Owa Suction Caisson Design Guidelines Report

Offshore Wind Accelerator
Suction Installed Caisson

Foundations for Offshore Wind:
Design Guidelines
February 2019
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................. i
LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................................... v
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................... vii
Disclaimer .............................................................................................................................................. viii
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................. ix
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................1
1.1 Objectives ....................................................................................................................1
1.2 Offshore Wind Accelerator background .....................................................................1
1.3 Suction Installed Caisson Foundations (SICF) background ..........................................1
1.4 Stakeholders ................................................................................................................2
1.5 Extents and limitations ................................................................................................2
1.6 Document structure ....................................................................................................3
2. Terminology, Notations and Abbreviations ............................................................................4
2.1 Terminology.................................................................................................................4
2.2 Conventions.................................................................................................................7
2.3 Abbreviations ..............................................................................................................7
3. Design Principles ...................................................................................................................10
3.1 Safety philosophy ......................................................................................................10
3.2 Limit states ................................................................................................................10
3.2.1 Ultimate Limit State (ULS) ...................................................................................10
3.2.2 Accidental Limit State (ALS) .................................................................................11
3.2.3 Fatigue Limit State (FLS) ......................................................................................11
3.2.4 Serviceability Limit State (SLS) .............................................................................11
3.3 Design Optimisation ..................................................................................................12
3.4 Design by LRFD (partial safety factor) method .........................................................13
3.4.1 Approach .............................................................................................................13
3.4.2 Load and material factors for WTG foundations .................................................14
3.4.3 Load and material factors for offshore substation foundations .........................15
4. Site Geotechnical Conditions ................................................................................................16
4.1 Site characterisation requirements ...........................................................................16
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4.2 Geotechnical hazards ................................................................................................17
4.3 Geophysical survey ....................................................................................................18
4.4 Geotechnical survey ..................................................................................................19
4.5 Ground model ...........................................................................................................21
4.6 Geotechnical parameters for design and installation ...............................................21
4.7 Special considerations for selection of soil parameters............................................22
4.8 Clustering...................................................................................................................23
5. Foundation Loading ..............................................................................................................24
5.1 General ......................................................................................................................24
5.2 Interfaces between model elements ........................................................................24
5.2.1 Sign convention ...................................................................................................24
5.2.2 Load reference point (interface point) ................................................................25
5.3 Foundation load components ...................................................................................25
5.4 Load cases .................................................................................................................25
5.5 Load generation and modelling.................................................................................26
5.5.1 Design process .....................................................................................................26
5.5.2 Integrated Load Analysis (ILA) / Coupled approach ............................................27
5.5.3 Sequential Load Analysis (SLA) / Uncoupled approach .......................................27
5.5.4 Comparison of Integrated and Sequential Load Analysis ....................................28
5.6 Foundation damping .................................................................................................29
5.7 Extraction of loads acting on SICFs............................................................................30
5.7.1 Relevant load characteristics ...............................................................................30
5.7.2 Reporting .............................................................................................................31
6. Installation Design ................................................................................................................32
6.1 Installation design and risk management .................................................................32
6.2 Penetration resistance ..............................................................................................32
6.2.1 Mechanism-based methods ................................................................................34
6.2.2 CPT-based methods .............................................................................................36
6.3 Touch down and self-weight penetration .................................................................37
6.4 Suction installation ....................................................................................................38
6.4.1 Limits to suction pressures ..................................................................................38
6.4.2 Installation tolerances – penetration and verticality ..........................................41
6.5 Trial installations .......................................................................................................42
6.6 Non-homogenous soils for installation .....................................................................42
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6.6.1 Installation in layered or heterogeneous soils ....................................................43
6.6.2 Installation in other materials .............................................................................43
6.7 Multi-chamber designs..............................................................................................44
7. Site Installation Operations ..................................................................................................45
7.1 Criticality....................................................................................................................45
7.2 Instrumentation ........................................................................................................45
7.3 Seabed preparation and scour protection ................................................................46
7.4 Lowering through splash zone (venting) and touchdown.........................................47
7.5 Self-weight penetration ............................................................................................48
7.6 Suction-assisted penetration.....................................................................................48
7.7 Underbase filling .......................................................................................................49
7.7.1 Considerations for underbase filling....................................................................49
7.7.2 Functional specification .......................................................................................49
7.7.3 Standard grouting procedures and equipment ...................................................50
7.8 Installation hazards ...................................................................................................51
7.8.1 Instability during touchdown...............................................................................51
7.8.2 Piping or ratholing ...............................................................................................51
7.8.3 Shallow obstructions ...........................................................................................51
7.8.4 Structural issues...................................................................................................52
7.8.5 Tilting ...................................................................................................................52
7.8.6 Soil plug failure ....................................................................................................53
7.9 Potential mitigation measures ..................................................................................53
7.9.1 Pre-emptive mitigation measures .......................................................................53
7.9.2 Reactive mitigation measures .............................................................................54
7.9.3 Selection of appropriate mitigation methods .....................................................55
7.9.4 Water injection systems ......................................................................................55
7.10 Non-circular caissons.................................................................................................56
8. In-service Design ...................................................................................................................57
8.1 General background ..................................................................................................57
8.2 Loading regime ..........................................................................................................57
8.3 Geotechnical analysis ................................................................................................58
8.3.1 Soil layering..........................................................................................................58
8.3.2 Drained versus undrained analyses .....................................................................58
8.4 Conventional bearing capacity and VHM envelopes ................................................60
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8.5 Simplifying design assumptions ................................................................................62
8.6 Ultimate resistance ...................................................................................................63
8.6.1 Multi-caisson structures ......................................................................................63
8.6.2 Mono-caissons .....................................................................................................67
8.7 Stiffness .....................................................................................................................68
8.7.1 Small-strain shear modulus .................................................................................68
8.7.2 Modulus reduction with strain ............................................................................69
8.7.3 Vertical, horizontal and rotational stiffness ........................................................70
8.7.4 Damping...............................................................................................................70
8.7.5 Layered profiles ...................................................................................................71
8.8 Permanent deformations ..........................................................................................72
8.8.1 General ................................................................................................................72
8.8.2 Permanent vertical deformation (settlement) ....................................................72
8.8.3 Permanent rotation (tilt) .....................................................................................73
8.9 Advanced modelling approaches ..............................................................................73
8.9.1 Finite element analysis ........................................................................................73
8.9.2 VHM envelopes and the use of VHM approach ..................................................74
8.9.3 Macro-element modelling ...................................................................................75
8.10 Other considerations relating to in-service performance .........................................75
8.10.1 Scour and scour protection ...............................................................................75
8.10.2 Interaction with jack-up spudcans.....................................................................75
8.11 Observed in-service performance .............................................................................76
9. Decommissioning ..................................................................................................................77
9.1 Soil properties ...........................................................................................................77
9.2 Extraction pressures ..................................................................................................77
9.3 Review of as-built data ..............................................................................................78
9.4 Practical considerations ............................................................................................78
10. Technical References ............................................................................................................79
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1: Suction installed caisson foundation terminology ..................................................................5
Table 3-2: DNVGL-ST-0126 LRFD Methodology .....................................................................................13
Table 3-3: Partial Safety Factors for WTG Loads (DNVGL-ST-0437) .......................................................14
Table 3-4: Partial Safety Factors for OSS Loads (Ref DNVGL-ST-0145) ..................................................15
Table 4-5: Site characterisation stages...................................................................................................16
Table 4-6: Examples of geotechnical and geological hazards ................................................................17
Table 5-7: Comparison of Integrated (ILA) and Sequential Load Analysis (SLA) ....................................29
Table 6-8: Indicative CPT method factors ..............................................................................................37
Table 7-9: Installation parameters and instrumentation .......................................................................45
Table 7-10: Scour protection installation ...............................................................................................47
Table 7-11: Installation hazards and suggested mitigation methods ....................................................55
Table A-1: Geotechnical parameters and indicative test types .............................................................84
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1: Typical structural configurations............................................................................................4
Figure 2-2: Suction installed caisson components ...................................................................................5
Figure 2-3: Sign convention for foundation loads and displacements.....................................................7
Figure 3-4: Design Optimisation .............................................................................................................12
Figure 4-5: Basic geotechnical survey recommendations ......................................................................20
Figure 5-6: Load Reference Point ...........................................................................................................25
Figure 5-7: Design Process for Integrated and Sequential Load Analysis ..............................................28
Figure 5-8: Load characteristics relevant for suction caisson foundation design ..................................30
Figure 6-9: Example penetration resistance plots..................................................................................33
Figure 6-10: Structural integrity assessment for installation case .........................................................39
Figure 8-11: Comparison typical load duration – drainage comparison ................................................59
Figure 8-12: Indicative VHM failure envelopes and load paths .............................................................61
Figure 8-13: Kinematic constraints on failure mechanisms for multi-footing structures ......................65
Figure 8-14: Example shear modulus reduction with shear strain ........................................................69
Figure 8-15: Example of dependency of damping ratio on cyclic shear strain ......................................71
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix A – Geotechnical parameters and indicative tests ................................................................84
Appendix B - Observed in-service performance.....................................................................................86
Appendix C – Simplified Capacity Methods ...........................................................................................87
Introduction ..........................................................................................................................87
Soil resistance on side of caisson ..........................................................................................88
Effective area ........................................................................................................................89
Bearing capacity: undrained analysis....................................................................................89
Bearing capacity: drained analysis ........................................................................................90
Sliding check..........................................................................................................................90
Vertical loading: tension .......................................................................................................91
Combined loading – tension .................................................................................................92
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DISCLAIMER
This report is issued by the Carbon Trust on behalf of the Offshore Wind Accelerator programme (“OWA”).
The procedures, methods and guidelines herein are meant as a guide only. It is essential that the reader has
a thorough understanding of offshore geotechnical engineering before following the general guidance
contained in this report. While reasonable steps have been taken to ensure that the information within this
report is accurate, the authors, the Carbon Trust and its agents and consultants and the partners and the
developers within the OWA (and each of them), to the fullest extent permitted by law, shall not have nor be
deemed to have: (1) a duty of care to readers and/or users of this report; (2) made or given any warranty,
undertaking or representation (in each case whether express or implied) as to its accuracy, adequacy,
applicability or completeness; and/or (3) have accepted any liability whatsoever for any errors or omissions
(whether negligent or otherwise) within it. It should also be noted that this report has been produced from
information related to specific dates and periods referred to in it. Users and readers of this report shall only
read and/or use this report on the basis that they do so at their own risk. The intellectual property rights in
this report shall be deemed, as between readers and user of this report and the Carbon Trust, to belong to
the Carbon Trust.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
AUTHORS
This document was produced on behalf of the Offshore Wind Accelerator by the following author team:
Lead Author: Cathie Associates (David Cathie & Jamie Irvine)
Cathie Associates provides geoscience, geophysical and geotechnical
engineering consultancy services to the offshore oil, gas and renewable
energy industries.
Co-author: Oxford University Innovation (Guy Houlsby & Byron Byrne)

Oxford University Innovation is a wholly-owned subsidiary of the
University of Oxford. The University of Oxford is a world leading
university based in the UK. Its Geotechnical Engineering group is based
within the Civil Engineering Research group in the Department of
Engineering Science and conducts research into soil mechanics and
structures.
Co-author: SPT Offshore (Stefan Buykx, Marijn Dekker, Eric Jansen, OJ

Dijkstra & Tjeerd Schuhmacher)
SPT Offshore is the leading offshore contractor for suction pile anchors
and foundations. SPT Offshore manages and undertakes EPCI projects
worldwide, providing services from engineering to installation of single
suction anchors for moorings to complete Suction Installed Caisson
Foundations (SICF) and self-installing platforms.
Reviewer: Lloyd’s Register (Neil Morgan)

Lloyd’s Register provides services to the offshore wind industry that
include site assessment, energy resource assessment, risk
management, grid connections, certification & classification, project
certification, performance optimisation, owner’s engineer and
technology qualification
February 2019 – Issue 1.0 | ix

REVIEWERS
Further acknowledgement is given to the Offshore Wind Accelerator partners for their input and contribution
to the development of the guidelines.
The Offshore Wind Accelerator would also like to thank the following organisations for their input,
collaboration and review comments on this document:
 Leibniz Universität Hannover (Martin Achmus)

 DNV GL (David Maloney)
 Universal Foundation (Søren Nielsen)
 Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (Hendrik Sturm)
February 2019 – Issue 1.0 |x

Suction Installed Caisson Foundations for Offshore Wind: OWA Design Guidelines
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Objectives
The main objectives of this document are to:
 Provide design guidelines for SICF for offshore wind applications;

 Increase confidence in the use of suction caissons in the offshore wind industry;
 Provide greater clarity to designers and developers on the key issues to consider when
designing suction caissons.
The document provides guidance on how to undertake the geotechnical design of suction caisson
foundations. Therefore, it is expected that these guidelines will be utilised by experienced
geotechnical engineers.
1.2 Offshore Wind Accelerator background

The Offshore Wind Accelerator (OWA) is a world leading industry-led collaborative programme
between the UK Government, Scottish Government and industry, designed and led by the Carbon
Trust. The multi-million-pound programme has been running since 2008 with the aim of reducing the
cost of low carbon electricity produced by offshore wind farms.
Suction Installed Caisson Foundations (SICF) have been identified as having the potential for reducing
installation costs and offshore vessel time for offshore wind projects. Several developments have
utilised suction caissons. However, there is still a lack of knowledge and some uncertainties regarding
this foundation type. The Offshore Wind Accelerator sponsored the development of this design
guidance document as a method of addressing this issue.
1.3 Suction Installed Caisson Foundations (SICF) background

Suction caissons, also referred to as suction anchors, suction piles, suction buckets or SICAs (Suction
Installed Caisson Anchors) are an offshore foundation type developed in the 1990s for offshore oil and
gas applications (Bye et al., 1995); (Andersen et al., 2005). A suction caisson foundation can be
described as a large steel cylinder, open at the bottom and sealed at the top. After an initial
penetration under its own weight, the caisson is embedded into the seabed to target depth by creating
a negative (suction) pressure inside the caisson, and the resultant pressure differential across the top
plate effectively pushes the caisson into the seabed.
Some potential benefits of Suction Installed Caisson Foundations (SICF) are:
 They can be integrated with the jacket/TP (Transition Piece) substructure and installed in a
single operation, potentially reducing offshore time and the number of offshore lifts.
 The cost of the installation spread is reduced, as pile-driving equipment is not required. Pumps
are required but these tend to be lighter and easier to handle than piling hammers.
 SICF installations are almost silent, meaning less disturbance for marine life and therefore no
requirement for noise mitigation equipment which can add to the cost and timescales of pile
installation.
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 The weight and seabed footprint area of SICF structures is generally much less than Gravity
Base Structures (GBS), meaning greater flexibility with installation vessels and potentially little
or no seabed preparation.
 At the end of its service life, a SICF can be completely removed from the seabed by reversing
the installation process, leaving no steel behind.
The main disadvantage is that SICF installation is particularly sensitive to ground conditions, and even
relatively small variations in soil composition and/or strength could have a significant effect on
installation design.
Further background information on SICFs is provided in Byrne and Houlsby, (2003); Ibsen and Brincker,
(2004); Houlsby et al., (2005); Ibsen et al., (2005), (Sturm (2018).
1.4 Stakeholders
The various stakeholders involved in an offshore wind project approach SICFs from different
perspectives:
 A developer’s priority will be risk management (technical, temporal and financial), and
delivering the project on time with costs as low as reasonably possible;
 Designers will focus on design parameters, calculation methods and SICF dimensioning;
 Certifiers will focus on design and operational/installation risks and ensure calculations are
reasonable and prudent;
 Fabricators will focus on design requirements and SICF dimensioning;
 Installation contractors will focus on installation risks and mitigation methods;
 This document has been prepared to provide a balanced guideline addressing the needs of all
stakeholders.
1.5 Extents and limitations

These design guidelines are for the geotechnical design of suction caissons for substructure
foundations, assuming the work is undertaken by a suitably competent engineer and do not cover:
 Structural design of suction caissons (although some guidance for buckling design related to
installation is presented);
 Design of suction anchors for floating offshore wind developments, although similar principles
could be used.
Where appropriate these guidelines reproduce formulae and recommended values from other
relevant design standards and publications to avoid the requirement to reference multiple
documents. It is the responsibility of the end user to ensure that the references are still current, and
the values detailed are still applicable.
These guidelines present the current state of knowledge and good industry practice for SICF design.
They do not provide a detailed State-of-the-Art review, nor propose design methods that are still
topics for research. Therefore, this document cannot provide definitive guidance on topics such as
repeated loading into tension, permanent deformations due to cyclic loading, foundation damping,
and installation in all soil conditions. However, where relevant, the reader is directed to recent

publications for further guidance and to new methods which are under development, with the
necessary caveats.
1.6 Document structure

Starting from Design Principles (Section 3), Site Conditions (Section 4) and SICF loading (Section 5) the
document then outlines Installation Design (Sections 6 and 7), because the SICF must be installable,
before moving to In-Service Design (Section 8) and Decommissioning (Section 9).

2. TERMINOLOGY, NOTATIONS AND

ABBREVIATIONS
2.1 Terminology
Suction Installed Caisson Foundations are used with two main substructure configurations (see Figure
2-1) as detailed below with indicative loading regimes:
 Mono-caisson: where the sub-structure is supported by a single large diameter caisson.

Typically, the response and capacity of the caisson under the influence of overturning
moments is the key design factor.
 Multi-caisson: where the sub-structure is typically supported by 3 or 4 caissons. Figure 2-1(b)
shows a tetrapod style sub-structure but tubular jackets are more common. Typically, the
vertical response and capacity of the caissons is the key design factor, and specifically the
capacity of the “upwind” caisson which may experience tension uplift.
Figure 2-1: Typical structural configurations
(a) mono-caisson; (b) multi-caisson (assuming a tetrapod design)
H
H
V V e
e
V1 = V2 =
V/4 – He/2s V/4 + He/2s
M = He
H H1 H2
= H/4 = H/4
S
V
(a) (b)
*Blue arrows show resultant applied structural loads
**Red arrows show the consequent loads on the foundation (for case b, the loads are for a 4-footed
jacket assuming equal distribution of horizontal load and no moment transmitted to individual
foundations)

There is a wide variety of terminology used for discussing suction caisson foundations. The
terminology used in this document is presented in Figure 2-2 and Table 2-1. The table includes some
widely used terms which may not fully describe the physical reality, but which have been retained for
continuity and completeness.
Figure 2-2: Suction installed caisson components
Top hatch
Top plate
Underbase
Mudline
Internal
Skirt: Skirt:
Soil Plug
Outer Inner
surface surface SICF Installed
Skirt SICF Skirt
embedment
length, L
depth, h
Skirt wall
thickness, t
Inner diameter, Di
Skirt Tip
Outer diameter, Do
Table 2-1: Suction installed caisson foundation terminology

Term Description Alternatives
Suction bucket
Suction caisson
Suction The entire structural foundation. This is preferred as it
Installed is applicable to all geometries and applications. Caisson Suction anchor
Caisson is the proper engineering term for a large diameter Suction pile
Foundation embedded foundation while bucket is a more colloquial
(SICF) term. SICA (Suction Installed
Caisson Anchor)
Skirted foundation
The structural plate or cover at the top of the SICF

which provides the seal to allow the underpressure to Base plate
Top plate
be developed and distributes the load from the Lid
connection point to the skirt and seabed.
Vent
Vent(s) provided to allow water to escape during
Top hatch seabed landing often integrated with the pumping Pump flange
system
Suction interface

Term Description Alternatives
Shaft
The side wall of the SICF, with the majority embedded
below seabed as shown in Figure 2-2, generally Shell
Skirt
cylindrical, but other shapes such as square, triangular, Side
or lotus shapes are also in use.
Wall
Secondary sections or plates attached to the top plate

Stiffener and/or skirt to ‘stiffen’ them against buckling and/or Supports
out of plane deformations
Mudline
Seabed The initial undisturbed in-situ seabed level.
Seafloor
The negative pressure differential developed inside the

SICF when pumping water out to cause the pressure
differential required to penetrate the SICF.
Suction pressure
Underpressure Note that an absolute “negative pressure” is never
Negative pressure
developed. Pumping leads to a pressure differential
which is generally reported as a negative pressure
relative to the ambient pressure, e.g. at top plate level.
The positive pressure relative to ambient pressure

developed inside the SICF when pumping water in to
create a pressure differential to extract the foundation
Overpressure from the seabed. Positive pressure
An overpressure can also be created during the self-
weight penetration of the caisson if venting is not
adequate to allow escape of water.

2.2 Conventions
For these guidelines, the sign convention adopted is shown in Figure 2-3.
Figure 2-3: Sign convention for foundation loads and displacements

Reference position
Current
Currentposition
position
w
M
H

u V
V
Where:
V Vertical load
H Horizontal load
M Overturning moment
w Vertical displacement
u Horizontal displacement
 Rotation
Note: Displacements shown are much exaggerated for clarity. Loads are shown as the loads applied
by the SICF to the ground.
2.3 Abbreviations
BH Borehole
CPT Cone Penetration Test
DLC Design Load Case
FEA Finite element analysis
GBS Gravity Base Structures
LAT Lowest Astronomical Tide

MSL Mean Sea Level
OSS Offshore substation
SICF Suction installed caisson foundation
WTG Wind turbine generator
VHM Vertical-Horizontal-Moment (see Figure 8-12)
Vult, Hult, Mult Ultimate resistance for pure uniaxial loading (e.g. Hult is the ultimate resistance
when V = M = 0)
Vmax, Hmax, Mmax Ultimate resistance for pure translation or rotation (e.g. Hmax is the ultimate
resistance for w = θ = 0)
A Area
a Ratio of excess pore pressure at tip of caisson skirt to beneath caisson base
(𝐷𝑖 +𝐷𝑜 )
D Caisson diameter ≈ 2
G0, Gmax Small-strain shear modulus
h Installed embedment depth of caisson
ℎ𝑤 Water depth
K Factor relating horizontal stress to vertical stress
k Soil permeability
𝑘𝑓 Factor for the friction component in the CPT installation method
𝑘𝑝 Factor for the tip component in the CPT installation method
L Length of SICF skirt
m Multiple of diameter over which vertical stress is enhanced
𝑁𝑐 Bearing capacity factor (cohesion)
𝑁𝑐∗ Bearing capacity factor for uplift of a buried circular footing (cohesion)
𝑁𝑞 Bearing capacity factor (overburden)
𝑁𝛾 Bearing capacity factor (dimension)
𝑝𝑎 Atmospheric pressure (100kPa approx.)
𝑞𝑐 End bearing pressure from the cone penetration test
R Resistance
𝑠𝑢 Undrained strength of the soil
𝑠𝑢1 Average undrained strength of the soil over the depth of the SICF skirt
𝑠𝑢2 Undrained strength of the soil at the SICF skirt tip

s Suction applied during SICF installation (pressure difference between outside and inside
caisson)
𝑆𝑡 Soil sensitivity
t Caisson skirt wall thickness
𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑥 Thixotropic soil strength increase with time (time dependent)
𝑉, 𝑉 ′ Vertical load, effective vertical load
z Vertical ordinate below mudline
Z Stress enhancement factor for installation in sand
𝛼 Adhesion factor
𝛿 Interface friction angle
𝛾𝑓 , 𝛾𝑚 Partial safety factors (load and material)
𝛾, 𝛾 ′ Unit weight of soil, effective (buoyant) unit weight of soil
𝛾𝑤 Unit weight of (sea) water (10kN/m3 approx.)
𝜙′ Angle of friction of the soil
𝜎′ Effective stress
Subscripts
a active
i inside caisson
o outside caisson
p passive
r remoulded

3. DESIGN PRINCIPLES
3.1 Safety philosophy
The selection of a safety philosophy and design standards to be used for SICF design should be made
in accordance with local regulations. In European waters a Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
approach (otherwise known as partial factor method) is recommended, as outlined in DNVGL-ST-0126
(2016), and other offshore standards such as ISO 19901-4:2016(E) (2016) and Eurocodes (BS EN 1997-
1:2004, 2009). All local design standards should be reviewed and followed as required.
The SICF should be designed to meet all requirements with regards to installation, stability and
serviceability (and decommissioning if required) during the design life of the structure. All applicable
geotechnical aspects and risks, such as layered soils and potential obstructions, should be carefully
accounted for during the design process.
3.2 Limit states

A limit state is a condition beyond which a structure or structural component no longer satisfies the
design requirements. The following Limit States are considered:
 Ultimate Limit State (ULS)

 Accident Limit State (ALS)
 Fatigue Limit State (FLS)
 Serviceability Limit State (SLS)
These are discussed in more detail below.
When considering the different limit states allowance should be made for the possible effects of scour
development, cyclic loading and any other factors which could influence the stability and stiffness as
discussed in Section 8.
3.2.1 Ultimate Limit State (ULS)

Ultimate Limit States (ULS) correspond to geotechnical failure of the SICF affecting the stability and/or
structural integrity of the substructure. The following load conditions are associated with ULS for SICF
design:
 Operating and extreme environmental conditions, for example a 50-year design storm. For
WTG foundations reference is made to DNVGL-ST-0126 (2016) and IEC 61400-3;
 Operational boat impact (e.g. by crew transfer vessel).
 Installation and decommissioning pertaining to the integrity of the SICF (for example the
structural integrity under design installation underpressure as outlined in Section 6.4.1.3) and
the substructure (the installation should be considered separately).
Examples of ultimate limit states pertaining to the geotechnical design of SICF are:
 Exceedance of the bearing capacity of the embedded caisson, i.e. development of a failure
mechanism in the soil;
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 Compromising the structural integrity or stability of the substructure by excessive SICF

displacements/rotations under ULS conditions.
The ultimate resistance should account for the possible effects of scour development, cyclic loading
and any other factors which could influence the stability and stiffness.
3.2.2 Accidental Limit State (ALS)

Accidental Limit States (ALS) correspond to the maximum load-carrying capacity for rare accidental
loads, or post-accident integrity for damaged structures. The following load conditions are generally
associated with ALS for SICF design:
 Accidental boat impact (large maintenance vessel);

 Earthquake loading (see DNVGL-ST-0437).
Examples of accidental limit states pertaining to the geotechnical design of SICFs are as for the ULS
condition.
3.2.3 Fatigue Limit State (FLS)

Fatigue Limit States (FLS) correspond to structural failure caused by repeated/cyclic loading. Possible
geotechnical effects such as degradation of strength due to repeated/cyclic loading should be
assessed and appropriate allowance should be made as part of the ULS and SLS design analyses.
In a SICF context, FLS conditions are used to determine the foundation soil stiffness response for input
into the structural FLS assessment, and for input into the integrated systems’ natural frequency
analysis.
3.2.4 Serviceability Limit State (SLS)

Serviceability Limit States (SLS) correspond to tolerance criteria applicable to normal use, generally
the maximum allowable displacements and/or stiffness. The following conditions are associated with
SLS conditions for SICF design:
 Differential penetration during penetration (i.e. tilt);

 Settlement, sliding and/or tilt due to operating and extreme loading conditions:
o Permanent (and differential) loads causing long-term settlements, including effects of
shakedown, and primary and secondary consolidation;
o Variable and environmental (differential) loads and the foundation/structure
deformation response.
 Effects of scour on settlements and stiffness.
 Effects of interaction with jack-up spudcans on settlements and stiffness.
Examples of SLS pertaining to the geotechnical design of SICF are:
 Foundation exceeds the specified installation tolerances (i.e. tilt) during installation and
especially at the end of installation (Section 6.4.2)
 Differential settlements of the foundation causing intolerable (permanent) tilt of the wind
turbine;

 Reduction (or increase) in SICF soil response stiffness causing the system’s natural frequency
to fall outside the permissible range defined by the WTG provider.
3.3 Design Optimisation

Suction caisson foundation design differs significantly from the design of driven piles or gravity bases.
Suction caisson foundations are classed as an intermediate foundation. For this type of foundation,
the vertical, horizontal and moment (VHM) loads and resistances are coupled (Section 8.4). For the
SICF design the installation feasibility (Section 6) is of equal importance to the in-place capacity. The
key task for the geotechnical designer of a SICF is therefore to find a suitable balance between
installation and in-place requirements, as illustrated in Figure 3-4.
Figure 3-4: Design Optimisation

3.4 Design by LRFD (partial safety factor) method

3.4.1 Approach
The LRFD or partial safety factor approach is a design method by which the target safety level is
obtained by applying load and resistance factors to characteristic values of the governing variables
and subsequently fulfilling the design criterion:
 Design load effect, Sd ≤ Design Resistance, Rd

Two approaches to establish the design load effect Sd or the design resistance Rd are identified in
DNVGL-ST-0126 (2016). The most appropriate approach depends on the design situation, as specified
below.
Table 3-2: DNVGL-ST-0126 LRFD Methodology
Approach Design load effect Design resistance
1 – assessing dynamic response S d = f * S k Rd = Rk /  m
2 – assessing nonlinear behaviour Fd = f * Fk Rd = R(k / m)
Where:
Fd, Sd – Factored design load
Fk, Sk – Characteristic design load (unfactored)
f – Load factor
Rd – Factored design resistance
Rk – Characteristic (unfactored) resistance
m – Resistance (or material) factor
R – Relationship between resistance and material strength
k – Characteristic material strength
Approach 1 is suggested when determination of the dynamic response is the primary concern,
whereas, approach 2 is suggested when proper representation of the nonlinear material behaviour is
the primary concern.
The load factors are to account for potential deviations of load from characteristic values, the limited
probability that different loads exceed the characteristic values simultaneously, and any uncertainties
in the model and analysis used to derive the load effects.
The resistance factors are to account for potential deviations in material parameters from the
characteristic values, and any uncertainties in the resistance calculation methodology.
The factors can also be modified to account for the potential consequences of failure. For example,
the factors recommended for Wind Turbine Generators (WTG) and Offshore Substations (OSS) are
often different due to the differences in loading regimes and the critical nature of OSS. Load and

material factors to be considered for turbine and substation foundations are specified in Sections 3.4.2
and 3.4.3 below.
3.4.2 Load and material factors for WTG foundations

The load factors to be used for design of WTG foundations should be selected in accordance with the
specified WTG design code. For reference, the factors recommended by DNVGL-ST-0437 are outlined
below.
Table 3-3: Partial Safety Factors for WTG Loads (DNVGL-ST-0437)

ULS FLS, ALS, SLS
Permanent* Variable and environmental

Permanent* Variable
Favourable Unfavourable Normal Abnormal****
0.9** 1.1** 1.35*** 1.1 1.0 1.0
* Permanent loads include dead loads and pretension loads for the support structure. A load is
favourable when a reduced value of this load results in an increased load effect in the structure.
** Factors for permanent loads in ULS may be taken as 1.0 if appropriate measures are taken
*** May be reduced for specific design load cases
**** Abnormal denotes situations with serious failures and/or combinations of unlikely
environmental conditions
Typical SICF dimensions lead to classifying them as intermediate foundations, between shallow and
deep (see ISO 19901-4 (2016), DNVGL-RP-C212 (2017)). Nevertheless, for the assignment of material
factors, they are often treated as shallow foundations. For reference the factors recommended by
(DNVGL-ST-0126, 2016) are:
 m = 1.15 for effective stress parameters (i.e. drained strength)

 m = 1.25 for total stress parameters (i.e. undrained shear strength)
Note: The simulation of wind turbine loads involves analysis of a complex non-linear dynamic system.
Therefore, the use of different partial load factors for permanent, functional and environmental loads
is not always practicable. Instead, a single load factor can be applied (equal to the maximum partial
load factor) on the generated load time series.

3.4.3 Load and material factors for offshore substation foundations

Substations are of critical importance and are often designed following dedicated design standards.
For information DNVGL-ST-0145 provides two sets of load factors for when different types of load
categories are combined as outlined below. Both combinations should be assessed.
Table 3-4: Partial Safety Factors for OSS Loads (Ref DNVGL-ST-0145)
Load Category
Load factor set
Permanent Variable Environmental Deformation
Structural (a) 1.3* 1.3* 0.7 1.0
Environmental (b)   1.3 1.0
* When loads are well defined 1.2 can be used
= 1.0 for unfavourable loads, 0.9 for favourable loads
DNVGL-ST-0145 recommends using the same material factors as for gravity base foundations. For
reference the values specified in (DNVGL-OS-C101, 2016) are:
 m = 1.2 for effective stress parameters (i.e. drained strength),

 m = 1.3 for total stress parameters (i.e. undrained shear strength).

4. SITE GEOTECHNICAL CONDITIONS

Site conditions consist of all site-specific conditions which could influence the design of a SICF by
influencing applied loading, installation, in-situ capacity, and/or decommissioning.
This section provides initial guidance regarding the information required for geotechnical design of
SICF.
4.1 Site characterisation requirements

Geotechnical studies and investigations should provide all necessary data to allow detailed design and
installation engineering to reduce uncertainties to an acceptable level (as determined by the project
stakeholders). The suggested site characterisation stages are outlined in Table 4-5.
Table 4-5: Site characterisation stages

Stage Description
Geological Desk Study A geological study, based on the geological history and provenance of
site-specific soils, should form the basis for scoping of survey
operations and help select the most appropriate methods and extent
of the geophysical and geotechnical investigations.
A ground risk register should be included to document the

uncertainties/risks and how they are addressed through the project
lifecycle.
Geophysical survey A geophysical survey can be combined with the results from a
(Bathymetry and sub- geotechnical soil investigation to establish information about soil
bottom) stratification, seabed topography and seabed features for an
extended area, such as the area covered by a wind farm. The
geophysical data can also give a valuable insight into heterogeneity
across the SICF footprint.
Geotechnical survey A geotechnical survey may consist of in-situ testing (such as CPT),
borehole drilling and sampling, borehole logging, sample recovery and
description, core logging, and laboratory testing on the recovered
samples.
Ground model A database of information that includes structural geology,

geomorphology, sedimentology, geohazards and geotechnical
properties throughout the site.
For further guidance and industry practice regarding requirements to scope, execution and reporting
of offshore soil investigations, and to equipment, reference is made to SUT (2014), DNVGL-RP-C212
(2017), Norsok G-001 (2004), Norsok N-004 (2013) and ISO 19901-4:2016(E) (2016). National and
international standards such as Eurocode (BS EN 1997-1:2004, 2009) and BSH 7004 (2014) may also
be relevant depending upon the region.

Trial installations as discussed in Section 6.5 may be considered as part of the geotechnical
investigations, such that results are available at the start of the design process.
4.2 Geotechnical hazards

SICF structures are sensitive to specific geological and geotechnical conditions and hazards,
particularly for installation. Appropriate consideration of these aspects will ensure reliable and
efficient design and installation. As a minimum the hazards detailed in Table 4-6 should be considered,
however, it should be noted this list is not exhaustive.
The hazards identified should be thoroughly investigated with a combination of geophysical,

geotechnical and other surveys. The survey data should be integrated to provide a holistic view of the
site conditions. The identified hazards should be assessed to estimate the potential impact on the
foundation/structure and accounted for in the design or with appropriate mitigation methods. Is
should also be noted that hazards may change over time, therefore, future hazards should also be
considered.
Table 4-6: Examples of geotechnical and geological hazards

Hazard Description and potential impact
Irregular topography such as sand waves, megaripples, ridges, jack-up

Seabed features
footprints etc, which could provide uneven seabed
Any potential obstructions which could hinder installation operations i.e.

Seabed obstructions
wrecks, existing infrastructure, boulders, debris
UXO UneXploded Ordnance (UXO)
Lateral soil variability across the SICF diameter could be the source of
Lateral variability installation difficulties or result in tilt. Examples would be siting the SICF on
the edge of a relic channel or localised soil lenses.
Site characterisation should include an assessment of the potential for

Seabed mobility /
global sediment mobility and/or localised scour. Loss of soil around the
Scour
SICF can compromise load capacity
Seabed slopes Steep seabed slopes could result in installation difficulties
Slope stability Slope failure could result in movement or failure of the SICF
Gravel / cobbles / Gravel and/or cobbles and/or boulders could result in installation
boulders difficulties through increased skirt tip resistance or lack of self-penetration
to create a seal allowing suction pressures to be generated
Soil layers with high permeability can hinder installation by allowing high
High permeability flow rates and inability to achieve required underpressure. Examples
would be gravel or shell beds or sand in layered soils.

Fissures and voids can dramatically increase mass permeability and reduce
Fissures and voids the achievable underpressure. Such phenomena can also be detrimental to
soil mass strength
Shallow gas could result in disturbance of shallow soils reducing

Shallow gas foundation capacity (and stiffness) or potentially fill the caisson with gas
resulting in an internal overpressure
Soils may ‘liquefy’ under cyclic loading (seismic or wave loading) reducing
Liquefaction
foundation capacity
Seismic loads are transmitted to the structure through the foundations and
Seismic loading vice versa. This is generally not an issue in Northern Europe but may be a
consideration in other geographic areas.
Shallow rock / Shallow rock and cemented layers could result in premature refusal during
cemented soils installation
Special or unusual soils such as peat could pose an installation risk due to
Unusual soils the potentially fibrous nature of plant remains. Standard design factors
could also vary for organic clays, micaceous sands, etc.
4.3 Geophysical survey

The nature and extent of geophysical surveys should be determined by an experienced geophysicist
in conjunction with a geotechnical engineer experienced in the design of SICF and aware of the
attendant data requirements.
The basic scope should address the following:
 Multibeam echo sounder and side scan sonar should provide complete data coverage to
determine the depth and nature of the seabed.
 Sub-bottom data should be acquired at sufficient resolution to characterise the stratigraphy
and to investigate all the sub-bottom hazards discussed in Table 4-6.
 The orientation and spacing of survey lines should be chosen to ensure that the soil conditions
are properly characterised without excessive interpolation between sub-bottom profiles.
A good quality geophysical survey provides essential input for a site ground model (Section 4.5). It
should also be noted that the water depth (particularly in shallow water depths) can influence
cavitation for stiff clays and dense sands.
The reference datum should be clearly detailed, potentially in the Design Basis / Interface Handbook
discussed in Section 5.2; reference datum is usually taken as Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT), however,
occasionally alternatives such as Mean Sea Level (MSL) are used.

4.4 Geotechnical survey

The extent of the survey, and the methods to be deployed, should consider the type, size and
importance of the wind turbine structure, the site geology, the anticipated variability and complexity
of soil and seabed conditions, and the nature of the soil deposits. The scope of the soil investigations
and the choice of soil investigation methods should be determined by a geotechnical engineer
experienced in suction caisson design, familiar with the anticipated ground conditions across the site
under consideration and aware of the associated data requirements for design and to allow proper
evaluation of potential risks.
A geotechnical survey should normally comprise a combination of boreholes and CPTs.
Boreholes provide an accurate indication of the soil type and physical samples for laboratory testing
to provide design parameters. Sufficient boreholes should be performed, and sufficient samples
collected, to ensure the requirements of the laboratory testing for soil parameters can be achieved.
This should have regard to any layering structures that may exist.
CPTs provide a continuous profile with information regarding soil type and strength parameters. CPT
interpretation should be validated using borehole data from the same site. Seabed CPTs are generally
preferred to downhole CPTs as they provide a continuous measurement with no potential data gaps
between pushes.
The scope of the survey is site and project stage dependent. However, by the detailed design stage
the following guidelines for the extent of the geotechnical data coverage are proposed for complex
geotechnical conditions (see Figure 4-5):
 Multi-SICF jackets - CPT at the centre of each SICF, and borehole at the centre of the structure
or at the centre of or near the SICF positions to evaluate potential variability;
 Mono-SICF structure - CPT at the centre or outside the footprint of the SICF, and borehole
outside the anticipated footprint area and installation tolerance to confirm lateral variability
and validate CPT interpretation.

Figure 4-5: Basic geotechnical survey recommendations

Multi-caisson jacket Mono-caisson
The position of the tests should be carefully planned based upon the anticipated soil types and
variability.
The number of tests at each WTG position could be reduced if the ground conditions are anticipated
to be very homogenous and confirmed by a ground model (Section 4.5). This decision should be made
by an experienced engineer based upon the anticipated variability in, and results from, the initial
offshore surveys.
Boreholes could disturb the seabed, leaving a void or disturbed area which could cause
piping/ratholing during installation or potentially result in preferential flow paths that could influence
installability and/or reduce long-term capacity of the SICF. Therefore, preferably boreholes should be
located at the centre of the overall structure footprint or a suitable distance outside the footprint on
a mono-caisson and should not be close to the edge of the SICF footprint. Compared to boreholes,
CPTs have a much smaller diameter and cause less disturbance. Where there is the potential to create
preferential flow paths it is recommended that the tests are located outside the potential SICF
footprint areas. Where there is potential soil variability it is recommended that the test is as
representative as possible of the conditions at the SICF location.
The depth of the geotechnical testing should be sufficient to ensure that engineering analyses and risk
assessments are not constrained by borehole depth. Therefore, the depth should extend to at least to
the depth of any critical shear surfaces, and the zone of influence of the foundation from a settlement
perspective. The minimum borehole depth will depend on the subsoil conditions but is likely to exceed
one caisson diameter below the skirt tip penetration, or to the depth to bedrock if this is less.
The boreholes should provide sufficient samples in each soil unit, or at each location in variable soil
conditions, to confirm the CPT interpretation and allow appropriate laboratory testing (see Appendix
A) to be undertaken.

4.5 Ground model

Development of a ground model which integrates geophysical and geotechnical data is recommended,
particularly for sites with complex layering and substantial soil variability. A ground model provides a
coherent basis for characterising the engineering properties of a site and developing a robust SICF
design. It is also important for identifying data gaps, hazards or other uncertainties which need to be
addressed in subsequent surveys. Ground models are preferably initiated at an early stage of a project
and should evolve as additional survey data is gathered. A ground model is particularly important for
structures founded on SICFs because of their sensitivity to localised ground conditions during
installation.
4.6 Geotechnical parameters for design and installation

The characteristic strength and deformation properties required at each SICF location should be
determined. For installation engineering, the permeability of cohesionless soils is also very important,
particularly when layers of permeable and impermeable soil are present.
The main geotechnical parameters relevant for foundation design are indicated in Appendix A along
with in-situ and laboratory tests which may be used for their determination. The list is not exhaustive
and is not mandatory - the actual testing to be undertaken should be specified by an experienced
geotechnical engineer on the basis of the anticipated soil conditions and an initial inspection of the
offshore CPT logs and samples.
The results of both in-situ and laboratory tests should be evaluated, correlated and compared to
existing published data where possible, and this process should be documented. The process needs
to account for possible differences between properties measured in the tests and those soil properties
that govern the behaviour of the in-situ soil for the limit state in question. Such differences could be
due to:
 Soil disturbance due to sampling;

 Difficulty of reconstituting samples to a representative in-situ state with the corresponding
stress history;
 Presence of fissures;
 Different loading rate between test and limit state in question;
 Simplified representation in laboratory tests of certain complex load histories;
 Soil anisotropy effects giving results which are dependent on the type of test;
 Possible effects of installation activities on the soil properties (Section 4.7 below).
When the characteristic value of a soil property is estimated from limited data, the estimate should
be a cautious estimate of the value that affects the occurrence of the limit state.
Relevant statistical methods may be used to assist the selection of characteristic values of soil
properties, for example as described in DNVGL-RP-C207 (2017).

4.7 Special considerations for selection of soil parameters

This section provides a short introduction to specific considerations for soil parameter selection for
in-service analysis and design of SICFs (Section 8). General methods for the selection of soil parameters
is outside the scope of this document, some guidance is contained in DNVGL-RP-C207 (2017).
Soil properties and parameters are affected by suction installation and the following non-exhaustive
list should be considered:
 Disturbance of soil due to installation - a zone of disturbed or remoulded soil around the
caisson walls immediately after installation will be present and may affect SICF behaviour. This
zone may be looser or weaker than the in-situ soil and may respond differently to cyclic
loading in the initial stages of operation. However, this zone may also experience relatively
rapid densification and/or consolidation. In clays, the interface factor,  (detailed in Sections
6.2.1.1 and Appendix C) attempts to account for the effect of installation and should be
selected carefully accounting for consolidation effects.
 Disturbance of the soil plug during installation – the application of suction pressures and
upward hydraulic gradients may loosen sand layers inside the caisson. In addition to
contributing to soil heave, looser sand may be more susceptible to increased pore water
pressures during a storm event and may exhibit higher compressibility and greater volume
reduction than the in-situ soil. The degree of loosening should be assessed on a case by case
basis as well as the possible associated settlement as load transfer to the soil plug occurs.
 Load transfer between skirt walls and top cap - after installation, it is likely that the structure
weight is shared between the skirt walls and the top cap, however in some scenario’s SICF
may be designed to rely only on skirt capacity. Depending on the methods used for ensuring
good top plate contact (e.g. using underbase filling as discussed in Section 7.7.1), load transfer
between the skirts and top cap is likely to occur rapidly with some settlement. Once full top
cap contact and full load transfer has occurred the in-place analysis discussed in Section 8 can
be applied. However, the potential for shakedown should be considered as discussed in
Section 8.8.2.
Shortly after installation, consolidation and strength regain of any remoulded clay near the caisson
walls will occur. Cyclic loading due to operating and extreme metocean conditions followed by
consolidation will also improve the stiffness and strength of most soil conditions. Ageing effects in soil
are not well understood but also result in increases in stiffness and possibly strength (Schmertmann,
1991). Thus, soil parameters should not be considered as fixed in time but should be selected
conservatively for the analysis to be performed. In most cases, the local areas of disturbed soil will not
dominate the overall SICF response, and in-situ stiffness and strength parameters will be appropriate
for the overall response. However, it is recommended this is evaluated for each site and loading
condition by an experienced geotechnical engineer.
The effects of long-term stiffening of the soil due to cyclic densification and ageing may be used when
considering lifetime fatigue of the structure.

4.8 Clustering
Clustering is the process of categorising locations according to water depth, soil conditions, hazards,
etc such that structures with similar design conditions can be assessed together to optimise the design
and fabrication processes.
Clustering is often applied for monopile and driven jacket pile designs to achieve design and
fabrication efficiencies. Although this approach may be feasible for in-place design of SICF’s it is not
recommended for installation engineering due to the sensitivity of the installation procedure to
ground conditions unless it can be demonstrated that a clustering approach does not increase
installation risk.

5. FOUNDATION LOADING
5.1 General
The design of a suction caisson foundation is site-specific. Verification of the structural integrity of its
load-carrying components is based on limit states (see Section 3.2) valid for the geotechnical and
environmental conditions (wind, sea state, etc.) at the site under consideration. The applicable site
conditions and loads are determined according to a suitable design code such as DNVGL-ST-0437.
A global load analysis is required to determine the loads on the SICF due to the dynamic interaction
and non-linear effects between the wind turbine, tower, substructure and SICF. Due to the non-
linearities, a dynamic analysis in the time domain is normally used and therefore load-time histories
are computed for the SICFs. These time-histories are processed as discussed later in this section to
extract the loads required for ULS and SLS geotechnical design of the SICFs and to establish the overal
structural integrity.
Analysis of the structure and foundation, and calculation of loads on any element, may be performed
using either a coupled or uncoupled approach (see Section 5.5):
 In the coupled, or integrated approach, the WTG, support structure and SICFs are integrated
in a single structural model with a proper distribution of masses and stiffnesses;
 In the uncoupled, or iterative approach, the different elements are analysed in separate
models, and stiffnesses and loads are shared at the interfaces. The system non-linearities lead
to requiring iteration to achieve consistent loads and stiffnesses.
Both approaches normally involve dynamic analyses in the time domain using a (global) load
calculation model of the offshore wind turbine plus support structure subject to wind/wave loading
and turbine states. Advantages and disadvantages of the two approaches are discussed in Section 5.5.
Load calculation models may be built-up from sub-models of rotor-nacelle-assembly, tower,

substructure and foundation/soil stiffness. The SICFs may be modelled as soil springs or stiffness
matrices at a pre-defined interface point (the Load Reference or Load Application Point(s), see Section
5.2.2). Output of the calculation model includes the SICF reactions at the Load Reference Point
providing the input for geotechnical design.
5.2 Interfaces between model elements

5.2.1 Sign convention
A sign convention for the global coordinate system, to be used for all load and displacement
components, should be agreed between all parties in the design process and specifically between the
geotechnical team (for the SICF), and the substructure team. The local SICF convention should be
agreed and clearly detailed in comparison to global structural sign convention in the Design Basis or
Interface Handbook for the project.

5.2.2 Load reference point (interface point)

The Load Reference or Application Point should be agreed and defined in the Design Basis or Interface
Handbook. In an uncoupled approach, the substructure team provides all foundation loads acting at
the Load Reference Point. The geotechnical team provides the foundation stiffness elements at the
Load Reference Point.
There are numerous options for the definition of the Load Reference Point. These guidelines suggest
that it is taken at the centre of the suction caisson at seabed level, as indicated in Figure 5-6. Another
common Load Reference Point is the connection point between the structure and the top plate.
Figure 5-6: Load Reference Point
Note: Loads shown as applied by the substructure to the SICF
The characteristics of the connection between the Load Reference Point and the substructure should
be agreed between the parties and defined in the Design Basis or Interface Handbook. For example,
it should be agreed how to represent the stiffness of the suction caisson top plate and the underbase
filling or voids present under the suction caisson top plate. The stiffness response is discussed in
Section 8.7. Appropriate transformations must be made if there is any change in location of the Load
Reference Point.
5.3 Foundation load components

The substructure design team should provide foundation loads to the SICF geotechnical design team
as a 6-component load vector {Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz} applicable at the Load Reference Point. For SICF
geotechnical design it is often convenient to simplify this vector to a
4-component load vector {V, H, M, T} applying any sign changes required by the agreed convention.
5.4 Load cases

The IEC 61400-3 (2009) and DNVGL-ST-0437 (2016) standards provide principles, technical
requirements and guidance for loads and site conditions of wind turbines. These codes specify a set
of Design Load Cases which cover the most significant conditions anticipated for the offshore wind
turbines and their support structures.
The following load cases are specifically relevant to geotechnical aspects of SICF design for offshore
wind applications:

 Suction caisson installation and removal (temporary design conditions for seabed landing,
underpressure, overpressure). The potential structural loads that could be imposed on the
substructure due to non-uniform soil reactions during installation should also be considered;
 Operational conditions for in-place analysis (ULS, SLS and FLS). Assessment of these loads
require SICF stiffness matrices at the appropriate load level (and including potential cyclic
loading / degradation effects) for structural analysis, as well as for ULS stability and SLS
deformations.
 Special cases such as caisson-spudcan interaction (in case of WTG installation using a jack-up
vessel).
5.5 Load generation and modelling

5.5.1 Design process
The design process of the full offshore wind turbine (or substation) structure generally involves
multiple design organisations (turbine designer, substructure designer and foundation geotechnical
designer), each with their own engineering expertise and perspectives. Industry standard offshore
wind turbine load design and optimisation software, and offshore structural code checking software
are employed by the respective organisations in their specific engineering processes.
The specialist design tools are referred to as ‘WTG software’ and ‘structural design software’:
 WTG software - A software package for offshore wind turbine load design and optimisation
can be set up for fully coupled analysis of the wind turbine and support structure, capturing
the interactions of simultaneous aerodynamic and hydrodynamic loading and control system
actions. A SICF would typically be modelled as a linear stiffness matrix or equivalent spring set
depending on the capability of the software. It should be noted that a linear stiffness matrix
cannot capture the load-dependence of the stiffness response.
 Structural design software for support structure - These software packages performs ULS and
FLS structural code checking of spatial frames subjected to loads including gravity, buoyancy,
waves and wind turbine interface loads at the tower base. The FE-model typically consists of
beam elements, but complex parts may also be modelled by super-elements from detailed 3D
shell or solid FE-models. The SICF will then be part of a super-element. This inherently requires
linearization of the non-linear suction caisson - soil interaction. Note that the use of super-
element techniques involves simplification of the wave loading regime as well.
These tools can be deployed in the load generation process for the design of the suction caissons. The
load generation process involves dynamic time integration analysis in one of the following two ways:
 Integrated Load Analysis (ILA), or coupled analysis;

 Sequential Load Analysis (SLA), or uncoupled (iterative) analysis.
The two approaches are discussed below and illustrated in Figure 5-7 .

5.5.2 Integrated Load Analysis (ILA) / Coupled approach

By modelling the wind turbine and support structure in a single aero-hydro-servo-elastic tool, the
structural dynamics of the entire structure are fully coupled, and wind and wave loads are applied
simultaneously. The aero-hydro-servo-elastic tool models the structure including aerodynamic and
hydrodynamic loading meaning damping can be properly accounted for, achieving more structurally
efficient designs with fewer design iterations. The structural design software is engaged in FE-
modelling and ULS/FLS code checking of the substructure/SICF designs. This code checking involves
post-processing of load time histories of members and foundation reactions, all generated as output
by the software.
It should be noted that ILA could also be used to refer to an Independent Load Analysis during the
certification process. It is therefore recommended that the abbreviations are agreed at the outset and
clearly detailed in the Design Basis / Interface Handbook.
5.5.3 Sequential Load Analysis (SLA) / Uncoupled approach

This approach is typically employed by support structure or SICF designers. The wind turbine and
offshore support structure are modelled and analysed in separate design tools, requiring repeated
data exchange, and may not fully account for the dynamic interaction between wind turbine and
substructure. In the load generation process, the WTG software computes and yields the interface
loads at the tower base, and the structural design software applies them together with direct wave
loads on the substructure model for subsequent ULS/FLS code checking of the substructure and SICF
design.

Figure 5-7: Design Process for Integrated and Sequential Load Analysis
The initial stiffnesses would be estimated as discussed in Section 8.7.
5.5.4 Comparison of Integrated and Sequential Load Analysis

A comparison of the two load modelling approaches is given in Table 5-7. The table aims to provide
an initial comparison between the two modelling approaches detailed above and may not be
representative of more advanced tools.

Table 5-7: Comparison of Integrated (ILA) and Sequential Load Analysis (SLA)
Feature ILA SLA
Fully coupled load analysis? Yes No
Hydro-elastic coupling between substructure and waves? Yes No
Non-linear soil springs? Yes* No
Allow complex (i.e. non-beam-element) substructure designs? No Yes
Code checking for ULS and FLS in structural design software? Yes Yes
Substructure/foundation load time histories? Yes Yes
Foundation reaction loads available? Yes Yes
Allow for geometric stiffness corrections of substructure? Yes No
Substructure/foundation vs. WTG design kept confidential? No Yes
*System dependant - some systems require linear springs as discussed in Section 5.5.2 above.
The most appropriate design tool should be selected depending upon the design stage and experience
of the design team.
5.6 Foundation damping

Since WTG support structures show a highly dynamic load response, the loads on the WTG and the
support structure, including the foundation reaction loads, are dependent on the damping of the
system components. A common approach is to define an overall damping (for example Rayleigh
damping) for the structure. This damping is then considered to represent multiple damping sources,
such as material and foundation damping.
There is limited literature regarding the damping of offshore foundations in general, and SICF in
particular. The foundation damping of SICFs subjected to moment loading has been investigated by
Houlsby et al. (2005) as discussed in Section 8.7.4 .
If the foundation damping is included explicitly in the modelling of the foundation reaction loads, the
assumed foundation damping (matrix) should be backed up by experiments or
in-situ measurements on installed structures with SICFs whenever possible. Due consideration should
be given to the contribution of hysteresis (material) and radiation (geometrical) damping to the overall
foundation damping for various load frequencies.

5.7 Extraction of loads acting on SICFs

5.7.1 Relevant load characteristics
Especially for the design of WTG support structures, foundation reaction loads are typically generated
as a time series. A separate time series should be available for each load component. The following
characteristics of the time series, as visualized in Figure 5-8, are needed as input for the design of
suction caissons:
 Loading period - the time, T, that a certain load level is sustained (T(F ≥ X) or T(F ≤ X)) is needed
to distinguish between short-term (undrained) and quasi-static (drained behaviour) loading.
This is especially relevant for tensile loads.
 Extreme load peaks (Fmin, Fmax). Load peaks are relevant for verification of load effects from
short-term loading. The use of group averaged extreme load peaks may also be appropriate.
 Average load over a longer period (Favg). Average load is relevant for verification of load effects
from quasi-static loading.
 Cyclic load amplitude (Fcy). Cyclic load amplitude is relevant for verification of effects from
cyclic loading.
Figure 5-8: Load characteristics relevant for suction caisson foundation design

5.7.2 Reporting
For the extreme load peaks, the following load cases should be reported and provided to the
geotechnical design team as a minimum:
 Maximum Compression (Vmax) with all associated load components

 Maximum Tension (Vmin) with all associated load components
 Maximum Shear (Hmax) with all associated load components
 Maximum Moment (Mmax) with all associated load components
 Maximum total resultant force with all associated load components
All load combinations should be mapped relative to the VHM failure surface to ensure there are no
load combinations which fall outside the VHM envelope, which would mean that design criteria are
not satisfied.
Each load case should be reported as a 4-component or 6-component load vector (see Section 5.3).
The vector should consist of the load peak for the relevant load component, together with all other
load components that act simultaneously. The combination of maximum load peaks for multiple load
components in a single load case (so-called max-max approach) is not recommended.
For multiple caisson foundations, each load case of an extreme load peak should also contain the load
vectors that act simultaneously on the other suction caissons.
For the load characteristics other than the load peaks, more complex post-processing of the load time
series is required. The parties involved should agree which party performs this processing, and
whether processed load characteristics or relevant time series are provided to the geotechnical design
team.
In all cases, relevant load case parameters, such as Design Load Case (DLC), wind and wave conditions
and orientation, and load factors used, should be reported and provided together with the foundation
loads in accordance with Appendix C of DNVGL-ST-0437.

6. INSTALLATION DESIGN
6.1 Installation design and risk management
The design of the installation phase for a SICF is as important as the design for its in-service
performance. Some aspects of installation design can be supported by design calculations, whilst
others can only be treated qualitatively.
The entire installation should be treated as a managed process in which the expected performance is
predicted, and measured behaviour is compared with expected performance. Risks should be
anticipated, and the installation procedures designed to mitigate them. Contingency plans should be
in place to deal with residual risks. The SICF installation procedure is outlined as follows:
1) Initial crane lift and overboarding
2) Lowering through splash zone (see Section 7.4)
3) Lowering through the water column
4) Touch-down (see Section 7.4)
5) Self-Weight Penetration (SWP) as discussed in Section 6.3
6) Suction penetration to target depth as discussed in Section 6.4
In this document, the basic design calculation methods are described in this section and installation
planning matters are discussed in Section 7. Both sections form part of the overall installation design
and risk management process which is recommended in these guidelines.
6.2 Penetration resistance

The main purposes of the installation design calculations are to:
a) Predict the vertical load-penetration response without the application of suction when the
self-weight of the caisson and structure are applied i.e. the “self-weight penetration”.
b) Predict the suction-penetration response, i.e. the suction pressures required to reach
target penetration, and compare the predicted suctions against the limits established in
Section 6.4.1.
c) Anticipate specific risks to successful installation and put in place appropriate measures to
mitigate those risks.
In making the predictions for (a) and (b) above, normal practice would include presenting both “best
estimate” and “high estimate” calculations. “High estimate” in this context is likely to represent a high
resistance, low penetration situation.
The ‘high estimate’ calculation should ensure the SICFs are installable to the target penetration depth
(determined from the in-service design) in the most onerous soil conditions anticipated, whilst the
‘best estimate’ calculations provides the base case for the engineers controlling installation pressure
and penetration rate.
The calculations should account for the presence of any stiffeners as appropriate.

The basic equation for the installation calculations for (a) and (b) is as follows:
𝑉 ′ + 𝑠 ⋅ 𝐴𝑐𝑎𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛 = 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑅𝑡𝑖𝑝 Equation 6-1
Where:
𝐴𝑐𝑎𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛 Internal plan area of caisson (internal top plate area)
R Resistance
s Suction applied during SICF installation (pressure outside caisson minus pressure inside
caisson)
𝑉′ Effective vertical load (accounting for buoyancy)
The standard method is to present to results of the installation calculations in graphical format,
including the following:
 plots of penetration resistance against depth

 plot of required suction against penetration depth
Examples are shown in Figure 6-9 below.
Figure 6-9: Example penetration resistance plots

Penetration Resistance Required underpressure
Note: any limits that may be applicable should also be plotted
There are two main types of calculation method for caisson installation. The first (Section 6.2.1) are
based on using the geotechnical properties of the soil, determined either by in-situ tests or laboratory

tests, together with an approximate mechanism-based calculation of the relevant loads on the
caisson.
The second group of methods (Section 6.2.2) are based on using CPT data. Empirical factors are applied
directly to CPT measurements to convert these directly to estimates of loads on the caisson.
Experience indicates that although the two approaches are very different, they can often lead to
rather similar predictions.
The methods described below represent the basic form of the calculations, but they may readily be
adapted to accommodate (a) soils with varying properties with depth, (b) structural features such as
internal stiffeners.
In cases involving complex soil profiles or other special considerations, although the basic approaches
are still applicable, more extensive soil data is likely to be required, more sophisticated modelling
methods such as Finite Element Analysis may be employed, and trial installations may be considered.
6.2.1 Mechanism-based methods

The mechanism-based methods make use of standard geotechnical parameters determined by in situ
or laboratory testing:
In clay: the undrained strength 𝑠𝑢 as a function of depth to below the skirt tip;
the soil sensitivity St or remoulded undrained shear strength 𝑠𝑢𝑟
the adhesion factor 
the unit weight of the soil 𝛾 (which has only a very minor effect on the main
calculations).
In sand: the angle of friction 𝜙 ′ ;
the effective unit weight of the soil 𝛾 ′ ;
the soil permeability 𝑘 (for flow rate calculations).
The selected undrained shear strength should account for the type of shearing (compression, direct
simple shear, extension, etc). The adhesion factor can be calculated as a function of the soil sensitivity
or remoulded shear strength.
In addition to the above, several dimensionless factors need to be specified, for instance friction
factors on the side of the caisson and bearing capacity factors at the tip.
The design methods are based on broadly the same principles as those used for estimating the
capacity of driven piles: the vertical load on the caisson is resisted by friction on the sides (inside and
outside) together with end bearing on the annular rim. There are several mechanism based methods
available including Houlsby and Byrne, (2005b), Andersen et al. (2008) for cohesionless soils and
Houlsby and Byrne, (2005a), DNVGL-RP-E303 (2017), for cohesive soils.
Any of the available mechanism-based methods should be appropriate for the design of SICF when
applied by an experienced geotechnical engineer. However, it is recommended the design
methodology is discussed and agreed by the key stakeholders including the developer, structural
design engineer and project certifier.

6.2.1.1 Mechanism based method for clays

In clays the calculation for a basic case gives Houlsby and Byrne, (2005a) Eq. 3 and DNVGL-RP-E303
(2017), Appendix A:
′
𝜋𝐷𝑜2 Equation 6-2
𝑉 +𝑠( ) = 𝛼𝑜 𝜋𝐷𝑜 ℎ𝑠𝑢1 + 𝛼𝑖 𝜋𝐷𝑖 ℎ𝑠𝑢1 + (𝛾 ′ ℎ + 𝑁𝑐 𝑠𝑢2 )(𝜋𝐷𝑡)
4
Where:
(𝐷𝑖 +𝐷𝑜 )
D Caisson diameter ≈ 2
h Installed depth of caisson
𝑁𝑐 Bearing capacity factor (cohesion)
𝑠𝑢 Undrained strength of the soil
𝑠𝑢1 Average undrained strength of the soil over the depth of the SICF skirt
𝑠𝑢2 Undrained strength of the soil at the SICF skirt tip
t Caisson skirt wall thickness

1
𝛼 Adhesion factor (sometimes estimated as 𝛼 = , where 𝑆𝑡 is the clay sensitivity)
𝑆𝑡
𝛾′ Effective unit weight of soil
Substituting zero suction pressure (𝑠 = 0) gives the relationship between vertical load and
penetration before suction is applied (self-weight penetration), and positive values of suction (𝑠) for
known vertical load (𝑉 ′ ) give the subsequent relationship between applied suction and depth.
6.2.1.2 Mechanism based method for sands

In sands the situation is more complex due to (a) the contribution of friction enhancing the vertical
stress further down the caisson, and, (b) the change in effective stresses around the caisson skirt given
the seepage flow regime induced by the applied suction. For a simplified case accounting for these
effects Houlsby and Byrne (2005b) , Eq. 16 the result is:
 Di2    h 
Equation 6-3
V   s       as  Z o2  exp h 
  1  K tan  o Do
 4   h   Z Z o 
   o 
 1  a s  2   h  h
  1  K tan  i Di
     Z i exp
 h    Zi  Z i 

 1  a s    h   

  1 Nq   tN  Dt 
      Z i  exp 

 h    Zi   

Where:
a Ratio of excess pore pressure at tip of caisson skirt to beneath caisson top plate
𝑁𝑞 Bearing capacity factor (overburden)
Z Parameter controlling stress enhancement for installation in sand

𝛿 Interface friction angle
Again substituting 𝑠 = 0 gives (approximately) the relationship between vertical load and penetration
before suction is applied, and positive values of 𝑠 (for known 𝑉 ′ ) give the subsequent relationship
between applied suction and depth.
The factor 𝑎 in the above calculation determines the fraction of the suction transmitted to the caisson
tip and is itself a function of the caisson penetration and of assumptions about soil permeability. For
very shallow caisson penetrations in soil of uniform permeability this factor would be 0.5, reducing to
ℎ
about 0.15 for 𝐷
= 1. The factor can be modified to account for increased permeability within the
caisson due to soil loosening as the installation proceeds. The variable 𝑍 accounts for the stress
enhancement and depends on the area of soil over which the friction forces developed on the caisson
are carried. For the basic case (as given above), assuming the internal friction is carried uniformly
across the soil plug within the caisson leads to Equation 6-4 and the external friction is carried
uniformly across a zone between diameters 𝐷𝑜 and 𝐷𝑚 = 𝑚𝐷𝑜 to give Equation 6-5 below
𝐷
𝑖 Equation 6-4
𝑍𝑖 = 4(𝐾 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛿) 𝑖
𝐷𝑜 (𝑚2 −1) Equation 6-5

𝑍𝑜 = .
4(𝐾 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛿)𝑜
More complex variations can be considered but cannot be solved analytically. The predictions depend
significantly on the choice of the factor m, and values of approximately 1.5 have been found to be
appropriate.
6.2.2 CPT-based methods

The only point of similarity between the CPT-based methods and the mechanism-based methods is
that the resistance to vertical load is again considered as the sum of an end bearing term and a
frictional term. Different versions of the method are available, as described by Andersen et al. (2008)
and Senders and Randolph (2009).
A common approach for penetration resistance follows the method outlined in DNVGL-RP-C212
(2017) section 7.3:
ℎ ℎ Equation 6-6
𝑉 ′ = 𝜋𝐷𝑜 ∫0 𝑘𝑓 (𝑧)𝑞𝑐 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + 𝜋𝐷𝑖 ∫0 𝑘𝑓 (𝑧)𝑞𝑐 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + (𝜋𝐷𝑡)𝑘𝑝 (𝐿)𝑞𝑐 (𝐿)
Where:
𝑘𝑓 Factor for the friction component in the CPT installation method
𝑘𝑝 Factor for the tip component in the CPT installation method
𝑞𝑐 Tip resistance from the cone penetration test
Guidance on the factors, 𝑘𝑓 and 𝑘𝑝 , can be obtained in DNVGL-RP-C212 (2017) as well as in Andersen
et al. (2008) based on field case records. Suggested values for both sets of factors are detailed in Table
6-8 below. For other common soil types: Colliard and Wallerand (2008) recommend factors for
normally consolidated clays and Lehane et al (2015) for carbonate soils.

Table 6-8: Indicative CPT method factors

Most probable Highest expected
Type of soil Ref
𝑘𝑝 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑝 𝑘𝑓
Clay (DNVGL-RP-C212, 2017) 0.4 0.03 0.6 0.05
(DNVGL-RP-C212, 2017) 0.3 0.001 0.6 0.003

Sand
(Andersen et al., 2008) 0.01-0.55 0.001 0.03-0.6 0.0015
Andersen et al. (2008) also suggest a hybrid method for estimating penetration resistance where the
skirt resistance is estimated by the mechanism-based approach, whilst the CPT approach is used for
the tip resistance.
The penetration resistance in clays can be straightforwardly modified, as for the mechanism-based
approach, to account for the effect of an applied suction. However, there is no common approach for
addressing the effect of suction on the penetration resistance in sands. For example, Senders and
Randolph (2009) make the assumptions that the external friction remains unchanged in the presence
of the suction whilst the internal friction and the tip resistance reduce in proportion to the degree of
critical suction, 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 , mobilised. The critical suction at a given penetration is defined as that for which
piping would occur, and so the critical suction varies with depth. This yields the result:
𝜋𝐷𝑖2 ℎ
𝑉′ + 𝑠 = 𝜋𝐷𝑜 ∫ 𝑘𝑓 (𝑧)𝑞𝑐 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧
4 0
ℎ Equation 6-7
𝑠
+ (𝜋𝐷𝑖 ∫ 𝑘𝑓 (𝑧)𝑞𝑐 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + (𝜋𝐷𝑡)𝑘𝑝 (𝐿)𝑞𝑐 (𝐿)) (1 − )
0 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡
Andersen et al. (2008) describes a variation of this method. There are several suggestions for
𝐿 0.75
calculating 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 ; for example in Senders and Randolph (2009): 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = 1.32 𝛾 ′ 𝐷 (𝐷) .
Installation considerations typically lead to caissons of L/D < 1 in sands (drained installation) whereas
L/D > 1 (but less than 5) can typically be installed in soil profiles consisting of clays (undrained
installation) if cavitation is not limiting.
6.3 Touch down and self-weight penetration

During the initial penetration phase the SICF penetrates the seabed under self-weight, the caisson
vents are generally open, so that water can freely escape as the caisson is lowered and weight is
transferred from the crane to the soil. The rate at which self-weight penetration occurs and water
flows through the hatches must be assessed and the hatch size and/or penetration velocity selected
to ensure that overpressures are kept within acceptable limits to avoid piping or hydraulic fracture in
the soil (additional discussion in Section 7.8.1). Note that this is particularly important if water inflow
is limited in any way for reasons such as controlling verticality.
The potential rate of flow through the hatches is likely to be an important factor and the number and
size of hatches should be designed to allow for sufficient flow at the anticipated touch down speed.

The water flow out of the hatch(es) can be evaluated using the standard nozzle flow methods such as
detailed by Rajaratnam (1982), or DNVGL-RP-N103 (2017).
6.4 Suction installation

For installation planning, it is important to estimate the flow of water during the suction phase, to
enable the sizing of pumping equipment, pipework, and to generally plan the installation process.
During suction installation in clays the volume of water removed is the water displaced by the caisson
internal volume, as the caisson is installed. The flow rate required will simply depend on the time
allowed for the suction installation process.
For sands the process is more complex as flow is induced within the soil which increases the volume
of water that must be removed over that due simply to the caisson internal volume. Simplified
calculations for the flow due to seepage alone are described in Houlsby and Byrne, (2005b). For the
assumption of uniform excess pore pressure across the base of the caisson and uniform permeability
𝑘𝐷𝑠 (1−𝑎)𝜋
the seepage flow is approximated by 𝑞 = 𝛾𝑤 4ℎ . The calculation can be modified to account for
𝐷
increased permeability within the caisson due to soil plug loosening.
6.4.1 Limits to suction pressures

The required suction during installation should not exceed certain limits, defined in the following
sections. The designer should assess the required suction pressure relative to the limiting pressures
detailed below. The required suction pressure should be calculated for the best estimate and upper
bound soil parameters with no partial factors. However, the designer may consider it appropriate to
include a safety factor in the calculation of the limiting pressures for plug heave, piping, buckling, etc.
6.4.1.1 Pump capacity

The pumping system should have the capacity to achieve the required maximum pressure differential
at the required flow rate. The pumping equipment should be specified by an experienced engineer,
who should review the detailed pump specifications including:
 Pump characteristic curves which relate the power supplied to the pressure difference and
the flow rate.
 Potential losses between the pump and the caisson.
 Potential cavitation issues (discussed below)
6.4.1.2 Cavitation
When the absolute pressure of the water in the caisson is equal to the vapour pressure of water (which
is about 1kPa to 2kPa at relevant temperatures), the water would be expected to cavitate in whichever
part of the system is subjected to the lowest pressure. Any attempts to lower the pressure further will
fail. Note that at a depth of sea water ℎ𝑤 and with a suction 𝑠the absolute pressure will be 𝑝𝑎 +
𝛾𝑤 ℎ𝑤 − 𝑠.
Less than 100% of the atmospheric pressure may be used to provide a safety margin (e.g. 80%).
Cavitation is an important limiting factor particularly in shallow water. Where cavitation is limiting (i.e.
in shallow water and stiff clays) the caisson diameter is an important design driver.

6.4.1.3 Structural failure: buckling (structural integrity)

The structural integrity of both the top plate and the shell should be verified for the design
underpressure to be applied.
A shell structure subjected to an internal underpressure is susceptible to buckling. The critical under-
pressure is dependent upon the skirt strength, thickness and curvature and the effective buckling
length of the cylinder. The structural integrity of steel shells is covered in dedicated guidance
documents such as (DNV-RP-C202, 2013), (Eurocode 1993-1-6, 2007); see also Bakmar (2009) and
Bakmar et al (2010). To allow for understanding of the process DNV-RP-C202 (2013) details the
following for unstiffened circular shells:
𝜋2 𝐸 𝑡 2 Equation 6-8
Elastic buckling strength, 𝑓𝐸 = 𝐶 12(1−𝜈2 ) (𝐿)
Where: E = Young’s modulus (for standard steel ~210 GPa)
𝜈 = Poisson’s ratio (0.3)
L = unsupported length
t = thickness
𝜌𝜀 2
C = reduced buckling coefficient, 𝐶 = 𝛹√1 + ( 𝜙 )
𝑙2
For hydrostatic pressure:  1.04√𝑟∗𝑡 √1 − 𝑣 2 
  l = unsupported length, r = shell radius, t = shell thickness
Noting that the embedded soil provides partial support to the shell, solving Equation 6-8 essentially
requires the determination of an equivalent unsupported length of the shell. The equivalent
unsupported length of the shell is a function of the non-penetrated length of skirt and the effective
stiffness of the embedded section (see Figure 6-10).
Figure 6-10: Structural integrity assessment for installation case
The stiffness of the embedded section depends on the soil type, soil/strength stiffness and potentially
the flow regime which could influence the effective stresses and resultant stiffness in granular soils.

Loose or soft soils (or sands with a low effective stress due to water flow) will provide less stiffness
and therefore the effective unsupported length will be greater than for dense/high strength soils. For
an initial buckling risk evaluation an equivalent point of fixity could be assumed at a given depth below
seabed to give an equivalent unsupported length. The calculation of effective unsupported length
should entail close communication between the geotechnical engineer and the structural engineer
and consider an appropriate stiffness response corresponding to anticipated flow conditions. For more
detailed buckling calculations linear soil stiffness springs could be used to model the soil.
The detailed calculations should consider any stiffeners and/or internal structure to the caisson if
present. Therefore, more complex non-circular shapes require more detailed assessment.
As an alternative to the methods detailed above Finite Element Analysis may be used to evaluate
buckling with the use of appropriate soil springs. This may be especially appropriate during detailed
design and for more complex structures.
6.4.1.4 Soil failure: piping and ratholing

Piping is a specific type of hydraulic failure (see EN 1997-1:2004, 2009) in which internal erosion begins
at the low-pressure boundary and regresses until a pipe-shaped discharge tunnel is formed between
the hydraulic boundaries. The pipe-shaped tunnel once formed is also called a rathole. A rathole is
also terminology used for a pre-existing hole, for example, between the skirt tip and the soil due to
limited initial penetration and incomplete skirt-soil contact.
Piping may be diffuse or localised. Especially in freely draining soils (sands and coarser materials) the
possibility of soil failure by diffuse piping or of localized “ratholing” is a primary consideration during
installation.
Piping occurs when the upward hydraulic gradient in the soil becomes sufficient to reduce the
effective stresses to near zero. As penetration of a suction caisson into sand may depend on the action
of upward hydraulic gradients to reduce effective stresses at the caisson tip, piping conditions may be
approached in sand. SICF designers should consider this and optimise the design to reduce the risk of
piping; empirical evidence would indicate piping is not common for properly designed and installed
SICF in sand.
If piping does occur then it may have various adverse effects, including (a) the inability to apply further
suction, (b) excessive loosening of the soil within the caisson and (c) development into ratholing (see
below).
An initial estimate (Houlsby and Byrne, 2005b, Eq. 25) of the penetration at which this may be of most
𝐷
concern is given by ℎ ≈ 2(𝐾 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛿) (however, it is a concern at all depths). While it is acknowledged
𝑜
that estimating of K after penetration of the caisson is difficult, values for Ktan ranging from 0.45 to
0.8 were found through back-calculation of several case studies. For typical parameters this indicates
that the limit of suction-assisted penetration in sand is on the order of one diameter. Further
experimental data on critical suction pressures and piping is provided in Panagoulias et al. (2017).
Piping conditions are intrinsically unstable; any region of slightly higher permeability will attract
greater flow which in turn will loosen the soil and increase the permeability. Thus, piping can rapidly
lead to the form of localized “ratholes” or channels beneath the caisson. Ratholes may also form if
excessive suction is applied early in the suction-assisted penetration, leading to localized flow at points
of weakness. Once ratholes have formed further application of suction is likely simply to lead to their
further development and not to satisfactory penetration of the caisson. The conditions for the

possibility of ratholing are similar for those controlling suction, except that account needs to be taken
of possible non-uniformities or irregularities in both geometry and soil properties.
In addition to the conditions described above, other conditions are required for piping to fully develop:
(1) time,(2) a higher permeability soil zone or (3) a grading that allows for individual particles to be
washed out. These effects may be less well understood, or difficult to quantify.
Equilibrium methods can be useful to assess the risk for onset of piping, whereas experience indicates
that steadily continuing penetration of a caisson can prevent the actual development of piping
channels (Erbrich and Tjelta, 1999). Further details are available in Vandenboer et al. (2017) and Ibsen
and Thilsted, (2010).
6.4.1.5 Soil failure: punch-through or squeezing

A ‘strong’ soil overlying a ‘weaker’ soil could result in a significant reduction in penetration resistance
at the interface between the layers. Resulting in the potential for potentially uncontrolled
penetrations (punch-through) when the SICF mobilises the resistance of the soft layers. Where soil
layering has been identified, the potential for punch-through should be considered and the
pressure/penetration rate controlled to prevent sudden uncontrolled penetrations.
The potential for squeezing of soft impermeable clay layers should also be considered where
necessary.
6.4.1.6 Soil failure: plug uplift

In certain circumstances in layered soil with a layer of impermeable material (clay) over a freely
draining material (sand) the suction may be sufficient to lift a “plug” of clay within the caisson, creating
a void beneath the plug. Such a scenario is clearly undesirable and needs to be addressed by
appropriate bespoke design calculations, such as described by Cotter (2009).
6.4.1.7 Soil failure: reverse bearing failure (for clays)

For a caisson installed into clay soils it is possible for a “reverse” bearing capacity failure to occur, if
the differences in vertical stress between inside and outside the caisson is such that plastic failure
occurs, so that soil flows into the caisson. An initial estimate of the geometry for which this condition
ℎ 𝑁 ∗ 𝑠𝑢2
will become critical was given by Houlsby and Byrne (2005a), modified Eq. 8) as 𝐷
≈ 4𝛼𝑐 . For a
𝑜 𝑠𝑢1
ℎ
range of parameters this indicates limits of between 3 and 6 but with considerable variability.
𝐷
6.4.2 Installation tolerances – penetration and verticality

Defining the installation tolerance on SICF final elevation is part of installation design. An assessment
of stick-up length (caisson top elevation above natural seabed level) should take account of the
following effects:
a) Soil plug heave: This will be, approximately, the displaced soil due to the caisson skirt, plus,
for sand, an allowance for the loosening of the soil plug.
b) Fluctuations of the seabed level across individual caissons and across a system of caissons
for a multi-caisson structure.
c) Other effects such verticality/tilt across individual caissons as well as across a system of
caissons.

There could be multiple inclination tolerances during installation, which must not be exceeded during
installation (for structural integrity or for toppling) and which must not be exceeded at the end of
installation.
6.5 Trial installations

Because of the uncertainties in relation to suction caisson installation calculations and the current
state of knowledge, especially in layered or heterogeneous materials, trial installations may have an
important role to play in the process of de-risking and design optimisation for major projects. They
can be used to:
a) validate design methods by comparing predictions (for the trial) against measurements;
b) refine design methods, for instance by development of site-specific values of factors such
as 𝑘𝑓 and 𝑘𝑝 in the CPT-based design methods, or the adhesion factor, 𝛼, in clays;
c) develop installation procedures and protocols including for measurements;
d) identify/confirm or discount risks.
The potential benefits of field trials should be considered especially with regards to cost savings due
to design optimisation and risk reduction/mitigation. A cost-benefit assessment can then be
undertaken to ascertain whether trials are worthwhile.
In designing a field trial, the following should be considered:
a) Scale and geometry: a trial caisson will usually have a smaller diameter than the prototype
but required to penetrate to the same depth. The L/D ratio will therefore be larger for the
trial. However, if cavitation is likely to be a limiting issue then careful consideration should
be given to the diameter of the test caisson. Furthermore, the wall thickness may be
different in trial, and it may not include relevant details such as stiffeners.
b) Loading: dead loading available in a trial may be significantly lower than that of the
prototype.
c) Fixity: a single caisson trial is likely to be unrestrained against rotation and may not be fully
representative of a (restrained) multi-caisson design.
Specific tests may also be devised to complement field trials and de-risk installation or reduce costs.
For example, a vertical plate penetration test to directly measure the adhesion factor for penetration
in stiff cohesive soils could be considered.
To ensure relevant and useful data are obtained from a trial, a range of measurements should be taken
during the trial, as a minimum those described in Section 7.2.
6.6 Non-homogenous soils for installation

Installation into homogeneous deposits of sands or clays is reasonably well understood, and can be
described by calculations, as in Section 6.2.
Soils for which further assessment would be required are discussed in this section.

6.6.1 Installation in layered or heterogeneous soils

Layered soils can result in seepage conditions which are not uniform and which in turn affect the
penetration resistance. Such conditions require special consideration for caisson installation, but
many successful installations have been performed in complex sand-clay stratigraphy at a variety of
locations (e.g. Tjelta et al., 1986; van den Heuvel and Riemers (2005); Alderlieste and van Blaaderen
(2015)). Recent experience of installation in layered soils is described in Saue et al (2017) and
Panayides et al (2017).
Too many combinations of layering are possible for them to be treated comprehensively, but the
following general considerations apply:
a) Installation into layers of clay of different strengths should generally be possible if each
individual layer can be penetrated.
b) Installation into layers of sand of different density/strength should be possible if each

individual layer can be penetrated.
c) Where a clay layer occurs beneath sand, penetration should be possible. However, note
the necessity to check for “plug uplift” if there is further sand beneath the clay layer (even
below the final design penetration depth), see Section 6.4.1.5.
d) Where a sand layer occurs below clay, the clay may prevent the formation of the seepage
flow pattern in the sand which reduces the tip resistance. The ability to penetrate the sand
layer without the beneficial reduction in effective stress due to water flow should be
checked. Note also the necessity to check for “plug uplift” of the clay layer, see Section
6.4.1.5.
Guidance for assessing installation feasibility and installation design/operations are provided in the
literature cited above.
The above comments relate principally to soils which consist of relatively thick layers of different
types. Deposits consisting of very finely interbedded layers are unlikely to pose a problem for
installation as long as penetration could be achieved in a uniform material of equivalent strength,
although note that seepage patterns in such materials are likely to be very different from those on
more uniform materials.
Note that all design methods in current use assume that the soil properties are uniform in the
horizontal direction. Horizontal non-uniformity may clearly present an obstacle to penetration, and
(especially for mono-caisson structures) could result in tilting. Such non-uniformity may for instance
occur in materials that have been deposited under glacial, peri-glacial or fluvial conditions, in which
pockets or lenses of different materials may occur. Differences of permeability may be as important
as differences of strength.
6.6.2 Installation in other materials

The following cases will require special consideration and installation may not be feasible at all
depending on the proportion of these specific soils in the overall soil profile. If considered, trial
installations are likely to be needed to confirm feasibility:
a) Stiff highly fissured clays: Fissures may not allow the formation of a seal around the rim of
the caisson for suction-assisted penetration to proceed. One possibility is that fracturing

may occur, with water simply flowing through the fissures. This problem may be
exacerbated by the fact that the penetration resistance in very stiff clays may be high.
b) Coarse materials: Extremely heterogeneous coarse materials, and materials with a

significant fraction of coarse gravel or larger sizes would almost certainly present an
obstacle to installation. Very permeable gravels, even if not particularly coarse, would
require very high flows to generate significant suction pressures.
c) Boulders: Individual boulders may be sufficient to obstruct penetration. Micro-seismic

site-investigation methods may be necessary at sites where the geological conditions
indicate a significant possibility of encountering boulders.
d) Silts: Calculations for silts are challenging, as simplified analyses require that drained or
undrained conditions are applicable, and this may not be the case. Partially drained
calculations for caisson penetration have not yet been formulated. However, given that
penetration in clays and sands is relatively straightforward, it would be expected that
installation in reasonably homogeneous silts should be possible.
e) Shell deposits: Whilst shell material is unlikely to pose a problem due to its strength,
significant deposits of coarse or open shell material at the surface could prevent the
formation of an effective seal around the caisson.
f) Carbonate soils: There is experience of successful installation in carbonate soils,

particularly for deep water anchor type applications. The installation calculations need to
take appropriate account of the potential crushability of carbonate materials, particularly
for the friction component. The potential for cemented layers also requires careful
consideration, it may be possible to model these layers as high strength cohesive bands
(based upon Uniaxial Compressive Strength of cemented soils) with an associated increase
in end bearing resistance but this should be confirmed on a project specific basis.
g) Special conditions: The effect of other special conditions (e.g. shallow gas deposits within
the depth of the caisson, organic material etc.) is poorly understood and would have to be
dealt with on an ad hoc basis.
6.7 Multi-chamber designs

Some caissons employ multi-chamber designs in which the suction pressures in different chambers
can be controlled independently. The main purpose is to use individual control of pressure in the
chambers to control tilt of a mono-caisson. Such methods can be effective in clays and have been
successfully used for numerous Gravity Base Structures in the Oil and Gas sector. Note that the end
bearing and friction on the internal walls also needs to be considered in calculating resistance to
penetration.

7. SITE INSTALLATION OPERATIONS

7.1 Criticality
Once a suction caisson has been successfully installed there is little evidence that any caisson has not
performed satisfactorily for in-service and ultimate loading conditions. However, in the past,
difficulties have arisen at several sites during caisson installation, and some of these are documented
in the literature. The installation phase is therefore critical and must be carried out with considerable
care. The key to successful installation is good installation engineering studies, access to high quality
soil and monitoring data, and the appropriate use of that data.
Successful installation requires adequate preparation for the offshore operations, reliable, high
performance and tested suction equipment, and experienced installation management (Tjelta, 2014).
Real-time or near-real installation time data reviewed by a geotechnical specialist, including

comparison with expected behaviour is recommended to ensure that anomalous situations are
identified and managed correctly.
7.2 Instrumentation
The installation parameters typically requiring monitoring during installation are detailed in Table 7-9,
with an indication of potential instrumentation methods. The table gives an indicative list which is not
exhaustive and is not mandatory. The parameters for monitoring and instrumentation should be
specified by an experienced engineer.
The parameters detailed should be recorded electronically with the agreed measurement units, datum
and a common time stamp. This should be sufficient to ensure appropriate reconciliation between
different data logging systems as well as with any handwritten notes and other relevant details.
Table 7-9: Installation parameters and instrumentation

Parameter Instrumentation / measurement
Effective structure / SICF weight Crane load
Depth (pressure) sensor
Vertical penetration Echosounder (internal and/or external)
External penetration markings and ROV monitor
Inclinometers mounted on the top plate and the topside

Tilt (both directions) structure
ROV monitor
Internal and external pressure recordings

Suction pressure*
Pump measurements

Parameter Instrumentation / measurement
Volumetric pumping rate, which should also be

Flow rate*
integrated to give total volume pumped
Plug heave Echosounder to monitor internal plug level
Injection pressure for each section

Tip injection
Flow rate for each section
ROV camera monitoring surrounding seabed for evidence

of ratholing
Seabed level (disturbance)
Geophysical survey equipment mounted to installation
vessel
*Note: if multi-chambered SICF are utilised then these parameters should be monitored for each
chamber.
The placement of the sensors should be carefully considered to ensure they provide a representative
measure of the required parameter to the required level of accuracy, without being influenced by
anticipated installation conditions such as deformation of the SICF skirt due to under-pressure (can
affect inclinometers), lack of visibility due to soil disturbance (can affect ROV operations), etc.
Appropriate calibrations should be completed, including the recording of known benchmarks (or
“zeroes”) at key points through the installation process. Sensor calibrations should also be checked
following completion of the installation. Time should be allowed during the installation to ensure that
monitoring systems have been checked and are working robustly.
7.3 Seabed preparation and scour protection

Seabed preparation is generally not necessary for suction caisson installation. However, in some cases
seabed preparation such as dredging and/or levelling may be considered to form a level seabed or for
the purposes of scour protection.
Scour may be a significant concern at some sites and scour protection may need to be placed around
the foundations. Scour protection typically comprises rock dump or an alternative such as fronded
mattresses or geotextiles. Rock dump protection is the most common option and can be placed before
or after SICF installation. The advantages and disadvantages are outlined below.

Table 7-10: Scour protection installation
Placement Advantages Disadvantages
Installation through rock dump needs to be

Before Easier to get complete, even
carefully considered and may increase risk (e.g.
installation coverage around the caissons
of penetration punch-through)
Simplified installation Potential difficulties placing rock protection

After
assessment and potentially less evenly around the complete structure,
installation
installation risk. especially for multi-caisson jackets
The need for scour protection should be assessed, and if it is considered necessary then the preferred
placement option needs to be carefully considered. If it is considered appropriate to place a filter layer
for scour protection, the ability of the caisson(s) to penetrate through this layer under self-weight
should be confirmed. Several SICFs have been successfully installed through layers of scour protection.
Analysis usually employs modelling these layers using mechanism-based approaches for cohesionless
soils (Section 6.2.1.2) and appropriate geotechnical parameters to model the rock dump. It is
necessary to ensure that self-weight penetration is sufficient to give a good seal for suction
penetration.
Penetration through a scour protection layer into lower resistance soil below is a potential punch-
through situation which needs to be considered and managed. Rapid penetration due to punch-
through could lead to overpressures being applied to the soils below, with resulting damage
(washout).
Consideration could also be given to allowing scour to develop (no initial scour protection) combined
with regularly monitoring the structures and planning remedial works/backfill campaigns to address
any scour which is outside design limits. However, the potential for scour development should be well
understood, an adequate provision for scour included in the detailed in-place design, and appropriate
backfill campaigns planned.
7.4 Lowering through splash zone (venting) and touchdown

Lowering the caisson to the seabed and the subsequent touchdown are critical to successful
installation, especially in the case of an erodible or very soft seabed.
Lowering or deballasting should be carefully controlled as discussed below. The caisson should be
vented when passing through the splash zone and in the touchdown phase so that air and water can
escape through the vent as appropriate, thus minimizing overpressure within the caisson. As the
caisson approaches the seabed, water between the caisson and the seabed is displaced and high
velocity flows may occur due to the motion of the caisson. The effectiveness of the venting is critical
at this stage. If wash-out/erosion occurs from beneath the rim, a successful seal for the application of
suction may be more difficult. Assessment of the critical lowering and landing speed can be based on
DNVGL-RP-N103 (2017). The required vent area should be evaluated to limit pressure differences
inside and outside the caisson accounting for SICF motions at touchdown.

7.5 Self-weight penetration

Once touchdown has been achieved, the crane load should be reduced in a controlled manner (or
deballasting performed), to allow the slow penetration of the caisson into the seabed, under the self-
weight of the caisson and structure (as discussed in Section 6.3). It is good practice to slowly release
the crane load until the end of self-weight penetration to allow for a degree of control in the event of
any sudden reduction in resistance or tilt development. After self-weight penetration, limited slack
should be maintained. During self-weight penetration the caisson should be vented to allow free
escape of water. The rate of penetration should be controlled in such a way that the overpressure
within the caisson is kept to a minimum, and certainly not sufficient to cause pressure gradients that
would result in piping (on the outside of the caisson) or ratholing. Calculations should be made as part
of the installation design to determine limits to the amount of overpressure that can be tolerated.
During this phase it is essential that the following should be monitored:
a) Crane load (and hence vertical load on caisson)
b) Vertical penetration
c) Tilt (in both directions)
d) Overpressure within caisson (internal pressure minus external pressure)
The intention is that self-weight penetration will be sufficient to create an adequate seal between the
caisson and ground so that suction-assisted penetration can proceed.
7.6 Suction-assisted penetration

Once self-weight penetration is complete, vents in the caisson should be closed and pumping
commenced.
Initially, to correct any off-verticality after self-weight penetration for a multi-caisson foundation
pumping will commence at the highest caisson(s), if required.
The suction penetration phase should be carefully monitored to avoid sudden increases in pumping
rates, at least in the initial phases where minor changes in pumping rates could lead to critical
hydraulic gradients being developed and possible piping. Once the installation is conforming to
expected performance then more tolerance on increasing the flow rates can be envisaged.
During this phase it is essential that the following should be monitored:
a) Crane load (and hence vertical load on caisson)
b) Vertical penetration
c) Tilt (in both directions)
d) Suction within caisson (external pressure minus internal pressure)
e) Volumetric pumping rate
These monitored quantities should be compared with expected performance in real-time, to allow
identification at an early stage of any deviations which may be indicative of a problem developing.

7.7 Underbase filling

When penetration of the caisson ceases, some voids remain between the seabed inside the caisson
and the caisson top-plate. These voids may be due to many factors: an uneven seabed, a sloping
seabed, settlement of the soil plug, non-vertical installation of the substructure, a designed stick-up
and/or due to not reaching the target penetration. The voids will naturally be filled with water. This
can freely exchange with the ambient seawater, unless all openings, for example for suction and
venting, are closed after the installation.
7.7.1 Considerations for underbase filling

Filling of these voids is normally required to ensure the design load-transfer between the top-plate
and the soil, and to regulate the contact stresses, except in specific circumstances:
 If sufficient stiffness and vertical capacity can be demonstrated through caisson wall
resistance alone. This may be the case if sustained tensile loads are governing.
 If sufficient (differential) settlement of the substructure can be accepted until the necessary
load-transfer capability is achieved, and the stiffness is acceptable in the meantime. This may
affect both the foundation tolerances and the structural design of the caissons and
substructure.
 If contact between top-plate and soil can be ensured by alternative means. For example, two
methods proposed by the industry consist of (1) using a double top-plate, and (2) using a water
jetting and slurry suction system.
 If load-transfer through the water-filled voids can be demonstrated for short duration loads
while not compromising any other load transfer or structural requirement. This may be
possible for low permeability soils. Reliable sealing of all openings in the top-plate after the
suction installation would be required for the lifetime of the structure.
If underbase filling is omitted, or the voids only partially or inadequately filled to achieve full load-
transfer, then the structure and foundation must be designed to accommodate the caisson response
to the applied loads. All relevant support conditions for the top-plate should be considered in the
structural design of the caisson and in the analysis of the foundation stiffness: fully supported,
unsupported, and partially supported, along with the associated settlements.
7.7.2 Functional specification

The material to fill voids under the top-plate of suction caissons should have, at the time of loading, a
strength and stiffness similar to or greater than the surface soil. It should also have sufficient strength
so that it is not extruded through any open valves. However, at the time of filling, the material should
have sufficiently low viscosity for pumping into the caisson.
The curing time, when using a cement-based material such as grout, should therefore be specified in
relation to the time between installation of the foundation and installation of the wind turbine or
substation topside.
The filling material should retain sufficient strength and stiffness during the lifetime of the structure.
Possible deterioration should be considered: chemical, mechanical, shrinkage, and installation-related
problems such as incomplete mixing and dilution.

The filling system should be designed in such a way as to ensure adequate filling of the void, while
avoiding uplift of the suction caissons when applying the filling material (e.g. grout) under pressure.
Moreover, the system should not limit the under- or overpressures to be applied during the suction
installation. The piping system for delivery of the filling material to the underbase area should be
designed and tested for appropriate pressures.
To ensure efficient completion of the filling operation, the system should include redundancy and
back-up equipment.
Test procedures should be defined for both the filling material and equipment. Tests should be
performed, and the results documented accordingly.
7.7.3 Standard grouting procedures and equipment

The recommendations given below are based on best practice as used within the industry where
underbase filling of caissons has been applied.
Generally, a cement-based grout is used, consisting of cement, sodium silicate, and seawater. Other
additives may be considered on a case-by-case basis e.g. to accelerate or retard the curing time.
However, other materials may be considered if they meet the required functional specifications.
The following non-exhaustive list outlines the equipment that has been used for underbase grouting
operations:
 Grout silos, mixing and pumping systems and testing equipment on deck of heavy lift or
installation support vessel
 Grout flow lines, flexible hoses or pipes, from deck level to suction caisson, running along or
through the legs of the substructure; connectors may be situated on top of the substructure
or subsea on top of the suction caisson
 Multiple grout inlets/outlets, associated piping, valves and an ROV control panel on the
caisson top-plate; the valves and ROV panel allow for opening and closing of the grout inlets
and outlets, and for monitoring grout overflow
 An additional separation valve below the suction pump may be considered; closing this valve
would allow for commencing the filling process while avoiding grout spilling into the suction
pump; alternatively, the suction pump would be removed prior to the grouting
 A back-up system should be considered for all items deemed critical.
The grouting procedure can be summarised as follows:
 Prior to the suction installation, all piping protruding from the suction caisson top-plate is
closed by valves
 After reaching the final penetration the separation valve below the suction pump is closed, or
the pump is retrieved
 The respective grout inlet and outlet valves are opened, grout supply connected, and the filling
through one or multiple inlets starts
 The pumped-in grout volumes are monitored and the grout outflow at the subsequent outlets
at the caisson are observed to establish if the filling is complete. Measuring the properties of

the filling material at the outflow may be considered to determine when non-diluted grout is
being returned.
 Finally, the grout valves are generally closed and (optionally) the flow lines removed.
7.8 Installation hazards

There are a number of hazards which could result in installation difficulties. Several are outlined below
with potential indicators.
The potential installation risks should be evaluated at an early project stage in a ground risk register
which monitors uncertainties and risks though the project and recommends appropriate mitigation
strategies. Before proceeding with mitigation measures attempts should be made to understand the
cause so that appropriate mitigation techniques may be adopted.
7.8.1 Instability during touchdown

Causes:
The water entrained within the caisson during fast touchdown or seabed impact can result in:
 local or global soil plug failure as water tries to ‘escape’ around the skirt tips
 lateral hydroplaning and possibly seabed gouging as the caisson is supported on a cushion of
water
 vertical or ‘pumping’ scour below the caissons
Indicators:
Lateral movement of the structure, seabed damage and/or erosion of seabed soils.
7.8.2 Piping or ratholing

Causes:
Piping or ratholing is a hazard in freely draining soils (e.g. sand, gravels, shelly seabed) – see Section
6.4.1.4. It is most likely to occur early in the suction-assisted penetration phase and may be due to a
variety of causes, such as excessive applied suction, limited self-weight penetration and/or uneven
seabed, disturbance of top-soil during set-down, (pre-existing open) hole due to CPT, borehole,
pockmark, or obstacle.
Indicators:
Onset of piping or ratholing may be indicated by any or all the following:
a) Increased pump flow whilst pressure maintained constant or decreasing.
b) Rapidly fluctuating pump flow and/or pressure. This is particularly indicative of ratholing
as holes may form and collapse, resealing the hole, and then reform.
c) No further penetration.
7.8.3 Shallow obstructions

The presence of obstructions such as cobbles, boulders, debris or even dense/hard soils could result
in shallow refusal during installation operations.

Causes:
Inability to penetrate to the required depth using suction may be due to a variety of causes, such as
boulders or other obstructions below seabed.
Indicators:
Self-weight penetration does not exceed minimum depth to provide a sufficient seal (to be
determined based upon site specific conditions). When monitoring of suction pressures and vertical
penetration, any significant obstruction is likely to show as a sudden increase in pressure for no
additional penetration.
7.8.4 Structural issues

The structural integrity of the SICF could halt installation operations.
Causes:
 required installation pressure exceeds allowable limits, with respects to skirt buckling / top-
plate failure
 buckling of the skirt tip results in an increase in penetration resistance
Indicators:
The measured suction pressure exceeds the specified pressure limit for buckling (or top plate failure).
Penetration resistance and therefore required under-pressure increases if a buckle forms and
propagates, which could result in early refusal.
7.8.5 Tilting
Maintaining the tilt of the structure to within tolerances is part of normal installation operations.
Tilting of multi-caisson structures (tripod, tetrapod) can generally be corrected by adjusting the
penetration velocity of each caisson using differential flow rates (and therefore suction pressures).
Tilting of mono-caisson structures is more difficult to correct and, for this reason, some mono-caisson
designs include different skirt compartments to allow different flow rates to be applied.
Causes:
In ideal conditions caissons should be essentially self-levelling, but tilt may occur due to a variety of
causes, including:
a) Eccentric loading: During installation, especially in the early stages, caissons are
remarkably sensitive to eccentric loads. Care should therefore be taken to minimise
eccentric loads as far as possible due to, for instance, slewing of the crane or loads applied
by connections to ancillary equipment (hoses etc).
b) Inhomogeneous soils: Inhomogeneity either of strength or of permeability could cause

tilting. Such inhomogeneity could be due to local pockets of stronger/weaker or more/less
permeable material or could be due to non-horizontal horizons between differing
materials.
c) Local obstructions: Man-made (metallic) obstructions such as anchors, UXOs etc. should
be detected during the site investigation phase. Natural obstructions such as boulders may

occur in some geologies. The site investigation should reveal whether these are a
possibility.
Indicators:
Tilt monitoring. For a mono-caisson, the tilt measurements may be combined with vertical penetration
to define the elevation of the perimeter of the skirt tip and the possible position of a localized
obstruction. For a multi-caisson, tilt should be measured at the caissons and the jacket and the relative
inclination monitored. Correcting the tilt by penetrating or extracting one caisson could result in a
significant bending moment at the jacket-caisson connection which should be assessed.
7.8.6 Soil plug failure

Causes:
Soil plug is displaced up into the SICF rather than the under-pressure penetrating the SICF below
seabed level:
 Excessive plug heave or soil loosening

 Plug failure
Indicators:
Internal plug is displaced upwards into the SICF – requires monitoring of relative levels of seabed and
inner plug possibly using echosounder.
7.9 Potential mitigation measures

Several of the more common hazards to installation are detailed above. The effectiveness of the
mitigation strategies is dependent upon the specific circumstances of a project and in some situations
certain proposed mitigation strategies may make the problem worse. Therefore, the most effective
strategy for a given project should be determined by an experienced geotechnical engineer in
conjunction with the installation team.
7.9.1 Pre-emptive mitigation measures

The most efficient way to mitigate against potential hazards is to identify them at an early project
stage (during the site characterisation discussed in Section 4) and subsequently avoiding them or
including appropriate allowances in the design. Common pre-emptive mitigation strategies are:
 Hazard identification and mapping: Adequate seabed survey including geophysical and
geotechnical to accurately identify potential hazards and allow SICF to be safely micro-sited.
An example would be avoiding areas with a significant gravel and cobble content at seabed
where possible.
 Geotechnical understanding: Adequate seabed survey data to accurately characterise the
geotechnical profile and parameters, providing a good understanding of lateral and vertical
variability and a bespoke and optimised SICF geotechnical design accounting for that
variability.
 Seabed preparation such as dredging or rock armour should be suitable designed and allowed
for in the design of the SICF installation procedures.

 Tip injection: Application of these systems can be effective in achieving further penetration
especially in cohesionless materials. It may also be effective in cohesive soils but could reduce
the tensile capacity of the SICF. Therefore, any potential influence on long term capacity
should be evaluated if tip injection is planned.
 Multi-chamber designs for mono-caissons: Some SICFs incorporate multiple internal
chambers, with the facility to apply differential pressures within each chamber. In that case
differential flow rates and suctions may be applied with a view to controlling the tilt of the
caisson (see Section 7.8.5). The robustness of multi-chamber designs should be demonstrated
considering the complex seepage paths which are generated between chambers.
7.9.2 Reactive mitigation measures

All reactive mitigation measures require active monitoring of the instrumentation data (Section 7.2),
appropriate engineering interpretation, and informed decision making. For the right decisions to be
taken in a timely manner, preparatory engineering studies are required, and they must be available
on-board to assist the geotechnical specialist supervising the installation. If any issues are encountered
during installation it is important that all available data is reviewed to determine the most likely cause
of the issue and the most appropriate mitigation method is selected, this is likely to necessitate halting
operations to allow all monitoring data to be properly reviewed and evaluated.
 Pause installation: Stopping pumping for some time will cause piping to cease and may allow
ratholes to heal naturally as loose material falls into the hole. Pumping should then be
restarted cautiously.
 Additional ballast: Weight may be applied either directly to the caisson or to the structure,
thus increasing the self-weight penetration and possibly closing the piping channel. This is
likely to be an effective but expensive remedy early in the penetration phase.
 Remedial seabed works: Ratholes may be observed from an ROV and then sealed with
sandbags or similar material.
 Pressure cycling: There is some empirical evidence that cycling of pressure within a caisson,
especially in overconsolidated clays, may promote further movement in cases where a
constant suction has been ineffective. In some cases, applying an overpressure sufficient to
cause a small upward movement before reapplying suction has enabled penetration to be
continued. This procedure may only be effective if there is sufficient reverse movement to
cause some degradation of soil strength on the sides and/or at the tip of the caisson. The
mechanism which causes this procedure to be effective in some conditions is not well
understood, nor scientifically validated. It should, therefore, be employed with caution and
only with an understanding of the potential consequences of cycling. Overpressure cycling
may have a detrimental effect on the in-place capacity.
 Pressure shock: Some practitioners have advocated the use of a “pressure shock” to promote
movement. This involves a sudden, brief increase in pumping power and hence suction. The
mechanism is not understood, nor demonstrated in which conditions it may provide a benefit.
In some circumstances it may have a detrimental effect on in-place capacity. Installations
involving this technique require site-specific engineering, further research and field trials
before use.

 Eccentric loading: Installation systems for multi-caisson foundations permit the deliberate
application of eccentric loading by means of individual control of the suction pressures in each
caisson to correct tilt.
 Retrieval and relocation: Ultimately the measure of last resort would be retrieval and
relocation.
7.9.3 Selection of appropriate mitigation methods

Several of the more common hazards to installation and mitigation options are discussed in detail
above. The Table below outlines mitigation strategies that may be appropriate for given hazards, the
lists are not extensive or exhaustive.
Table 7-11: Installation hazards and suggested mitigation methods
Hazard Mitigation
Piping or ratholing Pause operations
Remedial seabed works
Backfilling holes
Ballasting
Shallow obstructions Tip injection
Ballasting
Pressure cycling / Pressure shock
Tilting Tip injection
Eccentric loading
Multi-chamber design
Soil plug failure Pause operations (no underpressure)
Retrieval and reinstallation
Pressure cycling
This list provides an indication of mitigation options that may be suitable, however, in some situations
certain proposed mitigation strategies may make the problem worse. Therefore, if there are
difficulties during installation all available data should be reviewed and evaluated as discussed in
Section 7.9.2 and the cause should be determined by an experienced engineer and the most
appropriate mitigation methods applied.
7.9.4 Water injection systems

Some caissons, especially mono-caisson designs, are fitted with systems that allow water to be
injected under pressure at a number of points very close to the rim of the caisson. The purpose is to

increase pore water pressure locally within the soil, thus reducing the effective stress and reducing
the resistance of the soil to penetration. In extreme circumstances, the effective stresses could be
reduced to near zero, causing the soil to liquefy locally. Application of these systems can be effective
in achieving further penetration in free-draining materials but is unlikely to be effective in clays.
The use of water injection systems should not be confused with “jetting” systems which are
sometimes used to install pipe piles or conductors. Jetting systems are designed to physically remove
soil from beneath the pile tip and would require high flow rates and pressures. Caisson injection
systems are designed to control the water pressure in the soil and should not require high flow rates
or pressures. Excessive flow, causing removal of material, is likely to be detrimental to the subsequent
in-service performance.
Water injection systems can be used for two purposes:
a) For either mono-caissons or multiple caisson systems, injection systems may be used to
enable further penetration if this is no longer possible under the action of applied suction
alone.
b) For mono-caissons water injection has been successfully used to control the tilt of the
caisson. To achieve this the system needs to be segmented to allow separate injection into
multiple sectors around the caisson rim. Water should be injected to the sectors where the
penetration is smallest to correct tilt. Such a procedure is most effective at relatively small
penetrations; once tilt becomes established at deeper penetrations it is difficult to correct.
The water injection system should be designed such that the nozzles do not get blocked during the
penetration process and are in effect self-cleaning.
During water injection, the injection pressure and flow rate should be monitored. However, pressure
measurements are likely to be well “upstream” of the actual injection points. Losses in the pipework
and more specifically at the nozzles (which are usually of small diameter) means that the measured
injection pressures bear little resemblance to the actual pore pressure in the soil. The measured
pressures will be substantially higher. As a result, the actual pore pressures in the soil are poorly
known and so control of the system is based largely on empirical experience. Such systems require
adequate testing and experience and should be used with caution.
7.10 Non-circular caissons

Almost all caissons are either circular or near-circular in plan (some current designs involve a series of
circular segments forming a slightly scalloped outline). The procedures described here are appropriate
for these caissons. Other designs, square or rectangular, sometimes involving multiple compartments
and even internal voids, have been used in applications outside the wind industry. Such designs which
involve corners are beyond the scope of this guideline. Note, however, that some work has been done
on the influence of corners on the installation process, see Tapper et al (2017).

8. IN-SERVICE DESIGN
8.1 General background
Soil response is non-linear, with a continuous transition from high stiffness at very small strains,
through reducing tangent stiffness at intermediate strains through to ultimate failure.
Design approaches will consider the foundation response at operational load levels which will
correspond to relatively small strains or “elastic” response (the Serviceability Limit State, SLS and
Fatigue Limit State, FLS), and the “ultimate resistance” at large strain levels (Ultimate Limit State, ULS).
Satisfactory performance under serviceability loads is often (but not necessarily) assured by a design
adopting an appropriate factor of safety on a “failure” calculation.
Therefore, after setting out important background considerations, this Section presents the ULS
assessment first (Section 8.6). SLS design is then addressed (Section 8.7) and methods for estimating
the stiffness and permanent deformations under operational load levels are discussed.
For ULS design, the analysis must capture the ultimate resistance which is often modelled by
considering only plastic deformations (i.e. high strain levels) using monotonic loading. In contrast, for
SLS design, the effect of repeated loading is accounted for by selecting foundation stiffnesses at
appropriate (relatively low) strain levels and giving due consideration to other potential effects of
cyclic loading (such as excess pore water pressures), if any.
The design process is likely to include the following stages:
 Conceptual level design: Simplified calculations for sizing of the caisson foundations. These
would follow well established bearing capacity formulations, including simplified VHM
formulations (described further in Appendix C and below), and address the critical failure
modes.
 FEED level design: More advanced or refined assessment, including numerical approaches.
These would build on the conceptual design through more rigorous assessment of foundation
stiffness and hence foundation loads for different load cases, as well as more accurate
resistance calculations and sizing (diameter and penetration).
 Detailed design: Likely to involve bespoke numerical analysis approaches such as FEA for both
resistance and stiffness verification. Site- or location-specific VHM envelopes may be assessed
or verified and the analysis may also include coupled foundation-structure analyses.
Typically, mono-caisson structures will adopt caissons with L/D < 1, as the moment capacity scales
with LD3, whereas for multi-caisson structures, where vertical tensile capacity may be critical, it may
be beneficial to use longer skirt length caissons, providing they can be installed.
8.2 Loading regime

The loading on the caisson foundation must be sufficiently defined so that the in-service assessment
captures appropriate foundation failure modes:
a) For a multi-caisson structure (see Figure 2-1), the applied loading will be translated into
variable vertical loading on the opposing foundations. The magnitude of the footing loads
will depend upon the jacket footprint area, structural weight and the environmental
loading. The downwind footing will experience the most significant compression load and

the upwind footing reduced compression loads or possibly tension uplift. Both the
compression capacity of the most heavily loaded downwind footing and, where relevant,
the tension capacity mobilised on the upwind footing must be verified. Horizontal loads
will be shared across the foundations. The load distribution can only be assessed accurately
once the foundation stiffness has been determined (see Section 8.7). The moment loading
on each SICF will be a function of the stiffness of the structure and structure-foundation
connection, which is likely to result in low applied moment loads.
b) For a mono-caisson (see Figure 2-1), the applied load translates to a combined vertical,
horizontal and moment loading on the foundation. The applied vertical load is equal to the
structure weight and is likely to be a small fraction of the anticipated vertical capacity of
the foundation. The ratio of moment to horizontal load, M/HD, is a convenient
dimensionless variable for load characterisation.
Foundation clustering strategies may lead to design efficiencies, however, the potential implications
on design risk should be carefully considered as discussed in Section 4.7.
8.3 Geotechnical analysis

Plausibility checks and sensitivity studies using simplified calculation methods as outlined in Sections
8.6 and 8.7 are recommended in parallel to FEA to allow bench-marking / sense checking of the more
advanced modelling and to ensure the soil layers and parameters which dominate the response are
adequately understood and characterized for detailed design.
8.3.1 Soil layering

Soil conditions at a site are rarely uniform and simplified design soil layering will have to be assessed
by the geotechnical specialists who will also assign geotechnical parameters to each layer for analysis
and design (see Sections 4.6 and 4.7).
At conceptual design stages, simplified profiles may be sufficient to characterize the foundation
response. In this case, conventional bearing capacity or stiffness solutions for uniform conditions, or
conditions with stiffness and strength increasing with depth may be adequate. When this is not the
case, or when it is difficult to be confident that a simplified soil model adequately captures all aspects
of the foundation response (either for ultimate resistance or for stiffness), FEA methods may be
adopted to model the effects of soil layering.
Modelling complex soil conditions with FEA (see Section 8.9) and obtaining results for ultimate
resistance and stiffness can lead to an inadequate understanding of the most important soil
parameters or soil layers. In addition, it can mask the limitations associated with geotechnical
characterization of the site conditions, particularly at an early stage in the design process.
8.3.2 Drained versus undrained analyses

The designer should assess whether the soils surrounding the caisson are to be considered drained,
undrained or partially drained:
a) for the loading cases to be studied;
b) throughout the design storm, and
c) during a peak ULS load case.

Figure 8-11 compares load duration and drainage rates for typical soils.
Simplified vertical or radial drainage assessments are recommended at an early stage as illustrated
below (or for example Verruit (2006) for more detailed radial drainage solutions).
Figure 8-11: Comparison typical load duration – drainage comparison
A useful concept for simplified assessment is the characteristic drainage period, Tchar.drain, (de Groot et
al., 2006) defined as :
𝑑2
𝑇𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟,𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴 Equation 8-9
𝑐𝑣
Where:
𝑐𝑣 = vertical coefficient of consolidation (m2/s).
𝐴 = factor in formula for characteristic drainage period, often taken as 1.0 (-)
𝑑 = the drainage path length, (m)
The drainage path length should represent the distance from the zone with excess pore pressure (e.g.
SICF tip) to the nearest effective drainage boundary (e.g. seabed or permeable layer), either in vertical
or radial direction.
If 𝑇𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟,𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 is very large compared to the loading duration, very little drainage will occur but if
𝑇𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟,𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 is of the order of the loading duration at least some drainage will occur. 𝑇𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟,𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 may
be compared to the duration of the peak loading (e.g. 1 wave period) to determine drainage conditions
applicable for a peak load analysis. For assessing whether pore pressures due to cyclic loading could
accumulate during the most intense period of a storm, 𝑇𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟,𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 should be compared to the length
of the intense cyclic loading period. Further guidance is provided in de Groot et al. (2006) and
Zienkiewicz et al., (1980). Monitoring of a full-scale SICF jacket described by Shonberg et al. (2017) has
demonstrated the applicability of assessing drainage rates. Whilst monitoring of a full-scale SICF jacket
by Tjelta (2014) indicated that no significant pore pressure accumulated in that case during cyclic
loading in sand.
The outcome of these preliminary studies should indicate which type of analysis (undrained or
drained) is most appropriate for the loading condition being considered. Calculation methods for

undrained or drained conditions are readily available; partially drained approaches would require
bespoke assessment.
8.4 Conventional bearing capacity and VHM envelopes

Caisson foundations, given their geometry, are not easily treated as shallow foundations nor as deep
(piled) foundations (see ISO 19901-4 (2016), DNVGL-RP-C212 (2017)); they are classified as
intermediate foundations.
For conceptual design, classical bearing capacity methods for shallow foundations (e.g. DNVGL-RP-
C212 (2017), Vesic (1975)) may be adapted. However, the effect of embedment (typically L/D > 0.5)
and the strong coupling between the horizontal and moment resistance makes their application not
straightforward. Nevertheless, ways by which these methods may be adapted to the determination
of ultimate capacity of caissons are outlined in Appendix C.
Another approach is to define the ultimate resistance of a SICF directly in the form of VHM failure
envelopes. Conceptual VHM envelopes for shallow skirted foundations under drained and undrained
loading are shown in Figure 8-12 (a), in which, typically, a rotated parabolic ellipsoid represents the
locus of VHM loads at failure. In the MH plane this manifests as a rotated ellipse, whilst a parabola is
applicable to planes along the V axis at ratios of constant M/H.
There is a long and extensive literature behind these methods, which involve both drained and
undrained loading, surface foundations and embedded foundations (e.g. SICF, spud-cans for jack-up
vessels). Such concepts applied to skirted or caisson foundations for undrained loading can be found
in Bransby and Randolph (1998), Taiebat and Carter (2000), Taiebat and Carter (2005), Gourvenec
(2008), Palix et al. (2011), Kay and Palix (2011), Randolph and Gourvenec (2011), Gourvenec and
Barnett (2011), Skau et al. (2018) and others. The more recent formulations by Vulpe (2015) (L/D 0.1
to 0.5) and Karapiperis and Gerolymos (2014) (L/D 1 to 3) are probably most relevant.
For drained loading there have been fewer studies, possibly as it is not easily suited to numerical
studies. The work that has been undertaken focuses on experimental work, such as that completed
by Byrne (2000)or Villalobos et al. (2009), as well as Kelly et al. (2006). These studies have shown that,
for suction caisson foundations under drained loading, the VHM yield surface has a positive intercept
at zero vertical load, due to the embedment of the caisson in the ground.
Figure 8-12 (b) and Figure 8-12 (c) show illustrative load paths for the multi-caisson and the mono-
caisson structures, respectively, indicating that only a very small part of the VHM load space is actually
relevant for design. The dimensions of the failure envelopes are often defined by the uniaxial vertical
(compression and tension), horizontal and moment capacities (Vult,c, Vult,t, Hult, Mult, respectively). For
the multi-caisson design the vertical capacities are most applicable, whilst for relevant L/D ratios the
yield surface for mono-caisson design can be approximated by a plane. It should be noted that the
vertical tension capacity (Vult,t) may be limited by cavitation, particularly in shallow water depths, for
stiff clay and for dense sand. Many numerical studies for undrained loading have not considered how
this limit may impact on the defined VHM yield surfaces, and so caution needs to be exercised in
applying the results of numerical studies from the literature. In addition, whilst there has been
extensive experimental verification of these yield surfaces for vertical compressive loading there are
very few experimental studies that explore combined loading in tension.
These VHM formulations may be used in isolation as a failure envelope to allow ULS design of the
foundation for the extreme loads. However, they also provide a consistent framework for integrated

structure-foundation load-displacement response using an elastic or non-linear elastic stiffness matrix

inside the VHM yield surface as well as collapse analysis as discussed in Section 8.9.
Figure 8-12: Indicative VHM failure envelopes and load paths
(a) VHM Yield Surfaces

Drained M M Undrained M M
Mmax Mmax
Mult Mult
Hult H V Hult H V
Vult,t Vult,c Vult,t Vult,c
Hmax Hmax
Vult,t Vult,t
H
H
Vult,c V
Vult,c V
(b) Multi-caisson load paths

Mmax Mmax
Mult Mult
Hult H V Hult H V
Hmax Hmax
Vult,t Vult,t
H
H
Vult,c V
Vult,c V

(c) Mono-caisson load paths

Mmax Mmax
Mult Mult
Hult H V Hult H V
Vm Vm
Hmax Hmax
Vult,t Vult,t
Vm
H
Vm H
Vult,c V
Vult,c V
8.5 Simplifying design assumptions

Several simplifying assumptions may be needed during design which could affect the calculation
methods. These include:
 Soil plug stability: Can the soil inside the caisson be treated as a solid, rigid plug, so that the
caisson can be treated as a solid embedded cylindrical foundation? This assumption clearly
depends on the effective filling of any voids between the top of the soil plug and the caisson
lid. Care needs to be exercised for moment loading calculations in soils of strength increasing
with depth, in which a possible failure mechanism can be partially within the caisson skirt (e.g.
see (Mana et al., 2013)).
 Installation effects: How will soil disturbance and potential loosening during installation be
considered? Further discussion is included in Section 4.7.
 Cyclic effects: How will cyclic induced pore water pressures (if any) or strength degradation (if
any) be incorporated into the design calculations? This is discussed in more detail in Section
8.6.1.7.
 Drainage paths in cohesive soils: The potential for preferential drainage paths due to fissured
clays, soil-skirt gapping, or unfilled boreholes or CPT holes should be carefully considered and
accounted for as necessary.
 Other considerations of lesser importance but still requiring consideration:
o Caisson top valve(s): Will they be open or closed (vented or unvented) during the
structure lifetime? Open vents may enable more rapid drainage and consolidation
strength increases following cyclic loading but may also affect reverse end bearing
capacity.
o Effect of torsion: is the SICF likely to experience any significant torsional loads which
need to be considered in design? Generic studies such as Taiebat and Carter (2005)
allow the effect of torsional loading on the other components of soil resistance to be

assessed quickly. A decision can then be based on the potential impact of the torsional
component.
These issues need to be evaluated by the geotechnical specialists in collaboration with the design team
to ensure the geotechnical design assumptions are understood by all parties.
8.6 Ultimate resistance

Ultimate resistance calculations are appropriate for assessment of the Ultimate Limit State (ULS). This
section outlines the principles of calculation for simplified soil profiles only. Methods for assessing the
ultimate resistances are presented at the Load Reference Point (Section 5.2.2).
If the soil resistance is calculated at skirt tip level, the resistance components from side resistance,
side friction, and the weight of the soil plug must be accounted for. In Appendix C a method for
accounting for all the relevant terms is described.
8.6.1 Multi-caisson structures

8.6.1.1 Soil-structure interaction
Multi-caisson foundation systems are statically indeterminate, so the distribution of loads between
caissons must be estimated either by making simplifying assumptions or by more detailed numerical
analysis of the structure/foundation system.
Where simplified analyses are employed it is common to assume that only very small moment loads
are transmitted to individual footings. Subject to this assumption, the vertical load on each individual
footing can be determined for the cases of:
a) a three-legged platform subjected to loading in the direction of any of its axes of symmetry,
or
b) a four-legged platform subjected to loading parallel to one of its sides.
For four-legged jacket platforms the diagonal loading is generally the governing case and additional
assumptions are necessary (see Section 8.6.1.6 below).
8.6.1.2 Combined loading – bearing capacity approach (compression)

At all design stages, it will usually be necessary to consider the capacity for combined (V, H and M)
loading. Appropriate calculation methods to illustrate the principles for homogeneous soils (single
layer) and suitable for conceptual design are given in Appendix C.
For multi-caisson structures, where the structure only permits very small rotations of an individual
footing, the moments developed on them may not be significant as far as ultimate capacity is
concerned. The ultimate moment capacity of the entire foundation assembly can be deduced from
simple statics and the ultimate vertical capacities (tension and compression including any horizontal
load effects) of the individual footings, if the moment arises from “push-pull” action between
downwind and upwind footings.
8.6.1.3 Combined loading – bearing capacity approach (tension)

In undrained vertical tension loading the ultimate tensile capacity may be estimated by applying a
“reverse bearing capacity” calculation. Appropriate calculation methods are detailed in Appendix C.
However, as discussed in Section 8.5, the potential for preferential flow paths which could result in

drained behaviour should be considered. Mobilisation of reverse bearing capacity requires much
larger deformations than for mobilisation of skirt friction (Bienen et al., 2018b).
To assess the appropriate tensile resistance to be considered for design a number of factors much be
considered. These include the average load (compressive or tensile), the peak cyclic load, the number
and duration of the tensile cycles, and the drainage rates applicable in the soil (see (Bienen et al.,
2018c)). A site-specific understanding of the characteristics of both the loading and the resistance is
essential to any design which involves uplift loads.
The potential for significant uplift displacement and reduction in stiffness should be carefully
considered if tensile loads exceed the skirt frictional capacity. Several experimental studies at model
and reduced field scale have indicated that, whilst ultimate tensile capacities of SICFs tends to be high,
substantial displacements are required to mobilise these capacities. If displacements are to be kept
small (as may be dictated by serviceability requirements), it has been observed that tensile loads
should either not be permitted at all, or at least limited to the drained pull-out capacity of the caisson,
i.e. the friction developed on the inside and outside of the caisson skirt.
8.6.1.4 Horizontal loading (sliding)

A simplified estimate of the ultimate horizontal capacity may be calculated by summing two
components: the difference between active and passive earth pressures on the vertical faces of the
caisson (accounting if necessary for the possibility of gap formation), multiplied by the projected
horizontal area and the shear capacity of the base of the caisson. Appropriate calculation methods are
given in 0. However, it should be noted that these methods do not consider 3D effects such as side
shear of the SICF. In clay soils, alternatively the horizontal capacity can be defined by a lateral bearing
factor (Randolph and Houlsby, 1984), (Kay and Palix, 2011)).
The potential for preferential sliding failure within softer/weaker soils below the skirt tip should be
checked in layered soils. However, it should be noted that horizontal sliding failure is generally not a
significant issue for offshore wind turbine foundations.
8.6.1.5 Combined loading – simplified VHM approach

An alternative to using the bearing capacity theories is to specify the combined loading VHM surface
directly. For example Byrne (2000) explores VHM envelopes for flat footings and caissons in dense
sand. Given that, for a multi-caisson structure the vertical loading conditions are dominant, the forces
developed on the sides of the caisson may only make a minor contribution to the ultimate moment
resistance. The results by Byrne (2000) suggest the yield surface for sand, without any allowance for
tensile capacity, could be written as:
𝐻 2 𝑀 2
2𝑎𝐻𝑀 𝑉 𝑉
√( ) +( ) − − 4 (1 − ) = 0 Equation 8-10
ℎ0 𝑉0 𝑚0 𝐷𝑉0 2 𝑉0 𝑉0
ℎ0 𝑚0 𝐷𝑉0
Where:
ℎ0 = 0.11
𝑚0 = 0.08
𝑎 = parameter defining eccentricity of yield surface. Byrne (2000) reports values in the range -0.3 to -
0.8.
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑢𝑙𝑡,𝑐 is the ultimate capacity under pure vertical loading as calculated in Appendix C.

More extensive formulations, and parameter values, for drained and undrained loading as discussed
in Section 8.4. This includes VHM envelopes allowing for tensile capacity e.g. Villalobos et al (2009).
The more recent formulations by Vulpe (2015) and Karapiperis and Gerolymos (2014) are probably
most relevant for undrained VHM envelopes.
8.6.1.6 Foundation group effects

For ULS conditions, all foundations must be in a collapse state at the same time although the
mechanisms will be different. Murff (2012) discusses this condition which is illustrated in Figure 8-13
and further discussion can be found in Bransby and Martin (1999) and Kim et al. (2014). However, for
a tripod structure loaded on one of its axes of symmetry, or for a tetrapod structure loaded parallel to
one side, ULS capacity will normally be governed by the capacity of any one caisson, loaded in either
compression of tension: in other words, overall failure is governed by first failure, with only minor
effects of load redistribution.
Figure 8-13: Kinematic constraints on failure mechanisms for multi-footing structures
Ref: Murff (2012) McClelland lecture
Multi-caisson foundations would rarely involve caissons at a sufficiently close spacing that group
effects would result in lower capacity than that of the individual footings. However, the potential for
group effects should always be checked. For very closely spaced footings detailed assessments should
be undertaken to determine the grouping effects, especially for ultimate horizontal capacity.
The group effect can be evaluated initially by considering the extent of the failure zone for an
individual SICF and determining if overlapping with another SICF failure zone is likely. If there is some
doubt, finite element analysis is required to determine the reduction in ultimate capacity due to SICF
interaction.
8.6.1.7 Multi-caisson cyclic loading effects

The effects of repeated loading (cycling) are usually considered by applying reduction factors on the
strength values employed in ultimate limit state calculations. There is extensive discussion regarding
cyclic loading in DNVGL-RP-C212, (2017).

Alternatively, the effects of cyclic loading may be treated variously according to the level of detail
required:
 Macro modelling in which the nearness of the load vector to the yield surface defines the
amount of degradation (pore pressure increases or permanent plastic strain). This approach
is analogous to the approach used for axial pile design for cyclic loading (e.g. Jardine et al.
(2005)).
 Finite element analysis with stress zoning – FE analyses are used to define shear stress ratios
within the model thus allowing for the effect of various load levels to be assessed. Zones are
defined based on the average and cyclic shear stress ratios and soil properties such as stiffness
and strength are degraded accordingly as discussed in DNVGL-RP-C212 (2017) and Andersen
(2015).
 Finite element analysis with cyclic accumulation modelling in which packets of cyclic loads are
applied with accumulation of pore water pressure or strain are discussed in Versteele et al.
(2013) and Skau and Jostad (2014).
Numerical methods used to analyse cyclic loading effects should be validated and benchmarked
against relevant small-scale and field test results, particularly for sands and/or involving tensile
loading. They should be used with an awareness of the simplifications inherent is such analyses and
sensitivity studies are recommended.
Finite element calculations using soil material models that are based on strain and/or pore pressure
accumulation have been used for design and have, to some extent, been validated through tests for
Gravity Base Structures (GBS) in soft clay. For project specific applications the main uncertainty relates
to reliable relevant cyclic laboratory tests and tests related to consolidation (permeability and
coefficient of consolidation). Uncertainties have to be accounted for by conservative selection of
parameters as discussed in Section 4.
A key factor in the application of any of these methods is consideration of the drainage which may
occur during a storm. Failure to account for drainage and (possible) densification may result in
excessive conservatism in the cyclic design analysis.
A number of experimental programs have explored the response of SICFs to vertical cyclic loading,
particularly in sand soils, including under tensile loading and also under compressive loading (for
example Byrne (2000), Kelly et al. (2006) & Bienen et al. (2018b). The key observations from these
studies indicate the following:
 Purely compressive loading sequences lead to settlement, as might be expected.

 The stiffness of the caisson response increases with the average applied load.
 Net settlement occurs even when cyclic loading into tension is applied, if the average stress is
sufficiently compressive.
 A change in stiffness of response occurs as the caisson moves from compression to tension
during cycling with significant flexibility of response in tension. Selection of a representative
stiffness for a caisson cycling into tension appears to be complex.
 Zero or tensile average stresses are not tolerable resulting in significant and ongoing upward
displacement of the caisson, even when the loading is within the frictional capacity of the
caisson. This is not likely to be relevant to fixed bottom structures but may be of concern to
moorings for floating structures

Therefore, as discussed in Appendix C, although significant capacities are achievable for one-off tensile
loads, significant caution should be exercised in designing a SICF for cycling out of compression and
into tension for anything other than the ULS condition. As field experience of installed caissons is
developed then it may be possible to be less cautious.
When evaluating the effects of cyclic loading, scenarios induced only by the application of load and
resistance factors (for example apparent cycling into tension when using factored ULS loads and
resistances) should be reviewed for applicability.
8.6.2 Mono-caissons
8.6.2.1 Vertical loading: compression
Mono-caissons will invariably be subjected to vertical compression, principally from the weight of the
structure. The ultimate loading in compression may be calculated using the same procedures as in
Section 8.6.1.2 and Appendix C. It is not necessary to address vertical tension.
8.6.2.2 Horizontal loading

The ultimate horizontal loading for the mono caisson may be calculated using the same procedures as
in Section 8.6.1.4 and Appendix C.
8.6.2.3 Moment loading

Moment capacity may be assessed using bearing capacity methods combined with the effective area
concept, see Appendix C.
Alternatively, for drained conditions (dense sand), and assuming that the forces developed on the
sides of the caisson only make a minor contribution to the ultimate moment resistance, the approach
in Section 8.6.1.5 can be adopted.
For undrained conditions, with uniform shear strength and full attachment, Gourvenec, (2007)
suggests:
𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 𝑁𝑐𝑚 𝐴 𝐷 𝑠𝑢 Equation 8-11
Where 𝑁𝑐𝑚 = 0.67 and
A is the area of the mono-caisson
The uniaxial loading cases cited above (i.e. with V = H = 0) are not of practical use unless the VHM
envelope approach is to be used.
8.6.2.4 Combined loading

Combined loading may be treated using the methods described in Section 8.6.1.5. Given the typical
form of the yield surface in the positive loading quadrant it is possible to approximate the surface by
a plane, rather than a full three-dimensional surface, and which may be simpler to calibrate either via
numerical modelling or experimental data. For example for drained capacity in loose sand Byrne and
Houlsby (2003) suggest the following simplified calculation, based on model scale tests with 𝐿⁄𝐷 =
0.5:

𝐷
𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡 = (𝑉 + 𝑓3 𝑊) Equation 8-12
𝑓2
𝑓1 +
𝑘
Where:
𝑀
𝑘=
𝐷𝐻
𝜋𝐷 2 𝐿
𝑊 = 𝛾′
4
𝑓1 = 3 ; 𝑓2 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓3 = 0.65
Note that this calculation implies that the weight of the soil plug is only partially mobilised under the
action of the loading.
A similar approach can be adopted for a clay soil, with numerical modelling used to calibrate the
surface; a minimum of three calculations defining VHM loads at failure, are needed to identify the
plane (assuming the points are not collinear).
8.6.2.5 Mono-caisson cyclic loading effects

The effects of cyclic / repeated loading may be treated as described in Section 8.6.1.7 and as also
discussed in Section 8.8.
8.7 Stiffness
8.7.1 Small-strain shear modulus
Stiffness calculations adopting a shear modulus representative of relatively small strains are
appropriate for assessment of the Fatigue Limit State (FLS) and Serviceability Limit State (SLS).
At sufficiently small deformations soil may be characterized by a small-strain shear modulus 𝐺0 and
Poisson’s ratio (𝜈). The small strain Young’s modulus (𝐸0 ) and bulk modulus (𝐾0 ) are related to these
by:
𝐸0 = 2(1 + 𝜈)𝐺0 Equation 8-13

2(1 + 𝜈)
𝐾0 = 𝐺 Equation 8-14
3(1 − 2𝜈) 0
For undrained clays 𝜈 = 0.5 (usually considered as 0.49 for the purposes of numerical analysis) and for
drained behaviour a typical value of Poisson’s ratio is 𝜈 = 0.2.
The small-strain shear modulus (𝐺0 ) may be measured or estimated. The modulus can be measured
directly by, for instance, resonant column testing, or through measurements of the shear wave
velocity in-situ.
The small-strain modulus may be estimated as follows:
 For clays the small strain shear modulus (𝐺0 ) is usually estimated from the undrained shear
strength by Equation 8-15 with values of the rigidity index 𝐼𝑟 typically in the range 500-2000
or potentially lower in the case of highly plastic clays (Andersen, 2015).

𝐺0
= 𝐼𝑟 Equation 8-15
𝑠𝑢
 For sands the modulus (𝐺0 ) may be estimated by a formula such as:
𝑛
𝐺0 𝑝′
= 𝐼𝑠 ( ) Equation 8-16
𝑝𝑎 𝑝𝑎
Where:
𝑝𝑎 = is a reference pressure (usually atmospheric pressure, (𝑝𝑎 =100kPa);
𝑝′ = is a representative mean effective stress beneath the foundation;
𝑛 = is an exponent approximately equal to 0.5;
𝐼𝑠 = is a stiffness factor typically in the range 300-1500.
Further discussion can be found in, for instance, Benz (2007).
8.7.2 Modulus reduction with strain

As discussed in Section 8.1, the response of the SICF must normally be linearized at a specific load level
due to the non-linear stress-strain response of the soil, to obtain the correct stiffness at the required
load level. This requires selection of appropriate modulus reduction factors according to the type of
analysis being performed i.e. for ULS/ALS or SLS analyses.
The non-linear response of a soil element is obtained by static, dynamic and cyclic tests on soil
samples. Figure 8-14 shows examples of modulus reduction curves (G/Gmax v shear strain). Curves such
as these should be carefully selected from the database of available literature (for instance Ishihara
(1995)) and site-specific laboratory tests.
Figure 8-14: Example shear modulus reduction with shear strain
b) Cohesive soils (Kramer, 1996)
a) Cohesionless soils (Ishibashi, 1992)
Soil element non-linear response may be introduced into simplified analyses by considering average
operation levels of shear strain as a function of the distance of the load to the failure envelope.
One simplified industry approach which has been accepted considers the modulus applicable to a
strain corresponding to 50% of the peak stress (50) for ULS analyses.

Modulus reduction relationships are often available in standard FE packages.
8.7.3 Vertical, horizontal and rotational stiffness

The elastic response of a caisson, treated as a rigid cylindrical foundation, may be represented by the
matrix equation (considering a 2D formulation):
𝑉⁄ 𝐾𝑉 0 0 𝑤⁄
𝐺0 𝐷 2 𝐷
𝐻⁄ 𝑢⁄
𝐺0 𝐷2 = 0 𝐾𝐻 𝐾𝐶
𝐷 Equation 8-17
𝑀
[ ⁄𝐺0 𝐷 3 ] [ 0 𝐾𝐶 𝐾𝑀 ] [ 𝜃 ]
Where:
V, H, M = vertical, horizontal and moment loading
𝐺0 = small-strain shear modulus
𝐷 = caisson outer diameter
𝐾𝑉 , 𝐾𝐻 , 𝐾𝑀 , 𝐾𝐶 = vertical, horizontal, moment and coupling stiffness, respectively
𝑤, 𝑢, 𝜃 = vertical, horizontal and rotational deformation, respectively
The load and displacement terms and sign convention are defined in Section 2.2, and 𝐾𝑉 , 𝐾𝐻 , 𝐾𝑀 , 𝐾𝐶
are dimensionless factors. In the definition of these factors the position of the reference point for
loads and displacements should be carefully considered and accounted for.
Values of the dimensionless stiffness factors for rigid caissons are found in Bell (1991), Ngo-Tran
(1996), and Doherty and Deeks (2003). Other solutions for general shaped embedded foundations are
provided by Gazetas (1991). Extension to a 3D form as required for structural analysis (see Section 5.3)
is straightforward and only requires a torsional stiffness term to be added (see DNVGL-RP-C212
(2017); Suryasentana et al. (2017)).
In the above the caisson itself is assumed to act as a rigid unit. A method for accounting for the
flexibility of the skirt wall is described by Doherty et al. (2005).
These solutions assume full top plate contact with the soil and do not allow for the top plate stiffness,
which is likely to be important as discussed in Shonberg et al. (2017).
These solutions do not account for the potential reduction in stiffness if the net uplift load is tensile
or if partial drainage occurs (Bienen et al., 2018a).
Foundation group effects for multi-caisson structures should also be evaluated. Elastic theory is likely
to provide a conservative estimate of the interaction between two SICFs.
Foundation stiffness is not necessarily constant with time due to the effect of cyclic loading on soil
properties. Experimental data available to date suggests that an increase in stiffness in sand may be
anticipated and was found to be independent of relative density for monopiles (LeBlanc et al., 2010).
However, Zhu et al. (2013) showed no significant changes in the moment stiffness of a caisson in sand.
8.7.4 Damping
Soils dissipate energy when subject to cyclic loading due to inter-particle friction, structure
rearrangement, and pore fluid viscosity. The magnitude of the energy loss is known as the internal or

material damping, and in soils it is dependent on many factors including the strain amplitude and the
frequency or velocity. While friction and soil structure related damping are strain-dependent, the
effect of pore fluid viscosity is frequency dependent as it is controlled by the permeability of the soil.
Material damping is discussed in detail in (Kramer, 1996).
An example of the dependency of material damping on the cyclic strain intensity is shown in Figure 8-
15 for clays. For sands, the damping ratio is also dependent on the void ratio and the confining
pressure.
Figure 8-15: Example of dependency of damping ratio on cyclic shear strain
Ref: Andersen (2015) - clays
Correlations between damping ratio and G/Gmax have been suggested by Ishibashi and Zhang, (1993),
Ishihara (1995)and Zhang et al. (2005).
For SICFs, there will be large variations in material damping around the caisson due to the variations
in shear strain, and localized pore water pressure variations and associated viscous damping.
Specific analyses would be required to develop the global damping ratio to be considered associated
with a given load intensity.
Byrne (2000) and Skau et al. (2018) identifies that caisson response under small numbers of moment
(and horizontal) loading cycles exhibited “Masing” type behavior, so that the response at macro level
could be represented by a kinematic hardening model.
8.7.5 Layered profiles

Layered soil profiles will normally require FE analyses to obtain an accurate assessment of the
components of the SICF stiffness matrix (Equation 8-17).

8.8 Permanent deformations

8.8.1 General
Permanent deformation of SICFs may arise from a combination of the following components which all
need to be considered:
 Elastic settlement
 Consolidation settlement
 Creep settlement
 Shakedown (short-term densification and load redistribution)
 Settlements due to repeated loading (long-term densification)
Serviceability (SLS) analysis includes demonstrating that consolidation and cyclic loading does not
cause excessive settlement or rotation of the structure. Evaluation of future permanent displacements
of a structure is therefore an essential element of SLS assessment, but methods are currently not fully
developed and may be unreliable. However, from the limited experience of structures which have
been installed and monitored, the performance does not give cause for concern. Some of the publicly
available field data is summarised in Appendix B. Some preliminary guidelines are proposed in this
document.
Permanent deformations of a SICF will depend both on the permanent load (for settlements), and on
the characteristics of the environmental loading (potentially causing differential settlements or tilt).
8.8.2 Permanent vertical deformation (settlement)

Permanent vertical settlement could occur for a variety of reasons as discussed above. Lateral
variations in soil properties across a multi-caisson structure should be considered as they could give
rise to differential settlements and permanent tilt.
Elastic, consolidation and creep settlement may be assessed by conventional methods applicable to
shallow foundations (ISO 19901-4 (2016), DNVGL-RP-C212 (2017)) and foundation engineering text
books. Shakedown and other settlements caused by repeated loading on SICFs are discussed in this
section.
In the context of SICFs, shakedown is the term applied to the initial “bedding in” of the caisson
following installation when subject to the initial significant environmental loads. Suction installation
causes some disturbance of the soil and, immediately after installation, the long-term distribution of
load on the skirts and top plate is not yet established. The first storm loading causes local stress
redistribution and local densification which could result in “shakedown” settlement. In the absence of
documented case histories, it is proposed the shakedown settlement be assessed by considering the
effect of load redistribution and local densification of the soil inside the skirts. Shakedown may be
mitigated by underbase filling.
Settlement due to repeated loading may be assessed in various ways:
 In sands, cyclic induced settlement can be assessed by considering the intensity of cyclic
loading in each supporting layer (inside and below the caisson) and the resulting volume
decrease with numbers of cycles assuming drained conditions. Empirical methods based on

limited laboratory data may also be used to inform the settlement estimates (e.g. Zhu et al.,
2013) but the limitations of such methods must also be considered.
 In clays, by assessing the excess pore pressures induced by cyclic loading and then considering
the additional settlement when drainage occurs (using the reloading modulus).
 By more complex numerical methods which model the effects of cyclic loading element by
element (Versteele et al., (2013); Lupea, (2013), Jostad et al., 2014; Jostad and Andresen,
2009; Skau and Jostad, 2014). However, the reliability of these methods is not yet generally
demonstrated, and they require validation and benchmarking.
8.8.3 Permanent rotation (tilt)

Permanent rotation of multi-suction caisson structures (global rotation) should be assessed by
considering differential settlements as discussed in Section 8.8.2 including the effects of interaction
between the individual SICF s if relevant.
For mono-caisson structures, permanent tilt due to accumulated rotation of the SICF during cyclic
loading is a design case which should be investigated. The work by Zhu et al (2013) and Zhu et al (2017)
demonstrates that the accumulated angular rotation follows a power law relationship with the
number of cycles.
Studies at laboratory scale both at 1g and in a centrifuge, indicate that permanent rotation does
accumulate with cyclic amplitude and the greatest accumulation occurs for a cyclic regime between
one-way and two-way loading (Zhu et al. (2013); (Cox and Bhattacharya, 2016). In drained sand
conditions, there is an initial rapid accumulation of rotation which slows with additional loading as
found for monopiles (LeBlanc et al. (2010); Foglia et al, 2014).
There is some evidence from cyclic element testing that there is a threshold strain level below which
accumulated deformation does not occur (Vucetic (1994); Mortezaie and Vucetic, (2016)). Nielsen et
al., (2017)) report 1g laboratory results for cyclic loading of SICFs where rotation was not measurable
at low cyclic load levels. Kim et al (2014) also provides relevant test data. Further investigation is
required before firm guidelines can be developed for defining a threshold load level.
No change in stiffness with cycle number is observed. This is further reinforced in work by Cox and
Bhattacharya (2016).
8.9 Advanced modelling approaches

8.9.1 Finite element analysis
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is widely used for detailed design of SICFs. Compared to the bearing
capacity analysis discussed above, best-practice FEA can provide a more accurate model for
foundation capacity in complex soil profiles, and 3D packages automatically account for geometrical
effects. FEA can also be used to account for consolidation effects and other time or rate-dependent
behavior. Advanced FEA is likely to take more time and require special expertise and is therefore more
suitable for detailed design stages and verification of other methods. Benchmarking and validation of
advanced models is generally required.
There are a range of FEA software packages and soil constitutive models that are available. Some
features that may be needed include:

 Strain and pressure dependent soil stiffness

 Soil strength anisotropy and cyclic degradation effects
 Interface elements to model interface friction and set-up
 Limiting tension criteria to simulate cracking or cavitation
The most appropriate package, soil model types, soil layering, engineering parameters and modelling
should be selected by a senior geotechnical engineer experienced with FEA. Advanced numerical
analysis should always be performed by a geotechnical engineer experienced with numerical analysis
and aware of the behavior of the soil models being used and the limitations of the analysis method.
8.9.2 VHM envelopes and the use of VHM approach

Generally, it will be necessary to adopt more advanced techniques to define the yield surfaces,
particularly for mono-caisson designs. Most sites consist of layered and variable soil conditions for
which the standard calculations for combined loading may be difficult to apply without undue
conservatism.
The basic approach for defining VHM envelopes would follow this process:
1) Define the maximum resistances (Vmax, Hmax, Mmax) or the uniaxial ultimate resistances
(Vult, Hult, Mult). Simplified bearing capacity, limit equilibrium, plasticity, or finite element
analysis may be used.
2) Define the shape of the envelope covering the load range applicable to the SICF. Existing
generic studies defining the shape of the failure envelope may be used where the
applicability is confirmed. Alternatively, specific analyses using limit equilibrium,
plasticity, or finite element analysis may be used.
The adoption of the VHM approach includes the following benefits:
1) All design stages (from conceptual to final design) may be accommodated by incremental
improvement of the VHM envelope as further data or more sophisticated analyse
become available (improving reliability and removing conservatisms)
2) All SICF design load cases can be assessed and presented using a single VHM envelope
and the change in an individual action component on the proximity to the yield surface is
indicated;
3) Finite element analysis may be adopted at any stage to improve the VHM envelope
definition;
4) For multi-caisson structures, the VHM surface may be considered as part of an elasto-
plastic macro-element model and combined with a flow rule to facilitate SICF
displacement response as a function of load level for push-over analysis (see for example
Bransby and Martin (1999));
5) Using a VHM framework in the form of a macro-element for both non-linear stiffness (as
a function of proximity to the yield surface) and failure naturally allows integrated
foundation and structural design analysis, as discussed in Section 5.5.

8.9.3 Macro-element modelling

An approach which is still mostly in the research stage consists in modelling the SICF response using a
macro-element or force-resultant model. However, because it holds promise for use with integrated
structural and foundation design and is likely to become more widely used in the future, it is
introduced in this document.
A full elasto-plastic macro-element model requires definition of:
a) the yield surface (VHMT envelope),
b) elastic or non-linear response within the yield surface (see Section 8.7),
c) the hardening behaviour (often linked with the vertical penetration response in
applications to jack-up spud cans), and,
d) a flow rule to determine the incremental plastic displacements at failure.
Full implementations of such models (for application to jack-ups) can be found in Martin (1994) or
Cassidy (1999) and extensions to full 6 degree of freedom loading in Bienen et al. (2007), albeit for
surface foundations. The implementation for a caisson foundation in soft clay can be found in Cassidy
et al. (2006). Note that extension of yield envelopes into a full elasto-plastic macro-element may
require some simplification of the yield function expressions to ensure numerical robustness (e.g. to
avoid singularities, to ensure convexity, etc).
Other relevant references providing further information include: Nguyen-Sy and Houlsby (2005),
Heron et al. (2015) and Skau et al. (2018).
8.10 Other considerations relating to in-service performance

8.10.1 Scour and scour protection
In-service performance will be affected by local and global scour if it occurs. Scour evaluations and
scour protection requirements are essential elements of SICF design requirements.
For SICFs in which scour protection is part of the foundation design, the integrity of the protection
measures should be confirmed at intervals to be determined according to the project requirements.
If scour protection is not part of the design, the design must take account of scour which could develop
over the lifetime of the structure. Surveys should be undertaken to confirm that any scour that does
occur remains within the design limits, and to allow remedial works to be undertaken in due time if
required.
There are some general recommendations regarding scour assessment in DNVGL-ST-0126 (2016) with
more detailed discussion in Whitehouse (2004). The risks of self-induced scour or piping around skirts
due to high hydraulic gradients induced by cyclic loading should also be assessed.
8.10.2 Interaction with jack-up spudcans

Jack up spudcans can have a large lateral area and can penetrate a significant depth below seabed
level, resulting in significant seabed disturbance in surrounding soils. Current jack up guidance (ISO
19905-1, 2016) (SNAME, 2008) recommends that interaction effects should be considered when
structures are within 1 equivalent diameter. For SICFs the offset between the edge of the spud can
and edge of the SIFCs could be significantly less than this.

Jack-up operations near to SICFs may affect the properties of the soils supporting the SICF and
therefore the available SICF capacity/stiffness response could be affected or spudcans could
potentially inducing deformations directly. These effects should be assessed from an early project
stage to ensure that SICFs are viable and constructible with available vessels.
8.11 Observed in-service performance

Only a few field-scale observations on suction caisson foundations are currently available and some
results are summarized in Appendix B. Guidance provided in this section is consistent with the current
understanding of observed performance.

9. DECOMMISSIONING
The decommissioning of offshore structures is an important consideration, and offshore regulations
in the European Union require that it should be considered during the design process, and that the
seabed should be returned to its original state after decommissioning.
The extraction of SICFs from the seabed can be achieved by the reverse of the installation procedure
detailed in Section 6.1, where water is pumped into the caisson to create an ‘overpressure’ which
pushes the SICF out of the seabed, possibly in parallel with a crane pull.
9.1 Soil properties

When selecting soil parameters for decommissioning, potential ageing effects including consolidation,
thixotropy and the long-term densification caused by cyclic loading should be considered:
 Consolidation, thixotropy and ageing could result in a significant increase in the soil strength,
potentially to levels higher than the original undisturbed strength in some instances (highly
fissured clays for example);
 Cyclic loading, especially small amplitude loading over the operational lifetime could result in
an increased adhesion/friction at the skirt wall.
The upper bound estimates for the extraction calculations should be based on the appropriate original
in-situ soil and strength profiles (characteristic and/or upper bound) and include an appropriate
conservative allowance for ageing.
Since these time-related effects are not well characterised, a wide range of conditions should be
considered for decommissioning engineering and consideration should be given to ensure a suitably
high soil resistance is adopted.
Structural monitoring and changes to the structure response during the operational lifetime of the
structure may also provide input to the assessment of soil improvement with time.
9.2 Extraction pressures

The required extraction overpressures are calculated in the same way as the installation pressures
detailed in Section 6.2, where the skirt friction is determined based upon the skirt geometry and soil
parameters including the aging effects discussed above.
When an overpressure is applied, the downward hydraulic gradient increases the internal friction on
the skirts and this should be taken into account.
As for the installation calculations (Section 6.2), the extraction pressure which can be applied will be
limited by:
 Pump capacity (pressure and flow);

 Structural stability of the SICF (shell buckling is generally not an issue for extraction since an
overpressure is applied);
 Liquefaction of the soil at the tip of the caisson before the required extraction pressure has
been achieved.

9.3 Review of as-built data

When assessing decommissioning after the structure has been built, the as-built data should be
reviewed to confirm the original design assumptions and the in-situ soil conditions. Data to be
collected and reviewed include the self-weight penetration depth and installation pressures which can
be used to inform selection of the most appropriate soil profile and soil parameters, in conjunction
with set-up/ageing factors.
Other data such as as-built geometry, in-place weight at time of decommissioning, ability of skirts and
base to support overpressure, and grout volumes and properties should also be gathered and
reviewed for efficient decommissioning design.
9.4 Practical considerations

Decommissioning should be considered during the original design process to minimise retrospective
engineering. Examples where decommissioning requirements could affect the design include:
 Lifting points – if the sub-structure is to be partially dismantled offshore then the SICFs may
require lifting points to assist with the extraction and recovery to deck.
 Structural integrity of the caisson and hatches – all vents must be closable and other sources
of leakage avoided to develop sufficient overpressure to extract the SICF.
 Underbase grout – the re-use of vents and piping work used for installation should be
considered during underbase grouting design to ensure the pressures and flows needed
during extraction can be achieved.

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APPENDIX A – GEOTECHNICAL PARAMETERS AND INDICATIVE

TESTS
Table A-1: Geotechnical parameters and indicative test types
Potential testing methods

Geotechnical
Parameter
Cohesive Cohesionless
Visual description
Visual description
Grain size (sieve)
Grain size (sieve/hydrometer)
Unit weight
Unit weight
Soil classification Water content
Water content
Carbonate content
Atterberg limits
PCPT sleeve friction, pore
PCPT sleeve friction, pore pressure
pressure
PCPT dissipation test PCPT dissipation test
Permeability BAT probe BAT probe
Permeability test Permeability test
CPT
T-bar
In-situ vane
Undrained shear Triaxial tests (UU & CAU)

Triaxial tests (CAU)
strength DSS
DSS
(intact and remoulded) Fallcone / Labvane / Pocket pen
Anisotropy (CAUc, CAUe, DSS)
Sensitivity
Thixotropy (𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑥 )
CPT
Friction Angle / Relative Direct shear

Triaxial (CAU, CD)
density Triaxial (CID)
Ring shear

Potential testing methods

Geotechnical
Parameter
Cohesive Cohesionless
Shear modulus & Pressuremeter / HPD Pressuremeter / HPD

damping (including PS Logging PS Logging
small strain stiffness
and unload/reload Seismic cone Seismic cone
stiffness) Resonant column Resonant column
Seismic refraction, surface wave Seismic refraction, surface wave
Triaxial Triaxial
Stiffness modulus
Oedometer Oedometer
PCPT PCPT
Consolidation
Oedometer
T-bar / ball penetrometer

Rate effects / cyclic Cyclic simple shear
Cyclic simple shear
behaviour Cyclic triaxial testing
Cyclic triaxial testing
Gas content BAT probe BAT probe
(if required) Geochemical Geochemical

APPENDIX B - OBSERVED IN-SERVICE PERFORMANCE
Only a few field-scale observations on suction caisson foundations are currently publicly available and
the key results are summarized in this section. They provide some further insights into the analysis
and design methods which are largely based on laboratory scale testing.
Extensive monitoring was performed on the Draupner E jacket, the first platform founded on SICFs
(Tjelta, 2014). During the first winter season the jacket encountered a 26 m high "monster wave",
which resulted in a 15 MN tension load on the upwind SICF. As a result, an 80 kPa underpressure
developed inside the SICF. Hence, an undrained response in tension was observed for a peak load,
although the SICFs are installed in sand. At the same time it was found that negligible pore pressure
accumulated during the design storm, indicating that drainage in sand can be considered for
assessment of cyclic loading.
Field tests on 1.5m and 3.0m diameter SICFs in sand and clay are reported by Houlsby et al. (2005),
and Houlsby et al. (2006). An initially stiff moment-rotation response was followed by reducing
stiffness and increasing hysteresis with load amplitude. In the sand tests, a slight shakedown was
apparent in the initial stages at low amplitude cyclic moment/rotation loading with slight stiffening
over several cycles of the same moment magnitude. The moment-rotation response reached a steady
state by the end of the cyclic loading packet. Since the rotation of the caisson is approximately
proportional to the shear strain amplitude in the soil, the modulus degradation with shear strain found
in element tests was also observed in these field tests.
Under vertical cyclic loading in the sand test, the stiffness decreases as the amplitude increases.
However, a substantial reduction in stiffness was noted when the caisson was cycled into tension. If
the mean vertical load remained compressive, the caisson ratcheted into the sand even if tensile loads
were applied.
Liingaard, (2006) reports the dynamic response of a 12m diameter x 6m deep test caisson in sand at
Frederikshavn. The natural rocking frequency of the foundation corresponded to the in-situ shear
modulus (40-80MPa) estimated from CPT data.
Some data on the response of a 15m diameter x 7.5m skirt length mono caisson located in the Dogger
Bank area of the North Sea is presented by Nielsen et al. (2017). During initial shakedown over the
first 1-2 months, a small tilt was observed which stabilized. Thereafter, even during a large storm, no
further permanent displacement/rotation was observed.
Shonberg et al., (2017) describe extensive instrumentation and monitoring of a tripod structure with
suction caisson foundations installed in medium dense to very dense sand. There was a clear but very
minor change to the inclination of the structure immediately after installation (0.005°). Since that time
the inclination has remained below 0.01° and the environmental loads have had little impact on the
overall inclination. Shonberg also noted that modelling the top cap with a realistic flexibility (not rigid)
was necessary to capture accurately the vertical stiffness response, and the dynamic pore pressure
response carried a significant portion of the dynamic vertical wave loading. Vertical stiffness
differences between individual caissons of the tripod was observed due to differences in mean vertical
load which increased the mean effective stress and stiffness for the more heavily loaded caissons.

APPENDIX C – SIMPLIFIED CAPACITY METHODS
Introduction
An estimate of the ultimate capacity of a caisson may be determined using the methods described by
either Brinch Hansen (1970) or Vesic (1975). Both methods apply shape and depth factors to modify
the standard Terzaghi bearing capacity formula. In this document, the Brinch Hansen equations are
adopted (see ISO 19901-4, 2016, DNVGL-RP-C212, 2017). The published solutions apply at skirt tip
level (h below mudline – see Figure C-1 ).
This section addresses the modifications necessary to convert the solutions so that they refer to the
Load Reference Point at mudline level, consistent with the main text of this document. This involves
converting the loads (specifically the moment) and making allowance for the contribution of external
friction and lateral pressure on the skirt.
Figure C-1 : Load – capacity conversion
MLRP
HLRP
VLRP hside
h
Hside
Wcaisson
Mbase Vside
Hbase
Vbase
*Note: Applied forces from structure at Load Reference Point (red), and resulting forces applied to
soil from side and base of caisson (blue)
Figure C-1 shows schematically the forces applied at the Load Reference Point (LRP), the weight of the
caisson and trapped soil and the consequent forces on the side and base of the caisson. These are
related by the following expressions:
𝑉𝐿𝑅𝑃 + 𝑊𝑐𝑎𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛 = 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 + 𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 Equation C.1
𝐻𝐿𝑅𝑃 = 𝐻𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 + 𝐻𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 Equation C.2
𝑀𝐿𝑅𝑃 = 𝑀𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 − ℎ𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐻𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 − ℎ𝐻𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 Equation C.3

𝜋𝐷𝑖2 ℎ𝛾 ′
The term 𝑊𝑐𝑎𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛 should include the (buoyant) weight of the soil trapped in the caisson 4
, as
well as the weight of any part of the caisson structure not already accounted for in 𝑉𝐿𝑅𝑃 . It should be
noted that because of the way the limit equilibrium methods below are formulated, finding a single

solution for the allowable loads is rarely possible. Instead, a series of inequalities should be checked
in which the available resistance should always be larger than the applied loads in each specific
direction. The minimum SICF size that satisfies all inequalities will be the optimal solution.
The ultimate load in compression 𝑉𝑢𝑙𝑡,𝑐 is defined as the value of 𝑉𝐿𝑅𝑃 for the case 𝐻𝐿𝑅𝑃 = 𝑀𝐿𝑅𝑃 = 0.
Soil resistance on side of caisson

Caisson Skirt - Vertical Resistance:
In clay (undrained) the vertical load capacity in compression (downward load) on the outside (external
surface) of the caisson may be estimated as:
𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = (𝜋𝐷ℎ)𝛼𝑠𝑢1 Equation C.4
where 𝛼 is an adhesion factor as used in pile capacity analysis.
In sand (drained) the vertical load capacity in compression (downward load) on the side of the caisson
may be estimated as:
𝛾′ ℎ
𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = (𝜋𝐷ℎ) 2
𝐾 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛿 Equation C.5
where 𝐾 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛿 is a friction factor as used in pile capacity analysis.
The skirt resistance is usually taken as the external surface with an appropriate base capacity.
However, in some situations the designer may want to consider internal and external resistance and
should modify the equations appropriately.
For either the undrained or drained case, it is recommended that dedicated testing is undertaken to
determine the 𝛼 or 𝐾 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛿 value with confidence, to allow for an optimised SICF design.
For vertical load in tension the side and base contributions cannot be treated in separation, and this
case is treated in Section C.6.
Caisson Skirt - Horizontal resistance:
For undrained analysis, in all but the softest clay it could be assumed that under ultimate lateral
loading conditions a tension crack would open on the active side of the caisson, and the net horizontal
capacity (Randolph and Houlsby, 1984) on the passive side of the caisson could be estimated as:
𝛾′ ℎ
𝐻𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = (𝐷ℎ) ( 2
+ 2𝑠𝑢1 ) Equation C.6
The position of the effective depth of action of the horizontal load depends on the variation of
undrained strength with depth. For instance if the strength is given by 𝑠𝑢 = 𝑠𝑢0 + 𝜌𝑧 then
ℎ
𝑠𝑢1 = 𝑠𝑢0 + 𝜌 Equation C.7
2
𝛾′ ℎ 𝜌ℎ
𝐻𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = (𝐷ℎ) ( 2
+ 2𝑠𝑢0 + 2 2
) Equation C.8
𝛾′ ℎ2 ℎ 𝜌ℎ 2
ℎ𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐻𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = (𝐷ℎ) ( + 2𝑠𝑢0 + 2 ) Equation C.9
3 2 3
In sand, active and passive pressures may be assumed on the sides of the caisson, and the horizontal
capacity on the side of the caisson could be estimated as:

𝛾 ′ ℎ2 𝐷
𝐻𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 2
(𝐾𝑝 − 𝐾𝑎 ) Equation C.10
1 1+𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑′
The earth pressure coefficients may be estimated from the standard expressions 𝐾𝑝 = 𝐾 = 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑′ .
𝑎
The position of the effective depth of action of the horizontal load may be estimated as
2ℎ
ℎ𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 3
Equation C.11
More sophisticated estimates of the lateral resistance could be made accounting for three
dimensional effects.
Effective area
If applied moment on the base of the caisson is not under consideration this section is not relevant,
and the effective area, breadth and length are given simply as:
𝜋𝐷 2
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐴 = 4
, 𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐷.
In a simplified foundation capacity method using the “effective area” concept, the combination of a
vertical load 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 and an overturning moment 𝑀𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 is treated as the statically equivalent pure
𝑀𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
vertical load 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 at an eccentricity 𝑒 = 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
from the centreline of the foundation (see DNVGL-RP-
C212 for a discussion). The capacity is then calculated for a symmetric foundation with a reduced
“effective area”, with this vertical load applied at its centre. This procedure is always conservative, as
it ignores part of the foundation capacity. The effective area, breadth and length the foundation need
to be calculated, and for a circular foundation these are given by:
𝐷2 2𝑒 𝐷2
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 2 ( 4 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝐷 ) − 𝑒√ 4 − 𝑒 2 ) Equation C.12
Then making use of the intermediate variables 𝐵𝑒 = 𝐷 − 2𝑒 and 𝐿𝑒 = √𝐷 2 − (𝐷 − 𝐵𝑒 )2 :
𝐿
𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 = √𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝐵𝑒 Equation C.13
𝑒
𝐵 𝐵
𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝐿𝑒 = √𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝐿𝑒 Equation C.14
𝑒 𝑒
It is noted that for multi-caisson structures, where the structure only permits very small rotations of
an individual footing, the moments developed on them may not be significant as far as ultimate
capacity is concerned. The ultimate moment capacity of the entire foundation assembly can be
deduced from simple statics and the ultimate vertical capacities (tension and compression) of the
individual footings, if the moment arises from “push-pull” action between downwind and upwind
footings.
Bearing capacity: undrained analysis

For undrained conditions with uniform strength with depth the capacity is given by:
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 (𝑁𝑐 𝑠𝑢2 (1 + 𝑠𝑐𝑎 + 𝑑𝑐𝑎 − 𝑖𝑐𝑎 ) + 𝛾 ′ ℎ) Equation C.15

where:
𝑁𝑐 is the conventional bearing capacity factor 𝑁𝑐 = 2 + 𝜋 ≈ 5.14

𝑠𝑢2 is the undrained shear strength at the foundation base level

𝑠𝑐𝑎 is a shape factor defined as:

𝐵
𝑠𝑐𝑎 = 0.2(1 − 2 ⋅ 𝑖𝑐𝑎 ) 𝐿 𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝑑𝑐𝑎 is a depth factor defined as:

ℎ
𝑑𝑐𝑎 = 0.3 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝐵 )
𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝑖𝑐𝑎 is an inclination factor defined as:

𝐻𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑖𝑐𝑎 = 0.5 − 0.5√1 − 𝐴
𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑢2
In this section if horizontal load is not under consideration the formulae may be used with 𝑖𝑐𝑎 = 0.
For undrained conditions with strength increasing linearly with depth, the method of Davis and
Booker, (1973), as detailed in DNVGL-RP-C212 may be used. For purely vertical loading the method by
(Houlsby and Martin, 2003) may be more appropriate.
Bearing capacity: drained analysis

For drained conditions (sand) at skirt tip level:
1
𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 (2 𝛾 ′ 𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑁𝛾 𝑠𝛾 𝑑𝛾 𝑖𝛾 + 𝛾 ′ ℎ𝑁𝑞 𝑠𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑖𝑞 ) Equation C.16
where:
𝑁𝑞 and 𝑁𝛾 are conventional bearing capacity factors given by:

𝜋 𝜙′ ′
𝑁𝑞 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( 4 + 2
) 𝑒 𝜋 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙 ,
𝑁𝛾 = 1.5(𝑁𝑞 − 1) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙 ′ , (this being an approximate formula only)

𝑠𝑞 and 𝑠𝛾 are shape factors given by:
𝐵′
𝑠𝑞 = 1 + 𝑖𝑞 ( ′ ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 ′ ,
𝐿
𝐵′
𝑠𝛾 = 1 − 0.4𝑖𝛾 ( 𝐿′ )
𝑑𝑞 is a depth factor given by:
ℎ
𝑑𝑞 = 1 + 1.2 (𝐵′ ) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙 ′ (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 ′ )2
𝑖𝑞 and 𝑖𝛾 are load inclination factors given by:
𝐻 5
𝑖𝑞 = 1 − 0.5 ( 𝑉 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ) ,
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝐻 5
𝑖𝛾 = 1 − 0.7 ( 𝑉 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 )
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
In this section if horizontal load is not under consideration the formulae may be used with 𝑖𝑞 = 𝑖𝛾 =
1.
Sliding check
The horizontal resistance of a SICF is dependent on the elevation of the load application point due to
the coupling between horizontal loads and moments. A maximum value of the horizontal
resistance𝐻𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) is found when the horizontal loading is applied at the elevation which results
in horizontal translation (without rotation). Such a case is only relevant to multi-caisson foundations.

In addition to combined loading calculations it is usual also to carry out a sliding check against purely
horizontal load. In that case the horizontal load on the skirt wall will be combined with a base
𝜋𝐷 2
resistance of 𝐻𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 4
𝑠𝑢2 in clay and 𝐻𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙 ′ in sand. Note (1) that it is not usual to
reduce the area to the effective area for this calculation and (2) because the base of the caisson
involves soil-on-soil contact the soil strength may be fully mobilised at the base.
The potential for preferential sliding failure within softer/weaker soils below the skirt tip should be
checked in layered soils.
Vertical loading: tension

In undrained vertical tension loading the ultimate tensile capacity may be estimated by applying a
“reverse bearing capacity” calculation. However, the potential for preferential flow paths which could
result in drained behaviour should be considered. Employing the methods detailed above, and with
careful attention to the differing role of the weight of the soil trapped within the caisson in
compression and tension, the result is:
𝑉𝑢𝑙𝑡,𝑡 = 𝑊𝑐𝑎𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛 + 𝑁𝑐∗ 𝐴𝑠𝑢2 + 𝛼𝜋𝐷ℎ𝑠𝑢1 Equation C.17

where:
𝑁𝑐∗ is a reverse bearing capacity factory for a circular embedded foundation.

In all but soft clays the ultimate tensile capacity in clay may be limited by cavitation at the caisson
base:
𝜋𝐷 2 𝜋𝐷 2
𝑉𝑢𝑙𝑡,𝑡 = 𝛾ℎ + (𝑝𝑎 + 𝛾𝑤 ℎ𝑤 − 𝑝𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 ) + 𝛼𝜋𝐷ℎ𝑠𝑢1 Equation C.18
4 4
And with cavitation under the lid as:

𝜋𝐷 2
𝑉𝑢𝑙𝑡,𝑡 = (𝑝𝑎 + 𝛾𝑤 ℎ𝑤 − 𝑝𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 ) + 2𝛼𝜋𝐷ℎ𝑠𝑢1 Equation C.19
4
In each case𝑝𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 = 0 if full vacuum is assumed in the void (i.e. no flow of water).
In sands two cases need to be considered for tensile loading: rapid (undrained) loading and slow
(drained) loading.
For rapid loading the tensile capacity may be very high and invariably controlled by cavitation under
the footing base or caisson lid, the ultimate load is calculated as the smaller of the following:
For cavitation at footing base:

𝜋𝐷 2 𝜋𝐷 2 𝛾 ′ ℎ2
𝑉𝑢𝑙𝑡,𝑡 = 𝛾ℎ + (𝑝𝑎 + 𝛾𝑤 ℎ𝑤 − 𝑝𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 ) + 𝜋𝐷 𝐾 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛿 Equation C.20
4 4 2
For cavitation below caisson lid:
𝜋𝐷 2 𝛾 ′ ℎ2
𝑉𝑢𝑙𝑡,𝑡 = (𝑝𝑎 + 𝛾𝑤 ℎ𝑤 − 𝑝𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 ) + 2𝜋𝐷 𝐾 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛿 Equation C.21
4 2
In each case 𝑝𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 = 0 if full vacuum is assumed in the void (i.e. no flow of water).
If full communication of free water into the void is assumed the above expressions become:
For cavitation at footing base:

𝜋𝐷 2 𝜋𝐷 2 𝛾 ′ ℎ2
𝑉𝑢𝑙𝑡,𝑡 = 𝛾ℎ − 𝛾 ℎ + 𝜋𝐷 𝐾 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛿 Equation C.22
4 4 𝑤 2

For cavitation below caisson lid:

𝛾 ′ ℎ2
𝑉𝑢𝑙𝑡,𝑡 = 2𝜋𝐷 𝐾 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛿 Equation
2
C.23
For slow loading the tensile capacity arises only from friction on the sides of the caisson and is
calculated as:
𝛾 ′ ℎ2
𝑉𝑢𝑙𝑡,𝑡 = 2𝜋𝐷 2
𝐾 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛿 Equation
C.24
For more precise design calculations it may be important to assess the reduction in vertical tensile
capacity due to “updrag” on the soil from the caisson, in which the vertical effective stress around the
caisson skirt is reduced due to the upward friction from the skirt onto the soil. More details about this
calculation, which involves similar principles to that required for caisson installation, can be found in
Houlsby et al. (2005).
Experimental data in sand indicate that while large ultimate tensile capacities of caissons may exist,
these can only be mobilised at substantial displacements, as much as 10% of the caisson diameter (for
example Kelly et al. (2006) or (Bienen et al., 2018a)). Mana et al (2013) found for a SICF in clay that
displacements were limited up to approximately 50% of the undrained capacity for both compression
and tension, which is typically the maximum load level allowed for SLS conditions considering load and
material factors applicable for ULS conditions as given in Section 3.3.
The potential for significant uplift displacement should be carefully considered if tensile loads are
allowed to exceed the skirt frictional capacity. For sands this is calculated as for the slow loading
above, and for clays it might be taken as:
𝑉𝑢𝑙𝑡,𝑡 = 2𝜋𝐷ℎ𝛼𝑠𝑢1 Equation C.25
Combined loading – tension

The effects of horizontal and moment loading in combination with tension loading are very poorly
understood and should be treated with extreme caution.

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Offshore Wind Accelerator

Suction Installed Caisson

February 2019 – Issue 1.0 |i

February 2019 – Issue 1.0 | ii

February 2019 – Issue 1.0 | iii

February 2019 – Issue 1.0 | iv

February 2019 – Issue 1.0 |v

February 2019 – Issue 1.0 | vi

February 2019 – Issue 1.0 | vii

February 2019 – Issue 1.0 | viii

Co-author: Oxford University Innovation (Guy Houlsby & Byron Byrne)

Co-author: SPT Offshore (Stefan Buykx, Marijn Dekker, Eric Jansen, OJ

Reviewer: Lloyd’s Register (Neil Morgan)

February 2019 – Issue 1.0 | ix

 Leibniz Universität Hannover (Martin Achmus)

February 2019 – Issue 1.0 |x

 Provide design guidelines for SICF for offshore wind applications;

1.2 Offshore Wind Accelerator background

1.3 Suction Installed Caisson Foundations (SICF) background

Some potential benefits of Suction Installed Caisson Foundations (SICF) are:

February 2019 – Issue 1.0 |1

1.5 Extents and limitations

February 2019 – Issue 1.0 |2

1.6 Document structure

February 2019 – Issue 1.0 |3

2. TERMINOLOGY, NOTATIONS AND

 Mono-caisson: where the sub-structure is supported by a single large diameter caisson.

Figure 2-1: Typical structural configurations

(a) mono-caisson; (b) multi-caisson (assuming a tetrapod design)

February 2019 – Issue 1.0 |4

Figure 2-2: Suction installed caisson components

Table 2-1: Suction installed caisson foundation terminology

The structural plate or cover at the top of the SICF

February 2019 – Issue 1.0 |5

Term Description Alternatives

Secondary sections or plates attached to the top plate

The negative pressure differential developed inside the

The positive pressure relative to ambient pressure

February 2019 – Issue 1.0 |6

Figure 2-3: Sign convention for foundation loads and displacements

CPT Cone Penetration Test

DLC Design Load Case

FEA Finite element analysis

GBS Gravity Base Structures

LAT Lowest Astronomical Tide

February 2019 – Issue 1.0 |7

MSL Mean Sea Level

OSS Offshore substation

SICF Suction installed caisson foundation

WTG Wind turbine generator

VHM Vertical-Horizontal-Moment (see Figure 8-12)

G0, Gmax Small-strain shear modulus

h Installed embedment depth of caisson

K Factor relating horizontal stress to vertical stress

𝑘𝑓 Factor for the friction component in the CPT installation method

𝑘𝑝 Factor for the tip component in the CPT installation method

L Length of SICF skirt

m Multiple of diameter over which vertical stress is enhanced

0.9 1.1 1.35*** 1.1 1.0 1.0