Geng 3 - Cartography: Map Projections

GENG 3 - CARTOGRAPHY
MAP PROJECTIONS
Map Projection
Any system of representing the parallels and meridians on a
plane surface.
Chart / Map
A map showing a large portion (or all) of the earth, where
curvature of the surface becomes a factor.
Plan
A map depicting only a small area.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Major Types of Projections
A. Cylindrical Projections or Equirectangular Projections
B. Conical Projections
C. Azimuthal Projections
MAP PROJECTIONS

1. Mercator Projection
2. Gall Projection
3. Miller Projection
1. Polyconic Projection
2. Bonne Projection
3. Lambert Projection or Lambert Conformal Conic Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
1. Stereographic Projection
2. Orthographic Projection
3. Gnomonic Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
Other Types of Projections

1. Sinusoidal Projection or Janson or Flamsteed Projection
2. Mollweide Homolographic Projection or Babinet Equal Area
Projection
3. Homolosine Projection or Goode Interrupted Projection
4. Eckert Projection
5. Hammer-Aitoff Projection
6. Heterohedral Projection
a. Cahill Projection or Cahill Butterfly Projection
b. Star Projection
c. Fuller Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
PROJECTION PROPERTY GEOMETRICAL FORM
1. Stereographic Conformal Azimuthal

2. Mercator Conformal Cylindrical
3. Sinusoidal Equal Area Miscellaneous
4. Gnomonic Azimuthal
5. Bonne Equal Area Conic (modified)
6. Lambert Conformal Conic
7. Mollweide Equal Area Miscellaneous
8. Polyconic Conic (modified)
9. Homolosine Equal Area Miscellaneous
10.Orthographic Azimuthal
MAP PROJECTIONS
Properties of Map Projections

1. Areas should be directly comparable over the entire map
(Equal Area).
2. Shapes of smaller features should be preserved although the
slope of entire countries may be distorted (Conformal).
3. Distances on the map between any pair of points should be in
constant scale ratio.
4. Great circles should represent straight lines on the projection
(Gnomonic)
5. Positions by latitude or longitude should be easily found
(Mercator).
MAP PROJECTIONS
Note: The three projections, Polyconic, Bonne and Lambert may be

considered identical within areas not distant more than 3˚ from a
common point.
Important Qualities of Map Materials for Cartographic Use

*Polyester Drafting Film:
a. High transparency
b. Dimensional stability
c. Tearing Strength
d. Resistance to heat and age
e. Tables either pencil or inkwork can be erased easily & clearly
MAP PROJECTIONS

The surface of a cylinder is curved in one direction only and can
be develop into a plane. The meridians and parallels are
projected into a cylinder which is tangent to the sphere and can
be develop into a plane.
The Mercator projection is one of the most famous and
widely used. It was introduced in 1569 by Mercator, a Dutch
cartographer, as a world map designed for navigation. This
projection is cylindrical but it cannot be constructed as a
geometrical projection.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Mercator Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
2. Gall Projection
This projection is derived from a cylinder cutting the
sphere at the 45°N and 45°S parallels or the standard parallels
of the projection. It was devised by James Gall, an Edinburgh
clergyman, in 1855 while working on an atlas of the stars. The
Gall projection shows parallels which are projected from the
antipodal point on the like to any meridian.
This projection is neither equal-area nor con-formal
and the resulting scale is not constant. Maps which are made by
this projection are useful for showing the distribution of climatic,
economic, and population data.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Gall Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
This projection resembles the Mercator projection but
shows less exaggeration of area in the higher latitudes. It was
D.M. Miller of the American Geographical Society, who worked
out this projection.
The projection is neither conformal nor equal-area and
it is widely used in atlases for climatic maps to portray
temperature and barometric pressure distributions, as WB as
wind flow directions and velocities.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Miller Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
Like the surface of a cylinder the surface of the cone is capable
of development without distortion into a plane. The cone is
tangent to the surface of the sphere and the cone is developed
into a plane.
This projection was devised in 1820 by Ferdinand
Hassler, the first director of the U.S. Coast Survey. Instead of a
single cone, a series of conical surfaces maybe used, points on
the surface of the earth being considered as projected to a
series of frustums of cones which are fitted together.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Polyconic projections are neither conformal nor
equal-area. Scale error is small near the central meridian but
increases tremendously away from it. In general the polyconic
is not suitable for large-scale maps. It is particularly ideal for
portraying countries which extend in a north-south direction
such as the Philippines, Chile, Finland, Sweden, and
Argentina.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Polyconic Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
2. Bonne Projection
This projection is named after Rigobert Bonne. It is an
equal area projection of the modified conical type with lines
presented as parallels and a central meridian intersecting near
the center of the map.
The Bonne projection is equal-area and shapes of
geographic features near the central meridian are accurately
portrayed. Distortion, however, increases progressively towards
the left and right. It is commonly used for countries in the middle
latitudes such as the continents of Asia, North and South
America, and Europe.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Bonne Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
3. Lambert Projection
This projection was invented in 1772 by J.H. Lambert,
a native of Alsace. Is a conic based upon two parallels where the
cone cuts through the sphere at two chosen standard parallels.
The graticule will show meridians as straight lines that
converge at the poles and, parallels which intersect the
meridians at right angles are shown as equally spaced
concentric circles. Between the two standard parallels the scale
is smaller than its true scale and outside it is larger than the true
scale. The scale is true along the standard parallels and
distortions are small. The projection is commonly used in
portraying areas running predominantly in an east-west direction
as in the case of the United States, China, Turkey, and Iran.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Lambert Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
Results in a map showing the correct direction or azimuth of any
point from one central point.
This projection is credited to Hipparchus, who lived in
Greece from about 160 to 125 B.C. He is known to be the father
of systematic astronomy as well as of mathematical mapping.
This projection has a unique quality in which any circle drawn on
the sphere will also show as a circle on the map, excepting
those which pass through the center which are simply straight
line diameters.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Stereographic Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
The orthographic projection may be considered as a
view of the sphere as it would appear from infinity. These
meridians appear as straight lines on the projection and are
accordingly distributed around the pole.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Orthographic Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
The gnomonic projection may be considered a
perspective projection upon a plane tangent to the sphere at
some point. In this projection, the eye point is at the center of the
sphere from which projection lines are drawn.
Maps portrayed by gnomonic projections are used for
navigation by trans-polar or trans-oceanic routes. They are also
used for radio and seismic work because the waves travel in
more or less great-circle directions.
Gnomonic Chart – a chart on the gnomonic projection called

great circle chart.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Gnomonic Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS

The Sinusoidal projection is sometimes referred to as
the Janson-Flamsteed projection. In this projection, the central
meridian is shown as a vertical line while the other meridians
appear as sine curves.
The Sinusoidal projection is particularly suitable for
maps on the equatorial regions, South America, Africa, and for
smaller countries extending in a north-south direction at high
latitudes. This projection is also frequently used in atlases to
portray continental features.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Sinusoidal Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS

Projection
This projection, which is sometimes called the Babinet
Equal-Area projection, is, reputed to be the most well known
elliptical projection of the earth.
Atlases and books on economic geography make use
of this projection to illustrate the relation of areas to the various
distributions, such as population, vegetation, rainfall, and
diseases.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Mollweide Homolographic Projection

MAP PROJECTIONS

It was the late Prof. J.P. Goode of the University of
Chicago who popularized in 1923 the process of interrupting and
recentering map projections.
In Goode's interrupted projection, the continental land
masses and oceans are portrayed separately on either side of a
single equator. A central meridian is chosen and the projection
around the meridian is duplicated as far to each side as is
necessary.
Maps prepared in this type of projection enables map
users to study and compare the distributions of climates,
population, natural resources, and other world relationships. World
maps using this type of projection are usually found in most
atlases.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Goode Interrupted Projection

MAP PROJECTIONS
This projection is similar to the Sinusoidal and to the
Mollweide, except that the pole is represented by a line half the
length of the equator instead of by a point. Because of this
distinguishing characteristic the polar areas are spread out in the
east-west direction.
This projection is commonly used in atlases to portray
varied statistical information such as population, administrative
and political structure, physical environment, and geography.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Eckert Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
This is another portrayal of an elliptical projection of the
earth. In appearance it is very similar to the Mollweide projection
except for the curved parallels. The polar axis and the equator
are the only lines which are drawn straight. All the other parallels
and meridians are curved lines. Since the parallels intersect the
meridians at slightly oblique angles the amount of angular
distortion is significantly reduced.
It is an equal-area projection which can portray a
realistic map of the world. Maps shown in this projection are
ideally suited for the portrayal of world-wide physical geography,
varied physical and cultural distributions, and a host of statistical
information.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Hammer-Aitoff Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
In these projections the earth is projected upon a
system of geometric figures such ass triangles, squares,
pentagons, hexagons, and cubes. These surfaces are then
opened up and laid out flat to form a map of the world.
MAP PROJECTIONS
6. 1. Cahill Butterfly Projection

The Cahill Butterfly projection is an example of a
heterohedral projection. It has only 4 lunes which are cut in half
to form 8 curvilinear triangles. Each of the octants portrays up to
90° of latitude and 90° of longitude. Although it is a uniquely
portrayed map, it is nearly true to shape and gives sufficiently
accurate scales, aside from being equal-area.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Cahill Butterfly Projection

MAP PROJECTIONS
6. 2. Star Projection
The Star projection is another type of heterohedral
projection in which the Northern Hemisphere is shown in a polar
projection with the southern continents added to it. Most star-
shaped maps are usually centered on the North Pole or on the
center of the land hemisphere which is located near Nantes,
France.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Star Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
6. 3. Fuller Projection
The Fuller projection portrays the earth as a flat-sided
solid. It was invented by R.B. Fuller, an Engineer and veteran
innovator sometime in the 1930's. It is in the shape of a cube
with the corners cut off so that it forms 6 squares and 8
equilateral triangles.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Fuller Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
CHOICE OF PROJECTION
The following three rules usually define the traditional approach
to the choice of a particular map projection system.
1. If the area to be portrayed lies in the tropics a cylindrical

projection should be employed.
2. Use a conical projection for the mapping of areas located in
temperate latitudes.
3. If the map is required to show one of the polar regions an
azimuthal projection should be used.
MAP PROJECTIONS
The Construction of Projection to Scale

Scale in map projections is an elusive thing, for only in
equivalent projections is there such a thing as consistent scale
all over the projection. In all projections the linear scale varies in
some way from place to place.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Techniques of Construction
Projections may be mechanically constructed in a number of
ways depending upon the system of projection and the
complexity of the grid to be produced.
1. Those which can be derived geometrically can be constructed

by working from an elevation of the globe drawn to the proper
scale, and then the grid may be derived by transfer methods.
2. They can be constructed by calculating the radii of curves and
spacings of parallels and meridians.
3. They can be constructed by consulting tables showing the X and
Y plane coordinates of the intersections of given parallels and
meridians, and then joining the points thus established by
smooth lines to the grid.
MAP PROJECTIONS
To construct to scale it is necessary
1. To reduce each unit by the scale ratio; and

2. To convert the tabular unit of measure to a convenient unit for
plotting
DEFINITION
Topographic Maps – shows by conventional symbols the culture,
drainage, relief and vegetation features of parts of the earth
surface.
Hydrographic Maps – is similar to a topographic maps but has its own
particular symbols. It contain lines of equal depth, interpolated
from soundings, datum used for elevations, conventional
symbols for land features.
METHODS OF REPRESENTING RELIEFS
a. spot heights f. shading
b. hachures g. relief models
c. form lines h. ridge and stream lining
d. contour lines i. subaqueous contour
e. layer tinting
Spot heights – the elevations of important features and critical points
such as road junctions, peaks, summits, sags and highway
crossings are indicated on the map and are known as spot
heights or spot elevations.
Hachures – are a series of short lines drawn in the direction of the
slope. For a steep slope the lines are heavy and closely spaced.
For a gentle slope they are fine and widely spaced.
Form lines – are drawn when not enough vertical control is available or
when the surface is too irregular or intricate to contour.
Contour lines – the most widely used method of quantitatively
representing hills, mountains, depressions and ground surface
undulations on a two-dimensional sheet of paper is by contour
lines or isohypses.
Layer tinting – parts of a map lying between two particular contours
may be colored in order that the distribution of high and low land
can be seen at a glance.
Shading – shading is an old method used to show relative elevations
on maps. It is dependent upon shadows cast by the elevated
portions of the land.
Relief or terrain models – provide the most striking and realistic
expression of topography.
Ridge and stream lining – is mainly used to emphasize the location of
low and high ground
Subaqueous contours – topographic maps often include areas of
navigable waters such as the seashore and large inland lakes.
The portrayal of relief of the ground underwater is done by using
depth curves or subaqueous contours.
TYPES OF CONTOURS
a. index contours
b. intermediate contours
c. supplemental contours
d. depression contours
e. approximate contours
Index contours – as a convenience in scaling elevations, and to provide
ease and speed in reading contours, a contour is shown by a
heavier line at regular intervals on a topographic map. These
heavier lines which are normally twice the gauge of the standard
contours are called the index contours. They are usually drawn
every fifth contour and carry the contour number or elevation
designation.
Intermediate contours – the four lighter weight contours found between
the index contours are the intermediate contours. These lines
are not usually labelled except where the terrain is relatively flat
and their elevations are not readily obvious.
Depression contours – are drawn to show how spots such as
excavations around which contours close.
Supplemental contours – certain portions of the map area sometimes
are so flat or level that the contours are too far apart to show
properly important breaks in the terrain. To better depict the
relief and remedy such situations, supplemental or auxillary
contours are used.
Approximate contours – in some instances contour accuracy cannot be
definitely determined. The area maybe inaccessible on the
ground or it may be difficult to interpret contours from aerial
photographs when heavy cloud or shadows occur. To portray a
reasonable idea of relative elevations, the map maker has to
make an educated guess rather than have a blank area in the
map. In these cases, the approximate contour is used.
The contour interval – the constant vertical distance between two
adjacent contour lines is termed the contour interval
- commonly fixed at multiple of 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100m.
For the following kind of terrain:

- flat to gently rolling – 1 to 5m.
- hilly – 5 to 20m.
- mountainous – 25 to 100m.
Contour Interval for Different Map Scales
Scale Interval Scale Interval

1:500 0.5m 1:25000 10m
1:2000 1m 1:50000 20m
1:5000 2m 1:100000 25m
1:10000 5 or 10m 1:250000 50m
Selection of Contour Interval
1. Relative Cost
2. Purpose of the Map
3. Nature of the Terrain
Characteristics of Contours
1. All points on any one contour have the same elevation.

2. Every contour closes on itself, either within or beyond the limits
of the map. The closure may occur within the mapped area, but
often happens outside the area and hence will not appear on the
map sheet.
3. A contour which closes within the limits of the map indicates
either a summit or a depression. Contours which increase in
elevation represent hills, those which decrease in elevation
portray valleys or excavations.
4. Contours on the ground cannot cross one another except where
an overhanging cliff, a vertical ledge or wall is represented on
the map.
Characteristics of Contours
5. Contours are spaced evenly on a uniform slope.
6. Contours are straight and parallel to each other on a plane
surface.
7. Irregular contours signify rough, rugged terrain.
8. The horizontal distance between adjacent contours indicates the
steepness of the slope of the ground. Where the contours are
relatively close together, the slope is comparatively steep, where
the contours are far apart, the slope is gentle.
9. Contours cross curbs and a crowned sloping street in typical U-
shaped curves.
10. As a contour approaches s stream, the contour turns upstream
until it intersects the shoreline. It then crosses the stream at right
angles to the center of the bed, and turns back along the
opposite bank of the stream.
Locating Contour Lines By Interpolation
The process of locating contour lines proportionally on the map
between plotted points is termed interpolation.
Some Methods Include:

1. By estimation
2. Rubber Band Method
3. Analytical Method
4. Triangle and Scale Method
5. Template Method
By Estimation
The process of interpolating contours by estimation is fast and
can produce results which are reasonable if extreme care is
exercised, and also if supplemented by approximate mental
computation.
The first step is to make a careful study of the positions of the

contour points and to try to visualize the changes in slope of the
terrain.
By Rubber Band Method

The use of a rubber band is another convenient method of
interpolating contour lines. The rubber band selected should be
sufficiently wide such that graduations at equal intervals can be
marked on it to form some kind of an elastic scale.
By Analytical Method
Arithmetical computations are employed where high accuracy is
desired in locating contour lines. This method is well suited for
drawing large-scale maps. Distances between points of known
elevations are measured and the location of contour points are
determined by proportion.
By Triangle and Scale Method

The method of interpolating points by using an engineer’s scale
and a triangle is an application of the geometric method of
dividing a line into a convenient number of equal parts. The
method provides an accurate and rapid procedure for
interpolating contour lines in which mathematical computations
are eliminated.
By Template Method
There are graphical devices which are used for interpolating
contour lines between plotted positions. These devices allow
many interpolations to be made quickly and accurately. One
such device is the contour template. It consists of a series of
equally spaced parallel lines that are drawn on transparent film
or paper using any specified scale. Usually, each fifth or tenth
line in the template is drawn heavier than the rest and
correspondingly numbered.
Common Types of Contour Templates
1. Template with Equally Spaced Parallel Lines
2. Template with Converging Lines
Methods of Obtaining Contours
1. Direct Method
Are those in which the contours to be plotted are actually traced
out in the field. The procedure involves the location and marking
of a series of points on each contour line. These points are
surveyed and plotted in the field and the appropriate contours
are drawn through them. The trace-contour method is one such
example that is used.
Trace-Contour Method
One of the most accurate and direct procedure of locating
contours is by the trace-contour method. Although this method is
quite accurate, it tends to be slow and costly to undertake. Plane
table is commonly used because requires fewer points less time
is needed.
Methods of Obtaining Contours
2. Indirect Method
Comprise those in which the points located as regards position
and elevation are not necessarily situated on the contours to be
shown, but serve on being plotted, as a basis for the
interpolation of the required contours.
The following field methods for obtaining topographic detail fall under
indirect method:
1. Coordinate Method
2. Controlling-Point Method
3. Cross Profile Method
4. Photogrammetric Method
Coordinate Method
One way of locating and plotting the contours of a given area is
to utilize a grid or coordinate system. Dimensions are usually 5,
10, 15, 20, or 30m.
1. On a grid system lay out the area by establishing corners and

perimeter stakes
2. At the intersections of the grid lines determine the elevations.
3. Plot the points of known elevation to the desired scale in plan.
4. Draw the contour lines by interpolation.
Controlling-Point Method
The controlling-point method of obtaining contours is considered
to be one with the most universal application. Points are
selected at random or along selected lines. Specifically, the
controlling points are the points on the earth’s surface where
changes on ground slope occur.
Cross-Profile Method
Is principally used in locating contours along a route or other
narrow area of terrain. It is a modification of the method of cross-
sectioning in route surveys. The method is particularly
appropriate for surveys required in the construction of roadways,
railways, canals, irrigation ditches and in the installation of
pipelines or sewer lines.
Photogrammetric Method
The availability of aerial photographs and the development of
photogrammetric methods have expanded rapidly our know-how
in the construction of topographic maps. Using photogrammetric
method, contours maybe plotted from aerial photographs of the
terrain
MAP PROJECTIONS
Map Projection
Any system of representing the parallels and meridians on a
plane surface.
Chart / Map
A map showing a large portion (or all) of the earth, where
curvature of the surface becomes a factor.
Plan
A map depicting only a small area.
MAP PROJECTIONS
MAP PROJECTIONS

2. Gall Projection
2. Bonne Projection
3. Lambert Projection or Lambert Conformal Conic Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
MAP PROJECTIONS

Projection
a. Cahill Projection or Cahill Butterfly Projection
b. Star Projection
c. Fuller Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
PROJECTION PROPERTY GEOMETRICAL FORM
1. Stereographic Conformal Azimuthal

2. Mercator Conformal Cylindrical
3. Sinusoidal Equal Area Miscellaneous
4. Gnomonic Azimuthal
5. Bonne Equal Area Conic (modified)
6. Lambert Conformal Conic
7. Mollweide Equal Area Miscellaneous
8. Polyconic Conic (modified)
9. Homolosine Equal Area Miscellaneous
10.Orthographic Azimuthal
MAP PROJECTIONS
Properties of Map Projections

1. Areas should be directly comparable over the entire map
(Equal Area).
2. Shapes of smaller features should be preserved although the
slope of entire countries may be distorted (Conformal).
3. Distances on the map between any pair of points should be in
constant scale ratio.
4. Great circles should represent straight lines on the projection
(Gnomonic)
5. Positions by latitude or longitude should be easily found
(Mercator).
MAP PROJECTIONS
Note: The three projections, Polyconic, Bonne and Lambert may be

considered identical within areas not distant more than 3˚ from a
common point.
Important Qualities of Map Materials for Cartographic Use

*Polyester Drafting Film:
a. High transparency
b. Dimensional stability
c. Tearing Strength
d. Resistance to heat and age
e. Tables either pencil or inkwork can be erased easily & clearly
MAP PROJECTIONS

The surface of a cylinder is curved in one direction only and can
be develop into a plane. The meridians and parallels are
projected into a cylinder which is tangent to the sphere and can
be develop into a plane.
The Mercator projection is one of the most famous and
widely used. It was introduced in 1569 by Mercator, a Dutch
cartographer, as a world map designed for navigation. This
projection is cylindrical but it cannot be constructed as a
geometrical projection.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Mercator Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
2. Gall Projection
This projection is derived from a cylinder cutting the
sphere at the 45°N and 45°S parallels or the standard parallels
of the projection. It was devised by James Gall, an Edinburgh
clergyman, in 1855 while working on an atlas of the stars. The
Gall projection shows parallels which are projected from the
antipodal point on the like to any meridian.
This projection is neither equal-area nor con-formal
and the resulting scale is not constant. Maps which are made by
this projection are useful for showing the distribution of climatic,
economic, and population data.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Gall Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
This projection resembles the Mercator projection but
shows less exaggeration of area in the higher latitudes. It was
D.M. Miller of the American Geographical Society, who worked
out this projection.
The projection is neither conformal nor equal-area and
it is widely used in atlases for climatic maps to portray
temperature and barometric pressure distributions, as WB as
wind flow directions and velocities.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Miller Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
Like the surface of a cylinder the surface of the cone is capable
of development without distortion into a plane. The cone is
tangent to the surface of the sphere and the cone is developed
into a plane.
This projection was devised in 1820 by Ferdinand
Hassler, the first director of the U.S. Coast Survey. Instead of a
single cone, a series of conical surfaces maybe used, points on
the surface of the earth being considered as projected to a
series of frustums of cones which are fitted together.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Polyconic projections are neither conformal nor
equal-area. Scale error is small near the central meridian but
increases tremendously away from it. In general the polyconic
is not suitable for large-scale maps. It is particularly ideal for
portraying countries which extend in a north-south direction
such as the Philippines, Chile, Finland, Sweden, and
Argentina.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Polyconic Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
2. Bonne Projection
This projection is named after Rigobert Bonne. It is an
equal area projection of the modified conical type with lines
presented as parallels and a central meridian intersecting near
the center of the map.
The Bonne projection is equal-area and shapes of
geographic features near the central meridian are accurately
portrayed. Distortion, however, increases progressively towards
the left and right. It is commonly used for countries in the middle
latitudes such as the continents of Asia, North and South
America, and Europe.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Bonne Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
3. Lambert Projection
This projection was invented in 1772 by J.H. Lambert,
a native of Alsace. Is a conic based upon two parallels where the
cone cuts through the sphere at two chosen standard parallels.
The graticule will show meridians as straight lines that
converge at the poles and, parallels which intersect the
meridians at right angles are shown as equally spaced
concentric circles. Between the two standard parallels the scale
is smaller than its true scale and outside it is larger than the true
scale. The scale is true along the standard parallels and
distortions are small. The projection is commonly used in
portraying areas running predominantly in an east-west direction
as in the case of the United States, China, Turkey, and Iran.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Lambert Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
Results in a map showing the correct direction or azimuth of any
point from one central point.
This projection is credited to Hipparchus, who lived in
Greece from about 160 to 125 B.C. He is known to be the father
of systematic astronomy as well as of mathematical mapping.
This projection has a unique quality in which any circle drawn on
the sphere will also show as a circle on the map, excepting
those which pass through the center which are simply straight
line diameters.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Stereographic Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
The orthographic projection may be considered as a
view of the sphere as it would appear from infinity. These
meridians appear as straight lines on the projection and are
accordingly distributed around the pole.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Orthographic Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
The gnomonic projection may be considered a
perspective projection upon a plane tangent to the sphere at
some point. In this projection, the eye point is at the center of the
sphere from which projection lines are drawn.
Maps portrayed by gnomonic projections are used for
navigation by trans-polar or trans-oceanic routes. They are also
used for radio and seismic work because the waves travel in
more or less great-circle directions.
Gnomonic Chart – a chart on the gnomonic projection called

great circle chart.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Gnomonic Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS

The Sinusoidal projection is sometimes referred to as
the Janson-Flamsteed projection. In this projection, the central
meridian is shown as a vertical line while the other meridians
appear as sine curves.
The Sinusoidal projection is particularly suitable for
maps on the equatorial regions, South America, Africa, and for
smaller countries extending in a north-south direction at high
latitudes. This projection is also frequently used in atlases to
portray continental features.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Sinusoidal Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS

Projection
This projection, which is sometimes called the Babinet
Equal-Area projection, is, reputed to be the most well known
elliptical projection of the earth.
Atlases and books on economic geography make use
of this projection to illustrate the relation of areas to the various
distributions, such as population, vegetation, rainfall, and
diseases.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Mollweide Homolographic Projection

MAP PROJECTIONS

It was the late Prof. J.P. Goode of the University of
Chicago who popularized in 1923 the process of interrupting and
recentering map projections.
In Goode's interrupted projection, the continental land
masses and oceans are portrayed separately on either side of a
single equator. A central meridian is chosen and the projection
around the meridian is duplicated as far to each side as is
necessary.
Maps prepared in this type of projection enables map
users to study and compare the distributions of climates,
population, natural resources, and other world relationships. World
maps using this type of projection are usually found in most
atlases.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Goode Interrupted Projection

MAP PROJECTIONS
This projection is similar to the Sinusoidal and to the
Mollweide, except that the pole is represented by a line half the
length of the equator instead of by a point. Because of this
distinguishing characteristic the polar areas are spread out in the
east-west direction.
This projection is commonly used in atlases to portray
varied statistical information such as population, administrative
and political structure, physical environment, and geography.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Eckert Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
This is another portrayal of an elliptical projection of the
earth. In appearance it is very similar to the Mollweide projection
except for the curved parallels. The polar axis and the equator
are the only lines which are drawn straight. All the other parallels
and meridians are curved lines. Since the parallels intersect the
meridians at slightly oblique angles the amount of angular
distortion is significantly reduced.
It is an equal-area projection which can portray a
realistic map of the world. Maps shown in this projection are
ideally suited for the portrayal of world-wide physical geography,
varied physical and cultural distributions, and a host of statistical
information.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Hammer-Aitoff Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
In these projections the earth is projected upon a
system of geometric figures such ass triangles, squares,
pentagons, hexagons, and cubes. These surfaces are then
opened up and laid out flat to form a map of the world.
MAP PROJECTIONS
6. 1. Cahill Butterfly Projection

The Cahill Butterfly projection is an example of a
heterohedral projection. It has only 4 lunes which are cut in half
to form 8 curvilinear triangles. Each of the octants portrays up to
90° of latitude and 90° of longitude. Although it is a uniquely
portrayed map, it is nearly true to shape and gives sufficiently
accurate scales, aside from being equal-area.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Cahill Butterfly Projection

MAP PROJECTIONS
6. 2. Star Projection
The Star projection is another type of heterohedral
projection in which the Northern Hemisphere is shown in a polar
projection with the southern continents added to it. Most star-
shaped maps are usually centered on the North Pole or on the
center of the land hemisphere which is located near Nantes,
France.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Star Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
6. 3. Fuller Projection
The Fuller projection portrays the earth as a flat-sided
solid. It was invented by R.B. Fuller, an Engineer and veteran
innovator sometime in the 1930's. It is in the shape of a cube
with the corners cut off so that it forms 6 squares and 8
equilateral triangles.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Fuller Projection
MAP PROJECTIONS
CHOICE OF PROJECTION
The following three rules usually define the traditional approach
to the choice of a particular map projection system.
1. If the area to be portrayed lies in the tropics a cylindrical

projection should be employed.
2. Use a conical projection for the mapping of areas located in
temperate latitudes.
3. If the map is required to show one of the polar regions an
azimuthal projection should be used.
MAP PROJECTIONS
The Construction of Projection to Scale

Scale in map projections is an elusive thing, for only in
equivalent projections is there such a thing as consistent scale
all over the projection. In all projections the linear scale varies in
some way from place to place.
MAP PROJECTIONS
Techniques of Construction
Projections may be mechanically constructed in a number of
ways depending upon the system of projection and the
complexity of the grid to be produced.
1. Those which can be derived geometrically can be constructed

by working from an elevation of the globe drawn to the proper
scale, and then the grid may be derived by transfer methods.
2. They can be constructed by calculating the radii of curves and
spacings of parallels and meridians.
3. They can be constructed by consulting tables showing the X and
Y plane coordinates of the intersections of given parallels and
meridians, and then joining the points thus established by
smooth lines to the grid.
MAP PROJECTIONS
To construct to scale it is necessary
1. To reduce each unit by the scale ratio; and

2. To convert the tabular unit of measure to a convenient unit for
plotting

Geng 3 - Cartography: Map Projections

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GENG 3 - CARTOGRAPHY

Major Types of Projections

A. Cylindrical Projections or Equirectangular Projections

Major Types of Projections

A. Cylindrical Projections or Equirectangular Projections

Major Types of Projections

Other Types of Projections

PROJECTION PROPERTY GEOMETRICAL FORM

1. Stereographic Conformal Azimuthal

Properties of Map Projections

Note: The three projections, Polyconic, Bonne and Lambert may be

Important Qualities of Map Materials for Cartographic Use

A. Cylindrical Projections or Equirectangular Projections

Gnomonic Chart – a chart on the gnomonic projection called

Other Types of Projections

1. Sinusoidal Projection or Janson or Flamsteed Projection

Other Types of Projections

2. Mollweide Homolographic Projection or Babinet Equal Area

Mollweide Homolographic Projection

Other Types of Projections

Goode Interrupted Projection

Other Types of Projections

Other Types of Projections

Other Types of Projections

Other Types of Projections

6. 1. Cahill Butterfly Projection

Cahill Butterfly Projection

Other Types of Projections

Other Types of Projections

1. If the area to be portrayed lies in the tropics a cylindrical

The Construction of Projection to Scale

1. Those which can be derived geometrically can be constructed

To construct to scale it is necessary

1. To reduce each unit by the scale ratio; and

For the following kind of terrain:

Contour Interval for Different Map Scales

Scale Interval Scale Interval

Selection of Contour Interval

1. All points on any one contour have the same elevation.

Some Methods Include:

The first step is to make a careful study of the positions of the

By Rubber Band Method

By Triangle and Scale Method

Methods of Obtaining Contours

Methods of Obtaining Contours

1. On a grid system lay out the area by establishing corners and

Major Types of Projections

A. Cylindrical Projections or Equirectangular Projections

Major Types of Projections

A. Cylindrical Projections or Equirectangular Projections

Major Types of Projections

Other Types of Projections

PROJECTION PROPERTY GEOMETRICAL FORM

1. Stereographic Conformal Azimuthal

Properties of Map Projections

Note: The three projections, Polyconic, Bonne and Lambert may be

Important Qualities of Map Materials for Cartographic Use

A. Cylindrical Projections or Equirectangular Projections

Gnomonic Chart – a chart on the gnomonic projection called

Other Types of Projections

1. Sinusoidal Projection or Janson or Flamsteed Projection

Other Types of Projections

2. Mollweide Homolographic Projection or Babinet Equal Area

Mollweide Homolographic Projection

Other Types of Projections

Goode Interrupted Projection

Other Types of Projections

Other Types of Projections

Other Types of Projections

Other Types of Projections

6. 1. Cahill Butterfly Projection

Cahill Butterfly Projection

Other Types of Projections

Other Types of Projections

1. If the area to be portrayed lies in the tropics a cylindrical

The Construction of Projection to Scale