done in Vizag
1) Karnataka has more than half of the [Vishakhapatnam] iron and steel factory.
reserves of magnetite ore in India.  Bailadila’s high grade ore is exported
2) Jharkhand has the highest reserves of through Vishakhapatnam to Japan [No
haematite ore in India. iron ore in Japan. But market is huge due
to automobile industry] and other
Which of the above are true? countries.
a) Both  The Dalli-Rajhara range is 32 km long
b) 1 only [ferrous content 68-69 per cent] range
c) 2 only with significant reserves.
d) None
 Magnetite ores occur near Daltenganj in

Palamu district.
Iron Ore in Karnataka
 Iron ores are widely distributed.

 High grade ore deposits are those of Page
Kemmangundi in Bababudan hills of |
Chikmagalur district and Sandur and
Hospet in Bellary district. [Lot of Mining 516
Mafia].
 Most of the ores are high grade haematite
and magnetite.
Iron ore in other states
 Andhra Pradesh (1.02%): Kurnool,

Guntur, Cuddapah, Ananthapur, Nellore.
 Maharashtra (0.88%): Chandrapur,
Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg.
 Madhya Pradesh (0.66%).
 Tamilnadu: Salem, Tiruchirapalli,
Coimbatore, Madurai etc.
 Rajasthan: Jaipur, Alwar, Sikar, Bundi,
Bhilwara.
 Uttar Pradesh: Mirzapur.
 Uttaranchal: Garhwal, Almora, Nainital.
 Himachal Pradesh: Kangra and Mandi.
 Haryana: Mahendragarh.
 West Bengal: Burdwan, Birbhum,
Darjeeling.
 Jammu and Kashmir: Udhampur and
Jammu.
 Gujarat: Bhavnagar, Junagadh, Vadodara.
 Kerala: Kozhikode.
Coal – Formation of Coal – Types of Coal –

Peat, Lignite, Bituminous Coal &
Anthracite Coal. Carbon content in
different types of coal. Importance of each
type.
Coa
Iron Ore in Jharkhand
 Also called black gold.
 25 per cent of reserves.  Found in sedimentary strata [layers of
 First mine in Singhbhum district in 1904. soil].
 Iron ore of here is of highest quality and  Contains carbon, volatile matter,
will last for hundreds of years. moisture and ash [in some cases Sulphur
 Noamandi mines in Singhbhum are the and phosphorous]
richest.
 Mostly used for power generation and Formation of Coal

metallurgy.
 Coal reserves are six times greater than oil
and petroleum reserves.
Page
|
517
 Most of the world’s coal was formed in Percentage of carbon in coal depends upon
Carboniferous age [350 million years the duration and intensity of heat and
ago][Best quality coal]. pressure on wood. [carbon content also
depends on depth of formation. More
Carboniferous age: In terms of absolute depth == more pressure and heat ==
time, the Carboniferous Period began better carbon content].
approximately 358.9 million years ago and
ended 298.9 million years ago. Its
duration is approximately 60 million
years.
The name Carboniferous refers to coal-

bearing strata.
Amount of oxygen, nitrogen and

moisture content decreases with time
while the proportion of carbon increases
[The quantity of carbon doesn’t increase,
only its proportion increases due to the loss
of other elements].
 Coal formed millions of years ago when
Capacity of coal to give energy depends the earth was covered with huge swampy
upon the percentage or carbon content [marshy] forests where plants - giant ferns
[Older the coal, much more is its carbon and mosses - grew.
content].
 As the plants grew, some died and fell into
the swamp waters. New plants grew up to
take their places and when these died still  Left to itself, it burns like wood, gives less
more grew. heat, emits more smoke and leaves a lot
 In time, there was thick layer of dead of ash.
plants rotting in the swamp. The surface
of the earth changed and water and dirt
washed in, stopping the decaying Page
process.
 More plants grew up, but they too died |
and fell, forming separate layers. After 518
millions of years many layers had formed,
one on top of the other.
 The weight of the top layers and the water
and dirt packed down the lower layers of
plant matter.
 Heat and pressure produced chemical and
physical changes in the plant layers which
forced out oxygen and left rich carbon
deposits. In time, material that had been
plants became coal.
 Coals are classified into three main ranks,
or types: lignite, bituminous coal, and
anthracite.
Lignite
 These classifications are based on the
amount of carbon, oxygen, and
 Brown coal.
hydrogen present in the coal.
 Lower grade coal.
 Coals other constituents include
 40 to 55 per cent carbon.
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, ash, and
 Intermediate stage.
sulfur.
 Dark to black brown.
 Some of the undesirable chemical
constituents include chlorine and  Moisture content is high (over 35 per
sodium. cent).
 In the process of transformation  It undergoes SPONTANEOUS
(coalification), peat is altered to lignite, COMBUSTION [Bad. Creates fire accidents
lignite is altered to sub-bituminous, in mines]
sub-bituminous coal is altered to
bituminous coal, and bituminous coal
is altered to anthracite.
Peat, Lignite, Bituminous & Anthracite

Coal
Peat
 First stage of transformation.

 Contains less than 40 to 55 per cent
carbon == more impurities.
 Contains sufficient volatile matter and lot
of moisture [more smoke and more
pollution].
Bituminous Coal Satpuras, denudation [weathering +

erosion] has exposed coal bearing
 Soft coal; most widely available and used Gondwana strata.
coal.  The carbon content in Gondwana coal
 Derives its name after a liquid called [250 million years old] is less compared
bitumen. to the Carboniferous coal [350 million Page
 40 to 80 per cent carbon. years old][Almost Absent in India]
 Moisture and volatile content (15 to 40 per because of its much younger age. |
cent)  Gondwana coal forms India's metallurgical 519
 Dense, compact, and is usually of black grade as well as superior quality coal.
colour.  The Damuda series (i.e. Lower
 Does not have traces of original Gondwana) possesses the best worked
vegetable material. coalfields accounting for 80 per cent of the
 Calorific value is very high due to high total coal production in India. 80 out of
proportion of carbon and low moisture. 113 Indian coalfields are located in the
 Used in production of coke and gas. rock systems of the Damuda series [lower
Gondwana Age].
Anthracite Coal  Coking as well as non-coking and
bituminous as well as sub-bituminous
 Best quality; hard coal. coal are obtained from Gondwana coal
 80 to 95 per cent carbon. fields.
 Very little volatile matter.  Anthracite is generally not found in the
 Negligibly small proportion of moisture. Gondwana coal fields.
 Semi-metallic lustre.  The volatile compounds and ash (usually
 Ignites slowly == less loss of heat == 13 - 30 per cent) and doesn’t allow Carbon
highly efficient. percentage to rise above 55 to 60 per
 Ignites slowly and burns with a nice short cent. [It requires few million years more if
blue flame. [Complete combustion == the quality has to get better. Remember
Flame is BLUE == little or no Gondwana coal is 100 million years
pollutants. Example: LPG] younger than Carboniferous coal].
 In India, it is found only in Jammu and  Gondwana coal is free from moisture, but
Kashmir and that too in small quantity. it contains Sulphur and phosphorus.
 These basins occur in the valleys of
Distribution of Coal in India – Gondwana certain rivers viz., the Damodar
Coal: Gondwana Coalfields. Tertiary Coal: (Jharkhand-West Bengal); the Mahanadi
Tertiary Coalfields, Lignite, Peat. Coking (Chhattisgarh-Odisha); the Son (Madhya
Coal vs. Non-Coking Coal, Coal Reserves, Pradesh Jharkhand); the Godavari and the
Coal Production, Imports. Wardha (Maharashtra-Andhra Pradesh);
Distribution of Coal in India the Indravati, the Narmada, the Koel, the
Panch, the Kanhan and many more.
 Gondwana coal fields [250 million years Distribution of Gondwana Coal in India
old]
 Tertiary coal fields [15 – 60 million  First coal mine was opened in 1774 at
years old] Raniganj in West Bengal.
Gondwana Coal  Coal industry was nationalized in 1973-
74. [The present government made some
 Gondwana coal makes up to 98 per cent serious changes during the last year
of the total reserves and 99 per cent of [2015] by allowing private sector to play a
the production of coal in India. bigger role in coal production].
 India is now the third largest coal  Gondwana Coalfields == exclusively found
producer in the world after China and in the Peninsular plateau of India
the USA.
 Coal industry provides employment to Gondwana Coalfields in Chhattisgarh
nearly seven lakh persons.
Coalfield Extent Page
Korba coalfield Korba district. |
Birampur coalfield Surguja district.
Hasdo-Arand coalfield 520
Chirmiri coalfield
Lakhanpur coalfield
Jhilmili coalfield Shandol district & Koriya district
Johilla coalfield Johilla valley
Sonhat coalfield Surguja district
Tatapani-Ramkota coalfields north-eastern part of Surguja district
Gondwana Coalfields in Jharkhand  Major coalfields are present in Dumka
(Santhal Parganas), Hazaribagh, Dhanbad
 1st in reserves [28%]. and Palamu.
 2nd in production [20%].  Jharia, Bokaro, Girdih and Karanpura
 Most of the coal fields are located in a are the major coal fields
narrow belt running in east-west direction.
Jharia coalfield Danbad One of the oldest and the richest coalfields of India;
district store house of the best metallurgical coal [coking
coal]
Jayanti coalfields inferior quality and has high ash content
Bokaro coalfield Hazaribagh It is a long but narrow strip in the catchment area of
West Bokaro [900 district the Bokaro river.
m deep]
East Bokaro [600
m deep]
Girdih Gives out of the finest coking coal in India for
(Karharbari) metallurgical purposes.
coalfield
Karanpura and
Ramgarh
coalfields
Auranga coalfield Palamu inferior quality; used in cement furnaces and brick
district kilns
Hutar coalfield
Deltenganj
coalfield
Devgarh inferior quality
coalfields
Rajmahal Rajmahal hills inferior quality
coalfield
Coalfield locations can be asked in
Prelims.
Page
|
521
Gondwana Coalfields in Odisha
Talcher field Talcher town to Ranks second in reserves (24,374 million

Rairkhol in Dhenkanal tonnes) after Raniganj;
and Sambalpur Coal from this field is most suitable for steam
districts and gas production.
Most of the coal is utilised in thermal power
and fertilizer plants at Talcher.
Rampur-Himgir Sambalpur and Coal occurs here in middle and lower Barakar
coalfields Sundargarh seams.
inferior quality
Ib river coalfield Sambalpur and Much of the coal is of inferior quality.

Jharsuguda district
Page
|
522
Gondwana Coalfields in Madhya

Pradesh
Singrauli Sidhi and Shandol largest coalfield of Madhya Pradesh

(Waidhian) districts Jhingurda, Panipahari, Khadia, Purewa and
coalfield Turra are important coal seams
Jhingurda with a total thickness of 131 m is the
richest coal seam of the country.
thermal power plants at Singrauli and Obra
Page
|
523
Pench-Kanhan- Chhindwara Ghoravari seam in Kanhan field is 4.6 m thick

Tawa district and contains coking coal
Sohagpur coalfield Shandol district
Umaria coalfield Umaria district inferior quality with high percentage of moisture
and ash.
Gondwana Coalfields in Andhra Pradesh
 Almost the entire coal is of non-coking

variety.
 6th in reserves [7.07 %].  These are the southern most coalfields of
 5th in production [9.69 %]. India and a source of coal supply to
 Most of the coal reserves are in the most of south India.
Godavari valley.
 Adilabad, Karimnagar, Warangal, Gondwana Coalfields in Maharashtra
Khammam, East Godavari, and West
Godavari.  3 per cent reserves.
 The actual workable collieries are situated  7 per cent of the production.
at Singareni and Kothagudam.
Page
|
524
Gondwana Coalfields in West Bengal Gondwana Coalfields in Uttar Pradesh
 4 % of India's coal.  Do not possess coal reserves.

 11 % of the coal reserves.  A small portion of the Singrauli field of
 Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri are the chief Madhya Pradesh falls within Mirzapur
producing districts. district.
 RANIGANJ is the largest coalfield of West  A high grade coal seam, about 1 to 1.5 m
Bengal. thick occurs near Kotah.
 Raniganj == Barddhaman, Bankura and
Purulia districts; Small part of this field is Tertiary Coal
in Jharkhand state.
 Tertiary coal 15 to 60 million years old.
 The coal here is non-coking steam coal.
Carbon content is very low.
 Dalingkot coalfield == Darjeeling district.
 Mainly confined to the extra-Peninsula
[Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Assam, Arunachal Pradesh etc.]
 Coal generally has low carbon and high
percentage of moisture and Sulphur.[It
takes few hundred million years for the
carbon content to improve].
 Important areas of Tertiary coal include
parts of Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal
Pradesh, Nagaland, Himalayan foothills of
Darjeeling in West Bengal, Jammu and
Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Kerala,
 Tamil Nadu and the union territory of
Pondicherry also bear tertiary coal
reserves [exceptions].
Tertiary Coalfields in Assam
 Makum, Nazira, Mikir Hills, Dilli-Jeypore  Neyveli mines suffer from the artesian
and Lakhuni. structure [mining goes deep and deep].
 Makum coalfield in Sibsagar district is  Mining in Lignite coalfields is risky due to
the most developed field. SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION of lignite.
 Assam coals contain very low ash and
high coking qualities but the sulphur Lignite in Gujarat and Rajasthan
Page
content is high, as a result of which this
coal is not suitable for metallurgical  Kachchh district and Dharuch district; |
purposes. poor quality.
 But these coals are best suited for  Rajasthan == Palana in Bikaner district; 525
hydrogenation process and are used for The 250 MW thermal plant at Bikaner
making liquid fuels. wholly depends upon lignite as the basic
fuel.
Tertiary Coalfields in Arunachal
Pradesh Tertiary Coal – Peat
 Upper Assam Coal belt extends eastwards  Confined to a few areas only.
as Namchick-Namrup coalfield.  Occurs in Nilgiri hills.
 High in volatiles and in sulphur.  Kashmir valley, peat occurs in the
alluvium of the Jhelum.
Tertiary Coalfields in Meghalaya  In West Bengal peat beds are noted in
Kolkata and its suburbs.
 Garo, Khasi and Jaintia hills.  In the Ganga delta, there are layers of peat
 Darrangiri field == Garo hills. which are composed of forest and rice
 Siju, Cherrapunji, Liotryngew, Maolong plants.
and Langrin coalfields == Khasi and
Jaintia hills. Problems of Coal Mining in India
Tertiary Coalfields in Jammu and  The distribution of coal is uneven.

Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh  High ash content and low caloric value.
 Large percentage of coal is taken out from
 Kalakot and surrounding regions in underground mines. [Very few open cast
Jammu, south of Pirpanjal. mines]
 Himachal Pradesh == Chamba district.  Heavy losses due to fires in the mines.
 Pilferage at several stages also adds to
Tertiary Coal – Lignite
losses – bad transportation infrastructure.
 Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Jammu and  Serious problem of environmental
Kashmir, Kerala, Rajasthan, West Bengal pollution. High ash, moisture == more
and Puducherry. smoke.
 Tamil Nadu excels all other states  Safety measures against environmental
regarding reserves and production of pollution are very costly. Clean coal
lignite. technology == Complex technology.
 Misuse of good quality coal for burning
Lignite in Tamil Nadu into transport and industries.
 Short life of metallurgical coal.
 90 per cent of the reserves.  Selective mining leading to large scale
 57 per cent of the production. wastage of raw coal
 Neyveli Lignite fields of Cuddalore  Unscientific method of extraction of coal.
district.
 These are the largest deposits of lignite in Measures to be taken
south - east Asia.
 Coking coal should be used for  New reserves should be discovered and
metallurgical industry only. new techniques should be adopted.
 Low grade coal should be washed and  Alternative energy sources should be
blended with superior quality coal in encouraged.
requisite proportion and used in
industries. [Clean Coal Technology] Coking Coal vs. Non-Coking Coal
Page
 Selective mining should be discouraged
and all possible coal from the mines |
should be taken out. 526
Coking Coal or Metallurgical Coal Thermal Coal or Non-Coking Coal or
Steaming coal
High carbon content, less moisture, less Sulphur content is high and hence cannot
sulphur, less ash. be used in iron and steel industry.
Sulphur is very bad for iron and steel
industry.
Used to create coke. Creating coke using this coal is not
Coke is produced by heating bituminous economical.
coal without air to extremely high Moreover traces of sulphur will remain even
temperatures. after coking.
Coking == flushing out impurities and
improving the concentration of carbon.
Coking coal is an essential ingredient in Thermal coal is used to generate power.
steel production.
Major producers: Australia, Canada, United Major producers: China, Australia, USA,
States. Russia.
Major exporters: Australia, Canada, United Major exporters: Australia, South Africa.
States.
China imports huge amount of coking coal
from Australia.
India also imports coking coal.
Coal Reserves in India by State
Name of the state Reserves in billion tonne % of total reserves

1. JHARKHAND 80.71 26.76
2. ODISHA 75.07 24.89
3. CHATTISHGARH 52.53 17.42
4. WEST BENGAL 31.31 10.38
5. MADHYA PRADESH 25.67 8.51
6. ANDHRA PRADESH 22.48 7.45
7. MAHARASTRA 10.98 3.64
8. OTHERS 2.81 0.95
Coal Production in India by State 1) Jharkhand [More than 90% of India’s
Coking coal comes from Jharkhand]
 All data from 2013-2014. For latest data 2) West Bengal
you must follow newspapers or Reports 3) Madhya Pradesh
published by Ministry of Coal.
 Remember top 3 positions in all data Non Coking Coal Production By State
below.
1) Chhattisgarh
Coking Coal Production by State 2) Odisha
3) Madhya Pradesh
4) Jharkhand
5) Andhra Pradesh
Total Coal Production By State
1) Chhattisgarh Page
2) Jharkhand |
3) Odisha
4) Madhya Pradesh 527
5) Andhra Pradesh
India’s Coal Imports and Exports
Major Coalfields in India
Major Coalfields in India

1. Singrauli
2. Karanpura Bokaro
3. Jharia
4. Raniganj
5. Ib & Talcher
6. Pench & Kanhan
7. Singareni - Godavari Velley
8. Lignite: TN, Gujrat And Rajasthan
Distribution of Coal across the World –

Global Coal Reserves – Top Producers and
Consumers of Coal in the World –
Distribution of Coal in USA – Distribution
of Coal in China.
Distribution of Coal across the World Page

|
 Most of the Russia’s coal in Siberian
Region is untapped. 528
 Carboniferous coal of Great Lakes and
Appalachians region helped USA become a
leading industrialized nation.
 Coal reserves in Ruhr and Rhineland
region coupled with rich iron deposits
have made Germany a leading industrial
super power of Europe.
 England too benefited immensely from its
coal reserves of South Whales, Yorkshire,
Manchester, Liverpool etc. Industrial
revolution began here mainly due to rich
coal reserves.
 Brazil is a leading coal producer in South  China’s coal is of poor quality. It imports
America. Most of the coal goes into power metallurgical grade coal from Australia.
generation. Excess production is exported  South Africa is the only region in Africa
to China. with significant amount of coal reserves.
 Australia is a leading producer of coal.
Most of its coal is exported to China, Global Coal Reserves
Japan etc. Australia has rick coking coal
deposits. India imports coking coal mainly
from Australia.
 37% of the country's electricity generation

come from coal.
 Coal mining occurs in 25 states of which
Wyoming, West Virginia, Kentucky,
Pennsylvania and Texas are the biggest
coal producers. Page
 The North Antelope ROCHELLE COAL
MINE located in the Powder River Basin of |
Wyoming is the world's biggest coal mine 529
 Allegheny Mountains and Appalachian
Mountains have enormous coal deposits.
Distribution of Coal in USA
 Most coal now produced in the United
States is mined in western surface mines,
 World's second biggest coal producing
especially in Wyoming's Powder River
country.
Basin.
 World's second biggest coal consumer
[China first].
Top Producers and Consumers of Coal Distribution of Coal in China

in the World
 World's third biggest coal reserves.  Petra == rock; Oleum == oil.

 Largest producer and consumer of coal in  Petroleum or Mineral oil is obtained from
the world. sedimentary rocks of the earth.
 Largest user of coal-derived electricity  Petroleum fuels on burning gives little
[68.7%]. smoke and leaves no ash. So they are
 Industry hugely dependent on Coal. better than coal. Page
 Photochemical smog == Intensifying
environmental concerns all over China Constituents of Petroleum and Mineral |
due to coal burning. Oil
530
Formation of Petroleum and Mineral Oil,  90 to 95 per cent Hydrocarbons.
Distribution of Petroleum and Mineral Oil  5 – 10% organic compounds containing
in India, On-shore and Off-Shore Oil oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and traces of
Production in India. organometallic compounds.
Petroleum and Mineral Oil Formation of Petroleum and Mineral Oil
 All sedimentary rocks do not contain oil. 2. permeability [allowing liquids or gases to
 An oil reservoir must have three pass through it.] to discharge oil and/or
prerequisite conditions. gas when well has been drilled;
1. Porosity [tiny gaps in soil] so as to 3. the porous sandstone beds or fissured
accommodate sufficiently large amounts of limestone containing oil should be capped
oil; below by impervious beds [not allowing
fluid to pass through].
 Most of the oil gets collected in the Distribution of Petroleum and Mineral
anticlines or fault traps. Oil in India
 Oil on a commercial scale is usually found
in crests of anticlines [where the  Process began in tertiary period [3 million
sedimentary rock strata are inclined and years ago].
folded]. Page
|
531
 Most of the oil reserves in India are  Total continental shelf of probable oil
associated with anticlines and fault traps bearing rocks amounts to 3.2 lakh sq km.
in the sedimentary rock formations of  The total sedimentary area including both
tertiary times. on shore and offshore comprises 27
 In tertiary period, aquatic life was basins.
abundant in various forms, especially the  Mumbai High, the Khambhat Gulf and
minor microscopic forms of flora and the Assam are the most productive areas.
fauna.
 Conditions for oil formation were
favourable especially in the lower and
middle Tertiary period.
 Dense forests and sea organisms
flourished in the gulfs, estuaries, deltas
and the land surrounding them during
this period.
Extent of Oil Bearing Strata in India
 14.1 lakh sq km or 42 per cent of India

covered with sedimentary rocks.
 10 lakh sq km form marine basins of
Mesozoic and Tertiary times.
On-shore Oil Production In India
 Brahmaputra valley of north-east India.

 Barmer area of Rajasthan.
 Gujarat coast in western India.
 Cauvery on-shore basin in Tamil Nadu. Page
 Andhra Pradesh has both on-shore and
offshore oil reserves. |
532
Assam Oilfields
 Oldest oil producing state in India

 The main oil bearing strata extend for a
distance of 320 km in upper Assam along
the Brahmaputra valley.
 Oilfields of Assam are relatively
inaccessible and are distantly located
from the main consuming areas.
 Oil from Assam is therefore, refined mostly
in the refineries located at Digboi,
Guwahati, Bongaigaon, Barauni and
Numaligarh.
The Digboi field Tipam hills, Dibrugarh Oldest oil field of India
district
The Naharkatiya Left bank of Burhi Dihing 32 km southwest of Digboi
field river Oil from this area is sent to oil
refineries at Noonamati in Assam
(443 km) and Barauni in Bihar
(724 km) through pipeline.
The Moran-Hugrijan 40 km south-west of
field Naharkatiya
Gujarat Oilfields Off-Shore Production in India
 Ankleshwar, Khambhat or Lunej, Western Coast

Ahmedabad and Kalol, Nawgam,
Kosamba, Kathana, Barkol, Mahesana  Mumbai High, Bassein and Aliabet.
and Sanand are important oilfields of this  Mumbai High: 1974; rock strata of
region. Miocene age.
 Ankleshwar: Oil from this field is sent to  Sagar Samrat, Bassein: south of Mumbai
refineries at Trombay and Koyali. High.
 Aliabet: Aliabet island in the Gulf of
Rajasthan Oilfields Khambhat.
 One of the largest inland oil discoveries Eastern Coast
was made in Banner district of Rajasthan.
 Other important discoveries == Mangala  The basin and delta regions of the
oil field, Sarswati and Rajeshwari. Godawari, the Krishna and the Cauvery
 Rajasthan is the largest on shore oil rivers hold great potential for oil and gas
producing state of India. production.
Page
|
533
Page
|
534
 The Rawa field in Krishna-Godawari off- Petroleum Refining

shore basin is an important one.
 The Narimanam and Kovilappal oilfields in  India's first oil refinery started working
the Cauvery on-shore basin are also way back in 1901 at Digboi in Assam.
important.  1954: another refinery at Tarapur
(Mumbai).
 Refinery hub and refining capacity exceeds  Hajira-Bijapur-Jagdishpur (HBJ) Gas

the demand. Excess refined oil and other Pipeline == world's largest underground
petroleum products are exported. pipeline
 Oil from wells is transported to nearest  Jamnagar-Loni LPG Pipeline == longest
refineries through pipelines. LPG pipeline in the world
 Kochi-Mangalore-Bangalore pipeline Page
Advantages of Pipeline  Vishakhapatnam Secunderabad pipeline
 Mangalore-Chennai pipeline |
 Ideal to transport liquids and gases.
 Vijayawada-Vishakhapatnam pipeline 535
 Pipelines can be laid through difficult
terrains as well as under water. Share of Oil in Power Generation
 Economical.
 It needs very little maintenance.
 Pipelines are safe, accident-free and
environmental friendly.
Disadvantages of Pipelines
 It is not flexible, i.e., it can be used only

for a few fixed points.
 Its capacity cannot be increased once it is
laid.
 It is difficult to make security
arrangements for pipelines.
 Detection of leakage and repair is also India’s Oil Imports
difficult.
Crude Oil Pipelines
 Salaya-Mathura Pipeline (SMPL)

 Paradip-Haldia-Barauni Pipeline (PHBPL)
 Mundra-Panipat Pipeline (MPPL)
Petroleum Product Pipelines
Remember locations of Oil Refineries and

Major Oil producing centers. Pipeline are
the ones that connect these centers.
 Guwahati-Siliguri Pipeline (GSPL)

 Koyali-Ahmedabad Pipeline (KAPL)
 Barauni-Kanpur Pipeline (BKPL)
 Panipat-Delhi Pipeline (PDPL)
 Panipat-Rewari Pipeline (PRPL)
 Chennai – Trichy - Madurai Product
Pipeline (CTMPL)
 Chennai-Bangalore Pipeline
 Naharkatia-Nunmati-Barauni Pipeline ==
first pipeline constructed in India
 Mumbai High-Mumbai-Ankleshwar-Koyali
Pipeline.
Petroleum and Mineral Oil – World  For example, the Middle East contains
distribution: Supergiants, Oilfields in more than 50 percent of the world’s
Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Kuwait, Iran, Russia, proven reserves but accounts for only
United States, Mexico, Canada, Venezuela, about 30 percent of global oil production.
Brazil, United Kingdom and African  The United States, by contrast has less
Region. than 2 percent of the world’s proven Page
reserves but produces about 10 percent of
Petroleum and Mineral Oil - World the world’s oil. |
distribution
536
 More than half of the world’s proven oil
reserves are located in the Middle East
(including Iran but not North Africa).
 Canada, United States, Latin America,
Africa, and the region occupied by the
former Soviet Union contains less than 15
percent of the world’s proven reserves.
[Reserves are identified quantities of

petroleum that are considered recoverable
under current economic and technological
conditions.]
 The amount of oil a given region produces

is not always proportionate to the size of
its proven reserves.
Page
|
537
Supergiants Gulf. It is the third largest oil field in the

world and the largest offshore.
 Petroleum is contained in a few large
fields, but most fields are small.
 The two largest classes of fields are the
1. supergiants, fields with 5 billion or more
barrels of ultimately recoverable oil, and
2. world-class giants, fields with 500 million
to 5 billion barrels of recoverable oil.
 Fewer than 40 supergiant oil fields have
been found worldwide.
 The Arabian-Iranian sedimentary basin
in the Persian Gulf region contains two-
thirds of these supergiant fields.
 The remaining supergiants are distributed
in the United States, Russia, Mexico,
Libya, Algeria, Venezuela, and China.
Oilfields in Saudi Arabia
 Saudi Arabia has the largest proven oil

reserves.
 Approximately 20 percent of the world’s
proven reserves.
 The discovery that transformed Saudi
Arabia into a leading oil country was Al-
Ghawār oil field. (still has 70 billion Oil Fields in Iraq, Kuwait, & Iran
barrels after 60 years of production)
 Another important discovery was the  The Middle Eastern countries of Iraq,
Saffaniyah offshore field in the Persian Kuwait, and Iran are each estimated to
have 25 percent of all proven reserves in  It has significant proven reserves of 5

the world. percent of the world total—and is the
 These countries have a number of world’s leading petroleum producer.
supergiant fields.  There are two supergiant oil fields –
 Al-Burqan oilfield of Kuwait is the world’s Western Siberia and Yenisey Khatanga.
second largest oil field.  Kamchatka peninsula and Sakhalin Page
Island are said to have significant oil
Oil Fields in Russia reserves. |
 Volga-Caspian Region has many oil and 538
 Russia is thought to possess the best
gas fields.
potential for new discoveries.
Oil Fields in United States, Mexico, &  Canada has less than 10 billion barrels of
Canada proven reserves of conventional liquid oil.
 But huge deposits of oil sands in the
 North America has many sedimentary Athabasca region in western Canada
basins. bring the country’s total proven oil
 Many oilfields have been found in North reserves to approximately 175 billion
Slope region of Alaska and East Texas. barrels, behind only oil giants Saudi
 United States has produced more oil than Arabia and Venezuela.
any other country.  Canada’s largest oil field is off
 Its proven oil reserves amount to 2 percent Newfoundland.
of the world total.
 The Rocky Mountain region contains an Oilfields in Venezuela & Brazil
enormous amount of petroleum reserve.
 Mexico has more than 10 billion barrels of  Venezuela is the largest oil exporter in the
proven oil reserves and is one of the top Western Hemisphere.
10 oil producers in the world.  210 billion barrels of proven oil reserves
(world’s second largest).
Page
|
539
 Most of these reserves are located in the  The main oil-producing countries of Africa
Orinoco belt. are: Libya, Algeria, Nigeria and Egypt.
 Brazil has 14 billion barrels of proven oil  Niger delta in Nigeria contains enormous
reserves (second largest in South America) amount of oil.
 Egypt is self-sufficient in oil production.
Oilfields in United Kingdom  Algeria is another significant producer of
petroleum where much of the national
 The United Kingdom is an important
income comes from oil-export.
North Sea producer, and its proven oil
 Libya became a consistent producer of
reserves of some three billion barrels are
petroleum. The total oil reserve of Libya is
the largest in the European Union.
around 3 per cent of global reserve.
Oilfields in African Region
Source: Only Gas == Non-Associated Gas – Dry

http://www.britannica.com/science/pe Gas,
troleum/World-distribution-of-oil
Hydrogen Sulphide in gas == Sour Gas,
Coalbed Methane == Sweet Gas.

Page
 On the market, natural gas is usually
bought and sold not by volume but by |
calorific value. 540
 In practice, purchases of natural gas are
usually denoted as MMBTUs (millions of
British thermal unit (BTU or Btu)) =
~1,000 cubic feet of natural gas.
Natural Gas Formation
 Similar to the formation of Petroleum.

 Natural gas was formed millions of years
Natural gas – World Distribution of
ago when plants and tiny sea animals
Natural Gas, OPEC. Distribution of
were buried by sand and rock.
Natural Gas in India, Petroleum and Gas
 Layers of mud, sand, rock, plant, and
Value Chain: Upstream, Midstream,
animal matter continued to build up until
Downstream sector.
the pressure and heat turned them into oil
Natural gas and natural gas.
 Consists primarily of methane and Uses of Natural Gas

ethane.
 Electric power generation.
 Propane, butane, pentane, and hexane are
 Industrial, domestic, and commercial
also present.
usage.
 Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) == Mixture
 Many buses and commercial automotive
of butane and propane.
fleets now operate on CNG.
 Commonly occurs in association with
 It is an ingredient in dyes and inks .
crude oil.
 Used in rubber compounding operations.
 Natural gas is often found dissolved in oil
 Ammonia is manufactured using
or as a gas cap above the oil.
hydrogen derived from methane. Ammonia
 Sometimes, pressure of natural gas forces
is used to produce chemicals such as
oil up to the surface. Such natural gas is
hydrogen cyanide, nitric acid, urea, and a
known as associated gas or wet gas.
range of fertilizers.
 Some reservoirs contain gas and no oil.
This gas is termed non-associated gas or Importance of Natural Gas to India
dry gas.
 Often natural gases contain substantial  Power stations using gas accounted for
quantities of hydrogen sulfide or other nearly 10 per cent of India’s electricity.
organic sulfur compounds. In this case,  Despite the country reeling under a power
the gas is known as “sour gas.” crisis, gas power stations are lying idle
 Coalbed methane is called ‘sweet gas’ due to lack of feedstock.
because of its lack of hydrogen sulfide.  The Government has frozen the
construction of new gas plants until 2015-
Oil + Gas == Associated Gas – Wet Gas, 16 because of gas shortages.
 Existing plants are operating below  The United States has proven natural gas
capacity on expensive imported liquefied reserves of 273 tcf.
natural gas (LNG).  Its largest gas field, Hugoton extends
 India’s oil reserves are insufficient for its through the Oklahoma, Texas and
growing energy needs and situation is Kansas.
made worse by policy paralysis which  Canada has an estimated 62 tcf of proven Page
increases the gestation period of the natural gas reserves.
projects.  The largest gas field is in Alberta. |
 We need to diversify our energy basket  Much of Mexico’s natural comes from Gulf 541
through alternate fuels so that we need of Mexico.
not have to bear the brunt of external
shocks. Natural Gas in Africa
World Distribution of Natural Gas  Central basin of Algeria and Niger Delta
have proven reserves.
Natural Gas in Middle East
 There is an enormous gas potential in the

Middle East associated with the major oil
fields in the Arabian-Iranian basin.
 Iran and Qatar have the second and third
largest natural gas reserves in the world,
behind Russia.
Natural Gas in Asia
 The largest gas field in Asia is in the North

Sumatra basin of Indonesia.
OPEC – Organization of Petroleum

Natural Gas in Russia Exporting Countries
 Russia has the largest natural gas  12 member oil supply cartel.
reserves in the world (1,680 Trillion Cubic  Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia,
Feet (tcf)). Venezuela, and later joined by Qatar,
 It periodically changes place with the Indonesia, UAE, Libya, Algeria, Nigeria,
United States as the world’s largest or Gabon and Angola.
second largest producer.  This group bargains with international Oil
 Some of the world’s largest gas fields Companies so that profit margin will be
occur in a region of West Siberia and east high.
of the Gulf of Ob on the Arctic Circle.  They control production and supply [for
 The world’s largest gas field is Urengoy. better profit margin] of crude oil to keep it
 Volga-Urals region also has significant gas below international demand.
reserves.  It is only recently that Crude oil’s prices
have crashed due to shale boom in US ––
Natural Gas in Europe
the largest importer of oil and gas.
 Dutch coast and the North Sea (off the Distribution of Natural Gas in India
coast of Norway) have proven reserves.
Natural Gas in North America
 KG basin, Assam, Gulf of Khambhat, in Rajasthan etc.

Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu, Barmer
Page
|
542
Page
|
543
 There are demands to replace NELP with

OALP.
 Under OALP, oil blocks will be available
throughout for sale. [government makes
money by selling oilfields]
 It allows ample time for explorer to study Page
the fields and bid for block of his choice.
 ‘National Data Repository’ is prerequisite |
for functioning of OALP. 544
 It will be a ‘hydrocarbon data center’
which facilitate prospection of resources.
Revenue Sharing Contracts
 Seen as a better alternative to OALP and

NELP.
 Government gets share in revenue from
the very beginning.
 In contrast PSC (Production Sharing
Contracts), allows government to have
revenue share only after costs are
recovered by the explorer.
 In PSC, explorers inflate investment by
classifying revenue expenditure (salaries,
maintenance etc.) as capital expenditure
(equipment, technology etc.).
Petroleum and Gas Value Chain  This resulted in lower government share.
It delays revenue to the government by
 Oil & gas industry is divided in Upstream, decades.
Midstream and Downstream sector.
Kelkar Committee Recommendations
Upstream Sector
 Deep sea offshore Blocks – Production
 Oil exploration, prospection and Sharing Contracts should be adopted.
extraction/production from oil wells.  Onshore and Shallow blocks – Revenue
Sharing Model should be adopted.
New Exploration Licensing Policy, 1997
Rangarajan Committee
 Promote exploration by providing a level Recommendations
playing field to private players against
public enterprises.  Suggested linking gas price to price of
 Oil blocks are allotted under ‘Production imported gas and gas prices prevailing in
Sharing Contracts’. exchanges of USA, UK and Japan
 In ‘Production Sharing Contracts’, (weighted average) so as to bring it at
investment and revenues is shared with parity with international prices.
government.  This would result in increase of price from
 The private companies exaggerated or $ 4.2 mmbtu to$ 8.4 mmbtu, this
inflated their investment accounts and formulae was not implemented (it will do
gobbled up public funds. serious damage to vote bank).
Open Acreage Licensing Policy (OALP) Midstream sector
 This sector involves transportation of oil  Government is building underground

and gas from blocks to refineries and from storage capacity of 15 million metric tons
refineries to distribution centers. for petroleum and related products.
 Most cost effective way is through  The first phase construction is in progress
pipeline, in comparison to road and in Vishakhapatnam, Mangalore and Padur
railways which higher economic and [All coastal cities]. Page
environmental costs.  Storage facilities are essential for
 Current pipeline infrastructure is skewed safeguard against shortages or supply |
in favor of North and West India, which disruptions. 545
accounts for 60% of gas pipelines and 80
% of gas consumptions. Downstream sector
 To remedy this, central government has
proposed to set up National Gas Grid  This sector involves refining, processing
under which additional 15000 km of and marketing of products and
pipelines will be laid down. byproducts of crude oil.
 It will be executed under PPP model and Unconventional Gas Reservoirs: Shale Gas
will be eligible for ‘Viability Gap Funding’. – Coalbed Methane. Shale Gas Reserves
 Further, Gas Distribution networks are India, World. Extraction of Shale Gas:
available in only few cities. In most of Hydro-fracturing or Fracking. Problems
cities gas is transferred through bottling Associated.
plants and distribution agency. This result
in wastage by leakages and theft. Unconventional Gas Reservoirs
Viability Gap Funding  Conventional reservoirs of oil and natural

gas are found in permeable sandstone.
 In some PPP projects in India, Central and  Unconventional Gas Reservoirs occur in
state governments undertake to provide relatively impermeable sandstones, in
support funding to successful bidders. joints and fractures or absorbed into the
 Projects are awarded to those whose matrix of shales [Shale is a Sedimentary
requirement for state funding is least. Rock], and in coal seams.
 Indian Oil Corporation and Gas Authority  Given current economic conditions and
of India are involved in this sector. state of technology, they are more
expensive to exploit.
Storage
 Example: Tight gas, shale gas, and coal-
bed methane.
producer in the world, India holds

significant prospects for commercial
recovery of coalbed methane.
 The country has an estimated 700-950
billion cubic metre of coalbed methane.
Problems in Exploration, Extraction of Page

Coalbed Methane in India |
 The state-run firms are holding mines in 546

joint venture with private companies and
the latter do not have rights to explore
coalbed methane [private sector
companies at present have no rights to
extract unconventional gas reservoirs ––
Coalbed Methane coalbed methane and shale gas].
 CBM extraction falls under Ministry of
 Considerable quantities of methane is Petroleum & Natural Gas whereas coal
trapped within coal seams. mining falls under Ministry of Coal.
 A significant portion of this gas remains as Contractors are not allowed to mine gas
free gas in the joints and fractures of the from coal seams or coal bed methane
coal seam. (CBM) and coal in the same block due to
 Large quantities of gas are adsorbed on the turf war [common feature of Indian
the internal surfaces of the micropores Bureaucracy] between the two ministries
within the coal itself. and other associated bureaucratic
 This gas can be accessed by drilling wells hurdles.
into the coal seam and pumping large  Extracting unconventional gas is a capital
quantities of water that saturate the intensive process and at the present levels
seam. [water will occupy the gaps and of gas prices, the companies cannot
pores and will push out the gas] recover their investments.
 It is now becoming an important source of  The technology required is very advanced
natural gas. and the public sector companies have very
 Unlike much natural gas from weak organizational setup to efficiently
conventional reservoirs, coalbed methane handle such technologies and extract gas
contains very little heavier economically.
hydrocarbons such as propane or  Private sector companies have necessary
butane. financial capabilities and managerial skills
 The presence of this gas is well known but there is no hope due to restricting
from its occurrence in underground coal laws and low gas prices.
mining, where it presents a serious safety In India, gas pricing is a contentious
risk. issue. It has never been easy satisfying all
Fire Accidents in Coal Mines are mainly the stakeholders involved [consumer,
due to Coalbed Methane, and Lignite government, gas companies]. Gas pricing
deposits which undergo spontaneous will be critical for private companies before
they can invest in unconventional gas
combustion.
projects so that they can calculate their
Coalbed Methane in India profit margin.
 With one of the largest proven coal Shale Gas – Shale Gas Formation
reserves, and one of the largest coal
 Shale gas = Lot of Methane + Little natural gas from the organic matter
Ethane, Propane, & Butane + very little contained in it.
carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and  Over long spans of geologic time, some of
hydrogen sulfide. the gas migrated to adjacent sandstones
 Shales are fine-grained sedimentary and was trapped in them, forming
rocks formed of organic-rich mud at the conventional gas accumulations. Page
bottom of ancient seas.  The rest of the gas remained locked in the
 Subsequent sedimentation and the nonporous shale. |
resultant heat and pressure transformed 547
the mud into shale and also produced Shale Gas Reserves Across the World
Shale Gas Reserves in India  Environmentalists have objected to

fracking because of the damage to forest
 Basins of preliminary interest identified by cover and possible contamination of
Indian geologists are the Cambay Basin in ground water.
Gujarat, the Assam-Arakan basin in  One estimate by Indian scientists places
northeast India, and the Gondwana Basin. potential reserves at as high as 527 tcf.
 Indian engineers have gathered experience
on fracking - the technology to find shale Extraction of Shale Gas
gas - by spending time in the US and are
now able to hunt for the scarce resource  Shale gas occurs frequently at depths
on their own. exceeding 1,500 metres (5,000 feet).
 Fracking technology sends high pressure  Extraction is done through horizontal
streams of water, sand and chemicals into drilling through the shale seam, followed
shale formations to bring up the oil and by hydraulic fracturing, or fracking, of
gas. the rock by the injecting of fluid at
extremely high pressure.
Page
|
548
Page
|
549
Hydro-fracturing or Fracking considerable distances in various

directions to extract the gas-rich shale.
 Shale rock is sometimes found 3,000  A mixture of water, chemicals, and sand is
metres below the surface. then injected into the well at very high
 After deep vertical drilling, there are pressures to create a number of fissures
techniques to drill horizontally for in the rock to release the gas.
 The process of using water for breaking up depth, occurs much closer to the land
the rock is known as ‘hydro-fracturing’ or surface than shale gas.
‘fracking’.
 The chemicals help in water and gas flow Shale Gas Extraction Issues in India - If
and tiny particles of sand enter the US can then why can’t India?
fissures to keep them open and allow
the gas to flow to the surface.  India suffers from physical and economic Page
water scarcity whereas the U.S. do not |
Guar gum have the same water worries.
 In the US, the natural gas department is 550
 Can quickly turn water into a very thick exempt from scrutiny for chemical
gel. injection in the ground (it exempts
 Adding guar gum increases viscosity of companies from disclosing the chemicals
water and makes high-pressure used during hydraulic fracturing). There is
pumping and the fracturing process no such legislation in India.
more efficient.  In US, the citizen or resident owns the
 High viscosity water is much more resources that lie beneath the ground. In
effective at suspending sand grains and India, soil below the land is a public
carrying them into the fractures. property and the companies must follow
 The guar been is grown mainly by farmers all the necessary rules to acquire it.
in Rajasthan and Haryana.  The US has mapped all its shale reserves.
 Earlier, guar gum was used mainly as an In India there is clarity on the exact
additive in ice creams and sauces. recoverable shale reserves.
 But with the discovery of its use in shale  The population density is much lower in
gas extraction, its price shot up the US and they can afford to do it.
enormously.  Government-issued leases for
conventional petroleum exploration do not
Problems Associated With Shale Gas include unconventional sources such as
Exploitation shale gas.
 All locations in US is well connected with
 Environmentalists have objected to gas pipelines. Bulk of the reserves in
fracking because of the damage to forest eastern India lack the necessary network
cover and possible contamination of of pipelines to transport the gas–a task
ground water. that many private operators are wary
 However, industry officials say that the about undertaking.
treated water can be re-used for further
fracking and need not be disposed of at Shale Gas: Low Potential, High Risk and
all. a Better Alternative
Solutions  India has 293 billion tonnes of coal lying

under its soil. Extraction is complicated
 All the water required must be obtained because of environmental issues.
from rain water harvesting.  But, ‘underground coal gasification’, can
 Recycling and reusing of water utilized for create 6,900 trillion cubic feet of gas
fracking should be the preferred method which is way HIGHER than shale
for water management. reserves.
 Enforcing clear and practical legislation on  India’s shale resources at a more modest
environmental and water issues. 65 trillion cubic feet. India’s CBM
 Coal bed methane (CBM), which is potential is estimated at 450 tcf.
extracted from coal beds, is also an  So, focus must be on CBM exploration
unconventional gas and, in terms of rather than on risky shale business.
Page
|
551
Mains 2013 tapping of resourced does not appear to

be high on the agenda. Discuss
It is said that India has substantial critically the availability and issues
reserves of shale oil and gas, which can involved. (10 marks - 200 words)
feed the needs of the country. However,
Answer Yourself with the help of above  80 % of bauxite [ore of aluminium] ore is
points. used for making aluminium.
 Found mainly as hydrated aluminium
Distribution of Key Natural Resources oxides.
across India and World. Bauxite | Lead &
 Total resources == 3,480 million tonnes ==
Zinc | Tungsten | Pyrites Distribution in
84 per cent resource are of metallurgical Page
India & World.
grade
|
Bauxite
552
Bauxite Distribution in India  Major bauxite resources are in the east

coast in Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
 Odisha alone accounts for 52 per cent  India manages to export small quantities
 Andhra Pradesh 18 per cent of bauxite.
 Gujarat 7 per cent  Major importers are Italy (60%), U.K.
 Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra 5 per cent (25%), Germany (9%) and Japan (4%).
each
 Madhya Pradesh and Jharkhand 4 per Odisha
cent.
 Largest bauxite producing state.
 One-third of the total production of India.
and the Arabian sea through Bhavnagar,

Junagadh and Amreli districts.
 Amarkantak plateau area, the Maikala
range in Shandol, Mandla and Balaghat
districts and the Kotni area of Jabalpur
district are the main producers. Page
Bauxite Distribution – World |
 Australia (31.34%), 553

 China (18.41%),
 Brazil (13.93%),
 Guinea (8.36%), etc.
Lead
 Kalahandi and Koraput districts.
 Malleable [can be hammered into thin
 Extends further into Andhra Pradesh sheets], soft, heavy and bad conductor.
 The main deposits occur in Kalahandi,  Lead is a constituent in bronze alloy and
Koraput, Sundargarh, Bolangir and is used as an anti-friction metal.
Sambalpur districts.
 Lead oxide is used in cable covers,
Chhattisgarh ammunition, paints, glass making and
rubber industry.
 Second largest producer.  It is also made into sheets, tubes and
 Maikala range in Bilaspur, Durg districts pipes which are used as sanitary fittings.
and the Amarkantak plateau regions of  It is now increasingly used in automobiles,
Surguja, Raigarh and Bilaspur are some of aeroplanes, and calculating machines.
the areas having rich deposits of bauxite.  Lead nitrate is used in dyeing and
printing.
Maharashtra  Lead does not occur free in nature. It
occurs as a cubic sulphide known as
 Third largest producer. GALENA.
 Largest deposits occur in Kolhapur  Galena is found in veins in limestones,
district. calcareous slates and sandstones.
 Kolhapur district contain rich deposits
with alumina content 52 to 89 per cent. Zinc
 Other districts: Thane, Ratnagiri, Satara
and Pune.  Zinc is a mixed ore containing lead &
zinc.
Jharkhand  Zinc is found in veins in association with
galena, chalcopyrites, iron pyrites and
 Ranchi, Lohardaga, Palamu and Gumla other sulphide ores.
districts.  It is mainly used for alloying and for
 High grade ore occurs in Lohardaga. manufacturing galvanized sheets.
Gujarat  It is also used for dry batteries, electrodes,
textiles, die-casting, rubber industry and
 Jamnagar, Junagadh, Kheda, Kachchh, for making collapsible tubes containing
Sabarkantha, Amreli and Bhavnagar. drugs, pastes and the like.
 The most important deposits occur in a Distribution of Lead and Zinc ores -
belt lying between the Gulf of Kachchh India and World
 Rajasthan is endowed with the largest  Bihar (1.67 per cent)

resources of lead-zinc ore (88.61 per cent),  Maharashtra 9 (1.35 per cent).
 Andhra Pradesh (3.31 per cent),  Almost the entire production comes from
 Madhya Pradesh (2.16 per cent), Rajasthan.
Page
|
554
Tungsten  Maharashtra (9 per cent)

 Remaining 5 per cent resources are in
 Ore of Tungsten is called WOLFRAM. Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand and
 Most important property is that of self- West Bengal
hardening which it imparts to steel.  Domestic requirements are met by
 Over 95 per cent of the worlfram is used imports.
by the steel industry.
 Steel containing the requisite proportion of Pyrites
tungsten is mainly used in manufacturing
amunitions, armour plates, heavy guns,  Pyrite is a sulphide of iron.
hard cutting tools, etc.  Chief source of sulphur.
 Tungsten is easily alloyed with chromium,  High proportion of sulphur is injurious to
nickel, molybdenum, titanium, etc. to iron. Hence is it removed and used to
yield a number of hard facing, heat and produce sulphur.
corrosion resistant alloys.  Sulphur is very useful for making
 It is also used for various other purposes sulphuric acid which in turn is used in
such as electric bulb filaments, paints, several industries such as fertilizer,
ceramics, textiles, etc. chemicals, rayon, petroleum, steel, etc.
 Elemental sulphur is useful for
Distribution of Wolfram manufacturing explosives, matches,
insecticides, fungicides and for vulcanizing
 Karnataka (42 per cent) rubber
 Rajasthan (27 per cent)  Pyrites occur in Son Valley in Bihar, in
 Andhra Pradesh (17 per cent) Chitradurga and Uttar Kannada districts
of Karnataka and the pyritous coal and  It is also found in sands of several rivers.
shale of Assam coalfields.  Gold is also known as international
 It is widely distributed and scattered currency.
across the country.
Resources in terms of the metal ore
Gold – Silver Distribution – India & World. (primary) are located in
Gold Reserves in India. Gold Distribution Page
Across the World. Silver Distribution – 1. Bihar (45 per cent)
|
India & World. 2. Rajasthan (23 per cent)
3. Karnataka (22 per cent) 555
Gold Reserves in India 4. West Bengal (3 per cent)
5. Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh (2
 Gold usually occurs in auriferous [(of rocks per cent each).
or minerals) containing gold] rocks.
Resources in terms of metal content  Sands of the Subarnarekha (gold streak)

river have some alluvial gold.
1. Karnataka,  Sona nadi in Singhbhum district is
2. Rajasthan, important.
3. Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, etc.
 Sonapat valley is another major site with
 Kolar Gold Field, Hutti Gold Field and alluvial gold.
Ramgiri Gold Field are the most Page
important gold fields. Kerala |
Karnataka  The river terraces along the Punna Puzha 556
and the Chabiyar Puzha have some
 Karnataka is the largest producer of gold alluvial gold.
in India.
 Gold mines are located in Kolar [Kolar Gold Distribution Across the World
Gold Field], Dharwad, Hassan and
Raichur [Hutti Gold
Field] districts.
 Kolar Gold Fields is one
of the deepest mines of
the world. [Usually,
gold mines are the
deepest mines in the
world. Mponeng Gold
Mine in South Africa is
the deepest mine in the
world (3.9 km deep)]
 Hutti mines are
exploited to their maximum levels and the
 Countries with significant deposits: South
ore left behind is of very low grade. The
mining has almost ceased due to little or Africa, Australia, Indonesia, Canada,
no profitability.
 The Kolar Gold Field has
also run out of quality
reserves and is on the verge
of closure.
Andhra Pradesh
 Second largest producer of

gold in India.
 Ramagiri in Anantapur
district is the most
important gold field in AP.
 Alluvial Gold [gold scattered
in silt] and Placer deposits
[gold bearing rocks] in small
quantity are widely spread
in a large number of rivers
Jharkhand
Ghana, Chile, China, USA, Russia etc.  The Tundoo Lead Smelter in Dhanbad
district of Jharkhand is another major
Countries with highest gold deposits silver producer.
Major Gold Producing Countries  Some silver is produced by Kolar Gold
Fields and Hutti gold mines.
 The Hindustan Copper Ltd. at Page
Maubhandar smelter in Singhbhum
district of Jhakhand obtains silver from |
copper slimes. 557
 Silver is also produced by Vizag Zinc
smelter in Andhra Pradesh from the lead
concentrates.
 Manganese – Distribution of Manganese in
India, State wise reserves of Manganese,
World Distribution of Manganese.
Manganese
Silver Distribution – India & World  Manganese is not found as a free element
in nature.
 It is often found in combination with iron.
 The most important manganese ore is
pyrolusite.
 Manganese is primarily used in iron and
steel industry.
 It is the basic raw material for
manufacturing steel alloys.
 6 kilograms of manganese is required for
manufacturing one tonne of steel.
 Manganese is also used in the
manufacturing of bleaching powder,
insecticides, paints, and batteries.
 Used in chemicals, electroplating,

photography and for colouring glass, etc.
 The chief ore minerals of silver are
agentine, stephanite, pyrargyrite and
proustite.
 It is found mixed with several other metals Manganese Ore Distribution in India
such as copper, lead, gold, zinc, etc.
 India is not a major producer of silver in  India processes second largest reserves in
the world. the world after Zimbabwe; 430 million
 Zawar mines in Udaipur district of tonnes
Rajasthan is the major producer of silver  India is the world's fifth largest producer
[smelting of galena ore in Hindustan Zinc of manganese ore after China, Gabon,
Smelter]. South Africa and Australia.
 Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha,  Odisha (44%),

Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka are the  Karnataka (22%),
major manganese producing states.  Madhya Pradesh (13%),
 Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh  Maharashtra (8%),
together produce more than half of India's  Andhra Pradesh (4%)
manganese  Jharkhand and Goa (3% each), Page
 Rajasthan, Gujarat and West Bengal
State wise reserves of Manganese |
(remaining 3 per cent).
558
Maharashtra  High grade ore is found in Ratnagiri

district also.
 Produces about 27.66 per cent of Indian
manganese. Madhya Pradesh
 The main belt is in Nagpur and Bhandara
districts.  Produces about 27.59 per cent of India's
manganese ore.
 The main belt extends in Balaghat and Karnataka

Chhindwara districts.
 It is just an extension of the Nagpur  6 per cent of India's manganese.
Bhandara belt of Maharashtra.  Uttara Kannada, Shimoga, Bellary,
Chitradurg and Tumkur districts.
Odisha
Other producers Page
 24 per cent production.[1st
in reserves but |
3 in prduction]
rd  Goa,
 Gondite [regional names] deposits occur  Panchmahals and Vadodara in Gujarat, 559
in Sundargarh district and Kodurite and  Udaipur and Banswara in Rajasthan and
Khondolite deposits in Kalahandi and  Singhbhum and Dhanbad districts in
Koraput Districts. Jharkhand are other producers of
 Manganese is also mined from the lateritic manganese.
deposits in Bolangir and Sambalpur
districts Export of Manganese
Andhra Pradesh  Four-fifths of the total production is

consumed domestically.
 13% of India's manganese production.  Exports constantly decreasing due to
 Srikakulam and Vishakhapatnam increasing domestic demand.
districts.  Japan is the largest buyer of Indian
 Srikakulam district has the distinction of manganese.
being the earliest producer (1892) of  The other buyers are the USA, UK,
manganese ore in India. Germany, France, Norway.
 Cuddapah, Vijayanagaram and Guntur
are other manganese producing districts. World Manganese Ore Distribution
Chromite Ore Distribution In India and Chromite

World. Copper Reserves in India and
World.
 Chromite is an oxide of iron and Chromite in Odisha

chromium = Combination of chromium,
iron and oxygen.  Odisha is the sole producer [99 per cent]
 It is the only economic ore of chromium. of chromite ore.
 The chromium extracted from chromite is  Over 85 per cent of the ore is of high
used in chrome plating and alloying for grade [Keonjhar, Cuttack and Dhenkanal].
Page
production of corrosion resistant super
Chromite in Other States |
alloys, nichrome, and stainless steel.
 Used in many other metallurgical,  Karnataka is the second largest producer. 560
refractories and chemical industries.
 The main production comes from Mysore
Chromite Ore Distribution In India and Hassan districts.
 Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh,
 Reserves of chromite in India is estimated Tamenglong and Ukhrul districts of
at 203 MT. Manipur are other producers.
 93 per cent of the resources are in
Chromite Ore Distribution Across the
ODISHA [Sukinda valley in Cuttack and
World
Jajapur]
 Minor deposits are spread over Manipur,
Nagaland, Karnataka, Jharkhand,
Maharashtra, TN & AP.
Page
|
561
http://www.boldventuresinc.com/news_p  Copper ore is found in ancient as well as

df/uploaded/2013-Mar3-PDAC-Pariser- in younger rock formations and occurs as
Chrome-Presentation.pdf veins and as bedded deposits
 Mining for copper is costly and tedious
Copper affair because most of the copper ores
contain a small percentage of the metal.
 Copper is a good conductor of electricity
 India has low grade copper ore [less than
and is ductile [able to be drawn out into a thin
1% metal content][international average
wire].
2.5%]
 It is an important metal used by
 The major part of supply comes from the
automobile and defense industries.
USA, Canada, Zimbabwe, Japan and
 Alloyed with iron and nickel to make Mexico.
stainless steel.
 Alloyed with nickel to make ‘morel Copper Reserves in India
metal’.
 Alloyed with aluminium to make  1558.46 million tonnes.
‘duralumin’.  Rajasthan (50%)
 When alloyed with zinc it is known as  Madhya Pradesh (24%)
‘brass’ and with tin as ‘bronze’.  Jharkhand (19%)
 The rest 7 per cent in AP, Gujarat,
Iron + Nickel + Copper + Chromite
Haryana, Karnataka etc.
+…..== Stainless Steel.
Madhya Pradesh
Copper + Nickel == Morel Metal.
Copper + Aluminium == Duralumin.  1st in production [59.85 %].

 Malanjkhand copper mines of Balaghat
Copper + Zinc == Brass. district are the most important ones.
 Reserves of moderate size are also found
Copper + Tin == Bronze. in Betul district.
Rajasthan Jharkhand
 2nd in production [28%]  3rd in production [11 %].

 Found along the Aravali range.  Singhbhum is the most important copper
 Ajmer, Alwar, Bhilwara, Chittaurgarh, producing district.
Dungarpur, Jaipur, Jhunjhunu, Pali,  Found in Hazaribagh district, Santhal Page
Sikar, Sirohi and Udaipur districts. Parganas and Palamu districts.
 Khetri-Singhana belt in Jhunjhunu |
district is the most important copper Major Copper Reserves Across the
World 562
producing area.
Nickel  Metallic nickel is used for making storage

batteries and as a catalyst for
 Nickel does not occur free in nature. hydrogenation or hardening of fats and
 It is found in association with copper, oils intended for use in soap and
uranium and other metals. foodstuffs and in making vanaspati.
 Important alloying material.  Important occurrences of nickeliferous
limonite are found in the Sukinda valley
Iron + Nickel == stainless steel. of Jajapur district, Odisha. Here it
occurs as oxide.
 It is hard and has great tensile strength.
 Nickel also occurs in sulphide form along
 Hence nickel steel is used for
with copper mineralization in east
manufacturing armoured plates, bullet
Sighbhum district, Jharkhand.
jackets etc.
 In addition, it is found associated with
 Nickel + Copper or Silver == Coins.
uranium deposits at Jaduguda,
 Nickel-aluminium alloys are used for
Jharkhand.
manufacturing aeroplanes and internal
combustion engines.
 Other important occurrences of nickel are  Graphite may be considered the highest
in Karnataka, Kerala and Rajasthan. grade of coal, just above anthracite.
 Polymetallic sea nodules are another
source of nickel. Carbon content in Peat < Lignite <
 About 92 per cent resources are in Bituminous < Anthracite < Graphite <
Odisha. Diamond
Page
 The remaining 8 per cent resources are  It is not normally used as fuel because it
distributed in Jharkhand, Nagaland and |
is difficult to ignite.
Karnataka  It is found in metamorphic and igneous 563
rocks.
 Graphite is extremely soft, cleaves [splits
into layers] with very light pressure.
 It is extremely resistant to heat and is
highly unreactive.
 Most of the graphite is formed at
convergent plate boundaries where
organic-rich shales and limestones were
subjected to metamorphism due to heat
and pressure.
 Metamorphism produces marble, schist
and gneiss that contains tiny crystals and
flakes of graphite.
 Some graphite forms from the
metamorphism of coal seams. This
graphite is known as “amorphous
graphite”.
 Graphite is a non-metal and it is the
only non-metal that can conduct
electricity.
Applications of Graphite
 Natural graphite is mostly consumed for

refractories, batteries, steelmaking,
expanded graphite, lubricants etc.
 A refractory material is one that retains its
Graphite – Applications of Graphite, Major strength at high temperatures.
Producers of Graphite – India & World.  Natural and synthetic graphite are used to
Diamonds – Diamonds in India, Diamonds construct the anode of all major battery
Across the World. Differences between technologies
Diamond and Graphite.  The lithium-ion battery utilizes roughly
twice the amount of graphite than lithium
Graphite carbonate.
 Natural graphite in this end use mostly
 Graphite is a naturally-occurring form of
goes into carbon raising in molten steel.
crystalline carbon.
[to make steel stronger]
 It is also known as plumbago or black
 Natural amorphous graphite are used in
lead.
brake linings for heavier vehicles, and
 The carbon content in Graphite is never became important with the need to
less than 95%. substitute for asbestos.
 Graphite lubricants are specialty items for  Diamonds are formed in mantle. They
use at very high or very low temperatures. brought to the earth’s crust due to
 Modern pencil lead is most commonly a volcanism. Most of the diamonds occur in
mix of powdered graphite and clay. dykes, sill etc. [Volcanic Landforms].
 Diamond is the Diamonds are used in
Major Producers of Graphite – India & ornaments, polishing the surfaces of Page
World metals and in gem cutting.
 The most important industrial use of |
 India is a major global producer of flake diamonds is in cutting-edges of drills used 564
graphite.
Total Indian Graphite Resources
1. Arunachal Pradesh (43%),

2. Jammu & Kashmir (37%),
3. Jharkhand (6%),
4. Tamil Nadu (5%) and
5. Odisha (3%)
Operational Indian Graphite

Resources
Most of the Graphite Production is

concentrated in these states
 Tamil Nadu (37%),

 Jharkhand (30%), [Palamu
district in Jharkhand is the
most important]
 Odisha (29%).
Graphite Production Across the

World
1. China (more than 50%) for exploration and mining of minerals

2. India (20%) [Diamond is the hardest substance and it
3. Brazil. can break other substances without itself
getting broken].
Diamonds in India
 The Vindhayan system have diamond

bearing regions from which Panna and
Golconda diamonds have been mined.
1. Panna belt in Madhya Pradesh;
 Graphite is not mined in the United
2. Wajrakarur Kimberlite pipe in Anantapur
States. U.S. substitutes graphite with
district and
synthetic graphite.
3. Gravels of the Krishna river basin in
Diamonds Andhra Pradesh.
 Reserves have been estimated only in
 Diamond is the hardest naturally Panna belt and Krishna Gravels in Andhra
occurring substance found on Earth. Pradesh.
 The new kimberlite fields are discovered  Russia holds what is believed to be the
recently in Raichur-Gulbarga districts of world’s largest and richest diamond
Karnataka. resources.
 Reserves of diamonds in India are not yet  Botswana is the leading diamond-
exhausted and modern methods are being producing country in terms of value, and
applied for intensive prospecting and the second largest in terms of volume. The Page
mining. two important ones are Orapa and
 Cutting and polishing of diamonds is done Jwaneng, two of the most prolific diamond |
by modem techniques at important mines in the world. 565
centres like Surat, Navasari, Ahmedabad,  Botswana’s resources produce the full
Palampur etc. range of diamonds, in all sizes, colors and
clarities.
Diamonds Across the World  Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is
also one of the Africa's largest diamond
 The leading producers of natural diamond producer.
are Russia, Botswana, Canada, Australia,
 Australia is the leading producer of color
South Africa, Russia and Zaire [Congo].
diamonds. Australia is famous for its pink,
 Other important producers include purple and red diamonds.
Namibia, Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone,
 South Africa has the most diverse range of
Venezuela, Brazil etc.
diamond deposits in the world. Deposits
 US is the largest producer of synthetic include open pit and underground
industrial diamonds kimberlite pipe/dyke/fissure mining.
Pic From:
http://geology.com/articles/gem-
diamond-map/
Differences Between Graphite and

Diamond
Page
 Graphite and Diamond are the major |
allotropes of carbon. Other important
allotrope being anthracite coal. 566
[Allotrope → Each of two or more different

physical forms in which an element can
exist (e.g. graphite, charcoal, and diamond
as forms of carbon).]
 Graphite and diamond share the same

composition but have very different
structures.
Graphite Diamond
Graphite contains 95% or more carbon. Diamond is 100% carbon.
Graphite is a non-metallic mineral that Diamond is also a non-metallic mineral that
forms when carbon is subjected to extreme forms when carbon is subjected to extreme
heat and pressure in Earth’s crust and in heat and pressure in the mantle.
the upper mantle.
Graphite is one of the most stable Diamond (one of the most stable) is less
substances on earth. stable than graphite.
The carbon atoms in graphite are linked in a In contrast, the carbon atoms in diamond
hexagonal network that forms sheets that are linked into a frameworks structure.
are one atom thick. These sheets are poorly Every carbon atom is linked into a three
connected and easily cleave or slide over one dimensional network with strong covalent
another if subjected to a small amount of bonds. This arrangement holds the atoms
force. This gives graphite it’s very low firmly in place and make diamond an
hardness, its perfect cleavage and its exceptionally hard material.
slippery feel.
[Pencil Lead is not made of lead as we
normally beleive. It is made of graphite. You
know why?]
http://geology.com/minerals/graphite.sht
ml
Non-Metallic Mineral Distribution in India
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphite – Mica, Limestone, Dolomite, Asbestos,
Magnesite, Kyanite, Sillimanite and
http://ibm.nic.in/writereaddata/files/011 Gypsum.
92015114812IMYB_2013_Vol%20III_Grap
hite%202013.pdf Mica
http://www.indmin.com/Article/3404526  Mica is a naturally occurring non-metallic
/The-Indian-graphite-industry-why-we- mineral that is based on a collection of
need-to-take- silicates.
notice.html?ArticleId=3404526
 Mica is a very good insulator that has a Gaya district of Bihar to Hazaribagh and
wide range of applications in electrical and Koderma districts of Jharkhand. This belt
electronics industry. contains the richest deposits of high
 It can withstand high voltage and has low quality ruby mica.
power loss factor.  Koderma is a well-known place for mica
 It is used in toothpaste and cosmetics production in Jharkhand. Page
because of its glittery appearance. It also
acts as a mild abrasive in toothpaste. Mica Exports |
 India is one of the foremost suppliers of 567
 India is the largest exporter of mica.
mica to the world. Mica-bearing igneous
 Certain grades of Indian mica are and will
rocks occur in AP, Bihar, Jharkhand,
remain vital to the world's electrical
Maharashtra, Rajasthan.
industries.
Mica Reserves in India  Major exports are carried out through
Kolkata and Vishakhapatnam ports.
1. Andhra Pradesh (41 per cent)  Important imports of Indian mica are
2. Rajasthan (21 per cent) Japan (19%), the USA (17%), U.K, etc.
3. Odisha (20 per cent)
4. Maharashtra (15 per cent)
5. Bihar (2 per cent)
6. Jharkhand (Less than 1 per cent)
Mica Distribution and Production in

India
 India has a near monopoly in the

production of mica [60 % of world's total].
 Production decreased in recent times due
to fall in demand in the international
market. Fall in demand is due to better
synthetic alternatives that are available.
Andhra Pradesh
 1st in production [93 %].

 The mica belt lies in Nellore district
[Gudur Mica mines].
 Vishakhapatnam, West Godavari and
Krishna are other important mica
producing districts.
Rajasthan Limestone
 2nd in production [6.3 %].  Limestone rocks are composed of either

 The main mica belt extends from Jaipur to calcium carbonate, the double carbonate
Udaipur [Along Aravalis]. of calcium and magnesium, or mixture of
both.
Jharkhand
 Limestone also contains small quantities
 3rd in production. of silica, alumina, iron oxides, phosphorus
 Mica is found in a belt extending for about and sulphur.
150 km in length and 32 km in width from  Limestone deposits are of sedimentary
origin and exist in all the geological
sequences from Pre-Cambrian to Recent  Large scale reserves in Ramnathapuram,

except in Gondwana. Tirunelveli, Salem, Coimbatore and
 75 per cent Limestone is used in cement Madurai districts.
industry, 16 per cent in iron and steel
industry [It acts as flux] and 4 per cent in Karnataka
the chemical industries.
 Gulbarga, Bijapur and Shimoga districts. Page
 Rest of the limestone is used in paper,
sugar, fertilizers, etc. Dolomite |
 Almost all the states of India produce 568
some quantity of limestone.  Limestone with more than 10 per cent
 Over three-fourths of the total limestone of of magnesium is called dolomite.
India is produced by Madhya Pradesh,  When the percentage rises to 45, it is true
Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, dolomite.
Chhattisgarh and Tamil Nadu.  Dolomite is mainly used as blast furnace
flux, as a source of magnesium salts and
Madhya Pradesh in fertilizer and glass industries.
 Madhya Pradesh is the largest producer of  Iron and Steel industry is the chief
limestone [16 per cent]. consumer of dolomite [90 per cent]
 Large deposits occur in the districts of followed by fertilizer, ferro-alloys and
Jabalpur, Satna, Betul, etc. glass.
 Dolomite is widely distributed in the all
Rajasthan parts of the country.
 Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh,
 Rajasthan has about 6 per cent of the Jharkhand, Rajasthan and Karnataka are
reserves and produces over 16 per cent of the main producing states and contribute
the total limestone of India. Production more than 90 per cent of the total
occurs in almost all districts. production.
Andhra Pradesh  Orissa and Chhattisgarh together
account for about 57 per cent dolomite of
 Andhra Pradesh possesses about one- India.
third of the total reserves of the cement
Orissa
grade limestone in the country.
 Extensive deposits occur in Cuddapah,  Orissa is the largest pro-ducer of dolomite
Kumool, Guntur, etc. [29 per cent].
Gujarat  The main deposits occur in Sundargarh,
Sambalpur and Koraput districts.
 Gujarat produces only about 11 per cent
Chhattisgarh
of the total limestone of India.
 High grade limestone deposits occur in  Closely following Orissa is the state of
Banaskantha district. Chhattisgarh which produces about 28
per cent dolomite of India.
Chhattisgarh
 The main deposits occur in Bastar,
 Chhattisgarh accounts for more than nine Bilaspur, Durg and Raigarh districts.
per cent of total limestone of India
Jharkhand
.Deposits of limestone occur in Bastar,
Durg and surrounding districts.  Dolomite occurs in bands to the north of
Tamil Nadu Chaibasa in Singhbhum district and
Palamu district.
Rajasthan Magnesite
 Ajmer, Alwar, Bhilwara, Jaipur, Jaisalmer  It is an alteration product of dunites

etc. are the main producing districts. (peridotite) and other basic magnesian
rocks.
Karnataka
 It is primarily used for manufacturing Page
 Belgaum, Bijapur, Chitradurga, Mysore, refractory bricks.
etc.  It is also used as a bond in abrasives, |
manufacture of special type of cement for 569
Asbestos artificial stone, tiles and for extraction of
the metal magnesium.
 Two quite different minerals are included  Steel industry also uses magnesite.
under this name; one, a variety of  Major deposits of magnesite are found in
amphibole, and the other, more Uttaranchal, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan.
important, a fibrous variety of  Tamil Nadu is the largest producer [three-
serpentine (chrysotile). fourth] of magnesite in India.
 Chrysotile is more important variety and  Tamil Nadu has one of the largest deposits
accounts for 80 per cent of the asbestos of of magnesite in the world and the largest
commercial use. in India are found at Chalk Hills near
 Asbestos has great commercial value due Salem town.
to its fibrous structure, filaments of high
tensile strength and its great resistance Kyanite
to fire.
 It is widely used for making fire-proof  Kyanite occurs in metamorphic aluminous
cloth, rope, paper, millboard, sheeting, rocks.
etc.  It is primarily used in metallurgical,
 It is also used in making aprons , gloves, ceramic, refractory, glass, cement
brake-linings in automobiles etc. industries due to its ability to stand high
 Asbestos cement products like sheets, temperatures.
pipes and tiles are used for building  It is also used in making sparking plugs
purposes. in automobiles.
 When asbestos is brittle, it is made into  India has the largest deposits of
filter pads for filtering acids. kyanite in the world. All the three grades
 Mixed with magnesia, it is used for of kyanite are found here. Kyanite grades
making ‘magnesia bricks’ used for heat depend on aluminium content. Greater the
insulation. aluminium content, greater the quality.
 Two states of Rajasthan and Andhra  Jharkhand, Maharashtra and Karnataka
Pradesh produce almost the whole of produce practically the whole of kyanite of
asbestos of India. India.
 Rajasthan is the largest producer.
Jharkhand
Important occurrences are known in
Udaipur, Dungarpur, Alwar, Ajmer and  Jharkhand is the largest producer of
Pali districts. kyanite [four-fifths].
 In Andhra Pradesh, asbestos of fine  Ores with high degree of purity with
quality occurs in Pulivendla taluk of percentages of aluminium silicate reaching
Cuddapah district. 95 to 97 are found in the Singhbhum
 In Karnataka, the main deposits occur in district.
Hassan, Mandya, Shimoga, Mysore and
Chikmaglur districts. Maharashtra
 Maharashtra [second highest producer of and Ganganagar also have some gypsum
kyanite] produced 14.5 per cent of the bearing rocks.
total kyanite in 2002-03.  The remaining gypsum is produced by
 Most of the reserves are in Bhandara Tamil Nadu [Tiruchirapalli district],
district. Jammu and Kashmir, Gujarat and Uttar
Pradesh in order of production. Page
Karnataka  Water and phosphoric acid plants are
important sources of by product gypsum. |
 Karnataka is the third largest producer
[5.6 per cent in 2002-03].  Marine gypsum is recovered from salt 570
pans during the processing for common
 Commercially, workable deposits occur in
salt in Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.
Hassan district.
 Phospho-gypsum is obtained as a
Sillimanite byproduct while manufacturing
phosphoric acid whereas fluro-gypsum is
 The occurrence and uses of sillimanite are obtained while manufacturing aluminium
almost the same as those of kyanite. flouride and hydro-fluoric acid.
 The main concentration of Sillimanite is  The recovery of by-product phospho-
found in Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Kerala, gypsum, fluoro- gypsum, and marine
Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal. gypsum together is higher than mineral
 Orissa is the largest producer of gypsum.
sillimanite in India. Ganjam district is an
Salt
important sillimanite producing district.
 Kerala is the second largest producing
 Salt is obtained from sea water, brine
state. The beach sands of Kerala contain 5
springs [salt water springs], wells and salt
to 6 per cent of sillimanite.
pans in lakes and from rocks.
Gypsum  Rock salt is taken out in Mandi district of
Himachal Pradesh and in Gujarat. It is
 Gypsum is a hydrated sulphate of less than 1 per cent of the total salt
calcium. produced in India.
 It is a white opaque or transparent  Sambhar Lake in Rajasthan produces
mineral. about 10 per cent of our annual
 It occurs in sedimentary formations such production.
as limestones, sandstones and shales.  Sea brine is the source of salt in Gujarat,
 It is mainly used in making ammonia Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
sulphate fertilizer and in cement industry.  Gujarat coast produces nearly half of our
 It makes upto 4-5 per cent of cement. salt.
 It is also used in making plaster of Paris,
Conservation of Mineral Resources
moulds in ceramic industry, tiles, plastics,
etc.  Mining is often called the robber industry
 It is applied as surface plaster in because of its exploitative nature.
agriculture for conserving moisture in the  Mining should be made efficient with
soil and for aiding nitrogen absorption. better mining and benefication
 Rajasthan is by far the largest producer of technologies.
gypsum in India [99 per cent of the total  A clear roadmap has to be carved for the
production of India]. better management of mineral resources
 The main deposits occur in the Tertiary for decades. Stringent laws to prevent the
clays and shales of Jodhpur, Nagaur and plundering of minerals is the need of the
Bikaner. Jaisalmer, Barmer, Chum, Pali hour.
 Transparency must be the priority in [When urea is dissolved in water, the

extraction of mineral resources. Corrupt temperature of water solution falls. This
practices have led to mismanagement of reaction is called endothermic reaction].
mineral resources making mining industry
highly inefficient. Exothermic == Liberation of Heat during a
 Recycling of cyclic minerals [iron, reaction. [CaCO3(calcium carbonate or
aluminium, copper, brass, tin] can help in lime) + H2O (water) → Ca(OH)2(calcium Page
reducing the waste. hydroxide) + CO2 + HEAT] |
 Scarce and expensive minerals must be Endothermic == Absorption of Heat during 571
substituted with the abundant ones. a reaction. [Urea + Water]
Example: Aluminium substitutes copper
in electrical industry.  The nuclear fission process may take place
 Instead of exporting minerals, India spontaneously in some cases or may be
should focus on exporting goods induced by the excitation of the nucleus
manufactured using these minerals. This with a variety of particles (neutrons,
would create more jobs locally. protons, deuterons, or alpha particles) or
 Innovation and research into synthetic with electromagnetic radiation in the form
minerals is essential. of gamma rays.
 In the fission process, radioactive
Nuclear Fission – Nuclear Reactor: Nuclear products are formed, and several
Reactor Coolant, Moderator, Control Rods neutrons are emitted.
Criticality etc. Types of Nuclear Reactors:  These neutrons can induce fission in a
Light-water reactor (LWR) and Pressurized nearby nucleus of fissionable material and
Heavy-Water Reactor (PHWR) and more. release more neutrons causing a chain
Prelims: General Science reaction.
Mains: Science and technology –

developments and their applications and
effects in everyday life. [Nuclear Energy
and related concepts are all evergreen]
Nuclear fission
 The discovery of nuclear fission began

with the discovery of the neutron in 1932
by James Chadwick in England.
 Nuclear fission of heavy elements was
discovered in 1938 by German Otto Hahn
and Fritz Strassmann.
Fissionable material → That can undergo
 It was explained theoretically in 1939 by
nuclear fission chain reaction.
Lise Meitner and Otto Robert Frisch.
 In nuclear physics, nuclear fission is a Fissile → That can undergo Controlled or
radioactive decay process in which the Self-Sustained nuclear fission chain
nucleus of an atom splits into smaller Reaction.
parts [lighter nuclei].
 The fission process often produces free  If controlled in a nuclear reactor, such a
neutrons and gamma photons [gamma chain reaction can be used to generate
rays], and releases a very large amount of power. If uncontrolled [atomic bomb], it
energy [exothermic reaction]. can lead to an enormous explosion.
 Uranium is the most common fissile used  While uranium-235 is the naturally
in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. occurring fissionable isotope, Plutonium-
 Uranium isotopes in natural uranium are 239 can be produced by "breeding" it from
Uranium-238 or U-238 or 238U (99.27%) uranium-238.
and Uranium 235 or U-235 or 235U  Uranium-238, which makes up 99.3% of
(0.72%). natural uranium, is not fissionable by Page
 Uranium-235 can undergo fission when slow neutrons.
bombarded with slow neutrons only.  U-238 has a small probability for |
 Uranium-238 can undergo fission when spontaneous fission and also a small 572
bombarded with fast neutrons only. probability of fission when bombarded
 The nuclei of other heavy elements, such with fast neutrons, but it is not useful as
as thorium also fissionable, but with fast a nuclear fuel source.
neutrons.  Thorium-232 is fissionable, so could
conceivably be used as a nuclear fuel.
How Nuclear Fission Releases Energy?  The other isotope can undergo fission
upon slow-neutron bombardment is
 Nuclei consist of nucleons [neutrons + uranium-233.
protons = mass number].
 The actual mass of a nucleus is always Uranium Enrichment
less than the sum of the masses of
nucleons.  Natural uranium is only 0.7% U-235, the
 This difference is known as the mass fissionable isotope.
defect and is a measure of the total  The other 99.3% is U-238 which is not
binding energy (and, hence, the stability) fissionable.
of the nucleus.  The uranium is usually enriched to 2.5-
 This binding energy is released during the 3.5% U-235 for use in light water reactors.
formation of a nucleus.  Centrifugal separators and laser
 This conversion of mass to energy follows enrichment procedures are used in
Einstein’s equation, E = mc2, where E is uranium enrichment.
the energy equivalent of a mass, m, and c  The enriched uranium fuel used in fission
is the velocity of light. reactors cannot be used to make a bomb.
 It takes enrichment to over 90% to obtain
Common Fissile Material the fast chain reaction necessary for
weapons applications.
 Uranium-235, Plutonium-239 and
 Enrichment to 15-30% is typical for
Thorium-232 are the common fissile
breeder reactors.
material.
 A slow neutron can be captured by a Nuclear Reactor
uranium-235 nucleus.
 A fast neutron will not be captured, so  A nuclear reactor is a system that
neutrons must be slowed down by contains and controls sustained nuclear
moderation to increase their capture chain reactions.
probability in fission reactors.
 Natural uranium is composed of 0.72% U-
235 (the fissionable isotope), 99.27% U-
238, and a trace quantity 0.0055% U-234.
 The 0.72% U-235 is not sufficient to
produce a self-sustaining critical chain
reaction.
 For light-water reactors, the fuel must be
enriched to 2.5-3.5% U-235.
Neutron Moderator
 A neutron moderator is a medium that

reduces the speed of fast neutrons,
thereby turning them into thermal
neutrons capable of sustaining a nuclear
Page
chain reaction.
 When a large fissile atomic nucleus such |
as uranium-235 or plutonium-239
573
absorbs a neutron, it may undergo
nuclear fission.
Pic from:  The heavy nucleus splits into two or more
https://whatisnuclear.com/articles/nucre lighter nuclei, (the fission products),
actor.html releasing kinetic energy, gamma radiation,
and free neutrons.
 Fuel [Enriched uranium-235 or
Plutonium-239] is placed into the reactor  A portion of these neutrons may later be
vessel along with a small neutron source. absorbed by other fissile atoms and trigger
further fission events, which release more
 The neutrons start a chain reaction where
neutrons, and so on. This is known as a
each atom that splits releases more
nuclear chain reaction.
neutrons that cause other atoms to split.
 To control such a nuclear chain reaction,
 Each time an atom splits, it releases large
neutron poisons and neutron moderators
amounts of energy in the form of heat.
can change the portion of neutrons that
 The heat is carried out of the reactor by
will go on to cause more fission
coolant, which is most commonly just
 Commonly-used moderators include
plain water.
regular (light) water (in 74.8% of the
 The coolant heats up and goes off to a
world's reactors), solid graphite (20% of
turbine to spin a generator or drive shaft.
reactors), heavy water (5% of reactors)
 The coolant is the material that passes
and beryllium.
through the core, transferring the heat
from the fuel to a turbine. It could be Control Rods or Reactivity control
water, heavy-water, liquid sodium, helium,
or something else.  The power output of the reactor is
 The turbine transfers the heat from the adjusted by controlling how many
coolant to electricity, just like in a fossil- neutrons are able to create more fissions.
fuel plant.  Control rods that are made of a neutron
 The containment is the structure made of poison are used to absorb neutrons.
steel-reinforced concrete that separates
the reactor from the environment. Moderators slow down neutrons
Chernobyl did not have a strong
Control Rods absorb neutrons
containment structure.
Moderators are like accelerators
Nuclear Reactor Coolant
Control Rods are like brakes
 A nuclear reactor coolant — usually water
or molten salt — is circulated past the  Absorbing more neutrons in a control rod
reactor core to absorb the heat that it means that there are fewer neutrons
generates. available to cause fission.
 The heat is carried away from the reactor  So pushing the control rod deeper into the
and is then used to generate steam. reactor will reduce its power output, and
extracting the control rod will increase it.
 Control rods are composed of chemical  When the desired power level is achieved,
elements such as boron, silver, indium the nuclear reactor is placed into a critical
and cadmium. configuration to keep the neutron
population and power constant.
Critical mass  Finally, during shutdown, the reactor is
placed in a subcritical configuration so Page
 A critical mass is the smallest amount of that the neutron population and power
fissile material needed for a sustained decreases. |
nuclear chain reaction.
 Therefore, when a reactor is said to have 574
 The critical mass of a fissionable material “gone critical,” it actually means it is in a
depends upon its nuclear properties, its stable configuration producing a constant
density, its shape, its enrichment, its power.
purity, its temperature, and its
surroundings. Supercritical == Car [nuclear reactor] is
 When a nuclear chain reaction in a mass accelerating.
of fissile material is self-sustaining, the
mass is said to be in a critical state in Critical == Car is going at a constant
which there is no increase or decrease in speed.
power, temperature, or neutron
Sub critical == Car is slowing down.
population.
Neutron poison
Criticality
 A neutron poison (also called a neutron
 Criticality is a nuclear term that refers to
absorber or a nuclear poison) is a
the balance of neutrons in the system.
substance with a large neutron
 Balance of neutrons can be achieved using
absorption cross-section, in applications
moderators and control rods. such as nuclear reactors.
 “Subcritical” refers to a system where the
loss rate of neutrons is greater than the Types of Nuclear Reactors
production rate of neutrons and therefore
the neutron population decreases as time  There are various types of reactors based
goes on. on moderators, coolants, technologies
 “Supercritical” refers to a system where used.
the production rate of neutrons is greater  All commercial power reactors are based
than the loss rate of neutrons and on nuclear fission.
therefore the neutron population  They generally use uranium and its
increases. product plutonium as nuclear fuel, though
 When the neutron population remains a thorium fuel cycle is also possible.
constant, this means there is a perfect  Fission reactors can be divided roughly
balance between production rate and loss into two classes, depending on the energy
rate, and the nuclear system is said to be of the neutrons that sustain the fission
“critical.” chain reaction: thermal reactors and fast
 When a reactor is starting up, the neutron neutron reactors.
population is increased slowly in a
controlled manner, so that more neutrons Thermal Reactors and Fast Neutron
are produced than are lost, and the Reactors [Breeder Reactors]
nuclear reactor becomes supercritical.
Thermal Reactors Fast Neutron Reactors
Thermal reactors (the most common type of Fast neutron reactors use fast neutrons to
nuclear reactor) use slowed or thermal cause fission in their fuel.
neutrons to keep up the fission of their fuel.
Almost all current reactors are of this type. Very rare due to complexity and costs. They
Comparatively easy to build and operate. are more difficult to build and more
expensive to operate.
These contain neutron moderator materials They do not have a neutron moderator,
that slow neutrons. The moderator is often and use less-moderating coolants.
also the coolant, usually water under high Page
pressure.
High probability of fission due to slow Maintaining a chain reaction requires the |
neutrons. 2-5% Enriched fissile is sufficient fuel to be more highly enriched in fissile 575
to sustain a chain reaction. material (about 20% or more) due to the
relatively lower probability of fission.
More radioactive waste Fast reactors have the potential to produce
less radioactive waste because all fissile is
fissionable with fast neutrons.
Boiling water reactors (BWR), Pressurized Breeder reactors operate with fast neutrons
water reactors (PWR) and heavy water [moderators are not required]
reactors (HWR) operate with thermal
neutrons [moderators used]
Reactors based on Coolant and reactor core where it is heated by the
Moderator energy generated by the fission of atoms.
 The heated water then flows to a steam
 Light Water Reactors [LWR] and Hard generator where it transfers its thermal
Water reactors [HWR]. energy to a secondary system where steam
is generated and flows to turbines which,
Light-water reactor (LWR) in turn, spin an electric generator.
 In contrast to a boiling water reactor,
 The light-water reactor (LWR) is a type of
pressure in the primary coolant loop
thermal-neutron reactor that uses
prevents the water from boiling within the
NORMAL WATER, as opposed to heavy
reactor.
water, as both its coolant and neutron
 PWRs were originally designed to serve as
moderator.
nuclear marine propulsion for nuclear
 Thermal-neutron reactors are the most
submarines
common type of nuclear reactor, and light-
water reactors are the most common type Advantages of Pressurized water reactor
of thermal-neutron reactor. (PWR)
 There are three varieties of light-water
reactors: the pressurized water reactor  Very stable due to their tendency to
(PWR), the boiling water reactor (BWR), produce less power as temperatures
and (most designs of) the supercritical increase. Easier to operate from a stability
water reactor (SCWR). standpoint.
 PWR turbine cycle loop is separate from
Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) the primary loop, so the water in the
secondary loop is not contaminated by
 The PWR uses regular water as a coolant. radioactive materials.
 The primary cooling water is kept at very  The control rods are held by
high pressure so it does not boil. electromagnets and fall by gravity during
 Pressurized water reactors (PWRs) power failure. Full insertion safely shuts
constitute the large majority of all Western down the primary nuclear reaction.
nuclear power plants.  PWRs are compact reactors that fit well in
 In a PWR, the primary coolant (water) is nuclear submarines and nuclear ships.
pumped under high pressure to the
Disadvantages of Pressurized water  Lower risk (probability) of a rupture

reactor (PWR) causing loss of coolant compared to a
PWR.
 The coolant water must be highly  Can operate at lower core power density
pressurized to remain liquid at high levels using natural circulation without
temperatures. forced flow. Page
 This requires high strength piping and a  BWRs do not use boric acid to control
heavy pressure vessel and hence increases fission burn-up to avoid the production of |
construction costs. tritium leading to less possibility of 576
 The higher pressure can increase the corrosion within the reactor vessel and
consequences of a loss-of-coolant piping.
accident.  BWRs are ideally suited for peaceful uses
 The high temperature water coolant with like power generation, and desalinization,
boric acid dissolved in it is corrosive to due to low cost, simplicity, and safety
carbon steel (but not stainless steel) and focus, which come at the expense of larger
can lead to radiation exposure. size and slightly lower thermal efficiency.
 It is necessary to enrich [2-5%] the
uranium fuel, which significantly Disadvantages of Boiling Water Reactor
increases the costs of fuel production. (BWR)
 The requirement to enrich fuel for PWRs
also presents a serious proliferation risk.  BWRs require more complex calculations
 PWRs are not scalable. for managing consumption of nuclear fuel.
This also requires more instrumentation
Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) in the reactor core.
 There have been concerns raised about
 It is the second most common type of the pressure containment ability after
electricity-generating nuclear reactor after Fukushima I nuclear accidents.
the pressurized water reactor (PWR).  Control rods are inserted from below for
 The main difference between a BWR and current BWR designs. In case of power
PWR is that in a BWR, the reactor core failure, the reactor core can undergo
heats water, which turns to steam and significant damage and turn catastrophic.
then drives a steam turbine. In a PWR, the
reactor core heats water, which does not Supercritical Water Reactor (SCWR)
boil.
 This hot water then exchanges heat with a  The supercritical water reactor (SCWR)
lower pressure water system, which turns uses supercritical water as the working
to steam and drives the turbine. fluid.
Advantages of Boiling Water Reactor Supercritical water oxidation or SCWO is a

(BWR) process that occurs in water at
temperatures and pressures above a
 The reactor vessel and associated mixture's thermodynamic critical point.
components operate at a substantially Under these conditions water becomes a
lower pressure compared to PWR. fluid with unique properties that can be
 Pressure vessel is subject to significantly used to advantage in the destruction of
less irradiation compared to a PWR. hazardous wastes.
 Operates at a lower nuclear fuel
temperature.  SCWRs resemble light water reactors
 Fewer components due to no steam (LWRs) but operate at higher pressure and
generators and no pressurizer vessel. temperature like the pressurized water
reactor (PWR) and with a direct once-
through cycle like a boiling water reactor heavy water) and enhancing the ability of
(BWR). the reactor to make use of alternate fuel
 The SCWR is a promising advanced cycles.
nuclear system because of its high
thermal efficiency and simpler design. Advantages of Pressurized Heavy-Water
 It is still in development stage. Reactor (PHWR)
Page
Advantages of Supercritical Water  It can be operated without expensive |
Reactor (SCWR) uranium enrichment facilities.
 The mechanical arrangement places most 577
 Supercritical water has excellent heat of the moderator at lower temperatures.
transfer properties allowing a high power The resulting thermal neutrons are "more
density, a small core, and a small thermal" making PHWR more efficient. So,
containment structure. PHWR uses fuel more efficiently.
 As a BWR is simpler than a PWR, a SCWR  Since unenriched uranium fuel
is a lot simpler and more compact than a accumulates a lower density of fission
less-efficient BWR. products than enriched uranium fuel, it
 There are no steam separators, steam generates less heat, allowing more
dryers, internal recirculation pumps, or compact storage.
recirculation flow inside the pressure
vessel. Disadvantages of Pressurized Heavy-
Water Reactor (PHWR)
 The stored thermal and radiologic energy
in the smaller core would also be less than
 The reduced energy content of natural
that of either a BWR's or a PWR's.
uranium as compared to enriched
 Water is liquid at room temperature, uranium necessitates more frequent
cheap, non-toxic and transparent, replacement of fuel.
simplifying inspection and repair.
 The increased rate of fuel movement
 A fast SCWR could be a breeder reactor, through the reactor also results in higher
like the proposed Clean And volumes of spent fuel than in LWRs
Environmentally Safe Advanced Reactor. employing enriched uranium.
 A heavy-water SCWR could breed fuel
from thorium (4x more abundant than Nuclear proliferation and PHWR
uranium), with increased proliferation
resistance over plutonium breeders.  Opponents of heavy-water reactors
suggest that such reactors pose a much
Pressurized Heavy-Water Reactor greater risk of nuclear proliferation than
(PHWR) comparable light water reactors.
 Natural Uranium-238 fissile [because
 Uses heavy water (deuterium oxide enrichment is not required] of a heavy-
D2O) as its coolant and neutron water reactor is converted into plutonium-
moderator. 239, a fissile material suitable for use in
 The heavy water coolant is kept under nuclear weapons.
pressure, allowing it to be heated to higher  As a result, if the fuel of a heavy-water
temperatures without boiling, much as in reactor is changed frequently, significant
a pressurized water reactor. amounts of weapons-grade plutonium can
 While heavy water is significantly more be chemically extracted from the
expensive than ordinary light water, it irradiated natural uranium fuel by nuclear
creates greatly enhanced neutron reprocessing [Pakistan is pretty good at
economy, allowing the reactor to operate this].
without fuel-enrichment facilities
(offsetting the additional expense of the
 In this way, the materials necessary to  But the largest source of uranium
construct a nuclear weapon can be comprise the monazite sands.
obtained without any uranium  Monazite sands occur on east and west
enrichment. coasts and in some places in Bihar. But
 In addition, the use of heavy water as a the largest concentration of monazite
moderator results in the production of sand is on the Kerala coast. Page
small amounts of tritium when the  Over 15,200 tonnes of uranium is
deuterium nuclei in the heavy water estimated to be contained in monazite. |
absorb neutrons.  Some uranium is found in the copper 578
 Tritium is essential for the production of mines of Udaipur in Rajasthan.
boosted fission weapons, which in turn  India produces about 2 per cent of world’s
enable the easier production of uranium. The total reserves of uranium
thermonuclear weapons, including are estimated at 30,480 tonnes.
neutron bombs.  Thorium is also derived from monozite.
 The proliferation risk of heavy-water The other mineral carrying thorium is
reactors was demonstrated when India thorianite.
produced the plutonium for Operation  The known reserves of thorium in India
Smiling Buddha, its first nuclear weapon are estimated to be between 457,000 and
test, by extraction from the spent fuel of a 508,000 tonnes. Kerala, Jharkhand,
heavy-water research reactor known as Bihar, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan are the
the CIRUS reactor [Oh no!!]. main producers.
 Beryllium oxide is used as a ‘moderator’
References:
in nuclear reactors. India has sufficient
https://whatisnuclear.com/img/nrc-pwr- reserves of beryllium to meet her
opt.gif requirement of atomic power generation.
 Lithium is a light metal which is found in
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light- lepidolite and spodumene. Lepidolite is
water_reactor widely distributed in the mica belts of
Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and
https://whatisnuclear.com/articles/nucre Rajasthan.
actor.html
 Zirconium is found along the Kerala coast
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_re and in alluvial rocks of Ranchi and
actor Hazaribagh districts of Jharkhand.
Uranium - Uranium Distribution, Reserves Uranium

and Production. Uranium in India.
Nuclear Power Plants in India. Thorium -  Uranium is a silvery-gray metallic
Advantages of Thorium, Thorium radioactive chemical element. It is only
Distribution. naturally formed in supernova explosions.
 Uranium, thorium, and potassium are
Atomic Minerals the main elements contributing to natural
terrestrial radioactivity.
 Uranium and Thorium are the main  Uranium has the chemical symbol U and
atomic minerals. Other atomic minerals atomic number 92.
are beryllium, lithium and zirconium.  Uranium isotopes in natural uranium are
 Uranium deposits occur in Singhbhum 238U (99.27%) and 235U (0.72%).
and Hazaribagh districts of Jharkhand,  All uranium isotopes are radioactive and
Gaya district of Bihar, and in the fissionable. But only 235U is fissile (will
sedimentary rocks in Saharanpur district support a neutron-mediated chain
of Uttar Pradesh. reaction).
 Traces of Uranium are found everywhere.

Commercial extraction is possible only in
locations where the proportion of Uranium
is adequate. There are very few such
locations.
Distribution of Uranium Across the Page

World |
Uranium in India
 Largest viable deposits are found in 579
Australia, Kazakhstan, and Canada.  India has no significant reserves of
 Olympic Dam and the Ranger mine in Uranium. All needs are met through
Southern Australia are important mines in imports.
Australia.  India imports thousands of tonnes of
 High-grade deposits are only found in the uranium from Russia, Kazakhstan,
Athabasca Basin region of Canada. France, and Uzbekistan.
 Cigar Lake, McArthur River basin in  India is trying hard to import uranium
Canada are other important uranium from Australia and Canada. There are
mining sites. some concerns regarding nuclear
 The Chu-Sarysu basin in central proliferation and other related issues
Kazakhstan alone accounts for over half of which India is trying to sort out.
the country's known uranium resources.  Some quality reserves were recently
discovered in parts of Andhra Pradesh and
Telangana between Seshachalam forest
and Sresailam [Southern edge of Andhra
to Southern edge of Telangana].
List of Countries by Uranium Reserves

and Production
Nuclear Power Plants in India
Page
|
580
Page
|
581
Thorium seven naturally occurring ones (thorium-

227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, and 234).
 Thorium is a chemical element with  Thorium-232 is the most stable isotope of
symbol Th and atomic number 90. thorium and accounts for nearly all
 It is one of only two significantly natural thorium, with the other five
radioactive elements that still occur natural isotopes occurring only in traces.
naturally in large quantities [other being  Thorium is estimated to be about three to
uranium]. four times more abundant than
 Thorium metal is silvery and tarnishes uranium in the Earth's crust, and is
black when exposed to air. chiefly refined from monazite sands
 Thorium is weakly radioactive: all its [Monazite contains 2.5%
known isotopes are unstable, with the thorium][Monazite is a widely scattered
on the Kerala Coast].
 Thorium is predicted to be able to replace minor actinides [fifteen radioactive

uranium as nuclear fuel in nuclear metallic elements from actinium (atomic
reactors, but only a few thorium reactors number 89) to lawrencium (atomic
have yet been completed. number 103) in the periodic table] that
makes nuclear waste from Light Water
Monazite – Rare Earth Metals Reactors a nuisance to deal with.
Page
 Thorium reactors are cheaper because
 Monazite is a reddish-brown phosphate they have higher burn up. |
mineral containing rare earth metals.  Thorium mining produces a single pure 582
 Rare earths are a series of chemical isotope, whereas the mixture of natural
elements found in the Earth’s crust that uranium isotopes must be enriched
are vital to many modern technologies, [enriching is costly] to function in most
including consumer electronics, common reactor designs.
computers and networks,  Thorium cannot sustain a nuclear chain
communications, clean energy, advanced reaction without priming, so fission stops
transportation, health care, environmental by default in an accelerator driven reactor.
mitigation, national defense, and many
 And five, thorium reactors are significantly
others.
more proliferation-resistant than present
 Because of their unique magnetic, reactors. This is because the
luminescent, and electrochemical
properties, these elements help make The mainstreaming of thorium reactors
many technologies perform with reduced worldwide thus offers an enormous
weight, reduced emissions, and energy advantage to proliferation-resistance as
consumption; or give them greater well as the environment.
efficiency, performance, miniaturization,
speed, durability, and thermal stability. For India, it offers the added benefit
 There are 17 elements that are considered that it can enter the export market
to be rare earth elements. [Scandium, [India has the largest reserves of
Yttrium etc. –– (names are very strange thorium].
and hence I am avoiding them)]
Scientists predict that the impact of
Advantages of Thorium climate change will be worse on India.
Advancing the deployment of thorium
 Proliferation is not easy: Weapons-grade reactors by four to six decades via a
fissionable material (U-233) is harder to plutonium market might be the most
retrieve safely from a thorium reactor [U- effective step towards curtailing carbon
233 produced by transmuting thorium emissions.
also contains U-232, a strong source of
Thorium Distribution
gamma radiation that makes it difficult to
work with. Its daughter product, thallium-
 Thorium is several times more abundant
208, is equally difficult to handle and easy
in Earth's crust than all isotopes of
to detect].
uranium combined and thorium-232 is
 Thorium reactors produce far less waste several hundred times more abundant
than present-day reactors. than uranium-235.
 Thorium produces 10 to 10,000 times less  United States, Australia, and India have
long-lived radioactive waste [minuscule particularly large reserves of thorium.
waste that is generated is toxic for only
 India and Australia are believed to possess
three or four hundred years rather than
more than half of world's thorium
thousands of years].
reserves.
 They have the ability to burn up most of
the highly radioactive and long-lasting
India's Three-Stage Nuclear Power

Programme. Fast Breeder Reactor at
Kalpakkam. What Hinders Deployment of
Thorium-Fuelled Reactors In India?
Solution to India’s Fissile Shortage
Problem.
Page
India's Three-Stage Nuclear Power |
Programme
583
 India's three-stage nuclear power
programme was formulated by Homi
Bhabha in the 1950s to secure the
country’s long term energy independence,
through the use of uranium and thorium
reserves found in the monazite sands of
coastal regions of South India.
The ultimate focus of the programme is

on enabling the thorium reserves of
India to be utilized in meeting the
country's energy requirements.
 Thorium is particularly attractive for

India, as it has only around 1–2% of the
global uranium reserves, but one of the
largest shares of global thorium
reserves.
 However, at present thorium is not
economically viable because global
uranium prices are much lower.
 The recent Indo-US Nuclear Deal and the
NSG waiver, which ended more than three
decades of international isolation of the
Indian civil nuclear programme, have
created many hitherto unexplored
alternatives for the success of the three-
stage nuclear power programme.
 Thorium itself is not a fissile material,
and thus cannot undergo fission to
produce energy.
 Instead, it must be transmuted to
uranium-233 in a reactor fueled by other
fissile materials [plutonium-239 or
uranium-235].
[Heavy water (deuterium oxide, D 2O) is

used as moderator and coolant in PHWR].
 PHWRs was a natural choice for

implementing the first stage because it
had the most efficient reactor design
[uranium enrichment not required] in Page
terms of uranium utilisation. |
 India correctly calculated that it would be
easier to create heavy water production 584
facilities (required for PHWRs) than
uranium enrichment facilities (required for
LWRs).
 Almost the entire existing base of Indian
nuclear power (4780 MW) is composed of
first stage PHWRs, with the exception of
the two Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) units
at Tarapur.
Stage II – Fast Breeder Reactor
 The first two stages, natural uranium-  In the second stage, fast breeder reactors
fueled heavy water reactors and (FBRs)[moderators not required] would
plutonium-fueled fast breeder reactors, use plutonium-239, recovered by
are intended to generate sufficient fissile reprocessing spent fuel from the first
material from India's limited uranium stage, and natural uranium.
resources, so that all its vast thorium  In FBRs, plutonium-239 undergoes
reserves can be fully utilized in the third fission to produce energy, while the
stage of thermal breeder reactors. uranium-238 present in the fuel
transmutes to additional plutonium-
Stage I – Pressurized Heavy Water
239.
Reactor [PHWR]
Why should Uranium-238 be
 In the first stage of the programme, transmuted to Plutonium-239?
natural uranium fuelled pressurized
heavy water reactors (PHWR) produce Uranium-235 and Plutonium-239 can
electricity while generating plutonium- sustain a chain reaction. But Uranium-238
239 as by-product. cannot sustain a chain reaction. So it is
transmuted to Plutonium-239.
[U-238 → Plutonium-239 + Heat]
But Why U-238 and not U-235?
[In PWHR, enrichment of Uranium to
improve concentration of U-235 is not Natural uranium contains only 0.7% of the
required. U-238 can be directly fed into fissile isotope uranium-235. Most of the
the reactor core] remaining 99.3% is uranium-238.
[Natural uranium contains only 0.7% of  Thus, the Stage II FBRs are designed to
the fissile isotope uranium-235. Most of "breed" more fuel than they consume.
the remaining 99.3% is uranium-238  Once the inventory of plutonium-239 is
which is not fissile but can be converted in built up thorium can be introduced as a
a reactor to the fissile isotope plutonium- blanket material in the reactor and
239].
transmuted to uranium-233 for use in the  The Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic
third stage. Research (IGCAR) is responsible for the
 The surplus plutonium bred in each fast design of this reactor.
reactor can be used to set up more such  As of 2007 the reactor was expected to
reactors, and might thus grow the Indian begin functioning in 2010 but now it is
civil nuclear power capacity till the point expected to achieve first criticality in Page
where the third stage reactors using March-April 2016.
thorium as fuel can be brought online  Construction is over and the |
 As of August 2014, India's first Prototype owner/operator, Bharatiya Nabhikiya 585
Fast Breeder Reactor at Kalpakkam had Vidyut Nigam Limited (BHAVINI), is
been delayed - with first criticality awaiting clearance from the Atomic Energy
expected in 2015, 2016..and it drags on. Regulatory Board (AERB).
 Total costs, originally estimated at 3500
Stage III – Thorium Based Reactors crore are now estimated at 5,677 crore.
 The Kalpakkam PFBR is using uranium-
 A Stage III reactor or an Advanced nuclear
238 not thorium, to breed new fissile
power system involves a self-sustaining
material, in a sodium-cooled fast reactor
series of thorium-232-uranium-233
design.
fuelled reactors.
 The surplus plutonium or uranium-233
 This would be a thermal breeder reactor,
for thorium reactors [U-238 transmutes
which in principle can be refueled – after
into plutonium] from each fast reactor can
its initial fuel charge – using only
be used to set up more such reactors and
naturally occurring thorium.
grow the nuclear capacity in tune with
 According to replies given in Q&A in the
India's needs for power.
Indian Parliament on two separate
 The fact that PFBR will be cooled by liquid
occasions, 19 August 2010 and 21 March
sodium creates additional safety
2012, large scale thorium deployment is
requirements to isolate the coolant from
only to be expected 3 – 4 decades after the
the environment, since sodium explodes if
commercial operation of fast breeder
it comes into contact with water and
reactors. [2040-2070]
burns when in contact with air.
 As there is a long delay before direct
thorium utilisation in the three-stage Below text is drawn from.. Fast forwarding
programme, the country is now looking at to thorium-The Hindu, by JAIDEEP A.
reactor designs that allow more direct use PRABHU
of thorium in parallel with the sequential
three-stage programme http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-
 Three options under consideration are the ed/fast-forwarding-to-
Accelerator Driven Systems (ADS), thorium/article7834156.ece
Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR)
What Hinders Deployment of Thorium-
and Compact High Temperature Reactor
Fuelled Reactors In India?
Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor at
Kalpakkam  Most people would assume that it is a
limitation of technology. But instead, it is
 The Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) due to shortage of uranium fuel that is
is a 500 MWe fast breeder nuclear reactor needed to convert fertile fuel [thorium]
presently being constructed at the Madras into fissile [fuel that can undergo
Atomic Power Station in Kalpakkam, sustained chain reaction].
India.  Scientists at the Bhabha Atomic Research
Centre have successfully tested all
relevant thorium-related technologies in away with uranium which is very scares in

the laboratory. India] in the reactor core, making it
 In fact, if pressed, India could probably essentially a thorium-fuelled reactor
begin full-scale deployment of thorium [thorium keeps transmuting into U-233.
reactors in ten years. It is U-233 that generates the energy].
 The single greatest hurdle, to answer the
original question, is the critical shortage of Present State of India's Three-Stage Page
fissile material. Nuclear Power Programme |
What is a fissile material?  After decades of operating pressurized 586

heavy-water reactors (PHWR), India is
 A fissile material is one that can sustain a finally ready to start the second stage.
chain reaction upon bombardment by  A 500 MW Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor
neutrons. (PFBR) at Kalpakkam is set to achieve
 Thorium is by itself fertile, meaning that criticality any day now and four more fast
it can transmute into a fissile breeder reactors have been sanctioned,
radioisotope [U-233] but cannot itself two at the same site and two elsewhere.
keep a chain reaction going.  However, experts estimate that it would
 In a thorium reactor, a fissile material like take India many more FBRs and at least
uranium or plutonium is blanketed by another four decades before it has built up
thorium. a sufficient fissile material inventory to
 The fissile material, also called a driver in launch the third stage.
this case, drives the chain reaction to
produce energy while simultaneously Solution to India’s Fissile Shortage
transmuting the fertile material into fissile Problem – Procuring Fissile Material
material. Plutonium
 India has very modest deposits of uranium
and some of the world’s largest sources of  The obvious solution to India’s shortage of
thorium. It was keeping this in mind that fissile material is to procure it from the
in 1954, Homi Bhabha envisioned India’s international market.
nuclear power programme in three stages Favourable Conditions for Plutonium
to suit the country’s resource profile. Trade
1. In the first stage, heavy water reactors
fuelled by natural uranium would produce  As yet, there exists no commerce in
plutonium [U-238 will be transmuted to plutonium though there is no law that
Plutonium 239 in PHWR]; expressly forbids it.
2. the second stage would initially be fuelled  In fact, most nuclear treaties such as the
by a mix of the plutonium from the first Convention on the Physical Protection of
stage and natural uranium. This uranium Nuclear Material address only U-235 and
would transmute into more plutonium and U-233.
once sufficient stocks have been built up,  This is because Plutonium has so far not
thorium would be introduced into the fuel been considered a material suited for
cycle to convert it into uranium 233 for peaceful purposes.
the third stage [thorium will be
 The Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) merely
transmuted to U-233 with the help
mandates that special fissionable material
plutonium 239].
— which includes plutonium — if
3. In the final stage, a mix of thorium and
transferred, be done so under safeguards.
uranium fuels the reactors. The thorium
 Thus, the legal rubric for safeguarded sale
transmutes to U-233 which powers the
of plutonium and safety procedures for
reactor. Fresh thorium can replace the
moving radioactive spent fuel and
depleted thorium [can be totally done
plutonium already exists but it is not too

complicated as in case Uranium.
 Japan and the U.K. who are looking to
reduce their stockpile of plutonium will
certainly be happy to sell it to India.
What compelling reason does the world Page

have to accommodate India? |
 India’s FBRs that are tasked for civilian 587

purposes and can be brought under
international safeguards in a system
similar to the Indo-U.S. nuclear deal.
 FBRs and large quantities of fissile
material can easily be redirected towards
weapons programme. But India has shown
no inclination to do so until now.
Obstacles
 The U.S. could perhaps emerge as the

greatest obstacle to plutonium commerce.
 U.S. cannot prevent countries from
trading in plutonium, it has the power to
make it uncomfortable for them via
sanctions, reduced scientific cooperation,
and other mechanisms.
 The strong non-proliferation lobby in the
U.S. would not like a non-signatory of the
NPT [India] to open and regulate trade in
plutonium.
 The challenge for Delhi is to convince
Washington to sponsor rather than oppose
such a venture.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occurrence
_of_thorium
http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-
ed/fast-forwarding-to-
thorium/article7834156.ece
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India%27s_
three-stage_nuclear_power_programme



ADMIN1: ADMIN2:

PMF Geo Full

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PMF Geo Full

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PMF Geo Full

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Youtube: https://goo.gl/KLq9pu PMFIAS.COM Notes PDF: https://goo.

Geomorphology Continent – Arc Convergence or New

Intrusive Volcanic Landforms ................80 Marine Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

Subaqueous Volcanism .........................84 Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ..........117

Eruptive Volcanism Types .....................84 Glacial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

Distribution of Earthquakes ..................90 Important Lakes on Earth ...................127

Effects of Earthquakes ..........................91 Plateau ...............................................130

Tsunami ...............................................91 Plateau Formation ...............................131

Occurrence............................................95 Major plateaus of the World .................132

Shifts in Geography ...............................96 Climatology

Atmosphere........................................144 Secondary or Periodic Winds ...............181

Favorite Breeding Grounds for Tropical Tropical Cyclone ..................................236

Steppe Climate ....................................268 Tundra Climate or Polar Climate or Arctic

Economic Development of Steppes .......269 Tundra Climate ..................................292

Types of Ocean Currents .....................308 Symbiotic Relationship Between Corals

Vertical Temperature Distribution of Ocean Deposits ..................................340

Features of Indo – Gangetic – Left Bank Tributaries of The Ganga River

Andaman and Nicobar islands .............394 Estuary ...............................................429

Lakshadweep Islands ..........................394 Narmada River ....................................430

New Moore Island ................................395 Tapti River...........................................431

Drainage basin ....................................396 Sabarmati River ..................................433

Drainage patterns ..............................398 Mahi River ...........................................433

Discordant drainage patterns ..............398 Luni River ...........................................434

Concordant Drainage Patterns .............399 West flowing Rivers of the Sahyadris

Classification of Drainage Systems of India Usability of Rivers ...............................438

Distribution of Gondwana Coal in India Coalbed Methane.................................546

Distribution of Coal in USA .................529 Lead....................................................553

Distribution of Coal in China ...............529 Zinc ....................................................553

Distribution of Petroleum and Mineral Oil Pyrites .................................................554

Major Producers of Graphite – India &

Geomorphology  Meteors: Meteors and Earth are solar

Some sources explained in detail

High Levels of Temperature and

 The study of seismic waves provides a

What causes earthquakes?

 Abrupt release of energy along a fault

 Under intense pressure, the rock layer, at

EBOOKS & UPSC PRELIMS USPC MAINS VIDEO FOR DAILY

SECUREIAS UPSC PRELIMS UPSC MAINS DELHI CIVILSERVICES

OPTIONAL SUBJECTS BOOKS, STATE PCS, SSC, BANKING

 Generally affect the surface of the Earth

 This gives clues about Solid inner core

Secondary Waves (S waves)

 Also called as transverse or distortional

Surface Waves (L waves)

 It forms 0.5-1.0 per cent of the earth’s

 Mohorovicic (Moho) discontinuity forms  The outer covering of the crust is of

Earth’s Layers - Asthenosphere

Earth’s Layers - Core

 Lies between 2900 km and 6400 km

1. The heat generated by the radioactive

Geomorphic processes earth surface are known as geomorphic

 Geomorphic agent == mobile medium (like  Through the processes of orogeny,

 Raised beaches, some of them elevated as  Orogenic or the mountain-forming

 These movements cause considerable

 There are three major groups of weathering through exfoliation and

Chemical Weathering Processes  In weathering, oxidation means a

 Rocks composed of coarse mineral grains