NCERT Geography Notes
NCERT Geography Notes
NCERT Geography Notes
The Star Formation The distribution of matter and energy was not even in the early
universe. These initial density differences gave rise to differences in gravitational forces
and it caused the matter to get drawn together. These formed the bases for development
of galaxies. A galaxy contains a large number of stars. Galaxies spread over vast
distances that are measured in thousands of light-years. The diameters of individual
galaxies range from 80,000-150,000 light years. A galaxy starts to form by accumulation
of hydrogen gas in the form of a very large cloud called nebula. Eventually, growing nebula
develops localised clumps of gas. These clumps continue to grow into even denser
gaseous bodies, giving rise to formation of stars. The formation of stars is believed to have
taken place some 5-6 billion years ago.
(i) The stars are localised lumps of gas within a nebula. The gravitational force within
the lumps leads to the formation of a core to the gas cloud and a huge rotating disc of
gas and dust develops around the gas core.
(ii) In the next stage, the gas cloud starts getting condensed and the matter around the
core develops into small- rounded objects. These small-rounded objects by the process
of cohesion develop into what is called planetesimals. Larger bodies start forming by
collision, and gravitational attraction causes the material to stick together. Planetesimals
are a large number of smaller bodies. (iii) In the final stage, these large number of small
planetesimals accrete to form a fewer large bodies in the form of planets.
The following are considered to be the stages in the development of planets :
(i) The stars are localised lumps of gas within a nebula. The gravitational force within
Workspace for 'world geo
the lumps leads tofinal ncert'
the formation of a core to the gas cloud and a huge rotating disc of
Page 2 (row 2, column 1)gas and dust develops around the gas core.
(ii) In the next stage, the gas cloud starts getting condensed and the matter around the
core develops into small- rounded objects. These small-rounded objects by the process
of cohesion develop into what is called planetesimals. Larger bodies start forming by
collision, and gravitational attraction causes the material to stick together. Planetesimals
are a large number of smaller bodies. (iii) In the final stage, these large number of small
planetesimals accrete to form a fewer large bodies in the form of planets.
planets. The tenth planet 2003 UB313 has also been recently sighted
The difference between terrestrial and jovian planets can be attributed to the following
conditions: (i) The terrestrial planets were formed in the close vicinity of the parent star where
it was too warm for gases to condense to solid particles. Jovian planets were formed at quite
a distant location. (ii) The solar wind was most intense nearer the sun; so, it blew off lots of
gas and dust from the terrestrial planets. The solar winds were not all that intense to cause
similar removal of gases from the Jovian planets. (iii) The terrestrial planets are smaller and
their lower gravity could not hold the escaping gases.
Project”. The deepest drill at Kola, in Arctic Ocean, has so far reached a depth of 12 km
The point where the energy is released is called the focus of an earthquake, alternatively, it is called
the hypocentre
GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE
This unit deals with
• Geography as an integrating discipline; as a science of spatial
attributes
• Branches of geography; importance of physical geography
CHAPTER
GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE
Y
ou have studied geography as one of the of the earth’s surface. The understanding and
components of your social studies course the skills obtained in modern scientific
upto the secondary stage. You are techniques such as GIS and computer
already aware of some of the phenomena of cartography equip you to meaningfully
geographical nature in the world and its contribute to the national endeavour for
different parts. Now, you will study ‘Geography’ development.
as an independent subject and learn about the Now the next question which you may like
physical environment of the earth, human to ask is — What is geography? You know that
activities and their interactive relationships. earth is our home. It is also the home of many
Therefore, a pertinent question you can ask at other creatures, big and small, which live on
this stage is — Why should we study the earth and sustain. The earth’s surface is
geography? We live on the surface of the earth. not uniform. It has variations in its physical
Our lives are affected by our surroundings in features. There are mountains, hills, valleys,
many ways. We depend on the resources to plains, plateaus, oceans, lakes, deserts and
sustain ourselves in the surrounding areas. wilderness. There are variations in its social
Primitive societies subsisted on ‘natural means and cultural features too. There are villages,
of subsistence’, i.e. edible plants and animals. cities, roads, railways, ports, markets and
With the passage of time, we developed many other elements created by human beings
technologies and started producing our food across the entire period of their cultural
using natural resources such as land, soil and development.
water. We adjusted our food habits and This variation provides a clue to the
clothing according to the prevailing weather understanding of the relationship between the
conditions. There are variations in the natural physical environment and social/cultural
resource base, technological development, features. The physical environment has
adaptation with and modification of physical provided the stage, on which human societies
environment, social organisations and cultural enacted the drama of their creative skills with
development. As a student of geography, you the tools and techniques which they invented
should be curious to know about all the and evolved in the process of their cultural
phenomena which vary over space. You learn development. Now, you should be able to
about the diverse lands and people. You attempt the answer of the question posed
should also be interested in understanding the earlier as to “What is geography”? In very
changes which have taken place over time. simple words, it can be said that geography
Geography equips you to appreciate diversity is the description of the earth. The term
and investigate into the causes responsible for geography was first coined by Eratosthenese,
creating such variations over time and space. a Greek scholar (276-194 BC.). The word has
You will develop skills to understand the globe been derived from two roots from Greek
converted into maps and have a visual sense language geo (earth) and graphos (description).
GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE 3
Put together, they mean description of the earth. changing earth and untiring and ever-active
The earth has always been seen as the abode human beings. Primitive human societies were
of human beings and thus, scholars defined directly dependent on their immediate
geography as, “the description of the earth as environment. Geography, thus, is concerned
the abode of human beings”. You are aware of with the study of Nature and Human
the fact that reality is always multifaceted and interactions as an integrated whole. ‘Human’
the ‘earth’ is also multi-dimensional, that is is an integral part of ‘nature’ and ‘nature’ has
why many disciplines from natural sciences the imprints of ‘human’. ‘Nature’ has influenced
such as geology, pedology, oceanography, different aspects of human life. Its imprints can
botany, zoology and meteorology and a be noticed on food, clothing, shelter and
number of sister disciplines in social sciences occupation. Human beings have come to terms
such as economics, history, sociology, political with nature through adaptation and
science, anthropology, etc. study different modification. As you already know, the present
aspects of the earth’s surface. Geography is society has passed the stage of primitive
different from other sciences in its subject societies, which were directly dependent on
matter and methodology but at the same time, their immediate physical environment for
it is closely related to other disciplines. sustenance. Present societies have modified
Geography derives its data base from all the their natural environment by inventing and
natural and social sciences and attempts their using technology and thus, have expanded the
synthesis. horizon of their operation by appropriating and
We have noted that there exist variations utilising the resources provided by nature. With
over the surface of the earth in its physical as the gradual development of technology, human
well as cultural environment. A number of beings were able to loosen the shackles of their
phenomena are similar and many are dissimilar. physical environment. Technology helped in
It was, therefore, logical to perceive geography reducing the harshness of labour, increased
as the study of areal differentiation. Thus, labour efficiency and provided leisure to
geography was perceived to study all those human beings to attend to the higher needs of
phenomena which vary over space. life. It also increased the scale of production
Geographers do not study only the variations and the mobility of labour.
in the phenomena over the earth’s surface The interaction between the physical
(space) but also study the associations with environment and human beings has been very
the other factors which cause these variations. succinctly described by a poet in the following
For example, cropping patterns differ from dialogue between ‘human’ and ‘nature’ (God).
region to region but this variation in cropping You created the soil, I created the cup, you
pattern, as a phenomenon, is related to created night, I created the lamp. You created
variations in soils, climates, demands in the wilderness, hilly terrains and deserts; I
market, capacity of the farmer to invest and created flower beds and gardens. Human
technological inputs available to her/him. beings have claimed their contribution using
Thus, the concern of geography is to find out natural resources. With the help of technology,
the causal relationship between any two human beings moved from the stage of
phenomena or between more than one necessity to a stage of freedom. They have put
phenomenon. their imprints everywhere and created new
A geographer explains the phenomena in possibilities in collaboration with nature. Thus,
a frame of cause and effect relationship, as it we now find humanised nature and
does not only help in interpretation but also naturalised human beings and geography
foresees the phenomena in future. studies this interactive relationship. The space
The geographical phenomena, both the got organised with the help of the means of
physical and human, are not static but highly transportation and communication network.
dynamic. They change over time as a result of The links (routes) and nodes (settlements of all
the interactive processes between ever types and hierarchies) integrated the space and
4 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
gradually, it got organised. As a social science present world is being perceived as a global
discipline, geography studies the ‘spatial village. The distances have been reduced by
organisation’ and ‘spatial integration’. better means of transportation increasing
Geography as a discipline is concerned with accessibility. The audio-visual media and
three sets of questions: information technology have enriched the data
(i) Some questions are related to the base. Technology has provided better chances
identification of the patterns of natural of monitoring natural phenomena as well as
and cultural features as found over the the economic and social parameters.
surface of the earth. These are the Geography as an integrating discipline has
questions about what? interface with numerous natural and social
(ii) Some questions are related to the sciences. All the sciences, whether natural or
distribution of the natural and human/ social, have one basic objective, of
cultural features over the surface of the understanding the reality. Geography
earth. These are the questions about attempts to comprehend the associations of
where? phenomena as related in sections of reality.
Taken together, both these questions take Figure 1.1 shows the relationship of geography
care of distributional and locational aspects of with other sciences. Every discipline, concerned
the natural and cultural features. These with scientific knowledge is linked with
questions provided inventorised information of geography as many of their elements vary over
what features and where located. It was a very space. Geography helps in understanding the
popular approach during the colonial period. reality in totality in its spatial perspective.
These two questions did not make geography Geography, thus, not only takes note of the
a scientific discipline till the third question was differences in the phenomena from place to
added. The third question is related to the place but integrates them holistically which
explanation or the causal relationships may be different at other places. A geographer
between features and the processes and is required to have a broad understanding of
all the related fields, to be able to logically
phenomena. This aspect of geography is related
integrate them. This integration can be
to the question, why?
understood with some examples. Geography
Geography as a discipline is related to
influences historical events. Spatial distance
space and takes note of spatial characteristics
itself has been a very potent factor to alter the
and attributes. It studies the patterns of
course of history of the world. Spatial depth
distribution, location and concentration of
provided defence to many countries,
phenomena over space and interprets them
particularly in the last century. In traditional
providing explanations for these patterns. It
warfare, countries with large size in area, gain
takes note of the associations and inter -
time at the cost of space. The defence provided
relationships between the phenomena over
by oceanic expanse around the countries of
space and interprets them providing
the new world has protected them from wars
explanations for these patterns. It also takes being imposed on their soil. If we look at the
note of the associations and inter-relationships historical events world over, each one of them
between the phenomena resulting from the can be interpreted geographically.
dynamic interaction between human beings In India, Himalayas have acted as great
and their physical environment. barriers and provided protection but the
passes provided routes to the migrants and
GEOGRAPHY AS AN INTEGRATING DISCIPLINE invaders from Central Asia. The sea coast has
Geography is a discipline of synthesis. It encouraged contact with people from East and
attempts spatial synthesis, and history Southeast Asia, Europe and Africa. Navigation
attempts temporal synthesis. Its approach is technology helped European countries to
holistic in nature. It recognises the fact that colonise a number of countries of Asia and
the world is a system of interdependencies. The Africa, including India as they got accessibility
GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE 5
through oceans. The geographical factors have econometrics. Maps are prepared through
modified the course of history in different parts artistic imagination. Making sketches, mental
of the world. maps and cartographic work require
Every geographical phenomenon undergoes proficiency in arts.
change through time and can be explained
temporally. The changes in landforms, climate, Geography and Social Sciences
vegetation, economic activities occupations and
cultural developments have followed a definite Each social science sketched in Figure 1.1 has
historical course. Many geographical features interface with one branch of geography. The
result from the decision making process by relationships between geography and history
different institutions at a particular point of have already been outlined in detail. Every
time. It is possible to convert time in terms of discipline has a philosophy which is the raison
space and space in terms of time. For example, d’etre for that discipline. Philosophy provides
it can be said that place A is 1,500 km from roots to a discipline and in the process of its
place B or alternately, it can also be said that evolution, it also experiences distinct historical
place A is two hours away (if one travels by processes. Thus, the history of geographical
plane) or seventeen hours away (if one travels thought as mother branch of geography is
by a fast moving train). It is for this reason, included universally in its curricula. All the
time is an integral part of geographical studies social science disciplines, viz. sociology,
as the fourth dimension. Please mention other political science, economics and demography
three dimensions? study different aspects of social reality. The
Figure1.1 amply depicts the linkages of branches of geography, viz. social, political,
geography with different natural and social economic and population and settlements are
sciences. This linkage can be put under two closely linked with these disciplines as each
segments. one of them has spatial attributes. The core
concern of political science is territory, people
Physical Geography and Natural Sciences
and sovereignty while political geography is
All the branches of physical geography, as also interested in the study of the state as a
shown in Figure 1.1, have interface with natural spatial unit as well as people and their political
sciences. The traditional physical geography behaviour. Economics deals with basic
is linked with geology, meteorology, hydrology attributes of the economy such as production,
and pedology, and thus, geomorphology, distribution, exchange and consumption. Each
climatology, oceanography and soil geography of these attributes also has spatial aspects and
respectively have very close link with the here comes the role of economic geography to
natural sciences as these derive their data from study the spatial aspects of production,
these sciences. Bio-Geography is closely related distribution, exchange and consumption.
to botany, zoology as well as ecology as human Likewise, population geography is closely
beings are located in different locational niche. linked with the discipline of demography.
A geographer should have some proficiency
The above discussion shows that
in mathematics and art, particularly in drawing
geography has strong interface with natural
maps. Geography is very much linked with the
and social sciences. It follows its own
study of astronomical locations and deals with
latitudes and longitudes. The shape of the earth methodology of study which makes it distinct
is Geoid but the basic tool of a geographer is a from others. It has osmotic relationship with
map which is two dimensional representation other disciplines. While all the disciplines have
of the earth. The problem of converting geoids their own individual scope, this individuality
into two dimensions can be tackled by does not obstruct the flow of information as in
projections constructed graphically or case of all cells in the body that have individual
mathematically. The cartographic and identity separated by membranes but the flow
quantitative techniques require sufficient of blood is not obstructed. Geographers use
proficiency in mathematics, statistics and data obtained from sister disciplines and
6
attempt synthesis over space. Maps are very BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY (BASED ON
effective tools of geographers in which the SYSTEMATIC APPROACH)
tabular data is converted into visual form to
bring out the spatial pattern. 1. Physical Geography
(ii) Zoo Geography which studies the (c) Field Survey Methods
spatial patterns and geographic (d) Geo-informatics comprising
characteristics of animals and their techniques such as Remote
habitats. Sensing, GIS, GPS, etc.
(iii) Ecology /Ecosystem deals with the The above classification gives a
scientific study of the habitats comprehensive format of the branches of
characteristic of species.
geography. Generally geography curricula is
(iv) Environmental Geography concerns
taught and learnt in this format but this
world over leading to the realisation of
format is not static. Any discipline is bound
environmental problems such as land
gradation, pollution and concerns for to grow with new ideas, problems, methods
conservation has resulted in the and techniques. For example, what was once
introduction of this new branch in manual cartography has now been
geography. transformed into computer cartography.
Technology has enabled scholars to handle
BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY BASED ON REGIONAL large quantum of data. The internet provides
APPROACH (FIGURE1.3) extensive information. Thus, the capacity to
1. Regional Studies/Area Studies attempt analysis has increased tremendously.
Comprising Macro, Meso and Micro GIS has further opened vistas of knowledge.
Regional Studies GPS has become a handy tool to find out exact
2. Regional Planning locations. Technologies have enhanced the
Comprising Country/Rural and Town/ capacity of attempting synthesis with sound
Urban Planning theoretical understanding.
3. Regional Development You will learn some preliminary aspects of
4. Regional Analysis these techniques in your book, Practical work
There are two aspects which are common in Geography – Part I (NCERT, 2006). You will
to every discipline, these are: continue to improve upon your skills and
(i) Philosophy learn about their application.
(a) Geographical Thought
(b) Land and Human Interaction/
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND ITS IMPORTANCE
Human Ecology
(ii) Methods and Techniques This chapter appears in the book entitled
(a) Cartography including Computer Fundamentals of Physical Geography. The
Cartography contents of the book clearly reflect its scope.
(b) Quantitative Techniques/Statistical It is therefore, appropriate to know the
Techniques importance of this branch of geography.
Physical geography includes the study of sea-food, oceans are rich in mineral resources.
lithosphere (landforms, drainage, relief and India has developed the technology for
physiography), atmosphere (its composition, collecting manganese nodules from oceanic
structure, elements and controls of weather bed. Soils are renewable resources, which
and climate; temperature, pressure, winds, influence a number of economic activities such
precipitation, climatic types, etc.), hydrosphere as agriculture. The fertility of the soil is both
(oceans, seas, lakes and associated features naturally determined and culturally induced.
with water realm) and biosphere ( life forms Soils also provide the basis for the biosphere
including human being and macro-organism accommodating plants, animals and micro
and their sustaining mechanism, viz. food organisms.
chain, ecological parameters and ecological
balance). Soils are formed through the process What is Geography?
of pedogenesis and depend upon the parent
rocks, climate, biological activity and time. Geography is concerned with the description
and explanation of the areal differentiation of
Time provides maturity to soils and helps in
the earth’s surface.
the development of soil profiles. Each element
Richard Hartshorne
is important for human beings. Landforms
provide the base on which human activities are Geography studies the differences of
located. The plains are utilised for agriculture. phenomena usually related in different parts
of the earth’s surface.
Plateaus provide forests and minerals.
Hettner
Mountains provide pastures, forests, tourist
spots and are sources of rivers providing water
to lowlands. Climate influences our house The study of physical geography is
types, clothing and food habits. The climate emerging as a discipline of evaluating and
has a profound effect on vegetation, cropping managing natural resources. In order to
pattern, livestock farming and some achieve this objective, it is essential to
industries, etc. Human beings have developed understand the intricate relationship between
technologies which modify climatic elements physical environment and human beings.
in a restricted space such as air conditioners Physical environment provides resources, and
and coolers. Temperature and precipitation human beings utilise these resources and
ensure the density of forests and quality of ensure their economic and cultural
grassland. In India, monsoonal rainfall sets the development. Accelerated pace of resource
agriculture rhythm in motion. Precipitation utilisation with the help of modern technology
recharges the ground water aquifers which has created ecological imbalance in the world.
later provides water for agriculture and Hence, a better understanding of physical
domestic use. We study oceans which are the environment is absolutely essential for
store house of resources. Besides fish and other sustainable development.
EXERCISES
(iii) Make correct pairs from the following two columns and mark the correct
option.
(ii) You have already studied geography, history, civics and economics as
parts of social studies. Attempt an integration of these disciplines
highlighting their interface.
12 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Project Work
Select forest as a natural resource.
(i) Prepare a map of India showing the distribution of different types of forests.
(ii) Write about the economic importance of forests for the country.
(iii) Prepare a historical account of conservation of forests in India with focus
on Chipko movements in Rajasthan and Uttaranchal.
UNIT
II
THE EARTH
This unit deals with
• Origin and evolution of the earth; Interior of the earth; Wegener’s
continental drift theory and plate tectonics; earthquakes and
volcanoes
CHAPTER
D
o you remember the nursery rhyme argument. At a later date, the arguments
“…Twinkle, Twinkle little star…”? considered of a companion to the sun to have
been coexisting. These arguments are called
Starry nights have always attracted us since binary theories. In 1950, Otto Schmidt in
the childhood. You may also have thought of Russia and Carl Weizascar in Germany
these stars and had numerous questions in somewhat revised the ‘nebular hypothesis’,
your mind. Questions such as how many stars though differing in details. They considered that
are there in the sky? How did they come into the sun was surrounded by solar nebula
existence? Can one reach the end of the sky? containing mostly the hydrogen and helium
May be many more such questions are still along with what may be termed as dust. The
there in your mind. In this chapter, you will friction and collision of particles led to
learn how these “twinkling little stars” were formation of a disk-shaped cloud and the
formed. With that you will eventually also read planets were formed through the process of
the story of origin and evolution of the earth. accretion.
balloon, the points themselves are expanding. The expansion of universe means increase
This is not in accordance with the fact. in space between the galaxies. An alternative
Scientists believe that though the space to this was Hoyle’s concept of steady state. It
between the galaxies is increasing, observations considered the universe to be roughly the same
do not support the expansion of galaxies. So, at any point of time. However, with greater
the balloon example is only partially correct. evidence becoming available about the
expanding universe, scientific community at
present favours argument of expanding
universe.
(ii) In the next stage, the gas cloud starts of them are much larger than the terrestrial
getting condensed and the matter planets and have thick atmosphere, mostly of
around the core develops into small- helium and hydrogen. All the planets were formed
rounded objects. These small-rounded in the same period sometime about 4.6 billion
objects by the process of cohesion develop years ago. Some data regarding our solar system
into what is called planetesimals. are given in the box below.
Larger bodies start forming by collision,
and gravitational attraction causes the Why are the inner planets rocky while
material to stick together. Planetesimals others are mostly in gaseous form?
are a large number of smaller bodies.
(iii) In the final stage, these large number The difference between terrestrial and jovian
of small planetesimals accrete to form planets can be attributed to the following
a fewer large bodies in the form of conditions:
planets. (i) The terrestrial planets were formed in
the close vicinity of the parent star
OUR SOLAR SYSTEM where it was too warm for gases to
condense to solid particles. Jovian
Our Solar system consists of nine planets. The planets were formed at quite a distant
tenth planet 2003 UB313 has also been recently
location.
sighted. The nebula from which our Solar
(ii) The solar wind was most intense nearer
system is supposed to have been formed,
the sun; so, it blew off lots of gas and
started its collapse and core formation some
dust from the terrestrial planets. The
time 5-5.6 billion years ago and the planets
solar winds were not all that intense to
were formed about 4.6 billion years ago. Our
cause similar removal of gases from the
solar system consists of the sun (the star), 9
Jovian planets.
planets, 63 moons, millions of smaller bodies
(iii) The terrestrial planets are smaller and
like asteroids and comets and huge quantity
their lower gravity could not hold the
of dust-grains and gases.
escaping gases.
Out of the nine planets, mercury, venus,
earth and mars are called as the inner planets
The Moon
as they lie between the sun and the belt of
asteroids the other five planets are called the outer The moon is the only natural satellite of the
planets. Alternatively, the first four are called earth. Like the origin of the earth, there have
Terrestrial, meaning earth-like as they are made been attempts to explain how the moon was
up of rock and metals, and have relatively high formed. In 1838, Sir George Darwin suggested
densities. The rest five are called Jovian or Gas that initially, the earth and the moon formed a
Giant planets. Jovian means jupiter-like. Most single rapidly rotating body. The whole mass
Distance* 0.387 0.723 1.000 1.524 5.203 9.539 19.182 30.058 39.785
Density@ 5.44 5.245 5.517 3.945 1.33 0.70 1.17 1.66 0.5-0.9
Radius# 0.383 0.949 1.000 0.533 11.19 9.460 4.11 3.88 -0.3
* Distance from the sun in astronomical unit i.e. average mean distance of the earth is 149,598,000 km = 1
@ Density in gm/cm3
# Radius: Equatorial radius 6378.137 km = 1
THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH 17
to the atmosphere. As the earth cooled, the that the oceans are as old as 4,000 million
water vapour released started getting years. Sometime around 3,800 million years
condensed. The carbon dioxide in the ago, life began to evolve. However, around
2,500-3,000 million years before the present,
atmosphere got dissolved in rainwater and the
the process of photosynthesis got evolved. Life
temperature further decreased causing more
was confined to the oceans for a long time.
condensation and more rains. The rainwater Oceans began to have the contribution of
falling onto the surface got collected in the oxygen through the process of photosynthesis.
depressions to give rise to oceans. The earth’s Eventually, oceans were saturated with oxygen,
oceans were formed within 500 million years and 2,000 million years ago, oxygen began to
from the formation of the earth. This tells us flood the atmosphere.
THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH 19
EXERCISES
Project Work
Collect information about the project “Stardust” (website: www.sci.edu/public.html
and www.nasm.edu) along the following lines.
(i) Which is the agency that has launched this project?
(ii) Why are scientists interested in collecting Stardust?
(iii) Where from has the Stardust been collected?
CHAPTER
W
hat do you imagine about the nature SOURCES OF INFORMATION ABOUT THE INTERIOR
of the earth? Do you imagine it to be The earth’s radius is 6,370 km. No one can
a solid ball like cricket ball or a reach the centre of the earth and make
hollow ball with a thick cover of rocks i.e. observations or collect samples of the material.
lithosphere? Have you ever seen photographs Under such conditions, you may wonder how
or images of a volcanic eruption on the scientists tell us about the earth’s interior and
television screen? Can you recollect the the type of materials that exist at such depths.
emergence of hot molten lava, dust, smoke, fire Most of our knowledge about the interior of
and magma flowing out of the volcanic crater? the earth is largely based on estimates and
The interior of the earth can be understood only inferences. Yet, a part of the information is
obtained through direct observations and
by indirect evidences as neither any one has nor
analysis of materials.
any one can reach the interior of the earth.
The configuration of the surface of the earth Direct Sources
is largely a product of the processes operating The most easily available solid earth material
in the interior of the earth. Exogenic as well as is surface rock or the rocks we get from mining
endogenic processes are constantly shaping areas. Gold mines in South Africa are as deep
the landscape. A proper understanding of the as 3 - 4 km. Going beyond this depth is not
physiographic character of a region remains possible as it is very hot at this depth. Besides
mining, scientists have taken up a number of
incomplete if the effects of endogenic processes
projects to penetrate deeper depths to explore
are ignored. Human life is largely influenced
the conditions in the crustal portions. Scientists
by the physiography of the region. Therefore, world over are working on two major projects
it is necessary that one gets acquainted with such as “Deep Ocean Drilling Project” and
the forces that influence landscape “Integrated Ocean Drilling Project”. The
development. To understand why the earth deepest drill at Kola, in Arctic Ocean, has so
shakes or how a tsunami wave is generated, it far reached a depth of 12 km. This and many
is necessary that we know certain details of the deep drilling projects have provided large
interior of the earth. In the previous chapter, volume of information through the analysis of
you have noted that the earth-forming materials collected at different depths.
materials have been distributed in the form of Volcanic eruption forms another source of
obtaining direct information. As and when the
layers from the crust to the core. It is interesting
molten material (magma) is thrown onto the
to know how scientists have gathered
surface of the earth, during volcanic eruption
information about these layers and what are it becomes available for laboratory analysis.
the characteristics of each of these layers. This However, it is difficult to ascertain the depth of
is exactly what this chapter deals with. the source of such magma.
22 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
body waves. The body waves interact with the propagation. As a result, it creates density
surface rocks and generate new set of waves differences in the material leading to stretching
called surface waves. These waves move along and squeezing of the material. Other three
the surface. The velocity of waves changes as waves vibrate perpendicular to the direction of
they travel through materials with different propagation. The direction of vibrations of
densities. The denser the material, the higher S-waves is perpendicular to the wave direction
is the velocity. Their direction also changes as in the vertical plane. Hence, they create troughs
they reflect or refract when coming across and crests in the material through which they
materials with different densities. pass. Surface waves are considered to be the
most damaging waves.
Measuring Earthquakes
The earthquake events are scaled either
according to the magnitude or intensity of the
shock. The magnitude scale is known as the
Richter scale. The magnitude relates to the
energy released during the quake. The
magnitude is expressed in absolute numbers,
0-10. The intensity scale is named after
Mercalli, an Italian seismologist. The intensity
scale takes into account the visible damage
caused by the event. The range of intensity scale
is from 1-12.
EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE
Earthquake is a natural hazard. The following
are the immediate hazardous effects of
earthquake:
(i) Ground Shaking
(ii) Differential ground settlement
(iii) Land and mud slides
(iv) Soil liquefaction
(v) Ground lurching
(vi) Avalanches
(vii) Ground displacement
(viii) Floods from dam and levee failures
(ix) Fires
(x) Structural collapse
(xi) Falling objects
(xii) Tsunami
The first six listed above have some bearings
upon landforms, while others may be
considered the effects causing immediate
Figure 3.2 (a) and (b) : Earthquake Shadow Zones
concern to the life and properties of people in
the region. The effect of tsunami would occur
(iii) In the areas of intense mining activity, only if the epicentre of the tremor is below
sometimes the roofs of underground oceanic waters and the magnitude is
mines collapse causing minor tremors. sufficiently high. Tsunamis are waves
These are called collapse earthquakes. generated by the tremors and not an
(iv) Ground shaking may also occur due to earthquake in itself. Though the actual quake
the explosion of chemical or nuclear activity lasts for a few seconds, its effects are
devices. Such tremors are called explosion devastating provided the magnitude of the
earthquakes. quake is more than 5 on the Richter scale.
INTERIOR OF THE EARTH 25
The Mantle
The portion of the interior beyond the crust is
A view of the damaged Aman Setu at the LOC called the mantle. The mantle extends from
in Uri, due to an earthquake
Moho’s discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km.
chapter. Note that the quakes of high The upper portion of the mantle is called
magnitude, i.e. 8+ are quite rare; they occur asthenosphere. The word astheno means
once in 1-2 years whereas those of ‘tiny’ types weak. It is considered to be extending upto 400
occur almost every minute. km. It is the main source of magma that finds
26 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Volcanoes
Volcanoes are classified on the basis of nature
of eruption and the form developed at the
surface. Major types of volcanoes are as follows:
Figure 3.4 : The interior of the earth
The Core
As indicated earlier, the earthquake wave
velocities helped in understanding the
existence of the core of the earth. The core-
mantle boundary is located at the depth of
2,900 km. The outer core is in liquid state while
the inner core is in solid state. The density of
material at the mantle core boundary is around
5 g/cm3 and at the centre of the earth at 6,300 Shield Volcano
km, the density value is around 13g/cm3. The
core is made up of very heavy material mostly
constituted by nickel and iron. It is sometimes
referred to as the nife layer.
examples. These volcanoes are mostly made more than 50 m. Individual flows may extend
up of basalt, a type of lava that is very fluid for hundreds of km. The Deccan Traps from
when erupted. For this reason, these volcanoes India, presently covering most of the
are not steep. They become explosive if Maharashtra plateau, are a much larger flood
somehow water gets into the vent; otherwise, basalt province. It is believed that initially the
they are characterised by low-explosivity. The trap formations covered a much larger area
upcoming lava moves in the form of a fountain than the present.
and throws out the cone at the top of the vent
and develops into cinder cone. Mid-Ocean Ridge Volcanoes
Data
Arrival time of
Station P-waves S-waves
Hour Min. Sec. Hour Min. Sec.
S1 03 23 20 03 24 45
S2 03 22 17 03 23 57
S3 03 22 00 03 23 55
Scale of the map 1cm = 40km
INTERIOR OF THE EARTH 29
plane. It may get rested in different forms. In while the thick horizontal deposits are
case it develops into a saucer shape, concave called sills.
to the sky body, it is called lapolith. A wavy
mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is found at Dykes
the base of synclines or at the top of anticline
When the lava makes its way through cracks
in folded igneous country. Such wavy materials
and the fissures developed in the land, it
have a definite conduit to source beneath in
the form of magma chambers (subsequently solidifies almost perpendicular to the ground.
developed as batholiths). These are called the It gets cooled in the same position to develop a
phacoliths. wall-like structure. Such structures are called
The near horizontal bodies of the dykes. These are the most commonly found
intrusive igneous rocks are called sill or intrusive forms in the western Maharashtra area.
sheet, depending on the thickness of the These are considered the feeders for the eruptions
material. The thinner ones are called sheets that led to the development of the Deccan traps.
EXERCISES
DISTRIBUTION OF OCEANS
AND CONTINENTS
In the previous chapter, you have studied the theory” in 1912. This was regarding the
interior of the earth. You are already familiar distribution of the oceans and the continents.
with the world map. You know that continents According to Wegener, all the continents
cover 29 per cent of the surface of the earth formed a single continental mass, a mega ocean
and the remainder is under oceanic waters. surrounded by the same. The super continent
The positions of the continents and the ocean was named PANGAEA, which meant all earth.
bodies, as we see them in the map, have not The mega-ocean was called PANTHALASSA,
been the same in the past. Moreover, it is now meaning all water. He argued that, around 200
a well-accepted fact that oceans and million years ago, the super continent,
continents will not continue to enjoy their Pangaea, began to split. Pangaea first broke
present positions in times to come. If this is into two large continental masses as Laurasia
so, the question arises what were their positions and Gondwanaland forming the northern and
in the past? Why and how do they change their southern components respectively. Subse-
positions? Even if it is true that the continents quently, Laurasia and Gondwanaland
and oceans have changed and are changing continued to break into various smaller
their positions, you may wonder as to how continents that exist today. A variety of evidence
scientists know this. How have they determined was offered in support of the continental drift.
their earlier positions? You will find the answers Some of these are given below.
to some of these and related questions in this
chapter. Evidence in Support of the Continental Drift
CONTINENTAL DRIFT The Matching of Continents (Jig-Saw-Fit)
Observe the shape of the coastline of the Atlantic The shorelines of Africa and South America
Ocean. You will be surprised by the symmetry facing each other have a remarkable and
of the coastlines on either side of the ocean. No
unmistakable match. It may be noted that a
wonder, many scientists thought of this
map produced using a computer programme
similarity and considered the possibility of the
to find the best fit of the Atlantic margin was
two Americas, Europe and Africa, to be once
presented by Bullard in 1964. It proved to be
joined together. From the known records of the
quite perfect. The match was tried at 1,000-
history of science, it was Abraham Ortelius, a
fathom line instead of the present shoreline.
Dutch map maker, who first proposed such a
possibility as early as 1596. Antonio Pellegrini
Rocks of Same Age Across the Oceans
drew a map showing the three continents together.
However, it was Alfred Wegener—a German The radiometric dating methods developed in
meteorologist who put forth a comprehensive the recent period have facilitated correlating the
argument in the form of “the continental drift rock formation from different continents across
DISTRIBUTION OF OCEANS AND CONTINENTS 31
the vast ocean. The belt of ancient rocks of Force for Drifting
2,000 million years from Brazil coast matches
Wegener suggested that the movement
with those from western Africa. The earliest
responsible for the drifting of the continents
marine deposits along the coastline of South
was caused by pole-fleeing force and tidal force.
America and Africa are of the Jurassic age. The polar-fleeing force relates to the rotation
This suggests that the ocean did not exist prior of the earth. You are aware of the fact that the
to that time. earth is not a perfect sphere; it has a bulge at
the equator. This bulge is due to the rotation
Tillite of the earth. The second force that was
It is the sedimentary rock formed out of suggested by Wegener—the tidal force—is due
deposits of glaciers. The Gondawana system to the attraction of the moon and the sun that
of sediments from India is known to have its develops tides in oceanic waters. Wegener
counter parts in six different landmasses of the believed that these forces would become
Southern Hemisphere. At the base the system effective when applied over many million years.
has thick tillite indicating extensive and However, most of scholars considered these
prolonged glaciation. Counter parts of this forces to be totally inadequate.
succession are found in Africa, Falkland Island,
Madagascar, Antarctica and Australia besides Post-Drift Studies
India. Overall resemblance of the Gondawana It is interesting to note that for continental drift,
type sediments clearly demonstrates that these most of the evidence was collected from the
landmasses had remarkably similar histories. continental areas in the form of distribution of
The glacial tillite provides unambiguous flora and fauna or deposits like tillite. A number
evidence of palaeoclimates and also of drifting of discoveries during the post-war period
of continents. added new information to geological literature.
Particularly, the information collected from the
Placer Deposits ocean floor mapping provided new dimensions
The occurrence of rich placer deposits of gold for the study of distribution of oceans and
in the Ghana coast and the absolute absence continents.
of source rock in the region is an amazing fact.
Convectional Current Theory
The gold bearing veins are in Brazil and it is
obvious that the gold deposits of the Ghana Arthur Holmes in 1930s discussed the
are derived from the Brazil plateau when the possibility of convection currents operating in
two continents lay side by side. the mantle portion. These currents are
generated due to radioactive elements causing
Distribution of Fossils thermal differences in the mantle portion.
Holmes argued that there exists a system of
When identical species of plants and animals
such currents in the entire mantle portion. This
adapted to living on land or in fresh water are
was an attempt to provide an explanation to
found on either side of the marine barriers, a
the issue of force, on the basis of which
problem arises regarding accounting for such
contemporary scientists discarded the
distribution. The observations that Lemurs
continental drift theory.
occur in India, Madagascar and Africa led some
to consider a contiguous landmass “Lemuria” Mapping of the Ocean Floor
linking these three landmasses. Mesosaurus
was a small reptile adapted to shallow brackish Detailed research of the ocean configuration
water. The skeletons of these are found only revealed that the ocean floor is not just a vast
in two localities : the Southern Cape province plain but it is full of relief. Expeditions to map
of South Africa and Iraver formations of Brazil. the oceanic floor in the post-war period
The two localities presently are 4,800 km apart provided a detailed picture of the ocean relief
with an ocean in between them. and indicated the existence of submerged
32 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
available at the time Wegener put forth his (iv) The sediments on the ocean floor are
concept of continental drift. Particularly, the unexpectedly very thin. Scientists were
mapping of the ocean floor and palaeomagnetic expecting, if the ocean floors were as old
studies of rocks from oceanic regions revealed as the continent, to have a complete
the following facts : sequence of sediments for a period of much
(i) It was realised that all along the mid- longer duration. However, nowhere was the
oceanic ridges, volcanic eruptions are sediment column found to be older than
common and they bring huge amounts of 200 million years.
lava to the surface in this area. (v) The deep trenches have deep-seated
(ii) The rocks equidistant on either sides of the earthquake occurrences while in the mid-
crest of mid-oceanic ridges show oceanic ridge areas, the quake foci have
remarkable similarities in terms of period shallow depths.
of formation, chemical compositions and These facts and a detailed analysis of magnetic
magnetic properties. Rocks closer to the properties of the rocks on either sides of the
mid-oceanic ridges are normal polarity and mid-oceanic ridge led Hess (1961) to propose
are the youngest. The age of the rocks his hypothesis, known as the “sea floor
increases as one moves away from the spreading”. Hess argued that constant
crest. eruptions at the crest of oceanic ridges cause
(iii) The ocean crust rocks are much younger the rupture of the oceanic crust and the new
than the continental rocks. The age of rocks lava wedges into it, pushing the oceanic crust
in the oceanic crust is nowhere more than on either side. The ocean floor, thus spreads.
200 million years old. Some of the continental The younger age of the oceanic crust as well
rock formations are as old as 3,200 million as the fact that the spreading of one ocean does
years. not cause the shrinking of the other, made Hess
34 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
concept termed Plate Tectonics. A tectonic (ii) North American (with western Atlantic
plate (also called lithospheric plate) is a floor separated from the South American
massive, irregularly-shaped slab of solid rock, plate along the Caribbean islands) plate
generally composed of both continental and (iii) South American (with western Atlantic
oceanic lithosphere. Plates move horizontally
floor separated from the North American
over the asthenosphere as rigid units. The
plate along the Caribbean islands) plate
lithosphere includes the crust and top mantle
with its thickness range varying between 5-100 (iv) Pacific plate
km in oceanic parts and about 200 km in the (v) India-Australia-New Zealand plate
continental areas. A plate may be referred to (vi) Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor plate
as the continental plate or oceanic plate (vii) Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate.
depending on which of the two occupy a larger Some important minor plates are listed
portion of the plate. Pacific plate is largely an below:
oceanic plate whereas the Eurasian plate may be (i) Cocos plate : Between Central America
called a continental plate. The theory of plate and Pacific plate
tectonics proposes that the earth’s lithosphere is (ii) Nazca plate : Between South America
divided into seven major and some minor plates. and Pacific plate
Young Fold Mountain ridges, trenches, and/or
(iii) Arabian plate : Mostly the Saudi Arabian
faults surround these major plates (Figure 4.5).
landmass
The major plates are as follows :
(i) Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic (iv) Philippine plate : Between the Asiatic and
plate Pacific plate
EXERCISES
Project Work
Prepare a collage related to damages caused by an earthquake.
UNIT
III
LANDFORMS
This unit deals with
• Rocks and minerals — major types of rocks and their
characteristics
• Landforms and their evolution
• Geomorphic processes — weathering, mass wasting, erosion
and deposition; soils — formation
CHAPTER
T
he earth is composed of various kinds Though the number of elements making
of elements. These elements are in solid up the lithosphere are limited they are
form in the outer layer of the earth and combined in many different ways to make up
in hot and molten form in the interior. many varieties of minerals. There are at least
About 98 per cent of the total crust of the 2,000 minerals that have been named and
earth is composed of eight elements like identified in the earth crust; but almost all the
oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, calcium,
commonly occurring ones are related to six
sodium, potassium and magnesium (Table 5.1),
major mineral groups that are known as major
and the rest is constituted by titanium,
hydrogen, phosphorous, manganese, sulphur, rock forming minerals.
carbon, nickel and other elements. The basic source of all minerals is the hot
magma in the interior of the earth. When
Table 5.1 : The Major Elements of the Earth’s Crust
magma cools, crystals of minerals appear and
Sl. No. Elements By Weight(%) a systematic series of minerals are formed in
1. Oxygen 46.60 sequence to solidify so as to form rocks.
2. Silicon 27.72 Minerals such as coal, petroleum and natural
3. Aluminium 8.13
4. Iron 5.00
gas are organic substances found in solid,
5. Calcium 3.63 liquid and gaseous forms respectively.
6. Sodium 2.83 A brief information about some important
7. Potassium 2.59
minerals in terms of their nature and physical
8. Magnesium 2.09
9. Others 1.41 characteristics is given below :
EXERCISES
Project Work
Collect different rock samples and try to recognise them from their physical
characteristics and identify their family.
CHAPTER
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
A
fter learning about how the earth was forces continuously elevate or build up parts
born, how it evolved its crust and other of the earth’s surface and hence the exogenic
inner layers, how its crustal plates processes fail to even out the relief variations
moved and are moving, and other information of the surface of the earth. So, variations remain
on earthquakes, the forms of volcanism and as long as the opposing actions of exogenic and
about the rocks and minerals the crust is endogenic forces continue. In general terms,
composed of, it is time to know in detail about the endogenic forces are mainly land building
the surface of the earth on which we live. Let forces and the exogenic processes are mainly
us start with this question. land wearing forces. The surface of the earth is
sensitive. Humans depend on it for their
Why is the surface of the earth uneven? sustenance and have been using it extensively
and intensively. So, it is essential to understand
First of all, the earth’s crust is dynamic. You its nature in order to use it effectively without
are well aware that it has moved and moves disturbing its balance and diminishing its
vertically and horizontally. Of course, it moved potential for the future. Almost all organisms
a bit faster in the past than the rate at which it contribute to sustain the earth’s environment.
is moving now. The differences in the internal However, humans have caused over use of
forces operating from within the earth which
resources. Use we must, but must also leave it
built up the crust have been responsible for
potential enough to sustain life through the
the variations in the outer surface of the crust.
future. Most of the surface of the earth had and
The earth’s surface is being continuously
has been shaped over very long periods of time
subjected to external forces induced basically
(hundreds and thousands of years) and
by energy (sunlight). Of course, the internal
because of its use and misuse by humans its
forces are still active though with different
potential is being diminished at a fast rate. If
intensities. That means, the earth’s surface is
the processes which shaped and are shaping
being continuously subjected to by external
the surface of the earth into varieties of forms
forces originating within the earth’s atmosphere
(shapes) and the nature of materials of which
and by internal forces from within the earth.
it is composed of, are understood, precautions
The external forces are known as exogenic
can be taken to minimise the detrimental effects
forces and the internal forces are known as
of human use and to preserve it for posterity.
endogenic forces. The actions of exogenic
forces result in wearing down (degradation) of
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
relief/elevations and filling up (aggradation) of
basins/depressions, on the earth’s surface. The You would like to know the meaning of
phenomenon of wearing down of relief geomorphic processes. The endogenic and
variations of the surface of the earth through exogenic forces causing physical stresses and
erosion is known as gradation. The endogenic chemical actions on earth materials and
46 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
under volcanoes in the Unit II and under processes and their respective driving forces.
igneous rocks in the preceding chapter in this It should become clear from this chart that for
unit. each process there exists a distinct driving force
or energy.
What do the words volcanism and As there are different climatic regions on
volcanoes indicate? the earth’s surface owing to thermal gradients
created by latitudinal, seasonal and land and
water spread variations, the exogenic
EXOGENIC PROCESSES
geomorphic processes vary from region to
The exogenic processes derive their energy region. The density, type and distribution of
from atmosphere determined by the ultimate vegetation which largely depend upon
energy from the sun and also the gradients
created by tectonic factors.
called solution. This process involves removal Many clay minerals swell and contract during
of solids in solution and depends upon wetting and drying and a repetition of this
solubility of a mineral in water or weak acids. process results in cracking of overlying
On coming in contact with water many solids materials. Salts in pore spaces undergo rapid
disintegrate and mix up as suspension in and repeated hydration and help in rock
water. Soluble rock forming minerals like fracturing. The volume changes in minerals
nitrates, sulphates, and potassium etc. are due to hydration will also help in physical
affected by this process. So, these minerals are weathering through exfoliation and granular
easily leached out without leaving any residue disintegration.
in rainy climates and accumulate in dry
regions. Minerals like calcium carbonate and Oxidation and Reduction
calcium magnesium bicarbonate present in In weathering, oxidation means a combination
limestones are soluble in water containing of a mineral with oxygen to form oxides or
carbonic acid (formed with the addition of hydroxides. Oxidation occurs where there is
carbon dioxide in water), and are carried away ready access to the atmosphere and
in water as solution. Carbon dioxide produced oxygenated waters. The minerals most
by decaying organic matter along with soil commonly involved in this process are iron,
water greatly aids in this reaction. Common manganese, sulphur etc. In the process of
salt (sodium chloride) is also a rock forming oxidation rock breakdown occurs due to the
mineral and is susceptible to this process of disturbance caused by addition of oxygen. Red
solution. colour of iron upon oxidation turns to brown
or yellow. When oxidised minerals are placed
Carbonation in an environment where oxygen is absent,
reduction takes place. Such conditions exist
Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and
usually below the water table, in areas of
bicarbonate with minerals and is a common
stagnant water and waterlogged ground. Red
process helping the breaking down of
colour of iron upon reduction turns to greenish
feldspars and carbonate minerals. Carbon or bluish grey.
dioxide from the atmosphere and soil air is These weathering processes are inter-
absorbed by water, to form carbonic acid that related. Hydration, carbonation and oxidation
acts as a weak acid. Calcium carbonates and go hand in hand and hasten the weathering
magnesium carbonates are dissolved in process.
carbonic acid and are removed in a solution
without leaving any residue resulting in cave
formation. Can we give iron rusting as an example
of oxidation? How essential is water in
Why are clay minerals easily erodible? chemical weathering processes? Can
chemical weathering processes dominate
in water scarce hot deserts?
Hydration
Hydration is the chemical addition of water.
Physical Weathering Processes
Minerals take up water and expand; this
expansion causes an increase in the volume of Physical or mechanical weathering processes
the material itself or rock. Calcium sulphate depend on some applied forces. The applied
takes in water and turns to gypsum, which is forces could be: (i) gravitational forces such as
more unstable than calcium sulphate. This overburden pressure, load and shearing stress;
process is reversible and long, continued (ii) expansion forces due to temperature
repetition of this process causes fatigue in the changes, crystal growth or animal activity;
rocks and may lead to their disintegration. (iii) water pressures controlled by wetting and
50 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
drying cycles. Many of these forces are applied temperatures, this internal movement among
both at the surface and within different earth the mineral grains of the superficial layers of
materials leading to rock fracture. Most of the rocks takes place regularly. This process is
physical weathering processes are caused by most effective in dry climates and high
thermal expansion and pressure release. These elevations where diurnal temperature changes
processes are small and slow but can cause are drastic. As has been mentioned earlier
great damage to the rocks because of though these movements are very small they
continued fatigue the rocks suffer due to make the rocks weak due to continued fatigue.
repetition of contraction and expansion. The surface layers of the rocks tend to expand
more than the rock at depth and this leads to
Unloading and Expansion the formation of stress within the rock resulting
in heaving and fracturing parallel to the
Removal of overlying rock load because of
surface. Due to differential heating and
continued erosion causes vertical pressure
resulting expansion and contraction of surface
release with the result that the upper layers of
layers and their subsequent exfoliation from
the rock expand producing disintegration of
the surface results in smooth rounded surfaces
rock masses. Fractures will develop roughly
in rocks. In rocks like granites, smooth
parallel to the ground surface. In areas of
surfaced and rounded small to big boulders
curved ground surface, arched fractures tend
called tors form due to such exfoliation.
to produce massive sheets or exfoliation slabs
of rock. Exfoliation sheets resulting from
What is the difference between exfoliation
expansion due to unloading and pressure domes and exfoliated tors?
release may measure hundreds or even
thousands of metres in horizontal extent. Large,
smooth rounded domes called exfoliation Freezing, Thawing and Frost Wedging
domes (Figure 6.3) result due to this process. Frost weathering occurs due to growth of ice
within pores and cracks of rocks during
repeated cycles of freezing and melting. This
process is most effective at high elevations in
mid-latitudes where freezing and melting is
often repeated. Glacial areas are subject to frost
wedging daily. In this process, the rate of
freezing is important. Rapid freezing of water
causes its sudden expansion and high pressure.
The resulting expansion affects joints, cracks
and small inter granular fractures to become
wider and wider till the rock breaks apart.
Landslides
These are known as relatively rapid and
perceptible movements. The materials involved
are relatively dry. The size and shape of the Figure 6.7 : Landslide scars in Shiwalik Himalayan ranges
detached mass depends on the nature of near river Sarada at India-Nepal border, Uttar Pradesh
54 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
face, an occurrence that distinguishes it from erosion it is not a pre-condition for erosion to
rockslide which affects materials up to a take place. Weathering, mass-wasting and
substantial depth. erosion are degradational processes. It is
erosion that is largely responsible for
Between mass wasting and mass continuous changes that the earth’s surface is
movements, which term do you feel is undergoing. As indicated in Figure 6.1,
most appropriate? Why? Can solifluction denudational processes like erosion and
be included under rapid flow movements? transportation are controlled by kinetic energy.
Why it can be and can’t be? The erosion and transportation of earth
materials is brought about by wind, running
water, glaciers, waves and ground water. Of
In our country, debris avalanche and
these the first three agents are controlled by
landslides occur very frequently in the
climatic conditions.
Himalayas. There are many reasons for
this. One, the Himalayas are tectonically
Can you compare the three climatically
active. They are mostly made up of
controlled agents?
sedimentary rocks and unconsolidated
and semi-consolidated deposits. The
slopes are very steep. Compared to the They represent three states of matter —
Himalayas, the Nilgiris bordering gaseous (wind), liquid (running water) and
Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Kerala and the solid (glacier) respectively. The erosion can be
Western Ghats along the west coast are defined as “application of the kinetic energy
relatively tectonically stable and are associated with the agent to the surface of the
mostly made up of very hard rocks; but, land along which it moves”. Kinetic energy is
still, debris avalanches and landslides computed as KE = 1/2 mv2 where ‘m’ is the mass
occur though not as frequently as in the and ‘v’ is the velocity. Hence the energy
Himalayas, in these hills. Why? Many available to perform work will depend on the
slopes are steeper with almost vertical mass of the material and the velocity with
cliffs and escarpments in the Western
which it is moving. Obviously then you will find
Ghats and Nilgiris. Mechanical weathering
that though the glaciers move at very low
due to temperature changes and ranges
is pronounced. They receive heavy velocities due to tremendous mass are more
amounts of rainfall over short periods. effective as the agents of erosion and wind,
So, there is almost direct rock fall quite being in gaseous state, are less effective.
frequently in these places along with The work of the other two agents of erosion-
landslides and debris avalanches. waves and ground water is not controlled by
climate. In case of waves it is the location along
the interface of litho and hydro sphere —
EROSION AND DEPOSITION coastal region — that will determine the work
of waves, whereas the work of ground water is
Erosion involves acquisition and transportation determined more by the lithological character
of rock debris. When massive rocks break into of the region. If the rocks are permeable and
smaller fragments through weathering and soluble and water is available only then karst
any other process, erosional geomorphic topography develops. In the next chapter we
agents like running water, groundwater, shall be dealing with the landforms produced
glaciers, wind and waves remove and by each of the agents of erosion.
transport it to other places depending upon Deposition is a consequence of erosion. The
the dynamics of each of these agents. Abrasion erosional agents loose their velocity and hence
by rock debris carried by these geomorphic energy on gentler slopes and the materials
agents also aids greatly in erosion. By erosion, carried by them start to settle themselves. In
relief degrades, i.e., the landscape is worn other words, deposition is not actually the work
down. That means, though weathering aids of any agent. The coarser materials get
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES 55
deposited first and finer ones later. By of the weathered material) which is the basic
deposition depressions get filled up. The same input for soil to form. First, the weathered
erosional agents viz., running water, glaciers, material or transported deposits are colonised
wind, waves and groundwater act as by bacteria and other inferior plant bodies like
aggradational or depositional agents also. mosses and lichens. Also, several minor
What happens to the surface of the earth organisms may take shelter within the mantle
due to erosion and deposition is elaborated in and deposits. The dead remains of organisms
the next chapter on landforms and their and plants help in humus accumulation. Minor
evolution. grasses and ferns may grow; later, bushes and
trees will start growing through seeds brought
There is a shift of materials in mass in by birds and wind. Plant roots penetrate
movements as well as in erosion from one down, burrowing animals bring up particles,
place to the other. So, why can’t both be mass of material becomes porous and sponge-
treated as one and the same? Can there
like with a capacity to retain water and to permit
be appreciable erosion without rocks
the passage of air and finally a mature soil, a
undergoing weathering?
complex mixture of mineral and organic
products forms.
SOIL FORMATION
Is weathering solely responsible for soil
Soil and Soil Contents formation? If not, why?
with the type of parent rock. Also, in case of climates and in areas with intermediate
some limestone areas, where the weathering precipitation conditions, calcium carbonate
processes are specific and peculiar, soils will nodules (kanker) are formed.
show clear relation with the parent rock. Temperature acts in two ways — increasing
or reducing chemical and biological activity.
Topography Chemical activity is increased in higher
Topography like parent materials is another temperatures, reduced in cooler temperatures
passive control factor. The influence of (with an exception of carbonation) and stops
topography is felt through the amount of in freezing conditions. That is why, tropical soils
exposure of a surface covered by parent with higher temperatures show deeper profiles
materials to sunlight and the amount of and in the frozen tundra regions soils contain
surface and sub-surface drainage over and largely mechanically broken materials.
through the parent materials. Soils will be thin Biological Activity
on steep slopes and thick over flat upland
areas. Over gentle slopes where erosion is slow The vegetative cover and organisms that occupy
and percolation of water is good, soil formation the parent materials from the beginning and also
is very favourable. Soils over flat areas may at later stages help in adding organic matter,
develop a thick layer of clay with good moisture retention, nitrogen etc. Dead plants
accumulation of organic matter giving the soil provide humus, the finely divided organic matter
dark colour. In middle latitudes, the south of the soil. Some organic acids which form
facing slopes exposed to sunlight have different during humification aid in decomposing the
conditions of vegetation and soils and the north minerals of the soil parent materials.
facing slopes with cool, moist conditions have Intensity of bacterial activity shows up
some other soils and vegetation. differences between soils of cold and warm
climates. Humus accumulates in cold climates
Climate as bacterial growth is slow. With undecomposed
Climate is an important active factor in soil organic matter because of low bacterial activity,
formation. The climatic elements involved in soil layers of peat develop in sub-arctic and tundra
development are : (i) moisture in terms of its climates. In humid tropical and equatorial
intensity, frequency and duration of climates, bacterial growth and action is intense
precipitation - evaporation and humidity; and dead vegetation is rapidly oxidised leaving
(ii) temperature in terms of seasonal and very low humus content in the soil. Further,
diurnal variations. bacteria and other soil organisms take gaseous
Precipitation gives soil its moisture content nitrogen from the air and convert it into a
which makes the chemical and biological chemical form that can be used by plants. This
activities possible. Excess of water helps in the process is known as nitrogen fixation.
downward transportation of soil components Rhizobium, a type of bacteria, lives in the root
through the soil (eluviation) and deposits the nodules of leguminous plants and fixes nitrogen
same down below (illuviation). In climates like beneficial to the host plant. The influence of large
wet equatorial rainy areas with high rainfall, animals like ants, termites, earthworms, rodents
not only calcium, sodium, magnesium, etc., is mechanical, but, it is nevertheless
potassium etc. but also a major part of silica is important in soil formation as they rework the
removed from the soil. Removal of silica from soil up and down. In case of earthworms, as
the soil is known as desilication. In dry climates, they feed on soil, the texture and chemistry of
because of high temperature, evaporation the soil that comes out of their body changes.
exceeds precipitation and hence ground water
is brought up to the surface by capillary action Time
and in the process the water evaporates leaving Time is the third important controlling factor
behind salts in the soil. Such salts form into a in soil formation. The length of time the soil
crust in the soil known as hardpans. In tropical forming processes operate, determines
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES 57
EXERCISES
Project Work
Depending upon the topography and materials around you, observe and record
climate, possible weathering process and soil contents and characteristics.
CHAPTER
A
fter weathering processes have had means, each and every landform has a history
their actions on the earth materials of development and changes through time. A
making up the surface of the earth, the landmass passes through stages of
geomorphic agents like running water, ground development somewhat comparable to the
water, wind, glaciers, waves perform erosion. stages of life — youth, mature and old age.
It is already known to you that erosion causes
changes on the surface of the earth. Deposition What are the two important aspects of
follows erosion and because of deposition too, the evolution of landforms?
changes occur on the surface of the earth.
As this chapter deals with landforms and The evolutionary history of the continually
their evolution first start with the question, changing surface of the earth is essential to be
what is a landform? In simple words, small to understood in order to use it effectively without
medium tracts or parcels of the earth’s surface disturbing its balance and diminishing its
are called landforms. potential for the future. Geomorphology deals
If landform is a small to medium sized part with the reconstruction of the history of the
of the surface of the earth, what is a landscape? surface of the earth through a study of its
Several related landforms together make forms, the materials of which it is made up of
up landscapes, (large tracts of earth’s surface). and the processes that shape it.
Each landform has its own physical shape, size, Changes on the surface of the earth owe
materials and is a result of the action of certain mostly to erosion by various geomorphic
geomorphic processes and agent(s). Actions agents. Of course, the process of deposition too,
of most of the geomorphic processes and by covering the land surfaces and filling the
agents are slow, and hence the results take a basins, valleys or depressions, brings changes
long time to take shape. Every landform has a in the surface of the land. Deposition follows
beginning. Landforms once formed may erosion and the depositional surfaces too are
change in their shape, size and nature slowly ultimately subjected to erosion. Running water,
or fast due to continued action of geomorphic ground-water, glaciers, wind and waves are
processes and agents. powerful erosional and depositional agents
Due to changes in climatic conditions and shaping and changing the surface of the earth
vertical or horizontal movements of land- aided by weathering and mass wasting
masses, either the intensity of processes or the processes. These geomorphic agents acting
processes themselves might change leading to over long periods of time produce systematic
new modifications in the landforms. Evolution changes leading to sequential development of
here implies stages of transformation of either landforms. Each geomorphic agent produces
a part of the earth’s surface from one landform its own assemblage of landforms. Not only this,
into another or transformation of individual each geomorphic process and agent leave their
landforms after they are once formed. That distinct imprints on the landforms they
LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION 59
produce. You know that most of the streams and rivers in valleys. Most of the
geomorphic processes are imperceptible erosional landforms made by running water
functions and can only be seen and measured are associated with vigorous and youthful
through their results. What are the results? rivers flowing along gradients. With time,
These results are nothing but landforms and stream channels over steep gradients turn
their characteristics. Hence, a study of gentler due to continued erosion, and as a
landforms, will reveal to us the process and consequence, lose their velocity, facilitating
agent which has made or has been making active deposition. There may be depositional
those landforms. forms associated with streams flowing over
steep slopes. But these phenomena will be on
Most of the geomorphic processes are a small scale compared to those associated
imperceptible. Cite a few processes which with rivers flowing over medium to gentle
can be seen and a few which can’t be slopes. The gentler the river channels in
seen. gradient or slope, the greater is the deposition.
When the stream beds turn gentler due to
As the geomorphic agents are capable of continued erosion, downward cutting becomes
erosion and deposition, two sets — erosional less dominant and lateral erosion of banks
or destructional and depositional or increases and as a consequence the hills and
constructional — of landforms are produced valleys are reduced to plains.
by them. Many varieties of landforms develop
by the action of each of the geomorphic agents Is complete reduction of relief of a high
depending upon especially the type and land mass possible?
structure i.e. folds, faults, joints, fractures,
hardness and softness, permeability and Overland flow causes sheet erosion.
impermeability, etc. come under structure of Depending upon irregularities of the land
rocks. There are some other independent surface, the overland flow may concentrate into
controls like (i) stability of sea level; (ii) tectonic narrow to wide paths. Because of the sheer
stability of landmasses; (iii) climate, which friction of the column of flowing water, minor
influence the evolution of landforms. Any or major quantities of materials from the
disturbance in any of these three controlling surface of the land are removed in the direction
of flow and gradually small and narrow rills
factors can upset the systematic and
will form. These rills will gradually develop into
sequential stages in the development and
long and wide gullies; the gullies will further
evolution of landforms.
deepen, widen, lengthen and unite to give rise
In the following pages, under each of the
to a network of valleys. In the early stages,
geomorphic regimes i.e. running water;
down-cutting dominates during which
groundwater, glaciers, waves, and winds, first
irregularities such as waterfalls and cascades
a brief discussion is presented as to how
will be removed. In the middle stages, streams
landmasses are reduced in their relief through
cut their beds slower, and lateral erosion of
erosion and then, development of some of the
valley sides becomes severe. Gradually, the
erosional and depositional landforms is dealt
valley sides are reduced to lower and lower
with.
slopes. The divides between drainage basins
are likewise lowered until they are almost
RUNNING WATER
completely flattened leaving finally, a lowland
In humid regions, which receive heavy rainfall of faint relief with some low resistant remnants
running water is considered the most called monadnocks standing out here and
important of the geomorphic agents in there. This type of plain forming as a result of
bringing about the degradation of the land stream erosion is called a peneplain (an almost
surface. There are two components of running plain). The characteristics of each of the stages
water. One is overland flow on general land of landscapes developing in running water
surface as a sheet. Another is linear flow as regimes may be summarised as follows:
60 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Youth
Streams are few during this stage with poor
integration and flow over original slopes
showing shallow V-shaped valleys with no
floodplains or with very narrow floodplains
along trunk streams. Streams divides are broad
and flat with marshes, swamp and lakes.
Meanders if present develop over these broad
upland surfaces. These meanders may
eventually entrench themselves into the
uplands. Waterfalls and rapids may exist where
local hard rock bodies are exposed.
Mature
During this stage streams are plenty with good
integration. The valleys are still V-shaped but
deep; trunk streams are broad enough to have
wider floodplains within which streams may
flow in meanders confined within the valley.
The flat and broad inter stream areas and
swamps and marshes of youth disappear and
the stream divides turn sharp. Waterfalls and
rapids disappear.
Old
Smaller tributaries during old age are few with Figure 7.1 : The Valley of Kaveri river near Hogenekal,
gentle gradients. Streams meander freely over Dharmapuri district, Tamilnadu in the form of gorge
vast floodplains showing natural levees, oxbow
lakes, etc. Divides are broad and flat with lakes,
swamps and marshes. Most of the landscape
is at or slightly above sea level.
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
Valleys
Valleys start as small and narrow rills; the rills
will gradually develop into long and wide
gullies; the gullies will further deepen, widen
and lengthen to give rise to valleys. Depending Figure 7.2 : An entrenched meander loop of river Colorado
in USA showing step-like side slopes of its valley
upon dimensions and shape, many types of typical of a canyon
valleys like V-shaped valley, gorge, canyon,
etc. can be recognised. A gorge is a deep valley is wider at its top than at its bottom. In fact, a
with very steep to straight sides (Figure 7.1) and canyon is a variant of gorge. Valley types depend
a canyon is characterised by steep step-like upon the type and structure of rocks in which
side slopes (Figure 7.2) and may be as deep as they form. For example, canyons commonly
a gorge. A gorge is almost equal in width at its form in horizontal bedded sedimentary rocks
top as well as its bottom. In contrast, a canyon and gorges form in hard rocks.
LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION 61
gradients and gets dumped and spread as a as a low cone. Unlike in alluvial fans, the
broad low to high cone shaped deposit called deposits making up deltas are very well sorted
alluvial fan. Usually, the streams which flow with clear stratification. The coarsest materials
over fans are not confined to their original settle out first and the finer fractions like silts
channels for long and shift their position across and clays are carried out into the sea. As the
the fan forming many channels called delta grows, the river distributaries continue
distributaries. Alluvial fans in humid areas to increase in length (Figure 7.5) and delta
show normally low cones with gentle slope from continues to build up into the sea.
Meanders
In large flood and delta plains, rivers rarely flow
in straight courses. Loop-like channel patterns
called meanders develop over flood and delta
plains (Figure 7.7).
The concave bank is known as cut-off bank is more in the valley, channel bars and islands
which shows up as a steep scarp and the of sand, gravel and pebbles develop on the floor
convex bank presents a long, gentle profile and of the channel and the water flow is divided
is known as slip-off bank (Figure 7.8). As into multiple threads. These thread-like streams
meanders grow into deep loops, the same may of water rejoin and subdivide repeatedly to give
get cut-off due to erosion at the inflection points a typical braided pattern (Figure 7.9).
and are left as ox-bow lakes.
Braided Channels
When rivers carry coarse material, there can be
selective deposition of coarser materials causing
formation of a central bar which diverts the flow
towards the banks; and this flow increases
lateral erosion on the banks. As the valley
widens, the water column is reduced and more
and more materials get deposited as islands
and lateral bars developing a number of
separate channels of water flow. Deposition
and lateral erosion of banks are essential for Figure 7.9 : Satellite scenes showing braided channel
the for mation of braided patter n. Or, segments of Gandak (left) and Son (right) rivers
alternatively, when discharge is less and load Arrows show the direction of flow
As glaciers continue to move, debris gets the glacier disappears. Such lakes are called
removed, divides get lowered and eventually cirque or tarn lakes. There can be two or more
the slope is reduced to such an extent that cirques one leading into another down below
glaciers will stop moving leaving only a mass in a stepped sequence.
of low hills and vast outwash plains along with
other depositional features. Figures 7.13 and Horns and Serrated Ridges
7.14 show various glacial erosional and Horns form through head ward erosion of the
depositional forms described in the text. cirque walls. If three or more radiating glaciers
cut headward until their cirques meet, high,
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS sharp pointed and steep sided peaks called
horns form. The divides between cirque side
Cirque walls or head walls get narrow because of
Cirques are the most common of landforms in progressive erosion and turn into serrated or
glaciated mountains. The cirques quite often saw-toothed ridges sometimes referred to as
are found at the heads of glacial valleys. The arêtes with very sharp crest and a zig-zag
accumulated ice cuts these cirques while outline.
moving down the mountain tops. They are
deep, long and wide troughs or basins with The highest peak in the Alps, Matterhorn
and the highest peak in the Himalayas,
very steep concave to vertically dropping high
Everest are in fact horns formed through
walls at its head as well as sides. A lake of water
headward erosion of radiating cirques.
can be seen quite often within the cirques after
Figure 7.13 : Some glacial erosional and depositional forms (adapted and modified from Spencer, 1962)
68 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Figure 7.14 : A panoramic diagram of glacial landscape with various depositional landforms
(adapted and modified from Spencer, 1962)
LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION 69
Along high rocky coasts, waves break with Storm and tsunami waves cause drastic
great force against the land shaping the hill changes irrespective of supply of sediments.
sides into cliffs. With constant pounding by Large rivers which bring lots of sediments build
waves, the cliffs recede leaving a wave-cut deltas along low sedimentary coasts.
platform in front of the sea cliff. Waves
gradually minimise the irregularities along the The west coast of our country is a high
shore. rocky retreating coast. Erosional forms
The materials which fall off, and removed dominate in the west coast. The east
from the sea cliffs, gradually break into smaller coast of India is a low sedimentary coast.
fragments and roll to roundness, will get Depositional forms dominate in the east
deposited in the offshore. After a considerable coast.
period of cliff development and retreat when
coastline turns somewhat smooth, with the
addition of some more material to this deposit What are the various differences between
in the offshore, a wave-built terrace would a high rocky coast and a low sedimentary
develop in front of wave-cut terrace. As the coast in terms of processes and
erosion along the coast takes place a good landforms?
supply material becomes available to longshore
currents and waves to deposit them as beaches EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
along the shore and as bars (long ridges of sand
and/or shingle parallel to the coast) in the Cliffs, Terraces, Caves and Stacks
nearshore zone. Bars are submerged features
and when bars show up above water, they are Wave-cut cliffs and terraces are two forms
called barrier bars. Barrier bar which get keyed usually found where erosion is the dominant
up to the headland of a bay is called a spit. shore process. Almost all sea cliffs are steep
When barrier bars and spits form at the mouth and may range from a few m to 30 m or even
of a bay and block it, a lagoon forms. The more. At the foot of such cliffs there may be a
lagoons would gradually get filled up by flat or gently sloping platform covered by rock
sediments from the land giving rise to a coastal debris derived from the sea cliff behind. Such
plain. platforms occurring at elevations above the
average height of waves is called a wave-cut
LOW SEDIMENTARY COASTS terrace. The lashing of waves against the base
of the cliff and the rock debris that gets
Along low sedimentary coasts the rivers appear smashed against the cliff along with lashing
to extend their length by building coastal waves create hollows and these hollows get
plains and deltas. The coastline appears widened and deepened to form sea caves. The
smooth with occasional incursions of water in roofs of caves collapse and the sea cliffs recede
the form of lagoons and tidal creeks. The land further inland. Retreat of the cliff may leave
slopes gently into the water. Marshes and some remnants of rock standing isolated as
swamps may abound along the coasts. small islands just off the shore. Such resistant
Depositional features dominate. masses of rock, originally parts of a cliff or hill
When waves break over a gently sloping are called sea stacks. Like all other features,
sedimentary coast, the bottom sediments get sea stacks are also temporary and eventually
churned and move readily building bars, coastal hills and cliffs will disappear because
barrier bars, spits and lagoons. Lagoons of wave erosion giving rise to narrow coastal
would eventually turn into a swamp which plains, and with onrush of deposits from over
would subsequently turn into a coastal plain. the land behind may get covered up by
The maintenance of these depositional features alluvium or may get covered up by shingle or
depends upon the steady supply of materials. sand to form a wide beach.
LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION 71
formation to mass wasting and running water deposition of sediment from basin margins, a
as sheet floods. Though rain is scarce in deserts, nearly level plain forms at the centre of the
it comes down torrentially in a short period of basin. In times of sufficient water, this plain is
time. The desert rocks devoid of vegetation, covered up by a shallow water body. Such
exposed to mechanical and chemical types of shallow lakes are called as playas
weathering processes due to drastic diurnal where water is retained only for short duration
temperature changes, decay faster and the due to evaporation and quite often the playas
torrential rains help in removing the weathered contain good deposition of salts. The playa
materials easily. That means, the weathered plain covered up by salts is called alkali flats.
debris in deserts is moved by not only wind
but also by rain/sheet wash. The wind moves Deflation Hollows and Caves
fine materials and general mass erosion is
Weathered mantle from over the rocks or bare
accomplished mainly through sheet floods or
soil, gets blown out by persistent movement
sheet wash. Stream channels in desert areas
of wind currents in one direction. This process
are broad, smooth and indefinite and flow for
may create shallow depressions called
a brief time after rains.
deflation hollows. Deflation also creates
numerous small pits or cavities over rock
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS surfaces. The rock faces suffer impact and
abrasion of wind-borne sand and first shallow
Pediments and Pediplains
depressions called blow outs are created, and
Landscape evolution in deserts is primarily some of the blow outs become deeper and
concerned with the formation and extension of wider fit to be called caves.
pediments. Gently inclined rocky floors close
to the mountains at their foot with or without Mushroom, Table and Pedestal Rocks
a thin cover of debris, are called pediments. Many rock-outcrops in the deserts easily
Such rocky floors form through the erosion of susceptible to wind deflation and abrasion are
mountain front through a combination of worn out quickly leaving some remnants of
lateral erosion by streams and sheet flooding. resistant rocks polished beautifully in the
Erosion starts along the steep margins of shape of mushroom with a slender stalk and a
the landmass or the steep sides of the broad and rounded pear shaped cap above.
tectonically controlled steep incision features Sometimes, the top surface is broad like a table
over the landmass. Once, pediments are formed top and quite often, the remnants stand out
with a steep wash slope followed by cliff or free like pedestals.
face above it, the steep wash slope and free face
retreat backwards. This method of erosion is List the erosional features carved out by
termed as parallel retreat of slopes through wind action and action of sheet floods.
backwasting. So, through parallel retreat of
slopes, the pediments extend backwards at the
Depositional Landforms
expense of mountain front, and gradually, the
mountain gets reduced leaving an inselberg Wind is a good sorting agent. Depending upon
which is a remnant of the mountain. That’s how the velocity of wind, different sizes of grains are
the high relief in desert areas is reduced to low moved along the floors by rolling or saltation
featureless plains called pediplains. and carried in suspension and in this process
of transportation itself, the materials get sorted.
Playas When the wind slows or begins to die down,
Plains are by far the most prominent landforms depending upon sizes of grains and their
in the deserts. In basins with mountains and critical velocities, the grains will begin to settle.
hills around and along, the drainage is towards So, in depositional landforms made by wind,
the centre of the basin and due to gradual good sorting of grains can be found. Since
LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION 73
wind is there everywhere and wherever there are equally important. There can be a great
is good source of sand and with constant wind variety of dune forms (Figure 7.16).
directions, depositional features in arid regions
can develop anywhere. Barchans
Crescent shaped dunes called barchans with
Sand Dunes
the points or wings directed away from wind
Dry hot deserts are good places for sand dune direction i.e., downwind, form where the wind
formation. Obstacles to initiate dune formation direction is constant and moderate and where
the original surface over which sand is moving
is almost uniform. Parabolic dunes form when
sandy surfaces are partially covered with
vegetation. That means parabolic dunes are
reversed barchans with wind direction being
the same. Seif is similar to barchan with a small
difference. Seif has only one wing or point. This
happens when there is shift in wind conditions.
The lone wings of seifs can grow very long and
high. Longitudinal dunes form when supply
of sand is poor and wind direction is constant.
They appear as long ridges of considerable
length but low in height. Transverse dunes
are aligned perpendicular to wind direction.
These dunes form when the wind direction is
constant and the source of sand is an
elongated feature at right angles to the wind
direction. They may be very long and low in
height. When sand is plenty, quite often, the
regular shaped dunes coalesce and lose their
individual characteristics. Most of the dunes
Figure 7.16 : Various types of sand dunes in the deserts shift and a few of them will get
Arrows indicate wind direction stabilised especially near human habitations.
EXERCISES
(iv) Which one of the following sentences best defines the term ‘Lapies’ ?
(a) A small to medium sized shallow depression
(b) A landform whose opening is more or less circular at the top and
funnel shaped towards bottom
(c) A landform forms due to dripping water from surface
(d) An irregular surface with sharp pinnacles, grooves and ridges
(v) A deep, long and wide trough or basin with very steep concave high walls
at its head as well as in sides is known as:
(a) Cirque (c) Lateral Moraine
(b) Glacial valley (d) Esker
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) What do incised meanders in rocks and meanders in plains of alluvium
indicate?
(ii) Explain the evolution of valley sinks or uvalas.
(iii) Underground flow of water is more common than surface run-off in
limestone areas. Why?
(iv) Glacial valleys show up many linear depositional forms. Give their
locations and names.
(v) How does wind perform its task in desert areas? Is it the only agent
responsible for the erosional features in the deserts?
3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.
(i) Running water is by far the most dominating geomorphic agent in shaping
the earth’s surface in humid as well as in arid climates. Explain.
(ii) Limestones behave differently in humid and arid climates. Why? What is
the dominant and almost exclusive geomorphic process in limestone areas
and what are its results?
(iii) How do glaciers accomplish the work of reducing high mountains into low
hills and plains?
Project Work
Identify the landforms, materials and processes around your area.
UNIT
IV
CLIMATE
This unit deals with
• Atmosphere — compositions and structure; elements of weather
and climate
• Insolation — angle of incidence and distribution; heat budget
of the earth — heating and cooling of atmosphere (conduction,
convection, terrestrial radiation, advection); temperature — factors
controlling temperature; distribution of temperature — horizontal
and vertical; inversion of temperature
• Pressure — pressure belts; winds-planetary seasonal and local,
air masses and fronts; tropical and extra tropical cyclones
• Precipitation — evaporation; condensation — dew, frost, fog,
mist and cloud; rainfall — types and world distributon
• World climates — classification (Koeppen), greenhouse effect,
global warming and climatic changes
CHAPTER
C
an a person live without air? We eat Table 8.1 : Permanent Gases of the Atmosphere
food two - three times a day and drink
Constituent Formula Percentage by Volume
water more frequently but breathe
every few seconds. Air is essential to the Nitrogen N2 78.08
survival of all organisms. Some organisms like Oxygen O2 20.95
Argon Ar 0.93
humans may survive for some time without
Carbon dioxide CO2 0.036
food and water but can’t survive even a few
Neon Ne 0.002
minutes without breathing air. That shows the Helium He 0.0005
reason why we should understand the Krypto Kr 0.001
atmosphere in greater detail. Atmosphere is a Xenon Xe 0.00009
mixture of different gases and it envelopes the Hydrogen H2 0.00005
earth all round. It contains life-giving gases like
oxygen for humans and animals and carbon Gases
dioxide for plants. The air is an integral part of
Carbon dioxide is meteorologically a very
the earth’s mass and 99 per cent of the total
important gas as it is transparent to the
mass of the atmosphere is confined to the
incoming solar radiation but opaque to the
height of 32 km from the earth’s surface. The
outgoing terrestrial radiation. It absorbs a part
air is colourless and odourless and can be felt of terrestrial radiation and reflects back some
only when it blows as wind. part of it towards the earth’s surface. It is
largely responsible for the green house effect.
Can you imagine what will happen
The volume of other gases is constant but the
to us in the absence of ozone in the
volume of carbon dioxide has been rising in
atmosphere?
the past few decades mainly because of the
burning of fossil fuels. This has also increased
the temperature of the air. Ozone is another
COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
important component of the atmosphere found
The atmosphere is composed of gases, water between 10 and 50 km above the earth’s
vapour and dust particles. Table 8.1 shows surface and acts as a filter and absorbs the
details of various gases in the air, particularly ultra-violet rays radiating from the sun and
in the lower atmosphere. The proportion of prevents them from reaching the surface of the
gases changes in the higher layers of the earth.
atmosphere in such a way that oxygen will be
almost in negligible quantity at the height of Water Vapour
120 km. Similarly, carbon dioxide and water Water vapour is also a variable gas in the
vapour are found only up to 90 km from the atmosphere, which decreases with altitude. In
surface of the earth. the warm and wet tropics, it may account for
COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE 77
four per cent of the air by volume, while in the The zone separating the tropsophere from
dry and cold areas of desert and polar regions, stratosphere is known as the tropopause. The
it may be less than one per cent of the air. Water air temperature at the tropopause is about
vapour also decreases from the equator minus 800C over the equator and about minus
towards the poles. It also absorbs parts of the 45oC over the poles. The temperature here is
insolation from the sun and preserves the nearly constant, and hence, it is called the
earth’s radiated heat. It thus, acts like a blanket tropopause. The stratosphere is found above
allowing the earth neither to become too cold the tropopause and extends up to a height of
nor too hot. Water vapour also contributes to 50 km. One important feature of the
the stability and instability in the air. stratosphere is that it contains the ozone layer.
This layer absorbs ultra-violet radiation and
Dust Particles shields life on the earth from intense, harmful
form of energy.
Atmosphere has a sufficient capacity to keep The mesosphere lies above the stratosphere,
small solid particles, which may originate from which extends up to a height of 80 km. In this
different sources and include sea salts, fine soil, layer, once again, temperature starts
smoke-soot, ash, pollen, dust and disintegrated decreasing with the increase in altitude and
particles of meteors. Dust particles are reaches up to minus 100°C at the height of 80
generally concentrated in the lower layers of km. The upper limit of mesosphere is known
the atmosphere; yet, convectional air currents as the mesopause. The ionosphere is located
may transport them to great heights. The between 80 and 400 km above the mesopause.
higher concentration of dust particles is found It contains electrically charged particles known
in subtropical and temperate regions due to as ions, and hence, it is known as ionosphere.
dry winds in comparison to equatorial and Radio waves transmitted from the earth are
polar regions. Dust and salt particles act as reflected back to the earth by this layer.
hygroscopic nuclei around which water vapour Temperature here starts increasing with height.
condenses to produce clouds. The uppermost layer of the atmosphere above
the ionosphere is known as the exosphere. This Elements of Weather and Climate
is the highest layer but very little is known about
it. Whatever contents are there, these are The main elements of atmosphere which are
extremely rarefied in this layer, and it gradually subject to change and which influence human
merges with the outer space. Although all life on earth are temperature, pressure, winds,
layers of the atmosphere must be exercising humidity, clouds and precipitation. These
influence on us, geographers are concerned elements have been dealt in detail in Chapters
with the first two layers of the atmosphere. 9, 10 and 11.
EXERCISES
D
o you feel air around you? Do you The solar output received at the top of the
know that we live at the bottom of a atmosphere varies slightly in a year due to the
huge pile of air? We inhale and exhale variations in the distance between the earth and
but we feel the air when it is in motion. It means the sun. During its revolution around the sun,
air in motion is wind. You have already learnt the earth is farthest from the sun (152 million
about the fact that earth is surrounded by air km on 4th July). This position of the earth is
all around. This envelop of air is atmosphere called aphelion. On 3rd January, the earth is
which is composed of numerous gases. These the nearest to the sun (147 million km). This
gases support life over the earth’s surface. position is called perihelion. Therefore, the
The earth receives almost all of its energy annual insolation received by the earth on 3rd
from the sun. The earth in turn radiates back January is slightly more than the amount
to space the energy received from the sun. As received on 4th July. However, the effect of this
a result, the earth neither warms up nor does variation in the solar output is masked by
it get cooled over a period of time. Thus, the other factors like the distribution of land and
amount of heat received by different parts of sea and the atmospheric circulation. Hence, this
the earth is not the same. This variation causes variation in the solar output does not have
pressure differences in the atmosphere. This great effect on daily weather changes on the
leads to transfer of heat from one region to the surface of the earth.
other by winds. This chapter explains the
Variability of Insolation at
process of heating and cooling of the
the Surface of the Earth
atmosphere and the resultant temperature
distribution over the earth’s surface. The amount and the intensity of insolation vary
during a day, in a season and in a year. The factors
SOLAR RADIATION that cause these variations in insolation are : (i)
the rotation of earth on its axis; (ii) the angle of
The earth’s surface receives most of its energy inclination of the sun’s rays; (iii) the length of the
in short wavelengths. The energy received by day; (iv) the transparency of the atmosphere; (v)
the earth is known as incoming solar radiation the configuration of land in terms of its aspect.
which in short is termed as insolation. The last two however, have less influence.
As the earth is a geoid resembling a sphere, The fact that the earth’s axis makes an angle
the sun’s rays fall obliquely at the top of the of 66½ with the plane of its orbit round the sun
atmosphere and the earth intercepts a very has a greater influence on the amount of
small portion of the sun’s energy. On an insolation received at different latitudes. Note the
average the earth receives 1.94 calories per sq. variations in the duration of the day at different
cm per minute at the top of its atmosphere. latitudes on solstices given in Table 9.1.
80 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
The second factor that determines the colour of the sky are the result of scattering of
amount of insolation received is the angle of light within the atmosphere.
Table 9.1 : Length of the Day in Hours and Minutes on Winter and Summer Solstices in the Northern Hemisphere
than the vertical movement. In middle latitudes, accumulate or loose heat. It maintains its
most of dirunal (day and night) variation in temperature. This can happen only if the
daily weather are caused by advection alone. amount of heat received in the form of insolation
In tropical regions particularly in northern equals the amount lost by the earth through
India during summer season local winds called terrestrial radiation.
‘loo’ is the outcome of advection process. Consider that the insolation received at the
top of the atmosphere is 100 per cent. While
Terrestrial Radiation passing through the atmosphere some amount
The insolation received by the earth is in short of energy is reflected, scattered and absorbed.
waves forms and heats up its surface. The earth Only the remaining part reaches the earth
after being heated itself becomes a radiating surface. Roughly 35 units are reflected back
body and it radiates energy to the atmosphere to space even before reaching the earth’s
in long wave form. This energy heats up the surface. Of these, 27 units are reflected back
atmosphere from below. This process is known from the top of the clouds and 2 units from the
as terrestrial radiation. snow and ice-covered areas of the earth. The
The long wave radiation is absorbed by the reflected amount of radiation is called the
atmospheric gases particularly by carbon albedo of the earth.
dioxide and the other green house gases. Thus, The remaining 65 units are absorbed, 14
the atmosphere is indirectly heated by the units within the atmosphere and 51 units by
earth’s radiation. the earth’s surface. The earth radiates back
The atmosphere in turn radiates and 51 units in the form of terrestrial radiation.
transmits heat to the space. Finally the amount Of these, 17 units are radiated to space
of heat received from the sun is returned to directly and the remaining 34 units are
space, thereby maintaining constant temperature absorbed by the atmosphere (6 units
at the earth’s surface and in the atmosphere. absorbed directly by the atmosphere, 9 units
through convection and turbulence and 19
Heat Budget of the Planet Earth
units through latent heat of condensation).
Figure 9.2 depicts the heat budget of the planet 48 units absorbed by the atmosphere
earth. The earth as a whole does not (14 units from insolation +34 units from
terrestrial radiation) are also radiated back heat which is measured in terms of
into space. Thus, the total radiation temperature. While heat represents the
returning from the earth and the atmosphere molecular movement of particles comprising a
respectively is 17+48=65 units which substance, the temperature is the measurement
balance the total of 65 units received from in degrees of how hot (or cold) a thing (or a
the sun. This is termed the heat budget or place) is.
heat balance of the earth.
This explains, why the earth neither warms Factors Controlling Temperature Distribution
up nor cools down despite the huge transfer of The temperature of air at any place is influenced
heat that takes place. by (i) the latitude of the place; (ii) the altitude
of the place; (iii) distance from the sea, the air-
Variation in the Net Heat Budget at the mass circulation; (iv) the presence of warm and
Earth’s Surface cold ocean currents; (v) local aspects.
As explained earlier, there are variations in the
amount of radiation received at the earth’s The latitude : The temperature of a place
surface. Some part of the earth has surplus depends on the insolation received. It has been
radiation balance while the other part has explained earlier that the insolation varies
deficit. according to the latitude hence the
Figure 9.3 depicts the latitudinal variation temperature also varies accordingly.
in the net radiation balance of the earth — the
The altitude : The atmosphere is indirectly
atmosphere system. The figure shows that
heated by terrestrial radiation from below.
there is a surplus of net radiation balance
Therefore, the places near the sea-level record
between 40 degrees north and south and the
higher temperature than the places situated
regions near the poles have a deficit. The
at higher elevations. In other words, the
surplus heat energy from the tropics is
temperature generally decreases with
redistributed pole wards and as a result the
increasing height. The rate of decrease of
tropics do not get progressively heated up due
temperature with height is termed as the
to the accumulation of excess heat or the high
normal lapse rate. It is 6.5°C per 1,000 m.
latitudes get permanently frozen due to excess
deficit. Distance from the sea : Another factor that
influences the temperature is the location of a
place with respect to the sea. Compared to land,
the sea gets heated slowly and loses heat
slowly. Land heats up and cools down quickly.
Therefore, the variation in temperature over the
sea is less compared to land. The places
situated near the sea come under the
moderating influence of the sea and land
breezes which moderate the temperature.
the places located on the coast where the warm northern hemisphere the land surface area is
ocean currents flow record higher temperature much larger than in the southern hemisphere.
than the places located on the coast where the Hence, the effects of land mass and the ocean
cold currents flow. currents are well pronounced. In January the
isotherms deviate to the north over the ocean
Distribution of Temperature and to the south over the continent. This can
be seen on the North Atlantic Ocean. The
The global distribution of temperature can well presence of warm ocean currents, Gulf Stream
be understood by studying the temperature and North Atlantic drift, make the Northern
distribution in January and July. The Atlantic Ocean warmer and the isotherms bend
temperature distribution is generally shown towards the north. Over the land the
on the map with the help of isotherms. The temperature decreases sharply and the
Isotherms are lines joining places having equal isotherms bend towards south in Europe.
temperature. Figure 9.4 (a) and (b) show the It is much pronounced in the Siberian
distribution of surface air temperature in the plain. The mean January temperature along
month of January and July. 60° E longitude is minus 20° C both at 80° N
In general the effect of the latitude on and 50° N latitudes. The mean monthly
temperature is well pronounced on the map, temperature for January is over 27° C, in
as the isotherms are generally parallel to the equatorial oceans over 24° C in the tropics
latitude. The deviation from this general trend and 2° C - 0° C in the middle latitudes
is more pronounced in January than in July, and –18° C to –48° C in the Eurasian
especially in the northern hemisphere. In the continental interior.
Figure 9.4 (a) : The distribution of surface air temperature in the month of January
84 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Figure 9.4 (b) : The distribution of surface air temperature in the month of July
The effect of the ocean is well pronounced the subtropical continental region of Asia,
in the southern hemisphere. Here the isotherms along the 30° N latitude. Along the 40° N runs
are more or less parallel to the latitudes and the isotherm of 10° C and along the 40° S the
the variation in temperature is more gradual temperature is 10° C.
than in the northern hemisphere. The isotherm Figure 9.5 shows the range of
of 20° C, 10° C, and 0° C runs parallel to 35° S, temperature between January and July. The
45° S and 60° S latitudes respectively. highest range of temperature is more than 60°
In July the isotherms generally run C over the north-eastern part of Eurasian
parallel to the latitude. The equatorial oceans continent. This is due to continentality. The
record warmer temperature, more than 27°C. least range of temperature, 3°C, is found
Over the land more than 30°C is noticed in between 20° S and 15° N.
EXERCISES
Project Work
Select a meteorological observatory located in your city or near your town. Tabulate
the temperature data as given in the climatological table of observatories :
(i) Note the altitude, latitude of the observatory and the period for which the
mean is calculated.
(ii) Define the terms related to temperature as given in the table.
(iii) Calculate the daily mean monthly temperature.
(iv) Draw a graph to show the daily mean maximum, the daily mean minimum
and the mean temperature.
(v) Calculate the annual range of temperature.
(vi) Find out in which months the daily range of temperature is the highest
and the lowest.
(vii) List out the factors that determine the temperature of the place and
explain the possible causes for temperature variation in the months of
January, May, July and October.
Example
Observatory : New Delhi (Safdarjung)
Latitude : 28°35°’ N
Based on observations : 1951 - 1980
Altitude above mean sea level : 216 m
21.1+7.3
January = 14.2OC
2
39.6+25.9
May = 32.75OC
2
Annual range of temperature
Mean Max. Temperature in May - Mean Temperature in January
Annual range of temperature = 32.75°C – 14.2°C = 18.55°C
CHAPTER
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
AND WEATHER SYSTEMS
E
arlier Chapter 9 described the uneven the air at the surface is denser and hence has
distribution of temperature over the higher pressure. Air pressure is measured with
surface of the earth. Air expands when the help of a mercury barometer or the aneroid
heated and gets compressed when cooled. This barometer. Consult your book, Practical Work
results in variations in the atmospheric in Geography — Part I (NCERT, 2006) and
pressure. The result is that it causes the learn about these instruments. The pressure
movement of air from high pressure to low decreases with height. At any elevation it varies
pressure, setting the air in motion. You already from place to place and its variation is the
know that air in horizontal motion is wind. primary cause of air motion, i.e. wind which
Atmospheric pressure also determines when moves from high pressure areas to low
the air will rise or sink. The wind redistributes pressure areas.
the heat and moisture across the planet,
thereby, maintaining a constant temperature Vertical Variation of Pressure
for the planet as a whole. The vertical rising of
In the lower atmosphere the pressure
moist air cools it down to form the clouds and
decreases rapidly with height. The decrease
bring precipitation. This chapter has been
amounts to about 1 mb for each 10 m increase
devoted to explain the causes of pressure
in elevation. It does not always decrease at the
differences, the forces that control the
same rate. Table 10.1 gives the average
atmospheric circulation, the turbulent pattern
pressure and temperature at selected levels of
of wind, the formation of air masses, the
elevation for a standard atmosphere.
disturbed weather when air masses interact
with each other and the phenomenon of violent Table 10.1 : Standard Pressure and Temperature at
tropical storms. Selected Levels
Level Pressure in mb Temperature °C
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Sea Level 1,013.25 15.2
Do you realise that our body is subjected to a
1 km 898.76 8.7
lot of air pressure. As one moves up the air
gets varified and one feels breathless. 5 km 540.48 –17. 3
The weight of a column of air contained in 10 km 265.00 – 49.7
a unit area from the mean sea level to the top
of the atmosphere is called the atmospheric The vertical pressure gradient force is much
pressure. The atmospheric pressure is larger than that of the horizontal pressure
expressed in units of mb and Pascals. The gradient. But, it is generally balanced by a
widely used unit is kilo Pascal written as hPa. nearly equal but opposite gravitational force.
At sea level the average atmospheric pressure Hence, we do not experience strong upward
is 1,013.2 mb or 1,013.2 hPa. Due to gravity winds.
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION AND WEATHER SYSTEMS 89
to the left in the southern hemisphere. The The wind circulation around a low is
deflection is more when the wind velocity is called cyclonic circulation. Around a high
high. The Coriolis force is directly proportional it is called anti cyclonic circulation. The
to the angle of latitude. It is maximum at the direction of winds around such systems
poles and is absent at the equator. changes according to their location in
The Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the different hemispheres (Table 10.2).
pressure gradient force. The pressure gradient The wind circulation at the earth’s surface
force is perpendicular to an isobar. The higher around low and high on many occasions is
the pressure gradient force, the more is the closely related to the wind circulation at higher
velocity of the wind and the larger is the level. Generally, over low pressure area the air
deflection in the direction of wind. As a result of will converge and rise. Over high pressure area
these two forces operating perpendicular to each the air will subside from above and diverge at
other, in the low-pressure areas the wind blows the surface (Figure10.5). Apart from
around it. At the equator, the Coriolis force is convergence, some eddies, convection
zero and the wind blows perpendicular to the currents, orographic uplift and uplift along
isobars. The low pressure gets filled instead of fronts cause the rising of air, which is essential
getting intensified. That is the reason why tropical for the formation of clouds and precipitation.
cyclones are not formed near the equator.
Pressure and Wind
The velocity and direction of the wind are the
net result of the wind generating forces. The
winds in the upper atmosphere, 2 - 3 km above
the surface, are free from frictional effect of the
surface and are controlled by the pressure
gradient and the Coriolis force. When isobars
are straight and when there is no friction, the Figure 10.5 : Convergence and divergence of winds
pressure gradient force is balanced by the
Coriolis force and the resultant wind blows
parallel to the isobar. This wind is known as General circulation of the atmosphere
the geostrophic wind (Figure 10.4). The pattern of planetary winds largely depends
on : (i) latitudinal variation of atmospheric
heating; (ii) emergence of pressure belts; (iii)
the migration of belts following apparent path
of the sun; (iv) the distribution of continents
and oceans; (v) the rotation of earth. The pattern
of the movement of the planetary winds is
called the general circulation of the
atmosphere. The general circulation of the
atmosphere also sets in motion the ocean water
circulation which influences the earth’s
Figure 10.4 : Geostropic Wind
climate. A schematic description of the general The general circulation of the atmosphere
circulation is shown in Figure 10.6. also affects the oceans. The large-scale winds
of the atmosphere initiate large and slow
moving currents of the ocean. Oceans in turn
provide input of energy and water vapour into
the air. These interactions take place rather
slowly over a large part of the ocean.
Land and Sea Breezes as the valley breeze. During the night the
slopes get cooled and the dense air descends
As explained earlier, the land and sea absorb
into the valley as the mountain wind. The cool
and transfer heat differently. During the day the
air, of the high plateaus and ice fields draining
land heats up faster and becomes warmer than
into the valley is called katabatic wind. Another
the sea. Therefore, over the land the air rises
type of warm wind occurs on the leeward side
giving rise to a low pressure area, whereas the
of the mountain ranges. The moisture in these
sea is relatively cool and the pressure over sea
winds, while crossing the mountain ranges
is relatively high. Thus, pressure gradient from
condense and precipitate. When it descends
sea to land is created and the wind blows from
down the leeward side of the slope the dry air
the sea to the land as the sea breeze. In the night
gets warmed up by adiabatic process. This dry
the reversal of condition takes place. The land
air may melt the snow in a short time.
loses heat faster and is cooler than the sea. The
pressure gradient is from the land to the sea
Air Masses
and hence land breeze results (Figure 10.7).
When the air remains over a homogenous area
for a sufficiently longer time, it acquires the
characteristics of the area. The homogenous
regions can be the vast ocean surface or vast
plains. The air with distinctive characteristics
in terms of temperature and humidity is called
an airmass. It is defined as a large body of air
having little horizontal variation in temperature
and moisture. The homogenous surfaces, over
which air masses form, are called the source
regions.
The air masses are classified according to
the source regions. There are five major source
regions. These are: (i) Warm tropical and
subtropical oceans; (ii) The subtropical hot
deserts; (iii) The relatively cold high latitude
oceans; (iv) The very cold snow covered
continents in high latitudes; (v) Permanently
ice covered continents in the Arctic and
Antarctica. Accordingly, following types of air-
masses are recognised: (i) Maritime tropical
(mT); (ii) Continental tropical (cT); (iii) Maritime
polar (mP); (iv) Continental polar (cP);
(v) Continental arctic (cA). Tropical air masses
are warm and polar air masses are cold.
Fronts
When two different air masses meet, the
Figure 10.7 : Land and sea breezes boundary zone between them is called a front.
The process of formation of the fronts is known
Mountain and Valley Winds
as frontogenesis. There are four types of
In mountainous regions, during the day the fronts: (a) Cold; (b) Warm; (c) Stationary;
slopes get heated up and air moves upslope (d) Occluded [(Figure10.8 (a), (b), (c)]. When the
and to fill the resulting gap the air from the front remains stationary, it is called a
valley blows up the valley. This wind is known stationary front. When the cold air moves
94 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
which is not present in the tropical cyclones. A schematic representation of the vertical
They cover a larger area and can originate over structure of a mature tropical cyclonic storm
the land and sea. Whereas the tropical cyclones is shown in Figure 10.10.
originate only over the seas and on reaching A mature tropical cyclone is characterised
the land they dissipate. The extra tropical by the strong spirally circulating wind around
cyclone affects a much larger area as the centre, called the eye. The diameter of the
compared to the tropical cyclone. The wind circulating system can vary between 150 and
velocity in a tropical cyclone is much higher 250 km.
and it is more destructive. The extra tropical The eye is a region of calm with subsiding
cyclones move from west to east but tropical air. Around the eye is the eye wall, where there
cyclones, move from east to west. is a strong spiralling ascent of air to greater
height reaching the tropopause. The wind
reaches maximum velocity in this region,
Tropical Cyclones
reaching as high as 250 km per hour.
Tropical cyclones are violent storms that Torrential rain occurs here. From the eye wall
originate over oceans in tropical areas and rain bands may radiate and trains of cumulus
move over to the coastal areas bringing about and cumulonimbus clouds may drift into the
large scale destruction caused by violent outer region. The diameter of the storm over
winds, very heavy rainfall and storm surges. the Bay of Bengal, Arabian sea and Indian
This is one of the most devastating natural ocean is between 600 - 1200 km. The system
calamities. They are known as Cyclones in the moves slowly about 300 - 500 km per day.
Indian Ocean, Hurricanes in the Atlantic, The cyclone creates storm surges and they
Typhoons in the Western Pacific and South inundate the coastal low lands. The storm
China Sea, and Willy-willies in the Western peters out on the land.
Australia.
Tropical cyclones originate and intensify
over warm tropical oceans. The conditions
favourable for the formation and intensification
of tropical storms are: (i) Large sea surface with
temperature higher than 27° C; (ii) Presence
of the Coriolis force; (iii) Small variations in the
vertical wind speed; (iv) A pre-existing weak-
low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic
circulation; (v) Upper divergence above the sea
level system.
The energy that intensifies the storm, comes
from the condensation process in the towering
cumulonimbus clouds, surrounding the
centre of the storm. With continuous supply
of moisture from the sea, the storm is further
strengthened. On reaching the land the
moisture supply is cut off and the storm
dissipates. The place where a tropical cyclone
crosses the coast is called the landfall of the
cyclone. The cyclones, which cross 20o N
latitude generally, recurve and they are more Figure 10.10 : Vertical section of the tropical cyclone
destructive. (after Rama Sastry)
96 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
EXERCISES
Project Work
(i) Collect weather information over media such as newspaper, TV and radio
for understanding the weather systems.
(ii) Read the section on weather in any newspaper, preferably, one having a
map showing a satellite picture. Mark the area of cloudiness. Attempt to
infer the atmospheric circulation from the distribution of clouds. Compare
the forecast given in the newspaper with the TV coverage, if you have
access to TV. Estimate, how many days in a week was the forecast were
accurate.
CHAPTER
Y
ou have already learnt that the air EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION
contains water vapour. It varies from
zero to four per cent by volume of the The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere
atmosphere and plays an important role in the is added or withdrawn due to evaporation and
weather phenomena. Water is present in the condensation respectively. Evaporation is a
atmosphere in three forms namely – gaseous, process by which water is transformed from
liquid and solid. The moisture in the liquid to gaseous state. Heat is the main cause
atmosphere is derived from water bodies for evaporation. The temperature at which the
through evaporation and from plants through water starts evaporating is referred to as the
transpiration. Thus, there is a continuous latent heat of vapourisation.
exchange of water between the atmosphere, the Increase in temperature increases water
oceans and the continents through the absorption and retention capacity of the given
processes of evaporation, transpiration, parcel of air. Similarly, if the moisture content
condensation and precipitation. is low, air has a potentiality of absorbing and
Water vapour present in the air is known retaining moisture. Movement of air replaces
as humidity. It is expressed quantitatively in the saturated layer with the unsaturated layer.
different ways. The actual amount of the water Hence, the greater the movement of air, the
vapour present in the atmosphere is known as greater is the evaporation.
the absolute humidity. It is the weight of water The transformation of water vapour into
vapour per unit volume of air and is expressed water is called condensation. Condensation is
in terms of grams per cubic metre. The ability caused by the loss of heat. When moist air is
of the air to hold water vapour depends entirely cooled, it may reach a level when its capacity
on its temperature. The absolute humidity to hold water vapour ceases. Then, the excess
differs from place to place on the surface of the water vapour condenses into liquid form. If it
earth. The percentage of moisture present in directly condenses into solid form, it is known
the atmosphere as compared to its full capacity as sublimation. In free air, condensation results
at a given temperature is known as the relative from cooling around very small particles
humidity. With the change of air temperature, termed as hygroscopic condensation nuclei.
the capacity to retain moisture increases or Particles of dust, smoke and salt from the ocean
decreases and the relative humidity is also are particularly good nuclei because they
affected. It is greater over the oceans and least absorb water. Condensation also takes place
over the continents. when the moist air comes in contact with some
The air containing moisture to its full colder object and it may also take place when
capacity at a given temperature is said to be the temperature is close to the dew point.
saturated. It means that the air at the given Condensation, therefore, depends upon the
temperature is incapable of holding any amount of cooling and the relative humidity of
additional amount of moisture at that stage. the air. Condensation is influenced by the
The temperature at which saturation occurs volume of air, temperature, pressure and
in a given sample of air is known as dew point. humidity. Condensation takes place: (i) when
WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE 99
the temperature of the air is reduced to dew condition when fog is mixed with smoke, is
point with its volume remaining constant; (ii) described as smog. The only difference between
when both the volume and the temperature are the mist and fog is that mist contains more
reduced; (iv) when moisture is added to the air moisture than the fog. In mist each nuceli
through evaporation. However, the most contains a thicker layer of moisture. Mists are
favourable condition for condensation is the frequent over mountains as the rising warm
decrease in air temperature. air up the slopes meets a cold surface. Fogs
After condensation the water vapour or the are drier than mist and they are prevalent where
moisture in the atmosphere takes one of the warm currents of air come in contact with cold
following forms — dew, frost, fog and clouds. currents. Fogs are mini clouds in which
Forms of condensation can be classified on the condensation takes place around nuclei
basis of temperature and location. provided by the dust, smoke, and the salt
Condensation takes place when the dew point particles.
is lower than the freezing point as well as
higher than the freezing point. Clouds
Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or
Dew
tiny crystals of ice formed by the condensation
When the moisture is deposited in the form of of the water vapour in free air at considerable
water droplets on cooler surfaces of solid elevations. As the clouds are formed at some
objects (rather than nuclei in air above the height over the surface of the earth, they take
surface) such as stones, grass blades and plant various shapes. According to their height,
leaves, it is known as dew. The ideal conditions expanse, density and transparency or
for its formation are clear sky, calm air, high opaqueness clouds are grouped under four
relative humidity, and cold and long nights. types : (i) cirrus; (ii) cumulus; (iii) stratus;
For the formation of dew, it is necessary that (iv) nimbus.
the dew point is above the freezing point.
Cirrus
Frost
Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes
Frost forms on cold surfaces when (8,000 - 12,000m). They are thin and detatched
condensation takes place below freezing point clouds having a feathery appearance. They are
(00C), i.e. the dew point is at or below the always white in colour.
freezing point. The excess moisture is deposited
in the form of minute ice crystals instead of Cumulus
water droplets. The ideal conditions for the
Cumulus clouds look like cotton wool. They
formation of white frost are the same as those
are generally formed at a height of 4,000 -
for the formation of dew, except that the air
7,000 m. They exist in patches and can be seen
temperature must be at or below the freezing
scattered here and there. They have a flat base.
point.
Stratus
Fog and Mist
As their name implies, these are layered clouds
When the temperature of an air mass
covering large portions of the sky. These clouds
containing a large quantity of water vapour falls
are generally formed either due to loss of heat
all of a sudden, condensation takes place within
or the mixing of air masses with different
itself on fine dust particles. So, the fog is a cloud
temperatures.
with its base at or very near to the ground.
Because of the fog and mist, the visibility
Nimbus
becomes poor to zero. In urban and industrial
centres smoke provides plenty of nuclei which Nimbus clouds are black or dark gray. They
help the formation of fog and mist. Such a form at middle levels or very near to the surface
100 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Figure 11.2
On the basis of origin, rainfall may be classified
into three main types – the convectional,
Identify these cloud types which are orographic or relief and the cyclonic or frontal.
shown in Figure 11.1 and 11.2.
Conventional Rain
A combination of these four basic types can
The, air on being heated, becomes light and
give rise to the following types of clouds: high
clouds – cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus; rises up in convection currents. As it rises, it
middle clouds – altostratus and altocumulus; expands and loses heat and consequently,
low clouds – stratocumulus and nimbostratus condensation takes place and cumulous
and clouds with extensive vertical clouds are formed. With thunder and lightening,
development – cumulus and cumulonimbus. heavy rainfall takes place but this does not last
WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE 101
long. Such rain is common in the summer or the continents. The rainfall is more over the
in the hotter part of the day. It is very common oceans than on the landmasses of the world
in the equatorial regions and interior parts of because of being great sources of water.
the continents, particularly in the northern Between the latitudes 350 and 400 N and S of
hemisphere. the equator, the rain is heavier on the eastern
coasts and goes on decreasing towards the
Orographic Rain west. But, between 450 and 650 N and S of
equator, due to the westerlies, the rainfall is
When the saturated air mass comes across a first received on the western margins of the
mountain, it is forced to ascend and as it rises, continents and it goes on decreasing towards
it expands; the temperature falls, and the the east. Wherever mountains run parallel to
moisture is condensed. The chief characteristic the coast, the rain is greater on the coastal
of this sort of rain is that the windward slopes plain, on the windward side and it decreases
receive greater rainfall. After giving rain on the towards the leeward side.
windward side, when these winds reach the On the basis of the total amount of annual
other slope, they descend, and their precipitation, major precipitation regimes of the
temperature rises. Then their capacity to take world are identified as follows.
in moisture increases and hence, these leeward The equatorial belt, the windward slopes
slopes remain rainless and dry. The area of the mountains along the western coasts in
situated on the leeward side, which gets less the cool temperate zone and the coastal areas
rainfall is known as the rain-shadow area. It of the monsoon land receive heavy rainfall of
is also known as the relief rain. over 200 cm per annum. Interior continental
areas receive moderate rainfall varying from
Cyclonic Rain 100 - 200 cm per annum. The coastal areas of
the continents receive moderate amount of
You have already read about extra tropical
rainfall. The central parts of the tropical land
cyclones and cyclonic rain in Chapter 10.
and the eastern and interior parts of the
Please consult Chapter 10 to understand
temperate lands receive rainfall varying
cyclonic rainfall.
between 50 - 100 cm per annum. Areas lying
in the rain shadow zone of the interior of the
World Distribution of Rainfall continents and high latitudes receive very low
Different places on the earth’s surface receive rainfall-less than 50 cm per annum. Seasonal
different amounts of rainfall in a year and that distribution of rainfall provides an important
too in different seasons. aspect to judge its effectiveness. In some
In general, as we proceed from the equator regions rainfall is distributed evenly
towards the poles, rainfall goes on decreasing throughout the year such as in the equatorial
steadily. The coastal areas of the world receive belt and in the western parts of cool temperate
greater amounts of rainfall than the interior of regions.
EXERCISES
(ii) Which one of the following process is responsible for transforming liquid
into vapour?
(a) Condensation (c) Evaporation
(b) Transpiration (d) Precipitation
(iii) The air that contains moisture to its full capacity :
(a) Relative humidity (c) Absolute humidity
(b) Specific humidity (d) Saturated air
(iv) Which one of the following is the highest cloud in the sky?
(a) Cirrus (c) Nimbus
(b) Stratus (d) Cumulus
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) Name the three types of precipitation.
(ii) Explain relative humidity.
(iii) Why does the amount of water vapour decreases rapidly with altitude?
(iv) How are clouds formed? Classify them.
3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.
(i) Discuss the salient features of the world distribution of precipitation.
(ii) What are forms of condensation? Describe the process of dew and frost
formation.
Project Work
Browse through the newspaper from 1st June to 31st December and note the news
about extreme rainfall in different parts of the country.
CHAPTER
T
he world climate can be studied by related them to the distribution of vegetation
organising information and data on and used these values for classifying the
climate and synthesising them in climates. It is an empirical classification based
smaller units for easy understanding, on mean annual and mean monthly
description and analysis. Three broad temperature and precipitation data. He
approaches have been adopted for classifying introduced the use of capital and small letters
climate. They are empirical, genetic and to designate climatic groups and types.
applied. Empirical classification is based on Although developed in 1918 and modified over
observed data, particularly on temperature a period of time, Koeppen’s scheme is still
and precipitation. Genetic classification popular and in use.
attempts to organise climates according to their Koeppen recognised five major climatic
causes. Applied classification is for specific groups, four of them are based on temperature
purpose. and one on precipitation. Table 12.1 lists the
climatic groups and their characteristics
KOEPP E N ’ S SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION according to Koeppen. The capital letters : A,C,
OFCLIMATE D and E delineate humid climates and B dry
climates.
The most widely used classification of climate The climatic groups are subdivided into
is the empirical climate classification scheme types, designated by small letters, based on
developed by V. Koeppen. Koeppen identified seasonality of precipitation and temperature
a close relationship between the distribution characteristics. The seasons of dryness are
of vegetation and climate. He selected certain indicated by the small letters : f, m, w and s,
values of temperature and precipitation and where f corresponds to no dry season,
Table 12.1 : Climatic Groups According to Koeppen
Group Characteristics
C - Warm Temperate The average temperature of the coldest month of the (Mid-latitude) climates
years is higher than minus 3°C but below 18°C
D - Cold Snow Forest Climates The average temperature of the coldest month is minus 3° C or below
m - monsoon climate, w- winter dry season and islands of East Indies. Significant amount of
s - summer dry season. The small letters a, b, rainfall occurs in every month of the year as
c and d refer to the degree of severity of thunder showers in the afternoon. The
temperature. The B- Dry Climates are temperature is uniformly high and the annual
subdivided using the capital letters S for steppe range of temperature is negligible. The
or semi-arid and W for deserts. The climatic maximum temperature on any day is around
30°C while the minimum temperature is
types are listed in Table 12.2. The distribution
around 20°C. Tropical evergreen forests with
of climatic groups and types is shown in
dense canopy cover and large biodiversity are
Table 12.1.
found in this climate.
Table 12.2 : Climatic Types According to Koeppen
of Bolivia and Paraguay in South America, often causing famine. Rain occurs in short
Sudan and south of Central Africa. The annual intense thundershowers in deserts and is
rainfall in this climate is considerably less than ineffective in building soil moisture. Fog is
that in Af and Am climate types and is variable common in coastal deserts bordering cold
also. The wet season is shorter and the dry currents. Maximum temperature in the summer
season is longer with the drought being more is very high. The highest shade temperature of
severe. Temperature is high throughout the 58° C was recorded at Al Aziziyah, Libya on
year and diurnal ranges of temperature are the 13 September 1922. The annual and diurnal
greatest in the dry season. Deciduous forest and ranges of temperature are also high.
tree-shredded grasslands occur in this climate.
Warm Temperate (Mid-Latitude) Climates-C
Dry Climates : B
Warm temperate (mid-latitude) climates extend
Dry climates are characterised by very low from 30° - 50° of latitude mainly on the eastern
rainfall that is not adequate for the growth of and western margins of continents. These
plants. These climates cover a very large area climates generally have warm summers with
of the planet extending over large latitudes from mild winters. They are grouped into four types:
15° - 60° north and south of the equator. At (i) Humid subtropical, i.e. dry in winter and
low latitudes, from 15° - 30°, they occur in the hot in summer (Cwa); (ii) Mediterranean (Cs);
area of subtropical high where subsidence and (iii) Humid subtropical, i.e. no dry season and
inversion of temperature do not produce mild winter (Cfa); (iv) Marine west coast climate
rainfall. On the western margin of the (Cfb).
continents, adjoining the cold current,
particularly over the west coast of South Humid Subtropical Climate (Cwa)
America, they extend more equatorwards and
Humid subtropical climate occurs poleward of
occur on the coast land. In middle latitudes,
Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn, mainly in
from 35° - 60° north and south of equator, they
North Indian plains and South China interior
are confined to the interior of continents where
plains. The climate is similar to Aw climate
maritime-humid winds do not reach and to
except that the temperature in winter is warm.
areas often surrounded by mountains.
Dry climates are divided into steppe or Mediterranean Climate (Cs)
semi-arid climate (BS) and desert climate (BW).
They are further subdivided as subtropical As the name suggests, Mediterranean climate
steppe (BSh) and subtropical desert (BWh) at occurs around Mediterranean sea, along the
latitudes from 15° - 35° and mid-latitude west coast of continents in subtropical latitudes
steppe (BSk) and mid-latitude desert (BWk) at between 30° - 40° latitudes e.g. — Central
latitudes between 35° - 60°. California, Central Chile, along the coast in
south eastern and south western Australia.
Subtropical Steppe (BSh) and Subtropical These areas come under the influence of sub
Desert (BWh) Climates tropical high in summer and westerly wind in
winter. Hence, the climate is characterised by
Subtropical steppe (BSh) and subtropical
hot, dry summer and mild, rainy winter. Monthly
desert (BWh) have common precipitation and
average temperature in summer is around
temperature characteristics. Located in the
25° C and in winter below 10°C. The annual
transition zone between humid and dry
precipitation ranges between 35 - 90 cm.
climates, subtropical steppe receives slightly
more rainfall than the desert, adequate enough Humid Subtropical (Cfa) Climate
for the growth of sparse grasslands. The rainfall
in both the climates is highly variable. The Humid subtropical climate lies on the eastern
variability in the rainfall affects the life in the parts of the continent in subtropical latitudes.
steppe much more than in the desert, more In this region the air masses are generally
106 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
unstable and cause rainfall throughout the Cold Climate with Dry Winters (Dw)
year. They occur in eastern United States of
Cold climate with dry winter occurs mainly
America, southern and eastern China,
over Northeastern Asia. The development of
southern Japan, northeastern Argentina,
pronounced winter anti cyclone and its
coastal south Africa and eastern coast of
weakening in summer sets in monsoon like
Australia. The annual averages of precipitation
reversal of wind in this region. Poleward
vary from 75-150 cm. Thunderstorms in
summer temperatures are lower and winter
summer and frontal precipitation in winter are
temperatures are extremely low with many
common. Mean monthly temperature in
locations experiencing below freezing point
summer is around 27°C, and in winter it varies
temperatures for up to seven months in a year.
from 5°-12° C. The daily range of temperature
Precipitation occurs in summer. The annual
is small.
precipitation is low from 12-15 cm.
community. Efforts have already been initiated annual near surface temperature over land
to control the emission of GHGs and to arrest from 1856-2000, relative to the period
the trend towards global warming. Let us hope 1961-90 as normal for the globe.
the world community responds to this challenge An increasing trend in temperature was
and adopts a lifestyle that leaves behind a discernible in the 20th century. The greatest
livable world for the generations to come. warming of the 20th century was during the
One of the major concerns of the world two periods, 1901-44 and 1977-99. Over each
today is global warming. Let us look at how of these two periods, global temperatures rose
much the planet has warmed up from the by about 0.4°C. In between, there was a slight
temperature records. cooling, which was more marked in the
Temperature data are available from the Northern Hemisphere.
middle of the 19th century mostly for western The globally averaged annual mean
Europe. The reference period for this study is temperature at the end of the 20th century was
1961-90. The temperature anomalies for the about 0.6°C above that recorded at the end of
earlier and later periods are estimated from the the 19th century. The seven warmest years
average temperature for the period 1961-90. during the 1856-2000 were recorded in the
The annual average near -surface air last decade. The year 1998 was the warmest
temperature of the world is approximately year, probably not only for the 20th century
14°C. The time series show anomalies of but also for the whole millennium.
EXERCISES
Project Work
Collect information about Kyoto declaration related to global climate changes.
UNIT
V
WATER (OCEANS)
This unit deals with
• Hydrological Cycle
• Oceans — submarine relief; distribution of temperature and
salinity; movements of ocean water-waves, tides and currents
CHAPTER
WATER (OCEANS)
C
an we think of life without water? It is the ocean to land and land to ocean. The
said that the water is life. Water is an hydrological cycle describes the movement of
essential component of all life forms that water on, in, and above the earth. The water
exist over the surface of the earth. The creatures cycle has been working for billions of years
on the earth are lucky that it is a water planet, and all the life on earth depends on it. Next to
otherwise we all would have no existence. Water air, water is the most important element
is a rare commodity in our solar system. There required for the existence of life on earth. The
is no water on the sun or anywhere else in the distribution of water on earth is quite uneven.
solar system. The earth, fortunately has an
Many locations have plenty of water while
abundant supply of water on its surface. Hence,
others have very limited quantity. The
our planet is called the ‘Blue Planet’.
hydrological cycle, is the circulation of water
within the earth’s hydrosphere in different
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
forms i.e. the liquid, solid and the gaseous
Water is a cyclic resource. It can be used and phases. It also refers to the continuous
re-used. Water also undergoes a cycle from exchange of water between the oceans,
Table 13.1 : Water on the Earth’s surface crisis in different parts of the world — spatially
Reservoir Volume Percentage and temporally. The pollution of river waters
(Million of the Total has further aggravated the crisis. How can you
Cubic km ) intervene in improving the water quality and
augmenting the available quantity of water?
Oceans 1,370 97.25
Ice Caps 29 2.05
RELIEF OF THE OCEAN FLOOR
and Glaciers
Groundwater 9.5 0.68 The oceans are confined to the great
Lakes 0.125 0.01 depressions of the earth’s outer layer. In this
Soil Moisture 0.065 0.005 section, we shall see the nature of the ocean
Atmosphere 0.013 0.001 basins of the earth and their topography. The
Streams 0.0017 0.0001
oceans, unlike the continents, merge so
and Rivers naturally into one another that it is hard to
Biosphere 0.0006 0.00004 demarcate them. The geographers have divided
the oceanic part of the earth into four oceans,
namely the Pacific, the Atlantic, the Indian and
Table 13.2 : Components and Processes
the Arctic. The various seas, bays, gulfs and
of the Water Cycle
other inlets are parts of these four large oceans.
Components Processes A major portion of the ocean floor is found
between 3-6 km below the sea level. The ‘land’
Water storage Evaporation
in oceans Evapotranspiration under the waters of the oceans, that is, the
Sublimation ocean floor exhibits complex and varied
Water in the Condensation
features as those observed over the land
atmosphere Precipitation (Figure 13.2). The floors of the oceans are
rugged with the world’s largest mountain
Water storage in Snowmelt runoff
ice and snow to streams ranges, deepest trenches and the largest plains.
These features are formed, like those of the
Surface runoff Stream flow freshwater
storage infiltration
continents, by the factors of tectonic, volcanic
and depositional processes.
Groundwater storage Groundwater
discharge springs
Divisions of the Ocean Floors
atmosphere, landsurface and subsurface and The ocean floors can be divided into four major
the organisms. divisions: (i) the Continental Shelf; (ii) the
Table 13.1 shows distribution of water on Continental Slope; (iii) the Deep Sea Plain;
the surface of the earth. About 71 per cent of (iv) the Oceanic Deeps. Besides, these divisions
the planetary water is found in the oceans. The there are also major and minor relief features
remaining is held as freshwater in glaciers and in the ocean floors like ridges, hills, sea
icecaps, groundwater sources, lakes, soil mounts, guyots, trenches, canyons, etc.
moisture, atmosphere, streams and within life.
Nearly 59 per cent of the water that falls on Continental Shelf
land returns to the atmosphere through The continental shelf is the extended margin
evaporation from over the oceans as well as of each continent occupied by relatively
from other places. The remainder runs-off on shallow seas and gulfs. It is the shallowest part
the surface, infiltrates into the ground or a part of the ocean showing an average gradient of
of it becomes glacier (Figure 13.1). 1° or even less. The shelf typically ends at a
It is to be noted that the renewable water very steep slope, called the shelf break.
on the earth is constant while the demand is The width of the continental shelves vary
increasing tremendously. This leads to water from one ocean to another. The average width
114 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Mid-Oceanic Ridges
A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two chains
of mountains separated by a large depression.
The mountain ranges can have peaks as high
as 2,500 m and some even reach above the
ocean’s surface. Iceland, a part of the mid-
Figure 13.2 : Relief features of ocean floors Atlantic Ridge, is an example.
WATER (OCEANS) 115
warm oceanic water and it is about 500m thick hemisphere record relatively higher temperature
with temperatures ranging between 20° and than in the southern hemisphere. The highest
25° C. This layer, within the tropical region, is temperature is not recorded at the equator but
present throughout the year but in mid slightly towards north of it. The average annual
latitudes it develops only during summer. temperatures for the northern and southern
The second layer called the thermocline hemisphere are around 19° C and 16° C
layer lies below the first layer and is characterised respectively. This variation is due to the
by rapid decrease in temperature with increasing unequal distribution of land and water in the
depth. The thermocline is 500 -1,000 m thick. northern and southern hemispheres. Figure
13.4 shows the spatial pattern of surface
temperature of the oceans.
It is a well known fact that the maximum
temperature of the oceans is always at their
surfaces because they directly receive the heat
from the sun and the heat is transmitted to
the lower sections of the oceans through the
process of conduction. It results into decrease
of temperature with the increasing depth, but
the rate of decrease is not uniform throughout.
The temperature falls very rapidly up to the
depth of 200 m and thereafter, the rate of
decrease of temperature is slowed down.
SALINITY OF OCEAN WATERS
All waters in nature, whether rain water or
ocean water, contain dissolved mineral salts.
Salinity is the term used to define the total
content of dissolved salts in sea water
(Table 13.4). It is calculated as the amount of
salt (in gm) dissolved in 1,000 gm (1 kg) of
seawater. It is usually expressed as parts per
thousand (o/oo) or ppt. Salinity is an important
property of sea water. Salinity of 24.7 o/oo has
been considered as the upper limit to
Figure 13.3 : Thermocline demarcate ‘brackish water’.
Factors affecting ocean salinity are
The third layer is very cold and extends mentioned below:
upto the deep ocean floor. In the Arctic and (i) The salinity of water in the surface layer
Antartic circles, the surface water temperatures of oceans depend mainly on evaporation
are close to 0° C and so the temperature change and precipitation.
with the depth is very slight. Here, only one (ii) Surface salinity is greatly influenced in
layer of cold water exists, which extends from coastal regions by the fresh water flow
surface to deep ocean floor. from rivers, and in polar regions by the
The average temperature of surface water processes of freezing and thawing of ice.
of the oceans is about 27°C and it gradually (iii) Wind, also influences salinity of an area
decreases from the equator towards the poles. by transferring water to other areas.
The rate of decrease of temperature with (iv) The ocean currents contribute to the
increasing latitude is generally 0.5°C per salinity variations. Salinity, temperature
latitude. The average temperature is around and density of water are interrelated.
22°C at 20° latitudes, 14° C at 40° latitudes Hence, any change in the temperature or
and 0° C near poles. The oceans in the northern density influences the salinity of an area.
WATER (OCEANS) 117
records higher salinity due to high evaporation. water to ice or evaporation, or decreased by
Salinity is, however, very low in Black Sea due the input of fresh waters, such as from the
to enormous fresh water influx by rivers. See rivers. Salinity at depth is very much fixed,
the atlas to find out the rivers joining Black Sea. because there is no way that water is ‘lost’, or
The average salinity of the Indian Ocean is the salt is ‘added.’ There is a marked difference
o
35 /oo. The low salinity trend is observed in in the salinity between the surface zones and
the Bay of Bengal due to influx of river water the deep zones of the oceans. The lower salinity
by the river Ganga. On the contrary, the water rests above the higher salinity dense
Arabian Sea shows higher salinity due to high water. Salinity, generally, increases with depth
evaporation and low influx of fresh water. Figure and there is a distinct zone called the halocline,
13.5 shows the salinity of the World’s oceans. where salinity increases sharply. Other factors
being constant, increasing salinity of seawater
Vertical Distribution of Salinity causes its density to increase. High salinity
Salinity changes with depth, but the way it seawater, generally, sinks below the lower
changes depends upon the location of the sea. salinity water. This leads to stratification by
Salinity at the surface increases by the loss of salinity.
EXERCISES
Project Work
(i) Consult the atlas and show ocean floor relief on the outline of the world
map.
(ii) Identify the areas of mid oceanic ridges from the Indian Ocean.
CHAPTER
T
he ocean water is dynamic. Its physical wavelength of the wave, the wave breaks. The
characteristics like temperature, largest waves are found in the open oceans.
salinity, density and the external Waves continue to grow larger as they move
forces like of the sun, moon and the winds and absorb energy from the wind.
influence the movement of ocean water. The Most of the waves are caused by the wind
horizontal and vertical motions are common driving against water. When a breeze of two
in ocean water bodies. The horizontal motion knots or less blows over calm water, small
refers to the ocean currents and waves. The ripples form and grow as the wind speed
vertical motion refers to tides. Ocean currents increases until white caps appear in the
are the continuous flow of huge amount of breaking waves. Waves may travel thousands
water in a definite direction while the waves of km before rolling ashore, breaking and
are the horizontal motion of water. Water moves dissolving as surf.
ahead from one place to another through ocean A wave’s size and shape reveal its origin.
currents while the water in the waves does not Steep waves are fairly young ones and are
move, but the wave trains move ahead. The probably formed by local wind. Slow and
vertical motion refers to the rise and fall of water steady waves originate from far away places,
in the oceans and seas. Due to attraction of possibly from another hemisphere. The
the sun and the moon, the ocean water is raised maximum wave height is determined by the
up and falls down twice a day. The upwelling strength of the wind, i.e. how long it blows and
of cold water from subsurface and the sinking the area over which it blows in a single direction.
of surface water are also forms of vertical Waves travel because wind pushes the
motion of ocean water. water body in its course while gravity pulls the
crests of the waves downward. The falling water
WAVES pushes the former troughs upward, and the
Waves are actually the energy, not the water
as such, which moves across the ocean surface.
Water particles only travel in a small circle as a
wave passes. Wind provides energy to the
waves. Wind causes waves to travel in the ocean
and the energy is released on shorelines. The
motion of the surface water seldom affects the
stagnant deep bottom water of the oceans. As
a wave approaches the beach, it slows down.
This is due to the friction occurring between
the dynamic water and the sea floor. And, when
the depth of water is less than half the Figure14.1 : Motion of waves and water molecules
MOVEMENTS OF OCEAN WATER 121
wave moves to a new position (Figure 14.1). attraction of the moon is less as it is farther
The actual motion of the water beneath the away, the centrifugal force causes tidal bulge
waves is circular. It indicates that things are on the other side (Figure 14.2).
carried up and forward as the wave The ‘tide-generating’ force is the difference
approaches, and down and back as it passes. between these two forces; i.e. the gravitational
attraction of the moon and the centrifugal force.
Characteristics of Waves On the surface of the earth, nearest the moon,
Wave crest and trough : The highest and pull or the attractive force of the moon is greater
lowest points of a wave are called the crest than the centrifugal force, and so there is a net
and trough respectively. force causing a bulge towards the moon. On
Wave height : It is the vertical distance the opposite side of the earth, the attractive
from the bottom of a trough to the top of force is less, as it is farther away from the moon,
a crest of a wave. the centrifugal force is dominant. Hence, there
Wave amplitude : It is one-half of the wave is a net force away from the moon. It creates
height. the second bulge away from the moon. On the
Wave period : It is merely the time interval surface of the earth, the horizontal tide
between two successive wave crests or generating forces are more important than the
troughs as they pass a fixed point. vertical forces in generating the tidal bulges.
Wavelength : It is the horizontal distance
between two successive crests.
Wave speed : It is the rate at which the
wave moves through the water, and is
measured in knots.
Wave frequency : It is the number of waves
passing a given point during a one-
second time interval.
TIDES
The periodical rise and fall of the sea level, once
or twice a day, mainly due to the attraction of
the sun and the moon, is called a tide.
Movement of water caused by meteorological
effects (winds and atmospheric pressure
changes) are called surges. Surges are not
regular like tides. The study of tides is very
complex, spatially and temporally, as it has great
variations in frequency, magnitude and height. Figure14.2 : Relation between gravitational
The moon’s gravitational pull to a great forces and tides
extent and to a lesser extent the sun’s
gravitational pull, are the major causes for the The tidal bulges on wide continental
occurrence of tides. Another factor is centrifugal shelves, have greater height. When tidal bulges
force, which is the force that acts to counter hit the mid-oceanic islands they become low.
the balance the gravity. Together, the The shape of bays and estuaries along a
gravitational pull and the centrifugal force are coastline can also magnify the intensity of tides.
responsible for creating the two major tidal Funnel-shaped bays greatly change tidal
bulges on the earth. On the side of the earth magnitudes. When the tide is channelled
facing the moon, a tidal bulge occurs while on between islands or into bays and estuaries
the opposite side though the gravitational they are called tidal currents.
122 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
desilting the sediments and in removing Differences in water density affect vertical
polluted water from river estuaries. Tides are mobility of ocean currents. Water with high
used to generate electrical power (in Canada, salinity is denser than water with low salinity
France, Russia, and China). A 3 MW tidal and in the same way cold water is denser than
power project at Durgaduani in Sunderbans warm water. Denser water tends to sink, while
of West Bengal is under way. relatively lighter water tends to rise. Cold-water
ocean currents occur when the cold water at
OCEAN CURRENTS the poles sinks and slowly moves towards the
equator. Warm-water currents travel out from
Ocean currents are like river flow in oceans. the equator along the surface, flowing towards
They represent a regular volume of water in a the poles to replace the sinking cold water.
definite path and direction. Ocean currents are
influenced by two types of forces namely :
(i) primary forces that initiate the movement of Types of Ocean Currents
water; (ii) secondary forces that influence the The ocean currents may be classified based on
currents to flow. their depth as surface currents and deep water
The primary forces that influence the currents : (i) surface currents constitute about
currents are: (i) heating by solar energy; 10 per cent of all the water in the ocean, these
(ii) wind; (iii) gravity; (iv) coriolis force. Heating waters are the upper 400 m of the ocean;
by solar energy causes the water to expand. (ii) deep water currents make up the other 90
That is why, near the equator the ocean water per cent of the ocean water. These waters move
is about 8 cm higher in level than in the middle around the ocean basins due to variations in
latitudes. This causes a very slight gradient the density and gravity. Deep waters sink into
and water tends to flow down the slope. Wind the deep ocean basins at high latitudes, where
blowing on the surface of the ocean pushes the the temperatures are cold enough to cause the
water to move. Friction between the wind and density to increase.
the water surface affects the movement of the Ocean currents can also be classified
water body in its course. Gravity tends to pull based on temperature : as cold currents and
the water down to pile and create gradient warm currents: (i) cold currents bring cold
variation. The Coriolis force intervenes and water into warm water areas. These currents
causes the water to move to the right in the are usually found on the west coast of the
northern hemisphere and to the left in the continents in the low and middle latitudes
southern hemisphere. These large accumulations (true in both hemispheres) and on the east
of water and the flow around them are called coast in the higher latitudes in the Northern
Gyres. These produce large circular currents Hemisphere; (ii) warm currents bring warm
in all the ocean basins. water into cold water areas and are usually
observed on the east coast of continents in the
Characteristics of Ocean Currents low and middle latitudes (true in both
hemispheres). In the northern hemisphere
Currents are referred to by their “drift”. they are found on the west coasts of continents
Usually, the currents are strongest near in high latitudes.
the surface and may attain speeds over
five knots. At depths, currents are Major Ocean Currents
generally slow with speeds less than 0.5
knots. We refer to the speed of a current Major ocean currents are greatly influenced by
as its “drift.” Drift is measured in terms the stresses exerted by the prevailing winds and
of knots. The strength of a current refers coriolis force. The oceanic circulation pattern
to the speed of the current. A fast current
roughly corresponds to the earth’s atmospheric
is considered strong. A current is usually
circulation pattern. The air circulation over the
strongest at the surface and decreases
oceans in the middle latitudes is mainly
anticyclonic (more pronounced in the southern
in strength (speed) with depth. Most
hemisphere than in the northern hemisphere).
currents have speeds less than or equal
The oceanic circulation pattern also
to 5 knots.
corresponds with the same. At higher latitudes,
124 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
where the wind flow is mostly cyclonic, the Effects of Ocean Currents
oceanic circulation follows this pattern. In
Ocean currents have a number of direct and
regions of pronounced monsoonal flow, the
indirect influences on human activities. West
monsoon winds influence the current
coasts of the continents in tropical and
movements. Due to the coriolis force, the warm
subtropical latitudes (except close to the
currents from low latitudes tend to move to the
equator) are bordered by cool waters. Their
right in the northern hemisphere and to their
average temperatures are relatively low with a
left in the southern hemisphere.
narrow diurnal and annual ranges. There is
The oceanic circulation transports heat
fog, but generally the areas are arid. West coasts
from one latitude belt to another in a manner
of the continents in the middle and higher
similar to the heat transported by the general
latitudes are bordered by warm waters which
circulation of the atmosphere. The cold waters
cause a distinct marine climate. They are
of the Arctic and Antarctic circles move towards
characterised by cool summers and relatively
warmer water in tropical and equatorial
mild winters with a narrow annual range of
regions, while the warm waters of the lower
temperatures. Warm currents flow parallel to
latitudes move polewards. The major currents
the east coasts of the continents in tropical and
in the different oceans are shown in Figure14.3.
subtropical latitudes. This results in warm and
rainy climates. These areas lie in the western
Prepare a list of currents which are margins of the subtropical anti-cyclones. The
found in Pacific, Atlantic and Indian
mixing of warm and cold currents help to
Oceans.
replenish the oxygen and favour the growth of
How is the movement of currents is
planktons, the primary food for fish population.
influenced by prevailing winds? Give
The best fishing grounds of the world exist
some examples from Figure14.3.
mainly in these mixing zones.
MOVEMENTS OF OCEAN WATER 125
EXERCISES
Project Work
(i) Visit a lake or a pond and observe the movement of waves. Throw a stone
and notice how waves are generated. Draw the diagram of a wave and
measure its length, distance and amplitude and record them in your note.
(ii) Take a globe and a map showing the currents of the oceans. Discuss why
certain currents are warm or cold and why they deflect in certain places
and examine the reasons.
UNIT
VI
B
y now you might have realised that all E COLOGY
units of this book have acquainted you
You have been reading about ecological and
with the three major realms of the
environmental problems in newspapers and
environment, that is, the lithosphere, the
magazines. Have you ever thought what
atmosphere and the hydrosphere. You know
ecology is? The environment as you know, is
that living organisms of the earth, constituting
made up of abiotic and biotic components. It
the biosphere, interact with other environmental
would be interesting to understand how the
realms. The biosphere includes all the living
diversity of life-forms is maintained to bring a
components of the earth. It consists of all plants
kind of balance. This balance is maintained in
and animals, including all the micro-
a particular proportion so that a healthy
interaction between the biotic and the abiotic
Life on the earth is found almost components goes on.
everywhere. Living organisms are found The interactions of a particular group of
from the poles to the equator, from the organisms with abiotic factors within a
bottom of the sea to several km in the particular habitat resulting in clearly defined
air, from freezing waters to dry valleys, energy flows and material cycles on land, water
from under the sea to underground water
and air, are called ecological systems.
lying below the earth’s surface.
A habitat in the ecological sense is the totality ecosystem includes lakes, ponds, streams,
of the physical and chemical factors that marshes and bogs.
constitute the general environment. A system
Structure and Functions of Ecosystems
consisting of biotic and abiotic components is
known as ecosystem. All these components in The structure of an ecosystem involves a
ecosystem are inter related and interact with description of the available plant and animal
each other. Different types of ecosystems exist species. From a structural point of view, all
with varying ranges of environmental ecosystems consist of abiotic and biotic factors.
conditions where various plants and animal Abiotic factors include rainfall, temperature,
species have got adapted through evolution. sunlight, atmospheric humidity, soil
This phenomenon is known as ecological conditions, inorganic substances (carbon
adaptation. dioxide, water, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus,
potassium, etc.). Biotic factors include the
Types of Ecosystems
producers, (primary, secondary, tertiary) the
Ecosystems are of two major types: terrestrial consumers and the decomposers. The
and aquatic. Terrestrial ecosystem can be producers include all the green plants, which
further be classified into ‘biomes’. A biome is a manufacture their own food through
plant and animal community that covers a photosynthesis. The primary consumers
large geographical area. The boundaries of include herbivorous animals like deer, goats,
different biomes on land are determined mainly mice and all plant-eating animals. The
by climate. Therefore, a biome can be defined carnivores include all the flesh-eating animals
as the total assemblage of plant and animal like snakes, tigers and lions. Certain carnivores
species interacting within specific conditions. that feed also on carnivores are known as top
These include rainfall, temperature, humidity carnivores like hawks and mongooses.
and soil conditions. Some of the major biomes Decomposers are those that feed on dead
of the world are: forest, grassland, desert and organisms (for example, scavengers like
tundra biomes. Aquatic ecosystems can be vultures and crows), and further breaking
classed as marine and freshwater ecosystems. down of the dead matter by other decomposing
Marine ecosystem includes the oceans, coastal agents like bacteria and various micro-
estuaries and coral reefs. Freshwater organisms.
The producers are consumed by the aquatic and altitudinal biomes. Some features
primary consumers whereas the primary of these biomes are given in Table 15.1.
consumers are, in turn, being eaten by the
secondary consumers. Further, the secondary Biogeochemical Cycles
consumers are consumed by the tertiary The sun is the basic source of energy on which
consumers. The decomposers feed on the dead all life depends. This energy initiates life
at each and every level. They change them into processes in the biosphere through
various substances such as nutrients, organic photosynthesis, the main source of food and
and inorganic salts essential for soil fertility. energy for green plants. During photosynthesis,
Organisms of an ecosystem are linked together carbon dioxide is converted into organic
through a foodchain (Figure 15.1). For compounds and oxygen. Out of the total solar
example, a plant eating beetle feeding on a insolation that reaches the earth’s surface, only
paddy stalk is eaten by a frog, which is, in turn, a very small fraction (0.1 per cent) is fixed in
eaten by a snake, which is then consumed by photosynthesis. More than half is used for plant
a hawk. This sequence of eating and being respiration and the remaining part is
eaten and the resultant transfer of energy from temporarily stored or is shifted to other
one level to another is known as the food-chain. portions of the plant.
Transfer of energy that occurs during the Life on earth consists of a great variety of
process of a foodchain from one level to living organisms. These living organisms exist
another is known as flow of energy. However, and survive in a diversity of associations. Such
food-chains are not isolated from one another. survival involves the presence of systemic flows
For example, a mouse feeding on grain may such as flows of energy, water and nutrients.
be eaten by different secondary consumers These flows show variations in different parts
(carnivores) and these carnivores may be eaten of the world, in different seasons of the year
by other different tertiary consumers (top and under varying local circumstances. Studies
carnivores). In such situations, each of the have shown that for the last one billion years,
carnivores may consume more than one type the atmosphere and hydrosphere have been
of prey. As a result, the food- chains get composed of approximately the same balance
interlocked with one another. This inter- of chemical components. This balance of the
connecting network of species is known as food chemical elements is maintained by a cyclic
web. Generally, two types of food-chains are passage through the tissues of plants and
recognised: grazing food-chain and detritus animals. The cycle starts by absorbing the
food-chain. In a grazing food-chain, the first chemical elements by the organism and is
level starts with plants as producers and ends returned to the air, water and soil through
with carnivores as consumers as the last level, decomposition. These cycles are largely
with the herbivores being at the intermediate energised by solar insolation. These cyclic
level. There is a loss of energy at each level movements of chemical elements of the
which may be through respiration, excretion biosphere between the organism and the
or decomposition. The levels involved in a food- environment are referred to as biogeochemical
chain range between three to five and energy cycles. Bio refers to living organisms and geo
is lost at each level. A detritus food-chain is to rocks, soil, air and water of the earth.
based on autotrophs energy capture initiated There are two types of biogeochemical
by grazing animals and involves the cycles : the gaseous and the sedimentary cycle.
decomposition or breaking down of organic In the gaseous cycle, the main reservoir of
wastes and dead matter derived from the nutrients is the atmosphere and the ocean. In
grazing food-chain. the sedimentary cycle, the main reservoir is the
soil and the sedimentary and other rocks of
Types of Biomes the earth’s crust.
In the earlier paragraphs, you have learnt the The Water Cycle
meaning of the term ‘biome’. Let us now try to
identify the major biomes of the world. There All living organisms, the atmosphere and the
are five major biomes — forest, desert, grassland, lithosphere maintain between them a
130 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Desert A. Hot and Dry A. S a h a r a , A. Temp. 20 - 45°C. Rich in A-C. Scanty vege-
desert Kalahari, B. 21 - 38°C. nutrients with tation; few large
B. Semi arid Marusthali, C. 15 - 35°C. little or no mammals,
desert Rub-el-Khali D. 2 - 25°C organic matter insects, reptiles
C. Coastal B. Marginal areas A-D Rainfall is less than and birds
desert of hot deserts 50 mm D. Rabbits, rats,
D. Cold desert C. Atacama antelopes
D. Tundra climatic and ground
regions squirrels
Grassland A. Tropical A. Large areas A. Warm hot A. Porous with A. Grasses; trees
Savannah of A f r i c a , climates, Rainfall thin layer of and large shrubs
B. Temperate Australia, 500-1,250 mm humus. absent; giraffes
Steppe South B. Hot summers and B. Thin floccu- zebras, buffalos,
America and cold winter. lated soil, leopards, hyenas,
India Rainfall 500 - rich in bases elephants, mice,
B. P a r t s of 900 mm moles, snakes
Eurasia and and worms etc.,
North America are common
animals
B. Grasses; occ-
asional trees
such as cotton-
woods, oaks and
willows; gazelles,
zebras, rhin-
LIFE ON THE EARTH 131
oceros, wild
horses, lions,
varieties of birds,
worms, snakes
etc., are common
animals
Aquatic A. Freshwater A. Lakes, streams, A-B Temperatures vary A. Water, swamps Algal and other aquatic
B. Marine rivers and widely with cooler air and marshes and marine plant
wetlands temperatures and communities with
B. Oceans, coral high humidity B.Water, tidal varieties of water
reefs, lagoons swamps and dwelling animals
and estuaries marshes
Altitudinal ——— Slopes of high Temperature and Regolith over Deciduous to tundra
mountain ranges precipitation vary slopes vegetation varying
like the Himalayas, depending upon according to altitude
the Andes and the latitudinal zone
Rockies
circulation of water in solid, liquid or gaseous dioxide and are returned to the atmosphere
form referred to as the water or hydrologic cycle (Figure 15.2).
(Chapter 13 of this book).
change in the species distribution. This change the ecosystem. This has destroyed its originality
is due to competition where the secondary and has caused adverse effects to the general
forest species such as grasses, bamboos or environment. Ecological imbalances have
pines overtakes the native species changing brought many natural calamities like
the original forest structure. This is called floods, landslides, diseases, erratic climatic
succession. occurrences, etc.
Ecological balance may be disturbed due There is a very close relationship between
to the introduction of new species, natural the plant and animal communities within
hazards or human causes. Human interference particular habitats. Diversity of life in a
has affected the balance of plant communities particular area can be employed as an
leading to disturbances in the ecosystems. indicator of the habitat factor. Proper
Such disturbances bring about numerous knowledge and understanding of such factors
secondary successions. Human pressure on provide a strong base for protecting and
the earth’s resources has put a heavy toll on conserving the ecosystems.
EXERCISES
Project Work
(i) Show the distribution of the different biomes on the outline map of the
world with a note highlighting the important characteristics of each biome.
(ii) Make a note of trees, shrubs and perennial plants in your school campus
and devote half a day to observe the types of birds which come to the
garden. Can you describe the diversity of birds?
CHAPTER
Y
ou have already learnt about the the earth are today extinct. Biodiversity is not
geomorphic processes particularly found evenly on the earth. It is consistently
weathering and depth of weathering richer in the tropics. As one approaches the
mantle in different climatic zones. See the polar regions, one finds larger and larger
Figure 6.2 in Chapter 6 in order to recapitulate. populations of fewer and fewer species.
You should know that this weathering mantle Biodiversity itself is a combination of two
is the basis for the diversity of vegetation and words, Bio (life) and diversity (variety). In
hence, the biodiversity. The basic cause for simple terms, biodiversity is the number and
such weathering variations and resultant variety of organisms found within a specified
biodiversity is the input of solar energy and geographic region. It refers to the varieties of
water. No wonder that the areas that are rich plants, animals and micro-organisms, the
in these inputs are the areas of wide spectrum genes they contain and the ecosystems they
of biodiversity. form. It relates to the variability among living
organisms on the earth, including the
Biodiversity as we have today is the result variability within and between the species and
of 2.5-3.5 billion years of evolution. Before that within and between the ecosystems.
the advent of humans, our earth Biodiversity is our living wealth. It is a result
supported more biodiversity than in any
of hundreds of millions of years of evolutionary
other period. Since, the emergence of
history.
humans, however, biodiversity has begun
a rapid decline, with one species after Biodiversity can be discussed at three
another bearing the brunt of extinction levels : (i) Genetic diversity; (ii) Species diversity;
due to overuse. The number of species (iii) Ecosystem diversity.
globally vary from 2 million to 100 million,
with 10 million being the best estimate. Genetic Diversity
New species are regularly discovered
most of which are yet to be classified (an Genes are the basic building blocks of various
estimate states that about 40 per cent of life forms. Genetic biodiversity refers to the
fresh water fishes from South America variation of genes within species. Groups of
are not classified yet). Tropical forests are individual organisms having certain
very rich in bio-diversity. similarities in their physical characteristics are
called species. Human beings genetically
Biodiversity is a system in constant belong to the homo sapiens group and also
evolution, from a view point of species, as well differ in their characteristics such as height,
as from view point of an individual organism. colour, physical appearance, etc., considerably.
The average half-life of a species is estimated This is due to genetic diversity. This genetic
at between one and four million years, and 99 diversity is essential for a healthy breeding of
per cent of the species that have ever lived on population of species.
136 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
ecosystems of which we are also a species. This The International Union of Conservation of
fact must be drawn upon every one of us so Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) has
that we live and let other species also live their classified the threatened species of plants and
lives. animals into three categories for the purpose
It is our ethical responsibility to consider of their conservation.
that each and every species along with us have
an intrinsic right to exist. Hence, it is morally Endangered Species
wrong to voluntarily cause the extinction of any
It includes those species which are in danger
species. The level of biodiversity is a good
of extinction. The IUCN publishes information
indicator of the state of our relationships with
about endangered species world-wide as the
other living species. In fact, the concept of
Red List of threatened species.
biodiversity is an integral part of many human
cultures.
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
Since the last few decades, growth in human
population has increased the rate of
consumption of natural resources. It has
accelerated the loss of species and habitation
in different parts of the world. Tropical regions
which occupy only about one-fourth of the
total area of the world, contain about three-
fourth of the world human population. Over-
exploitation of resources and deforestation
have become rampant to fulfil the needs of large
population. As these tropical rain forests
contain 50 per cent of the species on the earth, Figure 16.2 : Red Panda — an endangered species
destruction of natural habitats have proved
disastrous for the entire biosphere.
Natural calamities such as earthquakes,
floods, volcanic eruptions, forest fires,
droughts, etc. cause damage to the flora and
fauna of the earth, bringing change the
biodiversity of respective affected regions.
Pesticides and other pollutants such as
hydrocarbons and toxic heavy metals destroy
the weak and sensitive species. Species which
are not the natural inhabitants of the local
habitat but are introduced into the system, are
called exotic species. There are many
examples when a natural biotic community of Figure 16.3 : Zenkeria Sebastinei — a critically
endangered grass in Agasthiyamalai peak (India)
the ecosystem suffered extensive damage
because of the introduction of exotic species.
Vulnerable Species
During the last few decades, some animals like
tigers, elephants, rhinoceros, crocodiles, minks This includes the species which are likely to
and birds were hunted mercilessly by poachers be in danger of extinction in near future if the
for their horn, tusks, hides, etc. It has resulted factors threatening to their extinction continue.
in the rendering of certain types of organisms Survival of these species is not assured as their
as endangered category. population has reduced greatly.
138 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
different types of pressures. The islands of that are threatened by introduced species and
Hawaii have many unique plants and animals land development.
EXERCISES
Project Work
Collect the names of national parks, sanctuaries and biosphere reserves of the
state where your school is located and show their location on the map of India.
You have already studied ‘Geography as a
Unit-I Discipline’ in Chapter I of the book,
Chapter-1 Fundamentals of Physical Geography (NCERT,
2006). Do you recall the contents? This chapter
has broadly covered and introduced you to the
nature of geography. You are also acquainted
with the important branches that sprout from
the body of geography. If you re-read the
chapter you will be able to recall the link of
human geography with the mother discipline
i.e. geography. As you know geography as a
field of study is integrative, empirical, and
practical. Thus, the reach of geography is
extensive and each and every event or
phenomenon which varies over space and time
can be studied geographically. How do you see
Human Geography the earth’s surface? Do you realise that the earth
comprises two major components: nature
Nature and Scope (physical environment) and life forms including
human beings? Make a list of physical and
human components of your surroundings.
Physical geography studies physical
environment and human geography studies
“the relationship between the physical/natural
and the human worlds, the spatial distributions
of human phenomena and how they come
about, the social and economic differences
between different parts of the world”.1
You are already aware of the fact that the
core concern of geography as a discipline is to
understand the earth as home of human beings
and to study all those elements which have
sustained them. Thus, emphasis is on study of
nature and human beings. You will realise that
geography got subjected to dualism and the
wide-ranging debates started whether
geography as a discipline should be a law
making/theorising (nomothetic) or
descriptive (idiographic). Whether its subject
matter should be organised and approach of
the study should be regional or systematic?
Whether geographical phenomena be
interpreted theoretically or through historic-
institutional approach? These have been issues
for intellectual exercise but finally you will
appreciate that the dichotomy between physical
and human is not a very valid one because
nature and human are inseparable elements
and should be seen holistically. It is interesting
to note that both physical and human
1
Agnew J. Livingstone, David N. and Rogers, A.; (1996) Blackwell
Publishing Limited, Malden, U.S.A. p. 1 and 2.
phenomena are described in metaphors using have already studied the elements of physical
symbols from the human anatomy. environment in class XI in the book entitled
We often talk of the ‘face’ of the earth, ‘eye’ Fundamentals of Physical Geography (NCERT
of the storm, ‘mouth’ of the river, ‘snout’ (nose) 2006). You know that these elements are
of the glacier, ‘neck’ of the isthmus and ‘profile’ landforms, soils, climate, water, natural vegetation
of the soil. Similarly regions, villages, towns and diverse flora and fauna. Can you make a list
have been described as ‘organisms’. German of elements which human beings have created
through their activities on the stage provided by
geographers describe the ‘state/country’ as a
the physical environment? Houses, villages, cities,
‘living organism’. Networks of road, railways
road-rail networks, industries, farms, ports, items
and water ways have often been described as
of our daily use and all other elements of material
“arteries of circulation”. Can you collect such culture have been created by human beings
terms and expressions from your own using the resources provided by the physical
language? The basic questions now arises, can environment. While physical environment has
we separate nature and human when they are been greatly modified by human beings, it has
so intricately intertwined? also, in turn, impacted human lives.
Colonial period Exploration and Imperial and trade interests prompted the discovery and
description exploration of new areas. An encyclopaedic description of
the area formed an important aspect of the geographer’s
account.
Colonial period Regional analysis Elaborate description of all aspects of a region were
undertaken. The idea was that all the regions were part of
a whole, ie (the earth); so, understanding the parts in
totality would lead to an understanding of the whole.
1930s through the Areal differentiation The focus was on identifying the uniqueness of any region
inter-War period and understanding how and why it was different from
others.
Late 1950s to the Spatial organisation Marked by the use of computers and sophisticated
late 1960s statistical tools. Laws of physics were often applied to
map and analyse human phenomena. This phase was
called the quantitative revolution. The main objective was
to identify mappable patterns for different human
activities.
interface with other sister disciplines in social expanding realm of human geography. The
sciences in order to understand and explain boundaries between sub-fields often overlap.
human elements on the surface of the earth. What follows in this book in the form of
With the expansion of knowledge, new sub- chapters will provide you a fairly widespread
fields emerge and it has also happened to coverage of different aspects of human
human geography. Let us examine these fields geography. The exercises, the activities and the
and sub-fields of Human Geography (Table 1.2). case studies will provide you with some
You would have noticed that the list is empirical instances so as to have a batter
large and comprehensive. It reflects the understanding of its subject matter.
EXERCISES
1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) Which one of the following statements does not describe geography?
(a) an integrative discipline
(b) study of the inter-relationship between humans and environment
PATTERNS OF POPULATION
DISTRIBUTION IN THE WORLD
Patterns of population distribution and density
help us to understand the demographic
characteristics of any area. The term population
distribution refers to the way people are spaced
over the earth’s surface. Broadly, 90 per cent of
the world population lives in about 10 per cent
of its land area.
The 10 most populous countries of the
world contribute about 60 per cent of the world’s
population. Of these 10 countries, 6 are located
in Asia. Identify these six countries of Asia.
130
120
Not gold but only (Wo)men can make 110
Population (in crore)
100
a people great and strong. 90
80
(Wo)men who for truth and
127.76
70
honour’s sake, stand fast and suffer 60
102.7
50
long (Wo)men who toil while others 40
30
sleep – who dare while others flee – 20
28.14
ia 21.21
il 17.01
15.65
14.69
10
an 12.69
12.92
11.15
ia
eria
A
CIS
az
Ind
US
Jap
kis
lad
Nig
Ch
on
Br
Pa
ng
Ind
Ba
Migration to cities are traditionally age and sex selective i.e. more men of working age groups move to cities.
Can you think of some reason why 22 per cent of migrants to Mumbai are kids?
of origin for reasons like better job opportunities grew very slowly. It is only during the last few
and living conditions, peace and stability, hundred years that population has increased
security of life and property and pleasant climate. at an alarming rate.
Fig. 2.3 tells the story of population
TRENDS IN POPULATION GROWTH growth. After the evolution and introduction
The population on the earth is more than six of agriculture about 8,000 to 12,000 years
billion. It has grown to this size over centuries. ago, the size of population was small – roughly
In the early periods population of the world 8 million. In the first century A.D. it was below
World Number of years for world
population population to increase
in billions by 1 billion
Technological revolutions 6 billion 1999 (12 years)
1650 to present 5 billion 1987
(12 years)
4 billion 1975
Information and computers (15 years)
3 billion 1960
Biotechnology (30 years)
2 billion 1930
Sanitation and Medical
Transportation
Industrial
(100 years)
Development and
spread of agriculture Age of European exploration,
colonisation and settlement
(0.25 billion)
(0.5 billion)
1 billion 1830
12000 years Birth of 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
before Christ Present
present
Time
300 million. The expanding world trade during it took only 12 years for it to rise from 5 billion
the sixteenth and seventeenth century, set the to 6 billion. See the Table 2.1 carefully which
stage for rapid population growth. Around shows that doubling time of world population
1750, at the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, is reducing fast.
the world population was 550 million. World There is a great variation among regions
population exploded in the eighteenth century in doubling their population. Table 2.2 shows
after the Industrial Revolution. Technological that developed countries are taking more time
advancement achieved so far helped in the
to double their population as compared to
reduction of birth rate and provided a stage for
developing countries. Most of the population
accelerated population growth.
growth is taking place in the developing world,
where population is exploding. Why is this so?
How Science and Technology
helped Population Growth? Table 2.2: Population Growth Rates (%) 1995-2000
• Even if the growth rate continues to decline, these the depletion of resources is the most
the total population grows each year. The serious. Population decline is also a matter of
infant mortality rate may have increased concern. It indicates that resources that had
as has the death rate during childbirth. supported a population earlier are now
insufficient to maintain the population.
Table 2.3: Growth of Population 2004-05 over 1990-95 The deadly HIV/AIDS epidemics in Africa and
some parts of the Commonwealth of Independent
Growth Rate States (CIS) and Asia have pushed up death rates
Region 1990-95 2004-05 and reduced average life expectancy. This has
(Estimated) slowed down population growth.
World 1.6 1.4
Africa 2.4 2.6
Europe 0.2 0.0 The Doubling Story... It will
North & Central America 1.4 1.1 take 36 years
South America 1.7 1.4
Asia 1.6 1.4 The annual population growth rate in India
Oceania 1.5 1.3 is 1.9 per cent. At this rate India’s population
(Australia, New Zealand and Fiji) of over 1 billion will double in 36 years.
Some developed countries will take 318
years to double their population whereas
IMPACT OF POPULATION CHANGE some countries still do not show symptoms
A small increase in population is desirable in a of doubling their population.
growing economy. However, population growth
beyond a certain level leads to problems. Of
Map Skill
On the outline map of the world, show and name the following.
(i) Countries of Europe and Asia with negative growth rate of population.
(ii) African countries with growth rate of population more than three per
cent. (You may refer to Appendix 1).
Project/Activity
(i) Has someone in your family migrated? Write about her/his place of
destination. What made her/him migrate?
(ii) Write a brief report on the distribution and density of population in
your state.
SEX COMPOSITION
The number of women and men in a country is
an important demographic characteristic. The
ratio between the number of women and men in
the population is called the Sex Ratio. In some
countries it is calculated by using the formula:
Male Population
× 1000
Population
Female Population
or the number of males per thousand
Composition females.
60-64
55-59 MALE FEMALE
The age-sex structure of a population refers 50-54
45-49
to the number of females and males in 40-44
35-39
different age groups. A population pyramid 30-34
is used to show the age-sex structure of the 25-29
20-24
population. 15-19
10-14
The shape of the population pyramid 5-9
0-4
reflects the characteristics of the population. 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
The left side shows the percentage of males while Per cent
Data source: Demographic Year Book, 2003, United Nations Statistics Division.
the right side shows the percentage of women
in each age group. Fig. 3.2: Constant Population
65-69
60-64
European countries like Finland are just the
55-59
MALE FEMALE
opposite of those in African and Asian countries
50-54
45-49 like Zimbabwe and Nepal respectively. In
40-44
35-39 Western countries, males outnumber females
30-34
25-29 in rural areas and females outnumber the males
20-24
15-19
in urban areas. In countries like Nepal, Pakistan
10-14
5-9
and India the case is reverse. The excess of
0-4 females in urban areas of U.S.A., Canada and
10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Per cent Europe is the result of influx of females from
Data source: Demographic Year Book, 2003, United Nations Statistics Division. rural areas to avail of the vast job opportunities.
Excluding diplomatic personnel outside the country and foreign military and Farming in these developed countries is also
civilian personnel and their dependants stationed in the area
highly mechanised and remains largely a male
Fig. 3.3: Declining Population occupation. By contrast the sex ratio in Asian
urban areas remains male dominated due to
the predominance of male migration. It is also
worth noting that in countries like India, female
Draw a population pyramid of the children in your school participation in farming activity in rural area is
and describe its characteristics. fairly high. Shortage of housing, high cost of
living, paucity of job opportunities and lack of
security in cities, discourage women to migrate
Ageing Population from rural to urban areas.
Population ageing is the process by which
the share of the older population becomes Literacy
proportionally larger. This is a new Proportion of literate population of a country
phenomenon of the twentieth century. In most
of the developed countries of the world, in an indicator of its socio-economic
population in higher age groups has increased development as it reveals the standard of living,
due to increased life expectancy. With a social status of females, availability of
reduction in birth rates, the proportion of educational facilities and policies of
children in the population has declined. government. Level of economic development is
both a cause and consequence of literacy. In
India – literacy rate denotes the percentage of
RURAL URBAN COMPOSITION population above 7 years of age, who is able to
read, write and have the ability to do arithmetic
The division of population into rural and urban
calculations with understanding.
is based on the residence. This division is
necessary because rural and urban life styles
differ from each other in terms of their livelihood
Occupational Structure
and social conditions. The age-sex-occupational The working population (i.e. women and men
structure, density of population and level of of the age group – 15 to 59) take part in various
development vary between rural and urban areas. occupations ranging from agriculture, forestry,
Population Composition 19
1200
1129 Rural
1083 1063
1040 1051 Urban
986 1007 1012
1000
941 935 908 939
Females per 1000 Males
800
600
400
200
0
Finland Canada New Zealand Brazil Zimbabwe Nepal
EXERCISES
1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) Which one of the following has caused the sex ratio of the United Arab
Emirates to be low?
(a) Selective migration of male working population
(b) High birth rate of males
(c) Low birth rate of females
(d) High out migration of females
Project/Activity
Construct an age-sex pyramid for your district/state.
Population Composition 21
Unit-II The words ‘growth’ and ‘development’ are not
new to you. Look around you, almost everything
Chapter-4 that you can see (and many that you cannot)
grows and develops. These may be plants, cities,
ideas, nations, relationships or even you
yourself! What does this mean?
Do you know that cities can also grow negatively? Look at the photographs of this tsunami
affected city. Are natural disasters the only reasons for negative growth in a city’s size?
economic growth. This meant that the bigger The concept of human development was
the economy of the country, the more developed introduced by Dr Mahbub-ul-Haq. Dr Haq has
it was considered, even though this growth did described human development as development
not really mean much change in the lives of most that enlarges people’s choices and improves
people. their lives. People are central to all development
The idea that the quality of life people enjoy under this concept. These choices are not fixed
in a country, the opportunities they have and but keep on changing. The basic goal of
freedoms they enjoy, are important aspects of development is to create conditions where
development, is not new. people can live meaningful lives.
These ideas were clearly spelt out for the A meaningful life is not just a long one. It
first time in the late eighties and early nineties. must be a life with some purpose. This means
The works of two South Asian economists, that people must be healthy, be able to develop
Mahbub-ul-Haq and Amartya Sen are their talents, participate in society and be free
important in this regard. to achieve their goals.
Dr Mahbub-ul-Haq and Prof Amartya Sen were close friends and have worked together under the leadership of Dr
Haq to bring out the initial Human Development Reports. Both these South Asian economists have been able to
provide an alternative view of development.
A man of vision and compassion, Pakistani economist Dr Mahbub-ul-Haq created the Human Development
Index in 1990. According to him, development is all about enlarging people’s choices in order to lead long,
healthy lives with dignity. The United Nations Development Programme has used his concept of human development
to publish the Human Development Report annually since 1990.
Dr Haq’s flexibility of mind and ability to think out of the box can be illustrated from one of his speeches where
he quoted Shaw saying, “‘You see things that are, and ask why? I dream of things that never were, and ask why
not?’
Nobel Laureate Prof Amartya Sen saw an increase in freedom (or decrease in unfreedom) as the main objective
of development. Interestingly, increasing freedoms is also one of the most effective ways of bringing about
development. His work explores the role of social and political institutions and processes in increasing freedom.
The works of these economists are path breaking and have succeeded in bringing people to the centre of any
discussion on development.
Human Development 23
What is a Meaningful Life?
Who do you think leads more meaningful life? What makes one of these more meaningful than the other?
Human Development 25
APPROACHES TO HUMAN write and the number of children enrolled in
DEVELOPMENT schools show how easy or difficult it is to access
knowledge in a particular country.
There are many ways of looking at the problem
Access to resources is measured in terms
of human development. Some of the important
of purchasing power (in U.S. dollars).
approaches are: (a) The income approach; (b) The
Each of these dimensions is given a
welfare approach; (c) Minimum needs approach;
weightage of 1/3. The human development
and (d) Capabilities approach (Table 4.1).
index is a sum total of the weights assigned to
all these dimensions.
MEASURING HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
The closer a score is to one, the greater is
The human development index (HDI) ranks the the level of human development. Therefore, a
countries based on their performance in the key score of 0.983 would be considered very high
areas of health, education and access to while 0.268 would mean a very low level of
resources. These rankings are based on a score human development.
between 0 to 1 that a country earns from its The human development index measures
record in the key areas of human development. attainments in human development. It reflects
The indicator chosen to assess health is what has been achieved in the key areas of
the life expectancy at birth. A higher life human development. Yet it is not the most
expectancy means that people have a greater reliable measure. This is because it does not
chance of living longer and healthier lives. say anything about the distribution.
The adult literacy rate and the gross The human poverty index is related to the
enrolment ratio represent access to knowledge. human development index. This index
The number of adults who are able to read and measures the shortfall in human development.
(c) Basic Needs Approach This approach was initially proposed by the
International Labour Organisation (ILO). Six basic
needs i.e.: health, education, food, water supply,
sanitation, and housing were identified. The question
of human choices is ignored and the emphasis is on
the provision of basic needs of defined sections.
(d) Capability Approach This approach is associated with Prof. Amartya Sen.
Building human capabilities in the areas of health,
education and access to resources is the key to
increasing human development.
INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS
Since 1990, the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) has been International comparisons of human
publishing the Human Development Report development are interesting. Size of the territory
every year. This report provides a rank-wise and per capita income are not directly related
list of all member countries according to the to human development. Often smaller countries
level of human development. The Human have done better than larger ones in human
Development index and the Human Poverty development. Similarly, relatively poorer
index are two important indices to measure nations have been ranked higher than richer
human development used by the UNDP. neighbours in terms of human development.
For example, Sri Lanka, Trinidad and
Tobago have a higher rank than India in the
It is a non-income measure. The probability of human development index despite having
not surviving till the age of 40, the adult illiteracy smaller economies. Similarly, within India,
rate, the number of people who do not have Kerala performs much better than Punjab and
access to clean water, and the number of small Gujarat in human development despite having
children who are underweight are all taken into lower per capita income.
account to show the shortfall in human Countries can be classified into three
development in any region. Often the human groups on the basis of the human development
poverty index is more revealing than the human scores earned by them (Table 4.2).
development index.
Table 4.2: Human Development: Categories, Criteria
Looking at both these measures of human
and Countries
development together gives an accurate picture
of the human development situation in a Level of Human Score in Number of
Development Development Countries
country.
Index
The ways to measure human development
are constantly being refined and newer ways of High above 0.8 57
capturing different elements of human Medium between 0.5 up to 88
development are being researched. Researchers 0.799
have found links between the level of corruption Low below 0.5 32
or political freedom in a particular region. There Source: Human Development Report, 2005
is also a discussion regarding a political
freedom index and, a listing of the most corrupt Countries with High Index Value
countries. Can you think of other links to the Countries with high human development index
level of human development? are those which have a score of over 0.8.
Human Development 27
According to the Human Development Report You will notice that many of these countries
of 2005, this group includes 57 countries. Table have been the former imperial powers. The degree
4.3 shows the countries in this group. of social diversity in these countries is not very
high. Many of the countries with a high human
Table 4.3: Top Ten Countries with High Value Index
development score are located in Europe and
Sl. No. Country Sl. No. Country represent the industrialised western world. Yet
1. Norway 6. Sweden there are striking numbers of non-European
2. Iceland 7. Switzerland
3. Australia 8. Ireland
countries also who have made it to this list.
4. Luxembourg 9. Belgium
5. Canada 10. United States Countries with Medium Index Value
Source: Human Development Report, 2005 Countries with medium levels of human
development form the largest group. There are
Try to locate these countries on a map. a total of 88 countries in this group. Most of
Can you see what these countries have in these are countries which have emerged in the
common? To find out more visit the official period after the Second World War. Some
government websites of these countries. countries from this group were former colonies
while many others have emerged after the break
Providing education and healthcare is an
up of the erstwhile Soviet Union in 1990. Many
important government priority. Countries with
of these countries have been rapidly improving
higher human development are those where a
their human development score by adopting
lot of investment in the social sector has taken
more people-oriented policies and reducing
place. Altogether, a higher investment in people
social discrimination. Most of these countries
and good governance has set this group of
countries apart from the others. have a much higher social diversity than the
Try to find out the percentage of the countries with higher human development
country’s income spent on these sectors. Can scores. Many in this group have faced political
you think of some other characteristics that instability and social uprisings at some point
these countries have in common? of time in their recent history.
What could be
the reasons for
India to be
behind 125
countries in
HDI?
EXERCISES
1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) Which one of the following best describes development?
(a) an increase in size (c) a positive change in quality
(b) a constant in size (d) a simple change in the quality
(ii) Which one of the following scholars introduced the concept of Human
Development?
(a) Prof. Amartya Sen (c) Dr Mahabub-ul-Haq
(b) Ellen C. Semple (d) Ratzel
(iii) Which one of the following is not a country with high human development?
(a) Norway (c) Argentina
(b) Japan (d) Egypt
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) What are the three basic areas of human development?
(ii) Name the four main components of human development?
(iii) How are countries classified on the basis of human development index?
3. Answer the following questions in not more than 150 words.
(i) What do you understand by the term human development?
(ii) What do equity and sustainability refer to within the concept of human
development?
Human Development 29
Project/Activity
Make a list of the ten most corrupt countries and ten least corrupt countries.
Compare their scores on the human development index. What inferences can
you draw?
Consult the latest Human Development Report for this.
MANUFACTURING
Manufacturing involves a full array of
production from handicrafts to moulding iron
and steel and stamping out plastic toys to
assembling delicate computer components or
space vehicles. In each of these processes, the
common characteristics are the application of
power, mass production of identical products
and specialised labour in factory settings for
the production of standardised commodities.
Manufacturing may be done with modern
power and machinery or it may still be very
primitive. Most of the Third World countries still
‘manufacture’ in the literal sense of the term. It
is difficult to present a full picture of all the
manufacturers in these countries. More
emphasis is given to the kind of ‘industrial’
activity which involves less complicated systems
of production.
Specialisation of Skills/Methods of
Production
Under the ‘craft’ method factories produce only
a few pieces which are made-to-order. So the
costs are high. On the other hand, mass
production involves production of large Organisational Structure and Stratification
quantities of standardised parts by each worker
Modern manufacturing is characterised by:
performing only one task repeatedly.
(i) a complex machine technology
(ii) extreme specialisation and division of
labour for producing more goods with less
‘Manufacturing’ Industry and effort, and low costs
‘Manufacturing Industry’ (iii) vast capital
(iv) large organisations
Manufacturing literally means ‘to
make by hand’. However, now it (v) executive bureaucracy.
includes goods ‘made by machines’.
It is essentially a process which Uneven Geographic Distribution
involves transforming raw materials Major concentrations of modern manufacturing
into finished goods of higher value have flourished in a few number of places. These
for sale in local or distant markets. cover less than 10 per cent of the world’s land
Conceptually, an industry is a area. These nations have become the centres of
geographically located manufacturing economic and political power. However, in terms
unit maintaining books of accounts of the total area covered, manufacturing sites
and, records under a management are much less conspicuous and concentrated
system. As the term industry is on much smaller areas than that of agriculture
comprehensive, it is also used as due to greater intensity of processes. For
synonymous with ‘manufacturing’ example, 2.5 sq km of the American corn belt
When one uses terms like ‘steel usually includes about four large farms
industry’ and ‘chemical industry’ one employing about 10-20 workers supporting
thinks of factories and processes. 50-100 persons. But this same area could
But there are many secondary contain several large integrated factories and
activities which are not carried on in employ thousands of workers.
factories such as what is now called
the ‘entertainment industry’ and
Tourism industry, etc. So for clarity Why do Large-scale Industries choose
the longer expression ‘manufacturing different locations?
industry’ is used. Industries maximise profits by reducing
costs. Therefore, industries should be located
at points where the production costs are
Mechanisation minimum. Some of the factors influencing
Mechanisation refers to using gadgets which industrial locations are as under:
accomplish tasks. Automation (without aid of
human thinking during the manufacturing Access to Market
process) is the advanced stage of mechanisation. The existence of a market for manufactured
Automatic factories with feedback and closed- goods is the most important factor in the location
loop computer control systems where machines of industries. ‘Market’ means people who have a
are developed to ‘think’, have sprung up all over demand for these goods and also have the
the world. purchasing power (ability to purchase) to be able
to purchase from the sellers at a place. Remote
Technological Innovation areas inhabited by a few people offer small
Technological innovations through research markets. The developed regions of Europe, North
and development strategy are an important America, Japan and Australia provide large
aspect of modern manufacturing for quality global markets as the purchasing power of the
control, eliminating waste and inefficiency, and people is very high. The densely populated
combating pollution. regions of South and South-east Asia also
Secondary Activities 47
48
Classification of Industries
Based on
Cottage Small Large Agro Mineral Chemical Forest Animal Basic Consumer Public Private Joint
or Scale Scale based based based based based goods Sector Sector Sector
Household
Iron and
Metallic Non-Metallic
Cement, Pottery
Ferrous Non-ferrous
Secondary Activities 49
On the basis of the system of large scale
manufacturing, the world’s major industrial
regions may be grouped under two broad types,
namely
(i) traditional large-scale industrial regions
which are thickly clustered in a few more
developed countries.
(ii) high-technology large scale industrial
regions which have diffused to less
developed countries.
Secondary Activities 51
Changes in the industrial structure have led to Iron and Steel Industry
the decay of some areas, and there are problems
The iron and steel industry forms the base of
of industrial waste and pollution. The future
all other industries and, therefore, it is called a
prosperity of the Ruhr is based less on the
basic industry. It is basic because it provides
products of coal and steel, for which it was
raw material for other industries such as
initially famous, and more on the new
machine tools used for further production. It
industries like the huge Opel car assembly
may also be called a heavy industry because it
plant, new chemical plants, universities. Out-
uses large quantities of bulky raw materials and
of-town shopping centres have appeared
its products are also heavy.
resulting in a ‘New Ruhr’ landscape.
Iron is extracted from iron ore by smelting
in a blast furnace with carbon (coke) and
Concept of High Technology Industry
limestone. The molten iron is cooled and
High technology, or simply high-tech, is the moulded to form pig iron which is used for
latest generation of manufacturing activities. It converting into steel by adding strengthening
is best understood as the application of materials like manganese.
intensive research and development (R and D) The large integrated steel industry is
efforts leading to the manufacture of products traditionally located close to the sources of raw
of an advanced scientific and engineering materials – iron ore, coal, manganese and
character. Professional (white collar) workers limestone – or at places where these could be
make up a large share of the total workforce. easily brought, e.g. near ports. But in mini steel
These highly skilled specialists greatly mills access to markets is more important than
outnumber the actual production (blue collar) inputs. These are less expensive to build and
workers. Robotics on the assembly line, operate and can be located near markets
computer -aided design (CAD) and because of the abundance of scrap metal, which
manufacturing, electronic controls of smelting is the main input. Traditionally, most of the steel
and refining processes, and the constant was produced at large integrated plants, but
development of new chemical and mini mills are limited to just one-step process –
steel making – and are gaining ground.
pharmaceutical products are notable examples
Distribution : The industry is one of the
of a high-tech industry.
most complex and capital-intensive industries
Neatly spaced, low, modern, dispersed,
and is concentrated in the advanced countries
office-plant-lab buildings rather than massive
of North America, Europe and Asia. In U.S.A,
assembly structures, factories and storage
most of the production comes from the north
areas mark the high-tech industrial landscape. Appalachian region (Pittsburgh), Great Lake
Planned business parks for high-tech start-ups region (Chicago-Gary, Erie, Cleveland, Lorain,
have become part of regional and local Buffalo and Duluth) and the Atlantic Coast
development schemes. (Sparrows Point and Morisville). The industry
High-tech industries which are regionally has also moved towards the southern state of
concentrated, self-sustained and highly Alabama. Pittsburg area is now losing ground.
specialised are called technopolies. The Silicon It has now become the “rust bowl” of U.S.A. In
Valley near San Francisco and Silicon Forest Europe, U.K., Germany, France, Belgium,
near Seattle are examples of technopolies. Are Luxembourgh, the Netherlands and Russia are
some technopolies developing in India? the leading producers. The important steel
Manufacturing contributes significantly to centres are Birmingham and Sheffield in the
the world economy. Iron and steel, textiles, U.K.; Duisburg, Dortmund, Dusseldorf and
automobiles, petrochemicals and electronics Essen in Germany; Le Creusot and St. Ettienne
are some of the world’s most important in France; and Moscow, St. Petersburgh,
manufacturing industries. Lipetsk, Tula, in Russia and Krivoi Rog, and
EXERCISES
1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) Which one of the following statements is wrong?
(a) Cheap water transport has facilitated the jute mill industry along
the Hugli.
(b) Sugar, cotton textiles and vegetable oils are footloose industries.
(c) The development of hydro-electricity and petroleum reduced, to a great
extent, the importance of coal energy as a locational factor for
industry.
(d) Port towns in India have attracted industries.
(ii) In which one of the following types of economy are the factors of production
owned individually ?
(a) Capitalist (c) Socialist
(b) Mixed (d) None
(iii) Which one of the following types of industries produces raw materials
for other industries?
(a) Cottage Industries (c) Basic Industries
(b) Small-scale Industries (d) Footloose Industries
Secondary Activities 53
(iv) Which one of the following pairs is correctly matched ?
(a) Automobile industry … Los Angeles
(b) Shipbuilding industry … Lusaka
(c) Aircraft industry … Florence
(d) Iron and Steel industry … Pittsburgh
2. Write a short note on the following in about 30 words.
(i) High-Tech industry
(ii) Manufacturing
(iii) Footloose industries
3. Answer the following in not more than 150 words.
(i) Differentiate between primary and secondary activities.
(ii) Discuss the major trends of modern industrial activities especially in
the developed countries of the world.
(iii) Explain why high-tech industries in many countries are being attracted
to the peripheral areas of major metropolitan centres.
(iv) Africa has immense natural resources and yet it is industrially the most
backward continent. Comment.
Project/Activity
(i) Carry out a survey in your school premises of the factory-made goods
used by students and the staff.
(ii) Find out the meaning of the terms bio-degradable and non-
biodegradable. Which kind of material is better to use? Why?
(iii) Look around and make a list of the global brands, their logos and
products.
TYPES OF TERTIAR
TERTIARY ACTIVITIES
TIARY
By now you know that you purchase your
books, stationery from traders shop, travel by
Fig. 7.1: Service Sector
SERVICES
Services occur at many different levels. Some
are geared to industry, some to people; and some
to both industry and people, e.g. the transport
systems. Low-order services, such as grocery
shops and laundries, are more common and
widespread than high-order services or more
specialised ones like those of accountants,
consultants and physicians. Services are
provided to individual consumers who can
Fig. 7.4: Dabbawala Service in Mumbai
afford to pay for them. For example the
gardener, the launderers and the barber do
primarily physical labour. Teacher, lawyers, PEOPLE ENG AGED IN
ENGA
physicians, musicians and others perform TERTIAR
TERTIARY ACTIVITIES
TIARY
mental labour.
Many services have now been regulated. Today most people are service workers. Services
Making and maintaining highways and are provided in all societies. But in more
bridges, maintaining fire fighting departments developed countries a higher percentage of
and supplying or supervising education and workers is employed in provision of services in
customer -care are among the important contrast to less than 10 per cent in the less
services most often supervised or performed by developed countries. In U.S.A. over 75 per cent
governments or companies. State and union of workers are engaged in services. The trend
QUATERN
QUA AR
TERNARY ACTIVITIES
ARY
Where Will it All Lead to?
What do a CEO of an MNC in Copenhagen, at
New York and a medical transcriptionist at
Bangalore have in common? All these people
work in a segment of the service sector that is
knowledge oriented. This sector can be divided
into quaternary and quinary activities.
Quaternary activities involve some of the
following: the collection, production and
dissemination of information or even the
production of information. Quaternary activities
centre around research, development and may
be seen as an advanced form of services
involving specialised knowledge, technical
skills, and administrative competence.
Organise an informal debate session in your class about how could the emerging medical
industry of our country become a boom as well as doom?
Project/Activity
MODES OF TRANSPORTATION
TRANSPORT
The principal modes of world transportation,
as already mentioned are land, water, air and
pipelines. These are used for inter-regional and
intra-regional transport, and each one (except
pipelines) carries both passengers and freight.
The significance of a mode depends on the type
of goods and services to be transported, costs
of transport and the mode available.
International movement of goods is handled by
ocean freighters. Road transport is cheaper and
faster over short distances and for door-to-
door services. Railways are most suited for large
volumes of bulky materials over long distances
within a country. High-value, light and
Fig. 8.1: Ropeway and Cable cars in Austria
perishable goods are best moved by airways.
In a well-managed transport system, these This means of transport is usually found on steep
various modes complement each other. mountain slopes and mines which are not suitable for
building roads.
Land Transport transportation and large freighters are the
cheapest. They are important in supplementing
Most of the movement of goods and services
modern channels and carriers which penetrate
takes place over land. In early days, humans
the interiors in large countries. In the densely
themselves were carriers. Have you ever seen a
populated districts of India and China, overland
bride being carried on a palanquin (palki/doli)
transport still takes place by human porters or
by four persons (Kahars in north India). Later
carts drawn or pushed by humans.
animals were used as beasts of burden. Have
you seen mules, horses and camels, carrying
loads of cargo in rural areas? With the invention Pack Animals
of the wheel, the use of carts and wagons
Horses are used as a draught animal even
became important. The revolution in transport
in the Western countries. Dogs and
came about only after the invention of the steam
reindeer are used in North America, North
engine in the eighteenth century. Perhaps the
Europe and Siberia to draw sledges over
first public railway line was opened in 1825 snow-covered ground. Mules are preferred
between Stockton and Darlington in northern in the mountainous regions; while camels
England and then onwards, railways became are used for caravan movement in deserts.
the most popular and fastest form of transport In India, bullocks are used for pulling carts.
in the nineteenth century. It opened up
continental interiors for commercial grain
farming, mining and manufacturing in U.S.A.
The invention of the internal combustion engine
revolutionised road transport in terms of road
quality and vehicles (motor cars and trucks)
plying over them. Among the newer
developments in land transportation are
pipelines, ropeways and cableways. Liquids like
mineral oil, water, sludge and sewers are
transported by pipelines. The great freight
carriers are the railways, ocean vessels, barges,
boats and motor trucks and pipelines.
In general, the old and elementary forms Fig. 8.2: A horse cart in a village Tefki,
like the human porter, pack animal, cart or in Ethiopia
wagon are the most expensive means of
linking the major towns and cities. For Sl. Countries For every
example, National Highway No. 7 (NH 7), No. 100/km2 area
connecting Varanasi with Kanya Kumari, is 1. U.S.A. 278.3
the longest in the country. The Golden 2. Russia 160.8
3. India 144.7
Quadrilateral (GQ) or Super Expressway is 4. Canada 93.5
underway to connect the four metropolitan 5. Germany 90.8
cities — New Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, 6. China 70.1
Chennai, Kolkata and Hyderabad. 7. Australia 40.0
8. U.K. 37.9
In Africa, a highway joins Algiers in the 9. France 34.5
north to Conakry in Guinea. Similarly, Cairo 10. Brazil 30.1
is also connected to Cape Town. Source : Encyclopaedia Britanica – Year Book, 2005.
Winnipeg to Thunder Bay (Lake Superior) Another major north-south line connects
connects this rail-line with one of the important Adelaide and Alice Spring and to be joined
waterways of the world. This line is the economic further to the Darwin–Birdum line.
artery of Canada. Wheat and meat are the
The Orient Express
important exports on this route.
This line runs from Paris to Istanbul passing
The Union and Pacific Railway through Strasbourg, Munich, Vienna,
Budapest and Belgrade. The journey time from
This rail-line connects New York on the Atlantic
London to Istanbul by this Express is now
Coast to San Francisco on the Pacific Coast
reduced to 96 hours as against 10 days by the
passing through Cleveland, Chicago, Omaha,
sea-route. The chief exports on this rail-route
Evans, Ogden and Sacramento. The most
are cheese, bacon, oats, wine, fruits, and
valuable exports on this route are ores, grain,
machinery.
paper, chemicals and machinery.
There is a proposal to build a Trans–Asiatic
Railway linking Istanbul with Bangkok via
The Australian Trans–Continental Iran, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and
Railway Myanmar.
This rail-line runs west-east across the southern
part of the continent from Perth on the west WATER TRANSPOR
WATER T
TRANSPORT
coast, to Sydney on the east coast. passing
One of the great advantages of water
through Kalgoorlie, Broken Hill and Port
transportation is that it does not require route
Augusta (Fig. 8.7).
construction. The oceans are linked with each
Coastal Shipping
It is obvious that water transport is a cheaper
mode. While oceanic routes connect different
countries, coastal shipping is a convenient
mode of transportation with long coastlines,
e.g. U.S.A, China and India. Shenzhen States
in Europe are most suitably placed for coastal
shipping connecting one member’s coast with
the other. If properly developed, coastal shipping
can reduce the congestion on the land routes.
Inland Waterways
Rivers, canals, lakes and coastal areas have
been important waterways since time
Fig. 8.11 : The Panama Canal immemorial. Boats and steamers are used as
means of transport for cargo and passengers.
The development of inland waterways is
dependent on the navigability width and depth
of the channel, continuity in the water flow,
and transport technology in use. Rivers are
the only means of transport in dense forests.
Very heavy cargo like coal, cement, timber and
metallic ores can be transported through inland
waterways. In ancient times, riverways were the
main highways of transportation as in the case
of India. But they lost importance because of
competition from railways, lack of water due to
diversion for irrigation, and their poor
maintenance.
Can you think of the impact on traffic in Panama Fig. 8.12: Inland waterways are a major source
canal after the Nicaraguan canal opens up? of transport wherever the river is wide, deep
and free of silt
PIPELINES
Pipelines are used extensively to transport
liquids and gases such as water, petroleum
and natural gas for an uninterrupted flow.
Fig. 8.15: An Aeroplane at Salsburg Airport Water supplied through pipelines is familiar
The manufacturing of aircrafts and their to all. Cooking gas or LPG is supplied through
operations require elaborate infrastructure like pipelines in many parts of the world. Pipelines
hangars, landing, fuelling, and maintenance can also be used to transport liquidified coal.
facilities for the aircrafts. The construction of In New Zealand, milk is being supplied through
airports is also very expensive and has developed pipelines from farms to factories.
more in highly industrialised countries where In U.S.A. there is a dense network of oil
there is a large volume of traffic. pipelines from the producing areas to the
consuming areas. Big Inch is one such famous The proposed Iran-India via Pakistan
pipeline, which carries petroleum from the oil international oil and natural gas pipeline will
wells of the Gulf of Mexico to the North-eastern be the longest in the world.
States. About 17 per cent of all freight per
tonne-km. is carried through pipelines in U.S.A.
COMMUNICATIONS
COMMUNICATIONS
Human beings have used different methods
long-distance communications of which the
telegraph and the telephone were important.
The telegraph was instrumental in the
colonisation of the American West. During the
early and mid-twentieth century, the American
Telegraph and Telephone Company (AT&T)
enjoyed a monopoly over U.S.A.’s telephone
industry. In fact, the telephone became a critical
factor in the urbanisation of America. Firms
centralised their functioning at city-
headquarters and located their branch offices
in smaller towns. Even today, the telephone is
Fig. 8.17: Pipelines transporting natural gas the most commonly used mode. In developing
in Ukraine countries, the use of cell phones, made possible
In Europe, Russia, West Asia and India by satellites, is important for rural connectivity.
pipelines are used to connect oil wells to Today there is a phenomenal pace of
refineries, and to ports or domestic markets. development. The first major breakthrough is
Turkmenistan is central Asia has extended the use of optic fiber cables (OFC). Faced with
pipelines to Iran and also to parts of China. mounting competition, telephone companies all
International Trade 83
Important Aspects of International Billion $ Goods Billion $
Trade 12000 Services 12000
10500 10500
International trade has three very important 9000 9000
aspects. These are volume, sectoral composition 7500 7500
and direction of trade. 6000 6000
4500 4500
Volume of Trade 3000 3000
1500 1500
The actual tonnage of goods traded makes up
0 0
the volume. However, services traded cannot be
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
00
82
80
measured in tonnage. Therefore, the total value
20
19
of goods and services traded is considered to
be the volume of trade. Table 9.1 shows that Source: WTO, Trade Statistics, 2002.
the total volume of world trade has been steadily Fig. 9.3: Exports of Goods and Services, 1980-2000
rising over the past decades.
The share of different commodities in total
global trade can be seen in the graph below.
Machinery and
Why do you think that the volume of trade has increased Transport Equipment
over the decades? Can these figures be compared? Fuels & Mining Road
Office/Telecome Equipment
What has been the growth in the year 2005 over the Chemicals
year 1955? Automotive Products
Agriculture Products
Other Manufactures
Composition of Trade Other Semi–manufactures
Iron & Steel
The nature of goods and services imported and Clothing
exported by countries have undergone changes Textiles
0 5 10 15 20
during the last century. Percentage to total value
Trade of primary products was dominant
Source: WTO, Trade Statistics, 2005
in the beginning of the last century. Later
manufactured goods gained prominence and Fig. 9.4: World Merchandise Exports By
Products, 2004
currently, though the manufacturing sector
commands the bulk of the global trade, service Looking at the graph above, we find that
sector which includes travel, transportation and machinery and transport equipment, fuel and
other commercial services have been showing mining products, office and telecom equipment,
an upward trend. chemicals, automobile parts, agricultural
International Trade 85
countries to keep their own markets protected countries to set up a permanent institution for
from foreign products. looking after the promotion of free and fair trade
Countries also need to be cautious about amongst nation and the GATT was transformed
dumped goods; as along with free trade into the World Trade Organisation from 1st
dumped goods of cheaper prices can harm the January 1995.
domestic producers. WTO is the only international organisation
dealing with the global rules of trade between
nations. It sets the rules for the global trading
Dumping system and resolves disputes between its
member nations. WTO also covers trade in
The practice of selling a commodity in two services, such as telecommunication and
countries at a price that differs for reasons banking, and others issues such as intellectual
not related to costs is called dumping.
rights.
The WTO has however been criticised and
opposed by those who are worried about the
effects of free trade and economic globalisation.
It is argued that free trade does not make
ordinary people’s lives more prosperous. It is
actually widening the gulf between rich and
poor by making rich countries more rich. This
is because the influential nations in the WTO
focus on their own commercial interests.
Moreover, many developed countries have not
fully opened their markets to products from
developing countries. It is also argued that
issues of health, worker’s rights, child labour
and environment are ignored.
International Trade 87
Concerns Related to International Trade
Undertaking international trade is mutually
beneficial to nations if it leads to regional
specialisation, higher level of production, better
standard of living, worldwide availability of
goods and services, equalisation of prices and
wages and diffusion of knowledge and culture.
International trade can prove to be
detrimental to nations of it leads to dependence
on other countries, uneven levels of
development, exploitation, and commercial
rivalry leading to wars. Global trade affects
many aspects of life; it can impact everything
from the environment to health and well-being
of the people around the world. As countries Fig. 9.5: San Francisco, the largest land-locked
compete to trade more, production and the use harbour in the world
of natural resources spiral up, resources get
used up faster than they can be replenished.
As a result, marine life is also depleting fast, Types of Port
forests are being cut down and river basins sold Generally, ports are classified according to the
off to private drinking water companies. Multi- types of traffic which they handle.
national corporations trading in oil, gas mining, Types of port according to cargo handled:
pharmaceuticals and agri-business keep (i) Industrial Ports: These ports specialise in
expanding their operations at all costs creating bulk cargo-like grain, sugar, ore, oil,
more pollution – their mode of work does not chemicals and similar materials.
follow the norms of sustainable development. (ii) Commercial Ports: These ports handle
If organisations are geared only towards profit general cargo-packaged products and
making, and environmental and health manufactured good. These ports also
concerns are not addressed, then it could lead handle passenger traffic.
to serious implications in the future.
EXERCISES
1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) Most of the world’s great ports are classified as:
(a) Naval Ports (c) Comprehensive Ports
(b) Oil Ports (d) Industrial Ports
(ii) Which one of the following continents has the maximum flow of global
trade?
(a) Asia (c) Europe
(b) North America (d) Africa
International Trade 89
(iii) Which one of the following South American nation, is a part of OPEC?
(a) Brazil (c) Venezuela
(b) Chile (d) Peru
(iv) In which of the following trade blocs, is India an associate member?
(a) SAFTA (c) ASEAN
(b) OECD (d) OPEC
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words:
(i) What is the basic function of the World Trade Organisation?
(ii) Why is it detrimental for a nation to have negative balance of payments?
(iii) What benefits do nations get by forming trading blocs?
3. Answer the following questions in not more than 150 words:
(i) How are ports helpful for trade? Give a classification of ports on the basis
of their location.
(ii) How do nations gain from International Trade?
Sub Urbanisation
It is a new trend of people moving away from
congested urban areas to cleaner areas
outside the city in search of a better quality
of living. Important suburbs develop around
major cities and everyday thousands of
people commute from their homes in the
sub urbs to their work places in the city.
Differentiations between rural and urban (ii) Dispersed Settlements: In these
on the basis of functions are more meaningful settlements, houses are spaced far
even though there is no uniformity in the apart and often interspersed with fields.
hierarchy of the functions provided by rural and A cultural feature such as a place of
urban settlements. Petrol pumps are considered worship or a market, binds the
as a lower order function in the United States settlement together.
while it is an urban function in India. Even
within a country, rating of functions may vary
according to the regional economy. Facilities
available in the villages of developed countries
may be considered rare in villages of developing
and less developed countries.
Water Supply
Usually rural settlements are located near water
bodies such as rivers, lakes, and springs where
water can be easily obtained. Sometimes the
need for water drives people to settle in otherwise
disadvantaged sites such as islands
surrounded by swamps or low lying river
banks. Most water based ‘wet point’ settlements
Fig.10.1 : Compact Settlements have many advantages such as water for
Human Settlements 93
Linear Pattern Cross-shape Pattern Star-like Pattern
Human Settlements 95
300 in Iceland, whereas in Canada and urban centres which are located close to an
Venezuela, it is 1,000 persons. important trade route have experienced rapid
development.
Occupational Structure
Functions of Urban Centres
In some countries, such as India, the major
economic activities in addition to the size of the The earliest towns were centres of
population in designating a settlement as urban administration, trade, industry, defence and
are also taken as a criterion. Similarly, in Italy, a religious importance. The significance of defence
settlement is called urban, if more than 50 per and religion as differentiating functions has
cent of its economically productive population declined in general, but other functions have
is engaged in non-agricultural pursuits. India entered the list. Today, several new functions,
has set this criterion at 75 per cent. such as, recreational, residential, transport,
mining, manufacturing and most recently
Administration activities related to information technology are
carried on in specialised towns. Some of these
The administrative setup is a criterion for
functions do not necessarily require the urban
classifying a settlement as urban in some
centre to have any fundamental relationship
countries. For example, in India, a settlement
with their neighbouring rural areas.
of any size is classified as urban, if it has a
municipality, Cantonment Board or Notified
Area Council. Similarly, in Latin American
countries, such as Brazil and Bolivia, any What would be the effects of Information
administrative centre is considered urban and Communication Technology (ICT) as
irrespective of its population size. a function on the development of existing
and new settlements?
Location
Location of urban centres is examined with
reference to their function. For example, the
Prepare a list of cities where earlier functions have been
sitting requirements of a holiday resort are quite
replaced by newer ones.
different from that of an industrial town, a
military centre or a seaport. Strategic towns In spite of towns performing multiple
require sites offering natural defence; mining functions we refer to their dominant function.
towns require the presence of economically For example, we think of Sheffield as an
valuable minerals; industrial towns generally industrial city, London as a port city,
need local energy supplies or raw materials; Chandigarh as an administrative city and so
tourist centres require attractive scenery, or a on. Large cities have a rather greater diversity
marine beach, a spring with medicinal water of functions. Besides, all cities are dynamic and
or historical relics, ports require a harbour etc. over a period of time may develop new functions.
Locations of the earliest urban settlements Most of the early nineteenth-century fishing
were based on the availability of water, building ports in England have now developed tourism.
materials and fertile land. Today, while these Many of the old market towns are now known
considerations still remain valid, modern for manufacturing activities. Towns and cities
technology plays a significant role in locating are classified into the following categories.
urban settlements far away from the source of
these materials. Piped water can be supplied Administrative Towns
to a distant settlement, building material can National capitals, which house the administrative
be transported from long distances. offices of central governments, such as New Delhi,
Apart from site, the situation plays an Canberra, Beijing, Addis Ababa, Washington
important role in the expansion of towns. The D.C., and London etc. are called administrative
Developed countries experienced rapid urbanisation Fig. 10.8: Morphology of Addis Ababa
during the nineteenth century.
Human Settlements 97
of the local topography. The roads radiate from each with separate city functions. During the
the govt headquarters Piazza, Arat and Amist last few decades, the city has expanded to
Kilo roundabouts. Mercato has markets which accommodate several satellite towns, which
grew with time and is supposed to be the largest have their own centres. The city has wide-open
market between Cairo and Johannesburg. A spaces and many parks and gardens.
multi-faculty university, a medical college, a
number of good schools make Addis Ababa an Types of Urban Settlements
educational centre. It is also the terminal station
Depending on the size and the services available
for the Djibouti-Addis Ababa rail route. Bole
and functions rendered, urban centres are
airport is a relatively new airport. The city has
designated as town, city, million city,
witnessed rapid growth because of its multi-
conurbation, megalopolis.
functional nature and being a large nodal centre
located in the centre of Ethiopia. Town
Canberra The concept of ‘town’ can best be understood
with reference to ‘village’. Population size is not
Canberra was planned as the capital of
the only criterion. Functional contrasts between
Australia in 1912 by American landscape
towns and villages may not always be clear-
architect, Walter Burley Griffin. He had
cut, but specific functions such as,
envisaged a garden city for about 25,000 people
manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade, and
taking into account the natural features of the
professional services exist in towns.
landscape. There were to be five main centres,
City
A city may be regarded as a leading town, which
has outstripped its local or regional rivals. In
the words of Lewis Mumford, “ the city is in fact
the physical form of the highest and most
complex type of associative life”. Cities are
much larger than towns and have a greater
number of economic functions. They tend to
have transport terminals, major financial
institutions and regional administrative offices.
When the population crosses the one million
mark it is designated as a million city.
Conurbation
The term conurbation was coined by Patrick
Geddes in 1915 and applied to a large area of
urban development that resulted from the
merging of originally separate towns or cities.
Greater London, Manchester, Chicago and
Tokyo are examples. Can you find out an
example from India?
Megalopolis
This Greek word meaning “great city”, was
popularised by Jean Gottman (1957) and
Fig. 10.10 : Morphology of a planned city – Canberra
signifies ‘super- metropolitan’ region extending,
Human Settlements 99
Problems of Urban Settlements Economic Problems
People flock to cities to avail of employment The decreasing employment opportunities in
opportunities and civic amenities. Since most the rural as well as smaller urban areas of the
cities in developing countries are unplanned, developing countries consistently push the
it creates severe congestion. Shortage of population to the urban areas. The enormous
housing, vertical expansion and growth of migrant population generates a pool of un-
slums are characteristic features of modern skilled and semi-skilled labour force, which is
cities of developing countries. In many cities already saturated in urban areas.
an increasing proportion of the population
lives in substandard housing, e.g. slums and Socio-cultural Problems
squatter settlements. In most million plus
Cities in the developing countries suffer from
cities in India, one in four inhabitants lives in
several social ills. Insufficient financial resources
illegal settlements, which are growing twice as
fail to create adequate social infrastructure
fast as the rest of the cities. Even in the Asia
catering to the basic needs of the huge
Pacific countries, around 60 per cent of the
population. The available educational and
urban population lives in squatter settlements.
health facilities remain beyond the reach of the
urban poor. Health indices also, present a
gloomy picture in cities of developing countries.
Lack of employment and education tends to
aggravate the crime rates. Male selective
migration to the urban areas distorts the sex
ratio in these cities.
Environmental Problems
The large urban population in developing
countries not only uses but also disposes off a
huge quantity of water and all types of waste
materials. Many cities of the developing
countries even find it extremely difficult to
provide the minimum required quantity of
potable water and water for domestic and
industrial uses. An improper sewerage system
creates unhealthy conditions. Massive use of
Fig. 10.11: Slums traditional fuel in the domestic as well as the
industrial sector severely pollutes the air. The
What is a Healthy City? domestic and industrial wastes are either let
into the general sewerages or dumped without
World Health Organisation (WHO) suggests treatment at unspecified locations. Huge
that, among other things, a ‘healthy city’ concrete structures erected to accommodate
must have: the population and economic play a very
A ’Clean’ and ‘Safe’ environment. conducive role to create heat islands.
Meets the ‘Basic Needs’ of ‘All’ its
inhabitants. Urban Strategy
y
Involves the ‘Community’ in local
government. The United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) has outlined these
Provides easily accessible ‘Health’ service. priorities as part of its ‘Urban Strategy’.
EXERCISES
1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) Which one of the following forms of settlement develops along either side of
roads, rivers or canals?
(a) circular (c) cross-shaped
(b) linear (d) square
(ii) Which one of the following types of economic activities dominates in all rural
settlement?
(a) primary (c) secondary
(b) tertiary (d) quaternary
(iii) In which of the following regions has the oldest well-documented urban
settlement found?
(a) Huang He Valley (c) Nile Valley
(b) Indus Valley (d) Mesopotamia
(iv) How many of the following cities in India have attained the million status at the
beginning of 2006?
(a) 40 (c) 41
(b) 42 (d) 43
(v) Sufficiency of which type of resources can help to create adequate social
infrastructure catering to the needs of the large population in the developing
countries?
(a) financial (c) natural
(b) human (d) social
Project/Activity
(i) Do you live in a city? If not, do you live nearby? Is your life
somehow linked to a city?
(a) What is its name?
(b) When was it first settled?
(c) Why was the site chosen?
(d) What is its population?
(e) What are the functions it performs?
(f) On a sketch of the city, try to identify the areas where
these functions are performed.
Each student should make a list of five things associated with the selected city;
things that cannot be found elsewhere. This is a mini definition of the city as each
student sees it. The lists should be shared with the class. How much agreement is
there between the lists?
(ii) Can you think of some ways by which you can single
handedly help reduce pollution levels of your settlement
Hints :
(a) Proper garbage disposal
(b) Using public transport
(c) Better management of domestic water consumption
(d) Planting trees in the neighbourhood
The name of the part of the chewing gum after the flavour
is gone? It is called Chicle — it is made from the milky
juice of zapota tree.
AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is practised under multiple
combinations of physical and socio-economic
conditions, which gives rise to different types of
agricultural systems.
Based on methods of farming, different
types of crops are grown and livestock raised.
The following are the main agricultural systems.
Subsistence Agriculture
Subsistence agriculture is one in which the
farming areas consume all, or nearly so, of the
Fig. 5.5: Commercial Livestock Rearing products locally grown. It can be grouped in
two categories — Primitive Subsistence
Reindeer rearing in the northern regions of Alaska where Agriculture and Intensive Subsistence
most of the Eskimos own about two-third of the stock. Agriculture.
emphasis is on breeding, genetic improvement, Primitive Subsistence Agriculture
disease control and health care of the animals.
New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Primitive subsistence agriculture or shifting
Uruguay and United States of America are cultivation is widely practised by many tribes
important countries where commercial livestock in the tropics, especially in Africa, south and
rearing is practised (Fig. 5.6). central America and south east Asia (Fig. 5.7).
Primary Activities 35
The vegetation is usually cleared by fire, Basically, there are two types of intensive
and the ashes add to the fertility of the soil. subsistence agriculture.
Shifting cultivation is thus, also called slash (i) Intensive subsistence agriculture
and burn agriculture. The cultivated patches dominated by wet paddy cultivation: This
are very small and cultivation is done with very type of agriculture is characterised by
primitive tools such as sticks and hoes. After dominance of the rice crop. Land holdings
sometime (3 to 5 years) the soil looses its fertility are very small due to the high density of
and the farmer shifts to another parts and clears population. Farmers work with the help
other patch of the forest for cultivation. The of family labour leading to intensive use of
farmer may return to the earlier patch after land. Use of machinery is limited and most
sometime. One of the major problems of shifting of the agricultural operations are done by
cultivation is that the cycle of jhum becomes manual labour. Farm yard manure is used
less and less due to loss of fertility in different to maintain the fertility of the soil. In this
parcels. It is prevalent in tropical region in type of agriculture, the yield per unit area
different names, e.g. Jhuming in North eastern is high but per labour productivity is low.
states of India, Milpa in central America and (ii) Intensive subsidence agriculture
Mexico and Ladang in Indonesia and Malaysia. dominated by crops other than paddy:
Find out other areas and the names with which Due to the difference in relief, climate, soil
shifting cultivation is done. and some of the other geographical factors,
it is not practical to grow paddy in many
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture parts of monsoon Asia. Wheat, soyabean,
barley and sorghum are grown in northern
This type of agriculture is largely found in
China, Manchuria, North Korea and North
densely populated regions of monsoon Asia.
Japan. In India wheat is grown in western
Primary Activities 37
Fig. 5.12: Areas of Extensive Commercial Grain Farming
This type of agriculture is best developed building, extensive use of chemical fertilisers
in Eurasian steppes, the Canadian and and green manures and also by the skill and
American Prairies, the Pampas of Argentina, the expertise of the farmers.
Velds of South Africa, the Australian Downs and
the Canterbury Plains of New Zealand. (Locate Dairy Farming
these areas on the world map).
Dairy is the most advanced and efficient type of
rearing of milch animals. It is highly capital
Mixed Farming
intensive. Animal sheds, storage facilities for
This form of agriculture is found in the highly fodder, feeding and milching machines add to
developed parts of the world, e.g. North-western the cost of dairy farming. Special emphasis is
Europe, Eastern North America, parts of laid on cattle breeding, health care and
Eurasia and the temperate latitudes of veterinary services.
Southern continents (Fig. 5.14).
Mixed farms are moderate in size and
usually the crops associated with it are wheat,
barley, oats, rye, maize, fodder and root crops.
Fodder crops are an important component of
mixed farming. Crop rotation and intercropping
play an important role in maintaining soil
fertility. Equal emphasis is laid on crop
cultivation and animal husbandry. Animals like
cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry provide the main
income along with crops.
Mixed farming is characterised by high
capital expenditure on farm machinery and Fig. 5.13: A Dairy Farm in Austria
It is highly labour intensive as it involves There are three main regions of commercial
rigorous care in feeding and milching. There is dairy farming. The largest is North Western
no off season during the year as in the case of Europe the second is Canada and the third belt
crop raising. includes South Eastern Australia, New Zealand
It is practised mainly near urban and and Tasmania (Fig. 5.16).
industrial centres which provide
neighbourhood market for fresh milk and dairy
Mediterranean Agriculture
products. The development of transportation,
refrigeration, pasteurisation and other Mediterranean agriculture is highly specialised
preservation processes have increased the commercial agriculture. It is practised in the
duration of storage of various dairy products. countries on either side of the Mediterranean
Primary Activities 39
Fig. 5.16: Areas of Dairy Farming
sea in Europe and in north Africa from Tunisia links with the urban centre where high income
to Atlantic coast, southern California, central group of consumers is located. It is both labour
Chile, south western parts of South Africa and and capital intensive and lays emphasis on the
south and south western parts of Australia. use of irrigation, HYV seeds, fertilisers,
This region is an important supplier of citrus insecticides, greenhouses and artificial heating
fruits. in colder regions.
Viticulture or grape cultivation is a This type of agriculture is well developed
speciality of the Mediterranean region. Best in densely populated industrial districts of
quality wines in the world with distinctive north west Europe, north eastern United States
flavours are produced from high quality grapes of America and the Mediterranean regions. The
in various countries of this region. The inferior Netherlands specialises in growing flowers and
grapes are dried into raisins and currants. This horticultural crops especially tulips, which are
region also produces olives and figs. The flown to all major cities of Europe.
advantage of Mediterranean agriculture is that The regions where farmers specialise in
more valuable crops such as fruits and vegetables only, the farming is know as truck
vegetables are grown in winters when there is farming. The distance of truck farms from the
great demand in European and North American market is governed by the distance that a truck
markets. can cover overnight, hence the name truck
farming.
Market Gardening and Horticulture In addition to market gardening, a modern
Market gardening and horticulture specialise development in the industrial regions of Western
in the cultivation of high value crops such as Europe and North America is factory farming.
vegetables, fruits and flowers, solely for the Livestock, particularly poultry and cattle
urban markets. Farms are small and are rearing, is done in stalls and pens, fed on
located where there are good transportation manufactured feedstuff and carefully
supervised against diseases. This requires heavy is based on social ownership of the means of
capital investment in terms of building, production and collective labour. Collective
machinery for various operations, veterinary farming or the model of Kolkhoz was
services and heating and lighting. One of the introduced in erstwhile Soviet Union to improve
important features of poultry farming and cattle upon the inefficiency of the previous methods
rearing is breed selection and scientific of agriculture and to boost agricultural
breeding. production for self-sufficiency.
Types of farming can also be categorised The farmers pool in all their resources like
according to the farming organisation. Farming land, livestock and labour. However, they are
organisation is affected by the way in which allowed to retain very small plots to grow crops
farmers own their farms and various policies of in order to meet their daily requirements.
the government which help to run these farms. Yearly targets are set by the government
and the produce is also sold to the state at fixed
Co-operative Farming prices. Produce in excess of the fixed amount
is distributed among the members or sold in
A group of farmers form a co-operative society the market. The farmers have to pay taxes on
by pooling in their resources voluntarily for the farm produces, hired machinery etc.
more efficient and profitable farming. Individual Members are paid according to the nature of
farms remain intact and farming is a matter of the work allotted to them by the farm
cooperative initiative. management. Exceptional work is rewarded in
Co-operative societies help farmers, to cash or kind. This type of farming was
procure all important inputs of farming, sell the introduced in former Soviet Union under the
products at the most favourable terms and help socialist regime which was adopted by the
in processing of quality products at cheaper socialist countries. After its collapse, these have
rates. already been modified.
Co-operative movement originated over a
century ago and has been successful in many MINING
western European countries like Denmark,
The discovery of minerals in the history of
Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, Italy etc. In
human development, is reflected in many stages
Denmark, the movement has been so successful
in terms of copper age, bronze age and iron age.
that practically every farmer is a member of a
The use of minerals in ancient times was largely
co-operative.
confined to the making of tools, utensils and
weapons. The actual development of mining
Collective Farming
began with the industrial revolution and its
The basic principal behind this types of farming importance is continuously increasing.
Primary Activities 41
as safety precautions and equipment is
relatively low in this method. The output is both
large and rapid.
SHAFT MINING
OPEN-CAST OR
(STRIP MINING)
Primary Activities 43
3. Answer the following questions in not more than 150 words.
(i) Differentiate between Nomadic Herding and Commercial Livestock Rearing.
(ii) Discuss the important characteristic features of plantation agriculture. Name
a few important plantation crops from different countries.
Project/Activity
Visit a nearby village and observe the cultivation of some crops. Ask
the farmers and list the various operations.