A Question to Buddhist Emperors of India , can you help us identify your

Dharma edict?

Bipin Shah April 2021 Revised

Abstract:

The Vedic Puranas and Rajtarangni of Kalhana mentions two or more Buddhist monarchs of
India with the name of Ashokas, the first one ruled 100 years after Buddha’s death and
another ruled around 216 years after Buddha’s death that are credited with building Viharas
and stupas. The accidental discoveries of various Buddhist Dharma edicts erected by a king
“Devan Priya-Piyadassi “ remained a puzzle to colonial historians for several years, until a
discovery was made at Maski in south India that attached the name “Ashoka” to epithet
“Devanpriya-Piyadassi”. Without well thought out research, the colonial archeologists hit the
writing desk and projected that based on Maski edict, all edicts that has been discovered
must belonged to Ashoka Maurya, a very hasty and convenient conclusion after equating
Mauryan dynasty to Alexander’s invasion of Asia.

Purana and other texts that provide genealogical orders were hastily ignored or set aside as it
did not fall into earlier assumptions of equating corrupted Greek names of Indian kings that
Alexander never encountered. On the other hands , Hindu Puranas never provided sufficient
details to satisfy those who were rushed to the conclusion.

Rajtarangni , a well-recognized “Gold standard of the history of Kashmir after Mahabharata

war” was not compiled but had something to say about the first a Buddhist Ashoka that was
real Buddhist king who ruled 100 years after Buddha’s Pari nibbana . Jaina text compiled in
11th century AD also confused the names of the kings. As a matter of facts, India had number
of king with name Ashoka at various period. The large volumes of Buddhist literatures that
was translated from Pali language was still being studied with or without corelating with
Puranas and the important Buddhist Texts of Sri-Lanka like Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa. The

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edicts found in different places that describes Asoka’s good deeds were not properly
analyzed . There are also references of Buddhism in other languages like Chinese, Tibetan,
Burmese were not properly studied. These exciting discoveries were attached to Asoka
Maurya of Mauryan dynasty that can be easily attached to already established Alexander’s
history as a sheet anchor. The modern researcher like Dr, Vedveer Arya, a Sanskrit scholar
and expert in Indian chronology clarified the discrepancy of Jaina’s Ashoka and Kunala as and
I quote: “Interestingly, the Himavant Theravali identifies Bhāskara, the grandson of Chandragupta of Ujjain
with Aśoka and mentions that Aśoka founded the Gupta era in the year 239 of Mahāvira Nirvāṇa era (1189 BCE)
in commemoration of his victory over the Kalinga King Khemraj. In fact, Bhāskara, the grandson of Chandragupta
of Ujjain founded the Gupta era which has been referred to as “Āgupatāyika Saṁvat” in the Gokak plates of
Dejjā Mahārāja. Seemingly, these mistaken identities have been established in India around the 2nd century
CE.”

“The first Ashoka who was prophesied by Buddha who built numerous Viharas and temples was forgotten by
the historians. Amongst the pages of ancient Buddhist legend, a prophecy was told of a great king, who would
emerge a hundred years after Buddha’s Pari nibbana. The legend surrounds the previous life of Buddha and this
meritorious king as a boy. This young child met the previous Buddha, who had a begging bowl. The young child
had nothing else to offer, placed a handful of dirt into the Buddha’s begging bowl, with the sincerest of
intentions. Seeing this, the Buddha prophesized that in the next life, this young boy would be a legendary king,
who would spread Buddhism all throughout the lands. This tale was told by Gautam Buddha to his foremost
disciple Ananda in a discourse. As the prophecy came to fruition, this virtuous king of India, Ashoka would
spread Buddhism by building 84,000 viharas and stupas across this land.” Rajtarangni says the same thing
about Ashoka who was also a king of Kashmir.

A.L. Basham correctly pointed out that H.G. Wells was the first Englishman, who introduced
unknown Asoka Maurya to the world as identified by colonial historian Davids, Cunningham
and others, as a great king, who otherwise was buried in many Puranic genealogies by the
Brahmin scribes with his unnoticed and buried inscription that no Indians had any interest in
reading or trying to decipher. This led to the identification of Ashoka as of Mauryan dynasty
as described above but it raises several questions as various texts and inscriptions are not in
agreement.

Subsequent to this, School textbooks in India today describe how Ashoka Maurya was
converted to Buddhism after an especially bloody campaign in Kalinga state and proclaimed a
state policy of Buddha’s religion based on compassion, nonviolence, and tolerance. What was
not said due to lack of information from other corroborative sources, that his grandfather,
Chandragupta Maurya, had won his vast empire, which at its height stretched from central
India to parts of what is now Pakistan and Afghanistan, through military strength and skill.
His son Bindusara had extended the empire to south India leaving just state of Tamilnadu
that was ruled by a native Dravidian speaking king. The bottom line in all this that he already
had inherited a biggest empire including Achaemenian Indian satrapy of Afghanistan and
further north and most of south India. The inscription in Saurashtra at Sudarshan lake already
indicates the conquest by Chandra Gupta, raising a question on Ashoka Maurya’s
involvement with Kalinga war at the first place. His real remorse edict referring to Kalinga
victory lies at Shahbazgarhi in Pakistan, 1,000 miles Northwest but not in Kalinga (Orissa)

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proper. Equally contentious is the contradiction given in various texts and edicts that suggest
that Ashoka had already adopted Buddhism before the date of Kalinga war.

The authorship of various edicts are not yet adequate explained or final. The primary reason
is there were two or more Buddhist Ashokas in Indian history. The first Buddhist Ashoka , king
of Magadha came from Sisunaga dynasty approximately 100 years after Buddha’s Pari-
nirvana. The second Ashoka came from Mauryan dynasty that also ruled Magadha Empire
from Patliputra but in much larger setting after 218 years of Buddha’s Nirvana. Dipavamsa
and Rajataragini by Kalhana gives chronology of both Ashokas and refers to first Asoka as just
“Ashoka” or Dharamasoka. The puranas give fist Ashoka belonging to Sisunaga dynasty with
his real name as Kalashoka, Kakavardhan or Kakaverma.

According to Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa(Sinhalese chronicles) and Hindu Puranas, the

existence of two Ashokas are confirmed. Purana established in their absolute chronologies in
common eras are found in Dr, Arya’s book listed in reference section. The textual evidence in
Dipavamsa and Rajtarangni suggests that Ashoka of Sisunaga dynasty built numerous Viharas
and temples along with associated structures. Some may have been altered or destroyed over
period of time. In addition to that Kanishka is mentioned as third Buddhist emperor who also
built Buddhist Viharas in Peshawar, Punjab and Kandahar, Afghanistan. There were other
Buddhist kings of India like Milinda (Menander-Indo-Greek) and Harsha Vikramaditya.

Mahāparinibbāna sutta claims that first Buddhist Emperor King Ajatshatru of Haryanka
dynasty divided and distributed Buddha’s relics to eight kings including himself , who knew
buddha or where Buddha had considerable followings. while Buddha’s personal possessions
were given to Drona, the Brahmin. The condition attached to the distribution was that each
recipient must build stupas, Caitya to house the relics. From all evidence, this was done.

The initial distribution of relics followed like this:

1. Ajātasattu King of Magadha 2. The Licchavis of Vaishali 3.The Shakyas of Kapilavastu

4. The Bulis of Allakappa 5. The Koliyas of Rāmagāma 6. Brahmins of Veṭṭhadīpa
7. Mallas of Pava 8. Malls of Kusinara. All these places and tribes were known to Buddha and
they were early follower of Buddha.

During that period , the stupa’s construction with mound, stone and or combination with
brick would have been constructed to house that initial distribution of the edicts. These
stupas and constructed viharas would have gone through refurbishing and expansion to
house hundreds of monks. New discoveries and interpretations that are now available to
researchers raises some serious question on script used, the ownership or sponsorship in
constructing various Buddhist shrines that includes Viharas, Stupas, Caitya and edicts. Most
of them lie in ruins, some still standing or yet to be discovered. They need further studies and
reviews to identify the ownership concerning the edicts.

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The traditional assumption found in textbook attributes the authorship of the various edicts
to single emperor Ashoka Maurya based on single discovery of his name Ashoka. This does
not bring finality or conclusion. Some western scholar ha opined that Ashoka is a Buddhist
legend and Piyadassi was the unidentified king of India. However, judging from the various
events that took place during Ashoka Maurya’s life, his Abhiseka and said conversion,
messaging, and ultimate disintegration of Mauryan empire after his death, one should review
and reconsider the ownership issue of various edicts. Most of the edicts do not have the
name of Ashoka except one. Why is that ?

The Buddhism spread in Asia along the silk road that carries the imprint of Great Kanishka
who sponsored fourth council for Mahayana Buddhism found in rest of Asia. Asoka Maurya
was only responsible for extending Theravada Buddhism in south India and Sri-Lanka.
Buddhism said to have highest official status during Mauryan period within India and Sri-
Lanka, but his foundation in India was not enduring. Along with disintegration of Mauryan
empire, the Buddhism receded and migrated out of Magadha, when Brahminical revolt led by
Brahmin commanders of Patliputra overthrew last Mauryan emperor Brahdratha. All the
vassalages of south India and kings of ancient Janapadas of North proclaimed independence
and resisted the rise of Buddhism. Other native reformist movements like modern Jainism
and reformed Shaivism gained new grounds and arose from other pre-established traditions.
The Brahmanism regained its lost position during Gupta period that altered the religious
landscape of Buddhist India of Mauryan period. What went wrong ? Did people pay any
attention to this religious propaganda engraved in numerous edicts?

The political federal structure assembled by Chanakya and successor Ashoka and his
ministers through conquest, intrigues, spy network , torture chambers , repression and
coercive relationship with vassalages fell apart. The assembled Janapadas that made
Magadha a large empire reversed its course and returned to its pre-existing status of
fragmented kingdoms. Out of this fall , the emergence of Avanti, Andhra, Kashmira ,
Gandhara ,Pushya Mitra and Kamboja kingdoms emerged. Andhra ruled from Pristhana on
Mahismati, Pushya Mitra ruled from Patliputra controlling ancient Videha and Avanti ruled
from Ujjiyani with reemergence of Pālaka dynasty.

During this dark turmoil, the chronology of Magadha and other important dynasties of North
India were jumbled up and various Puranic genealogies cannot be synchronized due to
massive migration of Royal bards, minstrels, and Brahmins, who had either memorized or
recorded the genealogical records of various dynasties of the rulers. Bridhrath, the last weak
Mauryan emperor was assassinated by his Brahmin military commander and minister
Pushayamitra Sunga. Although, he was blamed for purging Buddhism and reinstituting
Brahmanism, the evidence are not very clear. To what extent Pushya Mitra was successful is
also questionable. Meander and Kanishka, who were Buddhists snatched Northern portion of
Mauryan Empire.

Early Buddhism and other heretical sects were driven by learned brahmins, who had defected
from Brahminism. In other wards the drivers driving religious changes after Mahabharata war

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driven by number of reasons. The first and foremost Bharata war decimated “Aryan”
kshatriya and new Kshatriya or mix Kshatriya were emerged and second reason of the was
influx of new “Vratya” tribe of Indo-Iranians from central Asia and defection of Brahmins.
Manu’s law of “twice born” privilege came under scrutiny and that fueled the rise of
different religious philosophies and Shramana sects.

Correct Chronology of Indian Dynasty:

For the purpose of necessary clarity, it is relevant to declare here that the chronology as
subscribed in Indian textbooks and crafted by colonial historians are incorrect and thereby
requiring a major revision. I have provided revision in several other related papers that I will
reproduce here based on the research done by Dr. Arya and other Purana analysts. Dr. Arya is
a Sanskrit scholar and researcher on chronologies. Additional reviews and research
conducted by others also revealed that the sheet anchor used in establishing key dates in
world chronology also need to be understood in proper context. The colonial historians used
Alexander invasion dates of Persian held territory as sheet anchors and his historian accounts
that utilized corrupted (Soundex errors) of names of Indian kings did not match
contemporary kings who never encountered Alexander. This misidentification was
compounded by same names used by various kings of Indian history like “Chandra”. This is
similar to western genealogy such as England had many kings named Edward, George, Henry,
and Rome had many kings named Gaius and so on. Indian kings carried “Chandra” and
“Ashoka” and “Vikrama” names frequently. The Greek corruption of Persian and Indian
names have caused great deal of confusion due to these Soundex difference. This aspect was
not well considered by early historians. Equally proportionate blames can be assigned to
royal bards of India, who treated Indian history as a privileged domain and purposely limited
the knowledge within the Brahmin castes. The migration and oral traditions further eroded
this knowledge, until discovered manuscript came to the notice of the later historians and
missing chronology was reassembled . The new inscriptions were discovered, and
decipherment was corrected by modern historians. In fairness as much as they
misunderstood and misstated chronology , they also brought awareness and the knowledge
of the great ancient civilization of Asia including India. India needs to pay more attention to
its history and archeology.

Chronology of India

True Chronology is presented with associated references in this paper as given below:

https://www.academia.edu/40451947/Mahavira_and_Gautama_Buddha_were_not_contem
poraries_as_we_thought_Introduction

https://www.academia.edu/28275872/Who_was_King_Asoka_the_Great_Kalasoka_or_Asok
a_of_the_Maurya_dynasty

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Magadha Dynasty Years Dates Ruled Notes and Remark
Ruled
Brahdratha Dynasty 1000 3162-2162 BCE According to Various Puranas like
of Jarasangha Bhavishya, Vayu, Vishnu etc.
lineage (MBH war)
Pradyota Dynasty 138 2162-2024 BCE According to various Puranas and
Buddhist texts
Sisunaga Dynasty 360 2024-1664 BCE
begins and Pradyota
with draw to Avanti
Mahapadma or 25 1950-1925 BCE He was assumed to be offspring of
Bimbisara father Sudra wife of Sisunaga King.
Bhatiya or Hemajit However, Nanda dynasty may have
or Kshemajit. been interrupted briefly. Bimbisara’s
Sisunaga originated father was a minister. On another
in Vaishali. genealogical version, this king was
placed after Kalashoka of Sisunaga
dynasty later when Mahapadma
appeared as son of Kalashoka of
Sisunaga dynasty.
Bimbisara 52 1925-1872 BCE Buddha lived during his time and his
son
Ajatshatru 32 1872-1840 BCE Buddha Nirvana in king’s 8th regnal
year 1864 BCE, Girivraja
Fortification began for defense.
Udayin 16 1840-1824 BCE He began construction of Rajgriha in
Bihar, Udayin kills his father.
Anuradha 8 1824-1816 BCE

Nagadasaka 24 1864-1792 BCE Last king of Haryanka dynasty.

According to Uttravibara Atthakatha,
Sisunaga was the illegitimate son of
the prince of Lichhavi clan of Vaisali
and whose mother was courtesan.
Sisunaga 28 1792-1765 BCE Kalasoka’s father was Sisunaga. It is
unclear if Mahanandin preceded or
succeeded Sisunaga as both were
thought to be “feuding with the state
of Kalinga.” The Puranas differ in
accounts and historical account
varies.
Kalashoka or Ashoka 26 1765-1737 BCE This king was a king whose real name
was Asoka, and father Sisunaga was a

6
 Lichhavi Prince of Vaishali, but his
mother was from Koliya tribe of
Vaisali. She may be courtesan like
Ambapali and that is why he was
named “Kalashoka” as per one
assumption. Brahmin gave him this
name due to his Vratya origin of
tribe. Kalashoka is name given by
some scribes. He came to power 100
years after Buddha’s Pari Nibbana. As
stated in Rajataragini, He organized
second Buddhist council after he
came to power. He also held the title
of “Devanpriya” typical of all royals of
that era as mentioned in various
edicts. Kharosthi was the writing style
employed during his period. This
second Buddhist council was held at
Vaisali. Theravada Buddhism began
around 1760 BCE, from “Sthavira” or
“Mahasandhika” tradition initiated
by Buddha’s disciple Mahakasyapa. It
is suspected that various edicts in
North east may belonged to him
along with nearby erected stupas,
where Buddha’s relics were housed.
However, most of the edicts do not
mention the real name of the king
except his epithets as Devanpriya -
Piyadassi that were honorific titles
used by prominent people like Kings,
sages etc. of that period.
Kalasoka’s(10) sons 22 1737-1715 BCE Tak-saka kings of Rajtarangni Hushka,
Jushka and Kanishka ruled Kashmir &
Afghanistan in 1714 BCE (Turusaka).
Jushka may be one of the son of
Kalashoka. It is interesting how
Turusaka evolved from ancient
Scythic clans of Koliya, Shakya and
Licchavis suggesting Central Asian
migration from the region of Siestan
or (Shakasthan).

Nanda Dynasty 100? 1664-1596 BCE In Patliputra, Bihar

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Mauryan dynasty 24 1596-1572 BCE Maurya Dynasty ruled in total 137
Chandra Gupta years
Bindusara 25 1572-1547 BCE He contributed to death of Chanakya
Asoka or 36 1547-1511 BCE Third Buddhist council held at 18th
Chandasoka regnal year in Patliputra
Dashrath & others 52 1511-1459 BCE Empire started breaking apart
Sunga dynasty 112 1459-1346 BCE Control of north lost to
Kanishka(Kamboj ruler) of Gandhara
and south was lost Andhra and
Northeast was lost to Sunga while
Ujjiyani was taken over by Pradyota
king who were once ruled Avanti and
Magadha.
Kanva Dynasty 45 1346-1301 BCE Kanva replaced Sunga at Patliputra
and again their rule ended . Further
decline set in with weak rulers
Decline of Magadha 1301- 826 BCE Andhra (satvahana) Rulers and
various invasions from North.
Magadha Kingdom, Magadha became a small kingdom.
Just controlling Northeast and
minister Srenika replaced the king of
Magadha of Kanva dynasty.
Srenika, Seniya or 38 1250-1212 BCE Contemporarily to Mahavira,
Bhambhasara Mahavira Nirvana-1189 BCE, ruled
(Bhambhasara was a from Magadha
Punjabi tribe)
Kunika 40 1212-1172 BCE Ruled at Magadha
Udayi 43 1172-1129 BCE
Nandraja 2 1129-1127 BCE Barber’s son
Nadarajah’s sons 22 1127-1107 BCE
years
Magadha’s Disintegration of Magadh empire, the
chronology is ended portion taken over by Andhra and
Gupta dynasty.
Various Janapadas Disintegration of the empire is
reconstituted after complete.
decline of Mauryan
empires both outside
of India as well as
inside of India

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 Avanti Janapada Declared Jaina Sthavira (Church) moved to
ruled by Pālaka 60 independence Avanti from Patliputra during dynasty
Pradyota dynasty years from Magadha struggle and long famine in
and successors Patliputra.
Visaya Dynasty of Chanda Pradyota died the same day
Ujjain, took over and as Mahavira at 1189 BCE. His son
rose from powerful Pālaka was very unpopular and
guild of Ujjiyani. disliked by the people and was
overthrown.
Chandra Gupta of 13 1034-1021 BCE Accompanied Bharabahu-1 to south,
Visaya dynasty contemporary with Sthūlabhadra Jain
Gandhara
Simhasena 41 1021-980 BCE
Bhāskara 35 980-945 BCE
Samprati was a True 49 945 -896 BCE Jaina kings , build temples in west
Jaina King like Asoka India, contemporary of Arya Suhāstin
to Buddhist. and Mahagiri- split of Jinakalpa
tradition began.
Salisuk 12 896-884 BCE Successor, until Malla tribe took over
Briefly Marundas and installed Gardbhilla as a king.in
and Sunga from 736 BC. There was a saka rule for
Patliputra ruled brief period until Vikramditya-1 took
Avanti for less over at Avanti at 719 BCE. He was
than 50 years. another Jaina king.

The dating of genealogical scheme varied with the use of various eras of India and that is why
many foreign and Indic writers may have been confused during colonial period. This created a
degree of distrust and chronology for dating Buddha and Mahavira in absolute common era
chronological dates . Fortunately, many inscription revealed the astronomical observations
like eclipses or other phenomenon. With the use of planetarium- computer based software, it
was possible to configure the correct dates of the past events that was not available to early
colonial historians .

One of the fixed date, which was established at early period, that evidently formed the
chronology of Mauryan dynasty was the reference found in Buddhist chronicles of India, Tibet
and Sri-Lanka was the number of years had elapsed after’s Buddha’s Pari nirvana attributed
to Ashoka Maurya for his consecration (abhiseka).
The Dipavamsa 6. 1, a Buddhist chronicle of Theravada Buddhism of Sri-Lanka states that:

“dve satani ca vassani attharasa vassani ca I

sambuddhe parinibbute abhisitto Piyadassano II

meaning 218 years after the Sambuddha (Gautam Buddha) had passed into Nirvana

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“Piyadassano (Asoka) was consecrated.”

Same thing is repeated in Mahavamsa 5. 21:

“Jinanibbanato paccha pura tassabhisekato
Sattharasam vassasatadvayam evam vijaniyam.”

Meaning after the Nirvana of the Conqueror(Jina) Buddha and before his (Asoka's)
consecration there were 218 years of interval; and this should be known to all.

In the same way, to date the Mahavira in the Jaina tradition was the 155 that is evidently
decisive benchmark as being the sum total of the years between his death of Mahavira and
the beginning of Chandragupta's reign of Vaisya dynasty(not Maurya) at Ujjain. The modern
Jainism did not exist during the life of either Ashoka nor Chandragupta Maurya. They were
early Ajivikas followers. With increasing influence and patronizing of Buddhism by Magadhan
Empire, the heretic religions of Ajivikas, Aklekas (as per edicts) that were contemporary to
Buddhism were not encouraged by Ashoka Maurya. Bimbisara of Haryanka dynasty similarly
followed Ajivikas tradition that had different theology than modern Jainism. Ashoka of
Sisunaga dynasty was pegged at 100 years after Buddha’s nirvana from various Buddhist
account. Buddha’s Nirvana was arrived through an inscription and astronomic observation
recorded during Buddha’s birth and death.(1864 BC).
https://www.academia.edu/43562153/The_Epoch_of_Buddha_Nirv%C4%81%E1%B9%87a_1
864_BCE_

The use of Devanpriya and Piyadassi Epithets in ancient India

Since Buddha’s time, Devanpriya was a common epithets used by the Sages, monks, and
kings. The word “Devanpriya” or “Devanampriya” means “someone who is the beloved of the
“Devas” or “Demi-Gods”. The ancients considered “Devas” as the divine spirits, but not in
equal hierarchy as God. Under Buddhist cosmology, the various levels of divinities were
established.

Likewise, the word “Priyadarshi” or “Piyadassi” means the person, who is kind to everyone,
full of piety and of amicable disposition. This appellation is particularly suitable for monks,
who are humane and considerate to all living beings.

When you read the proclamations on various Buddhist edicts , you are struck by one thing-
the word Devanpriya and Piyadassi. Devan Priya implies King when the word is inscribed but
Piyadassi alone does not imply king. Many Buddhist Sri-Lankan Kings also used these
epithets. There was a king name Dharamasoka of Sri-Lanka in their genealogy.

These two words often appear in all edicts except one without king’s name is to convey that
king is always loved by Devas and he has the quality of kindness and compassion towards his
subjects and other living beings. This becomes the core elements of his “Dhamma” (religion)
of the Buddha. In order to fulfil his Dharmic (religious) duties, he planted trees, built viharas
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for monks, erects edict for religious and moral messages, offer charity for feeding the monks,
make medicine available for sick and forsake any violence ,cruelty and disrespect for others
(young as well as elders). Both Devanpriya and Piyadassi words appear either simultaneously
or singularly in numerous rock, pillar, and other edicts that are discovered and known. The
predictive computer model suggest that more edicts were planted that are yet to be
discovered or their destroyed remains to be found. It is important to note that in ancient
history of the world, it was believed that king is chosen by the God and loved by deva or
angles. The king sometime was equated as son of God sent to rule the mortals on the earth.
These kings of the ancient history were supported by their priests that created the religious
traditions for their subjects (people), who were expected to follow king’s religious
preferences. Later age sages, prophets and messiah intervened and created a genuine religion
that is being followed and kings if any that rule in modern world are just human and not
considered divine.

In early history, the people accepted such declaration by the kings or their priests as God
given commands or their “divine right” to rule and the people to follow. It is quite possible
the same tradition had followed in the use of honorifics titles of kings of the history. Their
royal edicts and orders in verbal or written forms carried such honorifics titles, just like
“His/Her Royal/Exalted majesty” or “His/Her Excellency” as being used. Such honorifics
pamper the kings or person by pandering to their ego or showing the respect commensurate
with their status or position.

It seems “Piyadassi” or “Piyadasso” as used in Pali cannons was also used for high-ranking
Buddhist monks, Arahants, kings, queens, nobles alike. However, these people must have
done a good deeds for the benefits of the mankind. Mudra Raksha, a Sanskrit play by
Visakhhadatta (Act VI), the title “Piyadamsana” was used for a king believed to be Asoka’s
grandfather Chandra Gupta Maurya. Dr. Vedveer Arya believes and I quote here: “Six Aramaic
inscriptions found from Kandahar to Takshasila and two Greek inscriptions of Kandahar refer to an Indianized
Indo-Greek king Piyodasses or Priyadarśana. Most probably, Indo-Greek King Priyadarśana reigned around 910-
890 BCE after the rise of Arsacid dynasty in Parthia. Indo-Greek king Priyadarśana started using Aramaic script
and Aramaic language under the influence of Parthians. Unfortunately, historians speculated that King Aśoka
and Priyadarśana or Piyodasses mentioned in the Greek-Aramaic inscriptions were identical, but the later Ionian
script (with Psi letter) used in the Greek inscriptions and the use of Aramaic script and Aramaic language
unambiguously indicates that Priyadarśana. There is no evidence of the use of Aramaic in Gandhara and Bactria
before the reign of Achaemenid kings (1198-990 BCE). Since King Aśoka or Kalashoka reigned around 1765-1737
BCE. Therefore, it is totally absurd to identify King Piyodasses or Priyadarśana with Aśoka Maurya. ”

This substantiates my questions on authorships of the edicts and comments on chronology

and use of above generic epithets. India had several Buddhist kings who built Vihara and
Agrahara generally accepted assumptions that all these Buddhist edicts belonged to one king
may be in error.

The Kandahar rock edict of Afghanistan (two) where the inscriptions are bilingual in nature (
Greek and Aramaic languages), the king refers to himself just as “Piyadassi” and the word
“Devanampriya” is absent in contrast to other edicts that are described elsewhere.

11
My guess is that it is highly probable that these Aramaic/Greek inscriptions are attributed
and erected by unknown kings or famous Buddhist king Kanishka or Meander. Another
Buddhist King Harsha Vikramaditya who ruled in later century had a diplomatic relation with
China.

Piyadassi title was also used by Lanka kings Vankanasika Tissa , contemporary king of Ceylon
to Asoka Maurya, who was converted by Ashoka’s son Mahendra. He was succeeded by
Mutta Siva king of Anuradha. Others were Gajabahakagamani and Mahalika Naga as per
Sinhalese inscription . All these Lanka monarch were believed to be connected with Buddha’s
family and they migrated from Vatsa kingdom of early India. Vijaya was the first king. See
family tree of Lanka kings.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_tree_of_Sinhalese_monarchs#House_of_Vijaya

Interestingly, all edicts in the subcontinent refers Devanpriya Piyadassi but omits kings’ name
except one at Maski in south India with his name, that uses the phrase “Devanampriya
Asokasa”, that fueled the early speculation that he must be the author of all the edicts
because he controlled the vast territory and sent Buddhist mission to Sri-Lanka.

There is also a doubt on Kalinga war due to illogical location of “remorse edict” and the
location where the war took place. Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela further add to the
speculation that Kalinga was already under Nanda ruler who preceded Maurya, then why
attack Kalinga, since Maurya inherited the nanda empire ?

“And in the fifth year, (His Majesty) caused the aqueducts that had been excavated by
king Nanda three hundred years before, to flow into [Kalinga] Nagari through Tanasuli (or
Tosali)”.

Kalashoka of Sisunaga dynasty (Buddhist Emperor- Asoka# 1)

The issue of two Buddhist Ashokas of Indian history and their work and edicts have created
the confusion in the history and gave rise to speculative theories as to who was more
religious than other. Which king was responsible for which edict ? Who and when these
edicts were installed?

The first Buddhist emperor was King Ajatshatru of Magadha, who was contemporary to
Buddha who controlled smaller empire of Magadha than Ashoka #1.

According to Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, Ajatshatru distributed the relics of the Buddha with the
help of Brahmin Drona on the condition that the recipients housed the relics in Caitya or
stupa like structure. All recipients kings had agreed prior to the relic distribution. This itself
shatters the claims by some historians that Ashoka Maurya was responsible for building all
Viharas and stupas with associated inscriptions. Consistent with ancient Indian tradition and

12
the logic suggest that some kind of memorial with signs with or without detailed Dharmic
instruction must be present for visitors to know, whose relics they are visiting.

Kharosthi was most likely the scrip utilized during early period of Magadha during the reigns
of Haryanka and Sisunaga dynasties (Ajatshatru and Kalashoka). Brahmi was later introduced
during Mauryan period as per archeological discovery in south India.(picture below).

Both Ashoka’s biographical sketches also adds to the suspicion that all edicts may not have
been constructed by one king as assumed by several historians. So, it needs more research
and clarifications. We will attempt to differentiate the edict distribution try to add additional
justification for forensic analysis to this puzzle and highlight some discrepancies.

Dipavamsa and Rajtarangni both refers to king Ashoka who took reign after 100 years of
Buddha’s Nirvana and according to genealogical table given above and that goes to Ashoka# 1
,who was also called by other names such as Kalashoka or Kakavardhan of Sisunaga dynasty
in puranic literature. While Some Scribes called him Kalashoka. There may be a reason for
that nickname.

Puranas claims that the kings following Ajatshatru that included Sisunaga and Nanda kings
who were known as the “The destroyer of all the Kshatriyas (Arya)” because they vanquished
old Aryan Kshatriya dynasties of North and Northeast. Ajatshatru himself had attacked
Mithila (Videha) kingdom and his father Bimbisara had defeated Avanti kingdom of Pālaka
Kings and made them vassals. Viddhubha, son of Prasenjit and concubine Shakya slave girl of
Mithila dynasty attacked Shakya section of Vaishali but spared his Shakya grandfather’s home
in a rage of perceived insult. Brahmins regarded all of them as “Vratya” Kshatriya that did not
follow the laws of Manu. There was no ethnic or racial difference other than tribal
designation and religious practices and social conducts laid out by Manu among these ancient
Indo-Iranian tribes.

Sisunaga extended Magadha empire by defeating all vassals and took direct control of various
Janapada states. Kalashoka also ruled Kashmira with one of his son. (Kashmira was called a
Satisaras per Nilmata purana) These Magadha rulers humbled Kuru-Panchala, Kasi, Haihayas
and suppressed the new rebellions in Kalinga, Asmaka, Maithilas, Sursena and the Vitihotras.
He expanded his territory south of the Madhya Pradesh and into the Orissa region. This ruler
claimed to be “ekarat”, the sole sovereign, who had destroyed all the other ruling princes of
(Aryavarta) areas controlled by “Aryas”. It seems that he had conquered most of the
independent Janapadas (kingdoms). Maha Nanda had the biggest armies as per the puranic
sources and he ruled for 10 years and died at the age of 88. Sisunaga may be his minister,
initially posted at Banaras as a viceroy and was invited to serve him at Rajgriha, capital of
Magadha Kingdom. Puranas differs on the account of the timing of Mahapadma and Nanda’s
rules and placement in Magadha genealogies. However, they all agree that last Nanda was
replaced by Chandra Gupta and Brahmin Chanakya. Mahavamsa, Buddhist texts and Puranas
are in sync with above genealogical tables of as to when these two Buddhist Ashoka ruled
after Buddha’s death. The Nanda dynasty was known for their wealth and size of their armies

13
that Sisunaga dynasty either built or inherited. The fabulous wealth of the Nandas is also
mentioned by several Buddhist sources. It is said that during his rule Magadha’s army
consisted of 60,000 cavalry, 200,000 infantry, 2000 chariots and 3000 to 6000 war elephants.

Rajtarangni reference that Ashoka built 84,000 Viharas and Agraharas (Temples) would not
be possible without the wealth. Although, the number 84,000 is ridiculously high but number
84 and its extension is part of sacred numerology that creeps up in both Buddhist and Jaina
legends. Please see my sacred numerology article on Academia.

There is chronology difference between two Ashoka’s by 118 years. Kalashoka was
considered as the organizer of second Buddhist council after Ajatshatru and 100 years after
Buddha’s death. He sponsored the second council at Vaishali to sort out the differences that
arose among Buddhist monks of Vaishali, representing various Buddhist sanghas. The
difference was more related to adherence of monastic rules and conducts (Do and Don’t).
Ashoka Maurya came to power approximately 218 years plus minus few year, after Buddha’s
death. Asoka Maurya was responsible for organizing third council at Patliputra to purge the
deviant and infiltrated monks, who did not adhere to established canonical rules of Thera and
started adopting rules of other competing sect like Ajivikas. Asoka Maurya inherited much
bigger Indian Empire from his grandfather covering part of central Asia and almost the entire
subcontinental India except present Tamilnadu state, while taking Buddhism to the island of
Sri-Lanka. Ashoka Maurya came to power between 204 to 214 years after Buddha’s death,
depending on various sources.

If he already inherited such a large empire and he suppressed the revolt in Afghanistan, then
why the Kalinga war is attributed to him ? Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa , both Buddhist
canonical texts calls him “Dharamasoka”, while Hindu Purana calls him “Chandasoka”. It is
quite understandable that either of the Ashokas may not have been liked by Brahmin Puranic
scribes because of their religious preference to Buddhism and probably both were regarded
as of “Vratya” Kshatriya.

Chronology of two Ashokas and their true identities:

According to tradition preserved in Mallalankaravathhu, Sisunaga and his son had kept their
royal residence at Vaishali, and they frequented them quite often. During their rule, they
expanded Magadha empire to humble Pradotya’s Avanti, Kosala kingdom, Videha, Kashmira.

It is more likely that Sisunaga or Mahapadma attacked Kalinga than Ashokas. Most of edict
inscription bearing remorse within Shishunaga’s conquered territory may be due to
predecessor ruler’s act .

It is customary in all Indian inscriptions either through pillar, stone, or copper plates to
indicate kings’ name, dates in eras, recipients and sometimes the name of the artist, who
etched the inscription. However, the religious edicts are exception to this traditions.
Rajataragini heap the praise on Kalashoka but does not mention Kalinga war nor does
14
Asokavadana or Divyadana or Sinhalese chronicles and therefore we assume that Ashoka
Sisunaga was probably apologizing for predecessor king’s deed.

Moreover, Chandra Gupya Maurya had already done the job of either assembling or
inheriting a large empire for Ashoka’s to rule. Nanda ruler is said to have built the aqueducts
that Kharvela repaired. This suggest that during Nanda’s rule, Kalinga was already under
Magadha kingdom. There are no other details on Kalinga and its differences with Magadha
ruler and no independent kings ruling Magadha is listed in Puranic literature during Mauryan
rule. During Chedi king’s rule there were feuds between Kalinga and Magadha, mostly
evolved around maritime trade.

According to various Puranas and Buddhist text of Vinaya Pataka, first Ashoka of Sisunaga
dynasty (Kalashoka) ruled 100 years after the Pari- nirvana of Buddha that Buddha himself
prophesized. The second Ashoka (Ashoka Maurya) was also called Chandasoka who came to
power 218 years from Buddha’s Pari-nirvana. Mahavamsa and Dipa Vamsa both confirms this
chronological difference as well as Hindu Puranas. Mahavamsa chronicle of Lanka attributes
entry of the Buddhism to Lanka to Ashoka Maurya, who was also known as Dharamasoka in
Buddhist Pali canons.

Asoka Maurya of Piprahwa clans of Maurya were physically closer to Lumbini and Kusinagara
of Malla republic, where Buddha frequently travelled to and preached. It is located close to
Very northeast region of U.P. that was once part of ancient Videha Kingdom.

According to some scholars such as Christopher I. Beckwith, Ashoka, whose name only
appears in the Minor Rock Edicts at Maski, should be differentiated from the edicts bearing
name just “Piyadassi” or “Devanampriya Piyadassi”. Beckwith also highlights the fact that
Buddhism nor the Buddha are mentioned in the Major Edicts, but only in the Minor Edicts.

Further, the Buddhist notions described in the Minor Edicts (such as the Buddhist canonical
writings in Minor Edict No.3 at Bairat, the mention of a Buddha of the past (Kanakamuni
Buddha in the Nigali Sagar Minor Pillar Edict) are more characteristic of the "Normative
Buddhism" of the Saka-Kushan period. This opens up the possibility of inclusion of other
Buddhist emperor of India. The Maski and Kandahar edicts clearly suggest that “Piyadassi”
and “Ashokas” can be more than one person.

Home of Ashoka Sisunaga was ancient Kingdom of Vaishali

Vaishali was one of the earliest city-state kingdom, set up on the eastern bank of River
Ganges by early Vedic settlers along other Indo-Iranian tribes. The native kirata and Austro-
Asiatic tribes were already residing in the vicinity of Vaishali. Vaishali may stretch up to
present Gandak to the west, Burhi Gandak to the east, Ganges to the south and Himalaya to
the north were kirata kingdom began ,stretching up to present state of Nepal. Further to
northeast was Naga, a Tibeto-Burmese tribe. Vaisali kingdom included present part of Bihar
district of Champaran, Muzaffarnagar and Dar Bhanga as shown in the map below.
15
Kashmiri Rajtarangni mentions Ashoka of Sisunaga dynasty ruled over Kashmir that coincided
with the rule of the king mentioned in Hindu Purana as Kakaverma of Sisunaga dynasty, who
also ruled Magadha empire that included Kashmir. Most of the historians agree that they
were the same person. Rajataragini calls him by his real name of Ashoka, leaving “Kala”
frontal epithet out. According to Rajtarangni, he built 84,000 Buddhist Viharas in his empire
and built the city of ancient Srinagar of Kashmir. This tradition is recorded by Kalhana in his
Rājataraṅginī [Book I, vv. 101-7]. The purana attests that by conferring the genealogy of
Magadh kings. During Sisunaga and Nanda period of Magadha, they were a great military
power of India, with a huge force of war elephants, bow men , lancer cavalry and chariots.

According to Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa, this Ashoka (#1) ruled approximately 100 years
after Sambuddha (Buddha)’s Pari-nibbana. The city he founded was Srinagri, (near present
Srinagar of Kashmir), where Asoka is said to have built 500 Buddhist monasteries (sacred
numerology ) together with other edifices, some of which were consecrated to Brahmanical
worship.

The Chinese traveler Faxien made the statement in his book “Travel to Buddhist Kingdoms”
that “Asoka gave up all Kashmir for the benefit of the Buddhist church" [Watters' travel., p.
267].” The Chinese pilgrim then saw about 100 Buddhist monasteries still existing in the
country, and also saw " four Asoka topes(stupas)." The second city built by Asoka (#1) was in
Nepal that he is said to have visited with his daughter, Charumati, and her Kshatriya husband,
Devapala, who chose to settle there. This certainly refers to Kaka Vardhan, Ashoka-1 or
Kalashoka. Nepal was born out of ancient kirata kingdom when Licchavis tribe migrated.
Ashoka Shishunaga’s visit to Terai region was to build Buddhist nunnery and a monastery in
the city called Dev-Patan of Nepal. Dev Patan was believed to closely located where Patan
city exists. There still exist four stupas with their archaic style [Sylvain Levi, Le Nepal, quoted
in Cambridge History, p. 501]. There are other accounts by Faxien where he noted that
Buddhism had spread from Nepal-Tibet to Xinjiang district of China and to Central Asia and
all the way to west to Anatolia. Faxien mentions visiting many Viharas in Afghanistan,
Kashgar, Fergana and Northeast India that were erected by Ashoka Raja and Kanishka Raja.
He mentions that skull or tooth of Buddha was housed in one of the vihara in Afghanistan
near ancient Balkh. He also observed the minor inscription in Sanskrit at one of the vihara,
but they were not “Dharma edicts.” Ashok Maurya and Kanishka are believed to have
redistributed some bone relicts of Buddha from their initial distribution by King Ajatshatru.
The relics may have included the relics of other Arahants or previous Buddha.

China have revised the chronology of Imperial china based on new archeological discovery.
The new chronology places western Zhou dynasty from 1050 BCE to 771 BCE. Faxien visit can
be dated around 750 BCE-650 BCE as he mentioned Asoka and Kanishka both in past
sentence. Kanishka is now dated to 1165-1110 BCE under revised Indian chronology.

Geographically speaking, once you conquer Punjab, then the Kashmir lies just North of it.
Rajataragini tells us that King Sachinara ruled Kashmir, as a ruler without a successor ,

16
Sachinara’ father Janaka built Vihara and Agrahara. This tells us that they patronized
Kashmiri Shaivism and Buddhism both. Viharas were for Buddhist monks , while Agraharas
were temple for Shaivism, that was once the popular religion of ancient Kashmir. Asoka-1 of
Sisunaga dynasty inherited the Kashmir kingdom through his relationship with Shakuni (his
grandfather), who was matrimonially connected with the Royal house of Kashmir. Shakuni
was from Shakya clan of Vaisali.

Ancient Vaishali kingdom marked in red Present area pf Bihar that was Vaishali

Sisunaga himself, the father of Kalashoka(Ashoka-1) had also served as a viceroy or minister
at Banaras (Kashi) for Magadha emperor . His administrative skill was admired by Magadha
emperor.

Sisunaga dynasty rose from alliance Shakya-Koliya-Licchavis clans of Vaishali. Shakya, Lichhavi
and koliya intermarried as indicated in Buddha’s biographical sketch. Ashoka’s son Jaluska or
Jushka succeeded as a ruler of Kashmir as mentioned in Rajataragini. This implies that when
Sisunaga ruled Magadha, Ashoka was the ruler of Kashmir. They clearly belonged to Sisunaga
dynasty as per chronology given by Rajtarangni. Rajtarangni and Dipavamsa called Ashoka#1
by his real name Ashoka or Ashokaditya.

Purana’s scribes were Brahmins and they called him Kakavardhan or Kalashoka. Perhaps,
Purana scribes wanted their readers to know the origin of Sisunaga as of “Vratya” clan and
not belonging to “Arya”. That may be the reason he was named as “Koliya Ashoka or
Kalashoka”. meaning Ashoka from Koliya tribe. This types of tribal designations were
common during that period and were attached to Buddha and Mahavira as well , such as
“Shakyamuni” or “Jnatriputra Vardhman”. There are other meaning of Kala such as “death”

17
or “gloom” mentioned in Indian language. However, there are other meanings as well. “Kāla”
is normally the omnipotence of Siva, the power to do anything, perhaps that can be
attributed his building of various shiva temples in Kashmir . Kāla ( “death and time”) refers to
one of the fifty-six vināyakas located at Kāśī (Varanasi). In Buddhism, Kala - A Pacceka
Buddha, mentioned in a list of Pacceka Buddhas. M.iii.70; ApA.i.107. There are many meaning
https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/kala
The gloomy Ashoka perhaps can be attributed to his sadness over Kalinga destruction , but
tribal designation is more likely as Kola and corrupted to Kala. The “Kala” caste still exist in
India. Rajataragini also mentions that that Hushka, Jushka and Kanishka reigned 150 years
after Buddha nirvana which clearly confirms the Puranic dates of Ashoka-1 or Kalashoka. He
ascended to the throne nearly 100 years of Buddha’s death. Similarly, most of Tibetan and
Chinese sources mention that this Asoka or Kalashoka reigned 100 or 108 years after Buddha
Pari-nirvana. Shishunaga’s sons at some points in were given responsibility to rule various
parts of his empire to rule as a viceroy or a governor. Kalashoka did the same thing where his
ten sons ruled simultaneously and perhaps Nanda later. Hindu Purana attests to this process
where sons were appointed as a ruler simultaneously. After the ruler’s death they continue
to rule independently under Magadha empire. Mahabodhivamasa also supports that
statement that Kalashoka ruled simultaneously with his ten sons: Bhadrasena,
Koranadavarna, Mangura,Sannanjaha, Jaluska (Rajtarangni), Ubhaka, Sanjaya, Koravya,
Nandi Varman and Pancamaka. The empire of Magadh had developed a bad reputation of
Parricidal states. As far as general social set up was concerned, the polygamy was common.
The slavery either in bonded form or available for purchase was common in ancient world.
The polygamous status often promoted rivalry among princes. The confusion among various
puranic text as to who succeeded Shishunaga is due to both Nanda and Kalashoka are
described as origin of “low birth”. Perhaps, they were stepbrothers. Sisunaga was a Lichhavi
prince of Vaishali and had children from more than one woman. If Mahapadma took his first
turn but was replaced by Kalashoka and his sons are not clear. What is clear that Nanda’s son
followed Kalashoka and his sons.

There was not any major ethnicity differences among all these Indo-Iranian tribes, except
they did not follows Manu’s law of castes and Brahminical rituals of Vedic people. They also
opposed the marriage between Vratya and Arya as per Buddhist story of humiliation of King
Prasenjit of Kosala (Videha). When Prasenjit asked to marry Shakya princess of Vaishali, he
was rebuffed and offered a Shakya slave girl, who bore him a son name Viddhubha ,who
overthrew his father and attacked Shakya clan of Vaisali on basis of a perceived insult.

The Vishnu Purana records 34 kings of Vaisali up to last king being Sumati of Videha Kingdom
also listed in Ikshvaku clan genealogy. Prasenjit and his father Mahakosala belonged to
Ikshvaku lineage and ruled ancient cities of Ayodhya, srivasti and Banaras. However, Vayu,
Bhagavati, Visnu and Garuda Purana will give you a complete list of rulers of Vaishali , some
names of Magadha and Videha kings may overlap as the ruler of Vaishali. Vaishali once part
of Kosala (Videha) kingdom, became independent capital city of Vratya clans. During
Janapada age, Vaishali remained the capital of Republican federation of 16 independent
tribes known as “Vrijji Republic”. They retained their independent status as “Vratya” state in

18
early history of India, where Brahminical order remained a marginal factor. This gave
shramanism an unfettered access to explore various religious philosophies.

The first king of Vaishali was Vishala, who founded the city-state at the site on the bank of
river Ganges. Vishala was a descendant of Nabhaga of Ikshvaku line of king Mandhatava. The
purana list the genealogies of Vaishali kings. During the later period , it was annexed by
Videha or Kosala Janapada. Prasenjit of Ikshvaku lineage was also controlled Vaishali along
with Kosala Janapada. At the time of Buddha, Ajatshatru attacked Vaisali and Videha on petty
excuses and was defeated by Prasenjit. Ajatshatru mother was the sister of Prasenjit and they
signed a peace treaty . Ajatshatru further cemented alliance by marrying Prasenjit’s daughter.
The second destruction was conducted by Viddhubha, son of Prasenjit and king of Kosala
Janapadas on basis of perceived insult . Vaishali as such was nowhere mentioned in early
Vedic texts, yet one Takshaka Visaya is mentioned in Atherveda, as a son of Viraja, who
descended from king Vishala .One Nabhaga belonged to Royal dynasty of Vaishali, who is
credited with a hymn of Rig Veda X62.

Mahabharata war had produced a major political changes in Aryavarta or Aryadesh. Arya
tribes were decimated in power struggle and were losing control of various kingdom ,creating
a room for other tribes to enter the subcontinents. This was the path of self-destruction as
outlined in Mahabharata as “Mlecchas will rule in kaliyuga”.

Ikshvaku, a premier Arya Kshatriya were marrying women Vratya Shakya and other native
clans. The polygamy was common, and parricide or succession fight depleted the ranks of
Arya. Herodotus may have labelled “Arya” as a branch of Scythic group of central steppe
based on similarities of the cultures of the Scythic tribes of Central Asia (based on the
conduct of warfare, weapons, horses, and chariots). Arya as a group were religiously different
clan and followers of Veda and Manu’s laws but in warfare, they were similar to other Indo-
Iranian tribes of Parsus, Shakya, Koliya, Lichhavi, Kamboja, Taksak, Turanians, Yavanas and
other tribes of neighborhood IE groups.

Vaishali at Buddha’s time was populated by Shakya, Koliya, Lichhavi, Vrijji and other native
tribes like Kirata but often ruled by chiefs selected by respective tribal chiefs living there. The
city was divided into tribal neighborhoods, overseen by respective chiefs of their clans, who
were member of ruling assembly consisting of all chiefs. The ruling chiefs represented their
clans or tribes in selecting the ruler of the Republic, Military commander, and other
administrators at central council to resolve the issues of the common concerns of finance and
defense. Vaishali has an established system of “Gram-vahu”, (a Sanskrit -Pali) word applied to
a “certified and legal house of ill-repute”, permissible under the law of the city , where the
visiting dignitaries, royals and other high ranking nobles can be entertained, subject to the
approval of house madame (courtesan). Ambapali was the famous courtesan of Vaishali. The
courtesan may allow the visitors in their house for entertainment at her discretion in return
for the monies and gifts. Bimbisara of Haryanka dynasty fathered a son with Ambapali who
was named Abhaya and served as minister of Ajatshatru.

19
Vaishali Lichhavi Prince Shakuni belonged to Shakya clan ( Shakuni is mentioned in
Rajtarangni) who had a son named Sisunaga that was conceived by a perhaps Koliya slave girl
that gave them Shakya-Koliya lineage. Sisunaga married one of the beautiful courtesan.
Shakuni was Prince/king of Shakya clan of Vaishali and was married to the daughter of king of
Kashmir who had no son. Ashoka-1 or Kalashoka this inherited the kingdom of Kashmir.

As mentioned earlier, Magadha developed the bad reputation of “Parricidal state”, where
Royal kings were either poisoned, murdered, or usurped by his own son or ministers
sequentially and repeatedly. That pushed the nobles to anoint a minister to run the state.
Sisunaga a former minister as a ruler annexed Avanti and extended his empire to include
Vatsa, Kosala and Kuru-Panchala and shifted his capital to Pushapura based on puranic
reference.

Vaishali became a hot bed of Shramana colonies preaching various religious doctrines and
philosophies. Proto-Jainism was present in the form of Shaivism, Ajivikaism and Aklekas but
modern Jainism was not established until several centuries later from Mahavira of Janatri
clan of Lichhavi. Mahavira became an Arahant like Buddha and regarded as the founder of
Modern Jainism that arose from his Jinakalpa or Sthavira tradition. He is called 24th
Tirthankaras of Jainism. He carries his tribal symbol of Lion as depicted his statue.

Buddha belonged to Shakya clans. Vaishali and Magadha had already adopted to Buddhism
switching from other traditions including Ajivikaism that had roots in Proto-Shaivism. The
reign of Kalashoka is marked important for two reasons:

1. The transfer of Magadha capital from Girivraja to Pushapura and ultimately to Bihar region
(Patliputra). However, he is said to have ruled from his palace in Vaishali, when Patliputra
was under construction.

2. Organizing the second Buddhist council at Vaishali to resolve the schism among Buddhist
monks.

The confusion among two Ashokas persist among the historians. What does the word “kala”
mean ? Venkachalam connect first Ashoka as Dharamasoka and second Ashoka with
Chandasoka. Mahavamsa, Dipavamsa calls the first one as Ashoka, while second one as
Dharamasoka . Asokavaddana written by later Mathura scribe calls Ashoka Maurya as
Chandasoka. Chanda (Sanskrit, Pali) is translated as "intention", "interest", or "desire to act".
Chanda is identified within the Buddhist Abhidharma teachings as: “One of the six occasional
mental factors in the Theravada Abhidharma; in this tradition, Chanda is a factor that can
have positive or negative result depending upon the mental factors that it is co-joined with.”
The alternative meaning cited of Chanda or Canda in Vastushastra is “shape” or “form”. We
do not know for sure what exactly scribe was implying or trying to convey.

Rajtarangni says this about Ashoka of Sisunaga dynasty “ This king who had freed himself of all his
sins and embraced the doctrine of Buddha covered Saskaletra and Vitashatra with numerous stupas. At the

20
town of Vitashatra, there stood within its precinct, Dharmaranaya, a Caitya built by him, the height of which
could not be realized by him. That illustrious king built the city of Srinagri (Present Srinagar of Kashmir),
important on account of 960,000 houses with resplendent with wealth.” Although, the number cannot be
verified due to the frequent use of sacred numerology , there were countless Viharas as seen
and described by the Chinese visitors.

According to Chinese traveler, I-Tsing, Asoka's rule was prophesied by the Buddha himself. I-
Sing repeats what is said in texts that " More than a hundred years after his nirvana, when
there will arise a king named Asoka. According to various references cited above that was
King Ashoka-1 (or Kalashoka, Kakavardhan of Sisunaga dynasty) who will rule over the whole
of “Jambudvipa " or “Aryavarta [Takakusu's I-Tsing, p. 14].” The Buddha's prophecy about
Asoka as a righteous king who will enshrine his bodily relics in 84,000 Dharmaraj Vikas also
cited in the Sinhalese work of Divyāvadāna (xxvi. p. 368) that was also echoed by Rajtarangni
by Kalhana.

Since many texts were written after the events had already transpired like Bhavishya
Puranas and various prophesies and legends around the world , the scribes knew the history
and it can be best described as the vehicle driver looking through rear-view mirror glancing at
the road left behind.

Twice Born concept of Arya under Manu’s law and Reincarnation theory

The fear and mystery of “afterlife status” always haunted the ancient royals and commoners
alike. However, Vedic Brahmins came up with a ritual, that guaranteed second chance of
human rebirth out of many assumed countless rebirths in various life forms including plants,
and animals. Those who choose to go through the processor of ritual can earn “twice born
privilege of human birth”.

Countering that concept ,the reformist religious tradition of Buddhism and Jainism that
survives today offered the solution of escape from the long cycle of rebirths in many forms by
virtue of good Karmas free from acts of sins as prescribed in their religious canons. Outlier
class of people excluded from Brahminism including “Vratya” and Native class felt
emancipation from Brahminic rituals imposed by ruling class. This created philosophical
disagreements and promoted Shramana cultures that already existed during Indus valley days
in India. Vratya clans believed that the rituals that were organized by Brahminic group was
the license for the money-making mandatory rituals and did not guarantee anything that was
promised and claimed. No one knew what happens after death. The alternate philosophical
theories were advanced , practiced and preached. This gave rise to various heretical
speculations and theologies of Karma, effect on rebirth and ultimate freedom from rebirth
through Nirvana and acquisition of “Arahant” status that would completely grant freedom
from any rebirth. This is the essence of theological difference between earlier religions of
India. Many defected from Brahminical orthodoxy and formed a nucleus for propagation of
these alternate religious practices.

21
The map below shows the Magadha empire during Sisunaga and Mahanandin dynasty, that
clearly shows their suzerainty over ancient Kalinga. The archeologist have discovered a site
near Bhubaneswar , Odisha ,that is believed to be ancient Kalinga. Archaeologist Dr RK
Mohanty who has been part of the team that excavated the area, over the last several years.
The material found here is viewed as the site of ancient sisupalgrah or Tosali of edict in
Kalinga state. Ashoka’s Dhuli edict is only few miles away. This led archeologist to believe
that this must be the site that may have been rebuilt after Kalinga war. Sisupalgrah was the
capital of Chedi king Sisupala of Mahabharat period , he was slayed by Krishna. There are
other Buddhist site dated to later period with a signs of ports that had thriving maritime
business. However, it is recognized that the all the reconstructed map are based on Buddhist
text that may or may not be 100 percent accurate recollection of the ancient history. Since
Tosali was rebuilt after war, it will not be easy to discover the responsibility of Kalinga war.

Empire controlled By Sisunaga and Nanda dynasty of Magadha that included Avanti and Kalinga

Ashoka-2 of Mauryan dynasty

Divyāvadāna (Panshupradanavadana) gives the genealogy of Asoka Maurya as son of

Bindusara who followed Canda (Chandra) Gupta Maurya, who usurped the last Nanda King
with the help of Chanakya. Bindusara was ruling at Pataliputra. His eldest son was Susim,

22
who was appointed as a viceroy based at Taxshila , overseeing Afghanistan and central Asia
to suppress the rebellious tribes. Bimbisara married Subhadrangi, who was initially hired as a
hairdresser (as per Divyāvadāna) but ended up marrying Bindusara. Asoka and Vitashoka
were born from his wife Subhadrangi.

According to Asokavadana, she was the daughter of a Brahmin from the city of
Champa.(6:205). Queen Subhadrangi was a Brahmin but followed Ajivikas sect and was found
to be a suitable match for Prince Bindusara. Chanakya and Chandra Gupta were also
followers of Ajivikas sects. Since Ajivikas was a forerunner of Mahavira’s Jinakalpa-Sthavira
tradition, Ajivikas, Shaivism and Vedic religion were main competing traditions to Buddha’s
religion as per Purana and Buddhist texts. Many historians describes Maurya as the
followers of Jainism but that is incorrect as modern Jainism was not born then. This mistaken
belief arise from Jain Acharya Hemachandra’s writing using wrong eras of Vikrama.

In the southern Puranic tradition kept by Magadhi and Sarasvati Brahmins, Subhadrangi was
also called “Dharma”, (An epithet given in south India) who was a principal queen of
Bimbisara (Mahavathsatika, ch. iv. p. 125 ). The preceptor of Maurya family was an Ajivikas
saint named “Janasana”—a fact which may explain Asoka's patronage of the Ajivikas Sect as
mentioned in one of the edict. Vincent Smith and other colonial historian alluded to the fact
that Ashoka was the follower of Jainism before he became Buddhist, but they were not
aware that modern Jainism did not exist then, and it arose from Ajivikas tradition. It is hard
to differentiate between various shramna groups from their rituals practice and outside
appearance. The Shaivites, Ajivikas and Digambara Jains monks all practiced nudity.
While trying to identify various shramna text during Buddha’s period, Rhys Davids and
Herman Jacobi , two main Pali translators and historians developed the differences. Herman
Jacobi insisted that Jainism was very old and perhaps go back to the days of Indus-valley. He
should have said the origin or Proto-Jainism and then it would have been a correct
interpretation. Ajivikas most likely was a branch of Proto-Shaivism and when through various
changes and schism and existed as Ajivikas during buddha’s life that was later refined and
organized to became Jinakalpa tradition of Mahavira as out lined in genealogical table above.
The current dates used in textbooks are erroneous.

Some writers has explained that after a long wait, the queen bore a son named Ashoka . Ar
his birth the queen exclaimed that "I am now without any sorrow," that earned Ashoka his
nick name Chandasoka. However, this types of stories falls into legend category. The
Divyāvadāna tells a similar story but gives the name of the queen as Janapadakalyānī. That is
also suggestive of her good religious attitudes as “Dharma” queen of southern tradition. It
appears both epithets suggest the same quality of religiousness nature of the queen. As
Janapadakalyānī in Sanskrit means “the one who does good for the country.” Then it
becomes an epithet and suggestive of her involvement in the charities and religion.

Bindusara and Ashoka both had many wives similar to his predecessors, and they all practiced
polygamy by forging matrimonial alliances with Vassalages. The building vassalage
relationships often averted future war and conflict and increased the vesting in the kingdom’s

23
relationship and stability. There are several examples in our scriptures that are repeatedly
confirms that such practices of polygamy, polyandry, and slavery were common in ancient
history though out the ancient civilizations and produced the parricidal tendencies among
princes and fights among queens for succession struggles for their princes. As seen from the
above, the Buddhism was well established as a one of the religious tradition before Ashoka
Maurya’s arrival. There were many schools (vihara) and stupas that were in existence as per
Asokavadana. Chandra Gupta and Bindusara had almost conquered southern India including
Chola, Pandya and Kerala. The Mauryan dynasty also extended all th way to central Asia
covering Afghanistan, ancient kingdom of Bactria , Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan.

Most of the Indian kings practiced or attended multiple popular religions, while keeping their
preference quiet, making sure that no one felt offended. The Buddhism, Shaivism,
Brahminism and Ajivikaism were most patronized religions by kings and people. Asoka’s first
love of life was Shakya Kumari of Videha country, who resided in Ujjain (Avanti) and she was
the follower of Buddha’s religion, and he married her, when he was the governor of Taxila.

Asoka Maurya was not preferred by his father as a successor and therefore, he was not
elevated as a governor, coregent, or viceroy like his elder brother Susim. His assignment at
Taxila was temporary. Susim turned out to be a moderate ruler and was considered a weak
ruler by Bindusara’s minister and failed to control the rebellious tribes of the North. On the
advice of his ministers, Bindusara replaced Susim with Ashoka , while assigning Susim the
Northeast Videha region that was largely peaceful. Ashoka used the harsh tactics and
coercive methods to curb the rebellion successfully.

As per the story given in Asokavadana , Asoka was known for his fighting qualities at an early
age and he was given royal military training. He was known as a fearsome hunter, and
according to a legend, killed a lion with just a wooden rod. Despite Ashoka’s success in North
at Taxila, Bindusara wanted to coronate his elder son Susim, but Ashoka resented and finally
revolted with support of Bindusara’s key ministers.

The Divyadana supports Asokavadana narrative by stating that even under Bindusara, the
Ajivikas saint, Pihgalavatsa, summoned by the king, judged Asoka as the fittest of his sons for
the throne. It also states that Asoka was further backed by the powerful support of the entire
ministries of Bindusara. Khallataka (Prime Minister and a protégé of Chanakya) was very
powerful minister. With support of two key ministers of Bimbisara, Khallataka and Ratha
Gupta, Ashoka came to rule the Mauryan empire by dislodging Susim after Bindusara’s death.
This support was based on Ashoka Maurya’s abilities and ruthlessness to maintain order over
large empire that he inherited. After Bindusara’s death , Ashoka initiated the campaign to
eliminate the competitors for the throne of the empire by purging all relatives that can
possibly mount a challenge. This led to elimination and death of Susim and many other
brothers. His own uterine brother Vitashoka, afraid of him, chose Abhiseka and became an
ordained Buddhist monk. He went to the mountain and stayed in the Vihara and cave.
Despite Ashoka’s repeated pleas, he maintained his distance. Later, Asoka built a mountain

24
for him at Patliputra and requested his brother Vitashoka to return to Patliputra, but he
declined.

There are controversies as to how and when he was coronated. Some of his edict makes it
very clear the distinction between “Abhiseka” and “coronation”. Abhiseka means induction
and adoption to Buddhism. The coronation means assuming Royal throne. There are
contradictory statements in some edicts, suggestive of edicts belonging to different ruler or
other Ashoka. Equally contentious is the claim as to when Ashoka became a Buddhist. Some
tradition claims that he was already a Buddhist before Kalinga war. Some traditions claims
that Ashoka killed his 99 brothers except sparing his uterine brother, Vitashoka, who had
already become a Buddhist monk and assumed the name of Tissa as per Dipavamsa and
Mahavamsa. Vitashoka or Tissa did not pose any threat to him. Vitashoka was also equated
as Mahendra in some Buddhist texts, who was supposed to be one of his son. His daughter
Sanghamitra or Sanghamita, as mentioned in Lanka chronicle may not be her real name but
adopted designation or assumed name after joining Sangha. Taranatha of Tibetan Buddhism
states that Asoka killed only six brothers and not 99 as stated in other texts. Other authorities
do not attribute to him for any murder at all, but other forms of cruelty. The story of killing of
99 brothers is outlandish, questionable, and impossible, unless you include several
generation of Royal Princes made up of cousin and uncles through various queens and
concubines of Ashoka and his predecessors. Some of his edicts mentions his family and his
wish them to follow Dhamma.

There are no questions that both Ashoka built Viharas, stupas and edicts throughout their
empires and held respective second and third Buddhist councils to harmonize monastic
disciplines and build unity among Buddhist sects. Equally contentious is who had acquired the
titles of Dharmasoka, Kalashoka or Chandasoka. The opinions of the historians vary but they
are irrelevant because they both had adopted Buddhism and built Viharas, therefore they
were both Dharamasoka. Some believe that Asoka Maurya did not have a good look,
therefore, he was called Chandasoka and some claim that Ashoka of Sisunaga dynasty after
Kalinga massacre was so called Kalashoka who felt sadness after Kalinga war. None of these
matters.
I suggested my interpretations above that why Kakavardhan or Kakaverma of Sisunaga may
have been called Kalashoka not because his assumed conquest of Kalinga but tribal origin.
Kola caste that probably arose from Koliya tribe of Vaishali still exist in India. Also note the
word “Vardhman” was common Licchavis name. Mahavira of Licchavis clan was also named
Vardhman. The lion depicted in Ashoka’s column was also the tribal symbol of Licchavis and
Shakya clans . We see Lions as a symbol of Jaina Mahavira also and that suggest tribal affinity.
Kakavardhan the name cited in Purana could well have been “Kalavardhman” in Pali. It seems
Shakya and related tribes were Scythic steppe nomads and always had a lion as their symbol
for and fearlessness.

25
 Saka warrior Comb from central Asia with Lion
Since he and his father Sisunaga came from Vaishali ,where many Licchavis and Koliya tribes
resided. He was more likely to be identified as Kalashoka from koliya tribe or Kola-Ashoka
and that got abbreviated to Kalashoka and Lion symbol was probably associated with him as
the capital of the edict. Some have described Kalashoka of “Tak-Sak” origin that implies the
northern tribes of Indo-Iranians.
Equally important but never mentioned are three famous Buddhist kings of early ages and
they were Kanishka of Rabatak inscription and Maeander of Buddhist text called “question to
King Milinda- a Yavana (Ionian King of Bactria and Afghanistan) and Vikramaditya Harsha as
per Bana’s work.
Mahendra who went to Sri-Lanka was the son from Shakya Kumari as per Hsien chang. Thera
Gatha confirms Vitashoka was Ashoka Maurya’s Uterine brother. Dipa and Mahavamsa
suggest Vitashoka as ordained monk Tissa (Vitashoka) for whom Ashoka built a hill near
Patliputra. Mahavamsa also suggests that prior to Mahendra and Sangha Mitra’s mission to
Sri-Lanka, Monk Tissa visited Lanka more than once to meet king Vijaya. Vitashoka or Tissa
was also called “Piyadassi” in Buddhist text and attained his Arhathood. Ashoka had other
wives and sons, but the name varies in various traditions. Chinese work indicates one of his
son was called Kupala or Jaina’s description as Kunala (Hemachandra) and another brother
was sudatta. This may have caused confusion with later Jaina historian with Kunala of Avanti,
belonging to visaya dynasty.

Another Ashoka Maurya’s story relates to beheading of Ajivikas monk from Punḍravardhana
while he was himself a Buddhist. Asokavadana inform us that Ashoka Maurya once beheaded
a monk of Ajivikas order for showing a portrait of Buddha, kneeling to Ajivikas leader
Nigantha. Nigantha of Ajivikas was a leader of the rival sect during Buddha’s life and king
26
Bimbisara (Haryanka dynasty) was a disciple of Nigantha. Nigantha as some assumed was not
Mahavira.

Then the question comes about Kalinga massacre. Ashoka Maurya was held responsible for
killing hundred thousand people during Kalinga war and inducing famines as per his Kalinga
edict? However, the Mauryan history suggest that entire India and central Asian states were
already under Mauryan suzerainty, either through direct administration or vassalage
relationship with tribute arrangement. If Kalinga was already incorporated by Mahanandin or
Sisunaga , who maintained a big army that Chandra Gupta inherited. Then Kalinga was
already annexed by Magadha empire prior to Maurya . No need to wage a war. There are
vague mention in Sri-Lankan chronicle but does not say which Asoka in conclusive manner as
if they borrowed some material from other text. We know of Kalinga war through edict and
we assumed that all edicts carrying Piyadassi and Devanpriya epithets must belonged to
Ashok Maurya based on Maski edict that mentions only name Ashoka. The fact that Maski is
in Karnataka , south India that Maurya controlled , the assumption follows that all edicts
without his name must belonged to him. While Hathigumpha inscription ( belonging to King
Kharvela of 11 the century BCE) inform us that Kharvela repaired Aqueduct built by Nanda
King of Magadha clearly stating that as Pre-Mauryan matter. The exact details and the reason
for Kalinga war is lacking and unclear.

It is quite possible with large armies that Sisunaga or Mahanandin had maintained based on
Greek historians record may have been responsible for committing this dreadful act and
either Kalashoka Sisunaga or Ashoka Maurya repented as Buddhist monarch and apologized
for the state of Magadha. Kalashoka in particular may have grieved for such act conducted
based on remorse cited on Shahbazgarhi edict located in Norther province of Pakistan that he
controlled. This is the same area where Ashoka Maurya was sent out to curb the rebellion.
However, Rajataragini, and other texts are silent other than erected edict.

Ashoka Maurya’s skin disease ( https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4314928/)

Charles Allen published a book in 2013 , called “India’s lost emperor Ashoka”. He used various
sources that are already stated in this paper. The article on above link is based on that as why
he may have been called Chandasoka (out of shape).

“His medical condition as recorded in the Buddhist texts of Sri Lanka as well as in the Buddhist texts of North
India and Nepal. These sources mention his skin disorder which is described as very rough and unpleasant to
touch. He is also known to have episodes of loss of consciousness at various times in his life. One of the earliest
representations of Ashoka, about 100 years after his death at one of the gates of Sanchi Stupa, shows Ashoka
fainting when visiting the Bodhi tree and being held by his queens. In this sculpture, Emperor Ashoka is shown
as a man of short height, large head, and a paunchy abdomen. In this paper, it is speculated that Emperor
Ashoka was probably suffering from von Recklinghausen disease (Neurofibromatosis Type 1), which could
explain his skin condition, episodes of loss of consciousness (probably epilepsy) and other bodily deformities”.

Competing heretical sects of Vaishali and Magadha:

27
Ajivikas and sect of Shaivism should be considered as Proto-Jainism (early ascetism ) that
existed prior to the arrival of Mahavira. Buddhist text also mentions “Aklekas” and the exact
meaning and their doctrine is not certain or clarified. The Puranas and Buddhist texts make it
very clear that Bimbisara of Haryanka dynasty followed Ajivikas and Shaivism. Ajatshatru
adopted Buddhism and patronized the first Buddhist council. He played minimum role in
monastic activities but provided facilities to the gathering monks, who were former disciples
of Buddha. Buddha’s teachings had to be reassembled as Buddhist canons for the consistency
and continuity. Ajatshatru should be considered first Buddhist emperor of India as Buddha
himself inducted him. He probably build first stupa to house Buddha’s remains at old Rajgriha
after Pari-nibbana and distributed relics to various claimants associated with Buddha as
described above, where stupa like structures were built to house those relics. The Shakya
clans of Vaishali and Malla tribes and others as mentioned in Maha Pari-nibbana sutta were
the recipients, while keeping some relics at Rajgriha in first stupa ever built for Buddha.
According Faxien, Kanishka, a Buddhist emperor may have redistributed Buddha or his
disciple’s relics (Boddhisatva) to central Asia.

Emperor Kanishka and Milinda who ruled from Afghanistan and nearby region

Kanishka and Milinda (Menander of Indo- Greek), may have done similar works in building
Viharas and stupas and may have copied the Dharma edicts of either Ashokas. Kanishka and
Menander both ruled from ancient Gandhara (present Afghanistan and eastern Bactria),
where edicts are different and written in Aramaic and Greek. They definitely intended for
aristocrats and educated people, who can read them. It has also propaganda value. This
additional consideration must apply in evaluating the Kandahar edicts for the script and style
that are different than the other edicts in India. Kanishka the Great was an emperor of the
Kushan dynasty. He extended his kingdom from Gandhara to Northeast India and was famous
for his military, political, and spiritual achievements by adopting and propagating Buddhism.
Although no name is assigned but we know Kanishka built Vihara at Peshawar. Faxien
describes several viharas in Kabul , Gandhara and near Balkh where Sangharama Vihara, once
stood next to Bamiyan Buddha. Kanishka preferred building big structures judging from the
ruin found at Peshawar, Pakistan. It was reported by archeologist that approximately 42
Buddhist relics and ruins of structures have been discovered in Mes Ayanek of the Nangahar
Province in Afghanistan, that is south of Kabul dated to Kanishka period.

Kanishka’s conquests and patronage of Buddhism played an important role in the spread of
Buddhism along the Silk Road, and in the transmission of Mahayana Buddhism from
Gandhara across the silk road. He also organized the fourth Buddhist council in Peshawar. It
was presided by Vasumitra and Ashwaghosha and the Images of the Buddha based on 32
physical signs were made during his time. His greatest contribution was the construction of
Kanishka stupa at Peshawar, Pakistan along with many other viharas in Afghanistan. The
Archaeologists who rediscovered the base of the ruins of this stupa in 1908 AD estimated that
this stupa had a diameter of 286 feet. The Reports by Chinese pilgrims such as Xuan Zang
indicate that its height was 500 to 700 "feet" and was covered with jewels. This ancient
building would have ranked among the wonders of the ancient world. He had two capital
28
cities, Peshawar, and Kabul. Bamiyan Buddha that were located along the silk road in
Afghanistan is suspected to be constructed by the same King, the Great Kanishka.

The nearby site shows the presence of ruins of Vihara and resting Buddha. These sites were
ransacked by ransacked by Mongols and Islamic hordes. Both Buddha’s rock carved statue
from the cliff side of high relief of the mountain was nearly 120 feet tall. These statues were
constructed in a such a way that the people can circumambulate. The Circumambulation,
which is the act of walking around an object such as a stupa or an image of the Buddha, is a
common practice in Buddhism. Taliban destroyed the Bamiyan Buddha.

The Chinese monk Xuan Zang (Hsien-Tsang), who traveled to Bamiyan documented his travels
in the text The Great Tang Records of the Western Regions (Da Tang Xiyu Ji). As the earliest
text describing the Bamiyan Buddha.

“When merchants coming and going happen to witness the visions of heavenly deities, whether as good omens
or as predictions of disaster, they worship the deities to pray for blessedness. There are several tens of
monasteries with several thousand monks, who follow the Hinayana teachings of the Lokottaravada school. To
the northeast of the city, there is at a corner of the mountains a rock statue of the Buddha standing, one
hundred forty or fifty feet in height, a dazzling golden color and adorned with brilliant gems. To the east there is
a monastery built by a previous kings of the country. To the east of the monastery there is a copper statue of the
Buddha standing, more than one hundred feet tall. It was cast in separate pieces and then welded together into
shape.”

This is consistent with Kanishka’s desire to build such giant statues of Buddha and Viharas. A
Khotanese scroll found at Dunhuang, which first described how Kanishka (1165-1110 BCE)
would arrive 700 years after the Pari-Nirvana of Buddha. The account also describes how
Kanishka came to raise his stupa at Peshawar.

"A desire thus arose in (Kanishka to build a vast stupa)….at that time the four world-regents learnt the mind of
the king. So, for his sake they took the form of young boys….[and] began a stupa of mud....the boys said to
[Kanishka] ‘We are making the “Kaṇiṣka-stupa.” At that time, the boys changed their form. [and] said to him,
‘Great king, by you according to the Buddha's prophecy is a Sangharama to be built wholly (?) with a large stupa
and hither relics must be invited which the meritorious good beings...will bring." This Buddhist story is
written after the event took place but that was the style of writing practiced by scribes as a
prophesy.

Faxien and Xuan Zang both echoes this in their notes and describes how Buddha’s relics were
either redistributed or moved from India to Afghanistan on Kanishka’s or Ashoka Maurya’s
order.

29
Modern India during the rule of Ashoka Maurya although his empire extended to central Asia

30
Spread of Buddhism over Silk Road
Buddhist monks from the region of Gandhara played a key role in the development and the
transmission of Buddhist ideas (Mahayana and Hinayana) in the direction of central Asia all
the way to China to the east and Anatolia to the west.
One Lokaksema became the first translator of Mahayana Buddhist scriptures into Chinese
and established a translation bureau at the Chinese capital Loyang. The Central Asian and
East Asian Buddhist monks appear to have maintained strong exchanges for number of
centuries. Vikramaditya Harsha of Kannauj had receive the embassy from Chinese emperor.
The inscription on The Sacred Rock of Hunza also indicates the hands of Kanishka. The Sacred
Rock of Hunza is carved rock as well as a cultural heritage site in the Gilgit-Baltistan. (see
Picture below). The rock is divided into two parts, once there used to be some Buddhist caves
which decayed over time. The rock is 30 feet high and 200 yards long. It is easily accessible
from the Karakoram Highway which connects Pakistan with China through CPEC and it is
Indian owned territory , occupied illegally by China -Pakistan axis. The upper portion of the
rock consist of inscriptions which are carved in Kharosthi, Brahmi, Sharada or Proto Sarada
scripts. Sharada script was popular in Kashmir. The names of the Emperors during Kushan
period appear in these inscriptions and they include three names Kanishka, Huvishka and
Ramadusa. Kanishka and Huvishka are mentioned in Rajtarangni with above specified
chronology of Kanishka. The name of the Tak-shak King Ramadusa is also mentioned in
inscriptions, that is carved in Brahmi language. The name of 'Chandra Sri Vikramaditya
conquers’ is also inscribed without the name of dynasty. The Chandrasri names can be
interpreted as per Puranic Genealogy either belonging to Andhra dynasty or Gupta dynasty.
This is a perfect example of various king’s overlapping inscription and edicts on the same
rocks. This can be also true with various edicts of Ashoka that shows bilingual scripts carrying
same message.

Menander Indo-Greek or Ionian (Yavana) King

Menander was an Indo-Greek king of Bactria of Ionian (of Yavana) Origin. After conquering
the Punjab, he established an empire in the Indian Subcontinent stretching from the Kabul
River valley of Gandhara region to the north to Arachosia (the Helmand Province). Ancient
Indian writers indicate that he had launched expeditions southward into western Indian
region of Rajasthan and also tried to attack Magadha empire but without success. Strabo
wrote that he "conquered more tribes than Alexander the Great. The Greeks who caused Bactria to revolt
grew so powerful on account of the fertility of the Bactria that they became masters, not only of Ariana, but also
of India, as Apollodorus of Artemita says: and more tribes were subdued by them than by Alexander-- by
Menander in particular. Other Indo-Greek rulers that followed him advanced as far as the city of Patalena
(Ancient Sindh), but also, on the rest of the coast, of what is called the kingdom of Saraostus Saurashtra). In
short, Apollodorus says that Bactriana is the ornament of Ariana as a whole; and, more than that, they extended
their empire even as far as the Seres and the Phryni."

31
 Hunza- Gilgit Balistan Rock inscription

Kushan empire under Kanishka the Great

This is true statement as Alexander never crossed the Indus river or tried to make any inroads
into mainland India. Menander was also a patron of Buddhism, and his conversations with
the Buddhist monk Nagasena 1180-1100 BCE are recorded in the important Buddhist work,
the Milinda Panha ("The Questions of King Milinda").

32
Plutarch reveals that Menander died in camp while on a military campaign presumably in Kuccha-Saurashtra
region. He wanted to conquer the thriving maritime ports of western India. After his sudden death, his remains
were divided equally between the cities he ruled , to be enshrined in the monuments, probably some kind of
stupas, across his realm like Buddha.

So, it is also possible that the relics mentioned by Faxien may belong to this king. Buddhist
texts on the other hand mentions that “he handed over his kingdom to his son and retired from the
world(died)”. I believe that Plutarch may be more accurate on his military campaign as
Buddhist scribes hated to describe their patron kings’ violent records. No major construction
achievements are noted under his name. Meander second capital was at Sialkot. Due to
fluidity of the North India after disintegration of Mauryan empire, it is difficult to define the
Yavana rule of India. More likely scenario was his rule was of very limited for brief period and
Kanishka quickly took over.

Tak-Shak Origin and meaning

Mahabharata applied precise terminology in naming the various tribes that they interacted
with. The broad designation as applied by Herodotus was “Scythic people” that were all
central Asin tribes following similar warrior and tribal cultures. His observation derived from
earlier references and traveler’s account. Tak-Shak or Tak-Sak is amalgam of various Indo-
Iranian tribes such as Turanian (Tatar, Turkish) and Scythic (Saka). They interacted with
Gandharian Indians. Any Vaishali kings can fall into that designation as all tribes believed to
be originate in Siestan and surrounding region of east. This was Medieval terminology used
by scribes. In my earlier paper, I have identified Kanishka as Kamboj origin mixed with some
Tokhari element and that holds true as the marriages over several generation fall under the
same lineage. Kamboj people were also “Scythic” using Herodotus definition. The term
Kamboj and Tak-Sak are interchangeable due to intertribal relationship. They trained horses
and exported them.

Indo-Greek kingdom (excluded expedition in west India that did not hold)

33
Kharosthi and Brahmi scripts and their usage in edicts:

When Sanskrit speaker arrived in Gangetic plains , they probably first spoke in Proto-Sanskrit
language, but writing was limited to few upper-class bards (Brahmins). They called their script
“Lipi” but lacks inscriptional examples for identification. For example , Mahabharata was
probably written on bark with the use of Lipi. It may have been called “Aryan-Pali” or “Aryan-
Prakrit”, but writing was very limited. We do not know for sure how and when writing
system of Kharosthi was adopted and developed in Gandhara region and it was the first place
it was introduced until replaced by Brahmi along with classical Sanskrit by Panini. The Initial
use may be limited to Royal treaty, decree, and commercial transactions, but it closer
resemblance to Aramaic alphabets suggests the use going back to earlier time and its source
of its origin.

Aramaic itself has its origin in Phoenician alphabets that inspired Greeks. Aramaic was in use
for a long time in Central Asia and Middle east and it was used for written as well as verbal
communication in known world. The Aramaic alphabets therefore had historical significance,
since virtually all modern Middle Eastern writing systems can be traced back to it as well as
numerous non-Chinese writing systems of Central and East Asia. This was possible due to its
widespread usage both as a lingua franca as well as the official language of Assyrians, Neo-
Assyrians, and Persian Empire. The important feature of all these empires were their
multiethnic composition that require a standardized common writing system.

This was further carried to North India through Gandhara (Punjab and Kandahar) and later to
Uighur province of China. Despite Chinese denial, the research on tablets found in Uighur
province show extensive use of Kharosthi language. Lulian Mummies shows that area itself
was multiethnic and non-Han Chinese. Uighur province of China used Kharosthi script for
trades for ages.

Among the modern scripts in use, the Hebrew alphabets bears the closest relation to the
Imperial Aramaic script. The spoken languages also can be recited in a hymn forms as
exemplified by ancient Rig Veda and Avesta. So, Sanskrit speakers found a way to write their
spoken worlds through Kharosthi and later Brahmi. The existence and use of Aramaic script
can go back to as far as 7000 to 8,000 years or longer as estimated by the experts, but the
archeological specimen that are discovered does not go that far. We can assume that the
Kharosthi writing system was available and used during Buddhist period to “learn” people
but not masses.

On religious matters like Buddhism and Jainism the oral tradition was used, either because of
their status as heretical tradition or maintaining age old oral tradition. Kharosthi script itself
came in use in the ancient kingdom of Bactria and Gandhara and then entered North india.
The war and destruction may have limited the archeological evidence of the ancient script.

The origin of Brahmi script has become a controversial subject among experts. The principle
reason is the absence of diverse examples ,except sudden appearance in edicts ascribed to
34
Ashoka. This creates a huge time gap between Indus Valley heliographic characters and
alphabet related Brahmi script. Some scholars stating that Brahmi was derived from Persians
during Achaemenian Period, who themselves have adopted from Semitic script of Aramaic
script and that became the transmission basis of Kharosthi script in central Asia. However,
Achaemenian tablets shows their extensive use of Elamite cuneiform script for administrative
purposes. This deviation is not easily explained except its closeness to Susa, ancient capital of
Elam.

Tayma stones: a stele inscription to the god Salm 5th cent BCE Kharosthi script consonants 4th century BCE

Aramaic alphabet Kharosthi -Indo-Bactrian script

35
Kharosthi itself is closely related to Aramaic script and Brahmi was derived from Kharosthi
script with modification to accommodate local slangs and words of native languages of India
at that time. It would be premature to claim any connection with Indus script until it is fully
deciphered and understood. The study of the Kharosthi script was recently invigorated by the
discovery of the Gandharan Buddhist texts written on birch bark in Kharosthi script,
discovered near the Afghan city of Hadda just west of the Khyber Pass in Pakistan. The
manuscripts were donated to the British Library in 1994 for further evaluation. This is one of
the oldest Buddhist manuscript discovered.

On the origin of Brahmi Alphabets George Buhler made several observations in his Book.

Origin of Brahmi alphabets

1. He concluded Manu Smurti, Rig-Veda and Kalidasa’ dream and Panini’s grammar were
maintained as oral tradition.

2. He believed that Megasthenes and Nearchus were careless historians on the subject of
Indian writing system.

3. Buhler concludes that there is strong linkage of Brahmi and Kharosthi writing systems to
Semitic scrip of Aramaic origin. Buhler cites the support of Burgess, Fleet, Fuhrer, Hultzsch,
Rice and Senart. Aramaic has her origin from the ancient Northern Semitic characters , which
show almost identical forms in Palestine , Phoenicia , Cyprus, and Assyria.

4. He cites the evidence from Lalita Vistara , a Buddhist text that basically describe the
biography of Buddha in the form of future Buddha, but it resembles the real biography of real
historic Buddha. The clear and good facsimiles of all the versions of the Edicts convinced him
that Hindus extensively used the art of writing at least about three or more centuries before
the time of Asoka – Piyadassi, and the result that confirms the views of Professor Weber ,
who has already given the correct identifications for the majority of the signs (page 5 of his
book). The Lalita Vistara on the contrary is regarded as one of the most sacred Mahayana
texts, as a Vaipulya Sutta. It is a textbook of voluminous contents and gives the usual
designation of a “Mahāyāna Sūtra” and yet originally the work embodied a descriptive life of
the Buddha for the “Sarvāstivāda” school attached to the “Hīnayāna” form of Buddhism.
Similar example can be cited from “Bhavishya Purana” . Bhavishya means future prediction
like somebody is predicting. However, the contents represent the known past or current
events as if you are driving while looking into rear view.

Buddha Goes to writing School

Max Muller was able to adduce a passage of the Lalita Vistara which describes the first visit of
prince Siddhartha to the writing school , and from non-Indian sources that negated
seemingly conflicting utterances of Nearchus and of Megasthenes , one of the careless

36
observers of the Indian history. Max Müller concluded that therefore , that the art of writing
became known in India about 400 years before Buddha’s Pari-Nirvana or 2000 BCE. In the
middle of his Sūtra - period and that , then and even later , it was not used for literary
purposes except for recording Royal births. deaths, coronations by Royal Bards. Lalita sutra
describes the buddha at writing school as follows:

“With a suite of ten thousand boys with immense pomp in which the gods participate - eight thousand heavenly
damsels, (very normal use of word as Devanpriya) for instance scatter flowers before him - the small
Bodhisattva celebrates his admission into the writing school. The poor schoolmaster cannot bear the glory of the
divine incarnation and falls to the ground. A god raises him up and tranquillizes him with the explanation that
the Bodhisattvas are omniscient and need no learning, but that they come to school only following the course of
the world. Then the Bodhisattva amazes the schoolmaster with the question as to which of the 64 scripts, he
was going to instruct him in. Finally, with the ten thousand boys he commences his study of the alphabet. With
every letter of the alphabet the Bodhisattva pronounces a wise maxim.” This passage is suggestive of the
presence of the writing system but in a restricted sense.

Please note number 64 comes from sacred numerology. According to E. Kuhn, Guru puja
Kaumudi (p. 116) two legends of the child Buddha may have served as models for the
“Gospels Apocrypha”, which relate similar stories of the child Jesus. During Buddha’s days
“Kavyagrantharachitam” was the word used for the art of writing and Akhyayana was the
word used for the art of telling stories. While “Lipi” is a Sanskrit word for script used for
writing, letters, alphabet, the art, or manner of writing, or in modified form such to painting,
decorating, or anointing a surface to express something. The word “Lipi” appears in multiple
texts of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, some of which have been dated to the Pre-
Buddhist period. Section 3.2.21 of Pāṇini's Ashtadhyayi, composed before around 11th
century BCE, for example, mentions Lipi in the context of a writing script. The Arthashashtra
of early Mauryan dynasty, in section 1.2–5, asserts that Lipi was a part of the education
system in ancient India. With all these references, we can conclude how writing system of
India evolved after Indus Valley civilization. Looking at alphabets and numerals , we can
conclude that it had its western origin as described above and was in very limited use for
Royals and Bards, who may have the certain administrative responsibilities of keeping
written records of treaty and other important auspicious Royal occasions. Brahmi was
influenced by local sound, accents, and native loan words from tribes and native origin
people. Later regional variation were developed to accommodate full inclusivity for
communication purpose.

With this as testimonial, we can conclude that both of these writing scripts may have been
available for use by either Ashokas, but Ashoka Maurya would have chosen Brahmi script on
new edicts he installed in south India, his extended empire from south of Vindhya mountain.
The south India was newly conquered area by his grandfather Chandra Gupta and the
epithets used in all edicts were standardized, so it will be matching the Kharosthi script
already inscribed elsewhere. This seems a logical conclusion as both Ashokas or later
Buddhist emperor and high-ranking royals, nobles of Buddhist faith can create a new Dharma
edicts using the epithet as “Piyadassi or Piyadasso” as exhibited in Sri-Lankan inscription
erected by Sri-Lankan kings. Interestingly, one of the oldest inscription found in Sri-Lanka

37
uses Brahmi and Tamil both that gives some confidence that all Brahmi inscriptions belongs
to Mauryan period. The later inscription uses Sanskrit, lending credence to the claim in
Dipavamsa that the early migrants came from Vatsa kingdom of India. Sri-Lankans are very
much Indic people. . Another consideration was the control of the geography. Maurya had
broader control of geography than any other emperors as per the maps.

Brahmi alphabets Kharaosti script

38
 Kharosthi and Aramaic speaking region of Ancient India

Stambha, Rocks, Pillar, and copper Plates inscriptions of ancient India

There has been age old tradition in India to write dedicatory inscription on a Stambha
(natural or carved stone or pillar) near a place of worship such as Temples, Stupa, or Caitya
and other places of the religious significance for purpose of naming, propagating and
acknowledging the donors, who contributed for constructing these monuments. The
Sohgaura copper plate inscription is an Indian copper plate inscription written in Prakrit with
the Brahmi script. It was discovered in Sohgaura, a village on the banks of the Rapti River,
about 20 km south-east of Gorakhpur, in the Gorakhpur District, Uttar Pradesh, India. Some
experts believe that this inscription that contains symbolic drawings and four lines of text is
pre-Mauryan. This is perhaps oldest copper plate inscription discovered or known in India.

Sāvatiyānam Mahāma(ttā)nam sāsane Mānavāsītika-

ḍasilimate Ussagāme va ete duve koṭṭhāgālāni
tina-yavāni maṃthulloca-chammā-dāma-bhālakān(i)va
laṃ kayiyati atiyāyikāya no gahi(ta)vvāya Translation in English

At the junction called Manawasi,

these two storehouses are prepared,
for the sheltering of loads of commodities,
of Tiyavani, Mathura and Chanchu.

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 Sohugra Inscription

The most recent archeological discovery reported in Telangana state of south India is a
terracotta object containing Brahmi inscription written in Prakrit language. This inscription
reads ”Devanam” prefixed with a symbol of “Nandi pada”. As suggested Devanam or
Devanpriya was a common royal epithet that were often used in various edicts. This area was
under Mauryan control with either viceroy or local ruler overseeing that as a vassalage. This
writing on Terracotta shred is displaying Brahmi script and archeologically dated to Mauryan
period. There are no Kharosthi script along with Brahmi script. We can draw only one
conclusion that Brahmi script was more popular in south India to accommodate Tamil
language and started being used in other areas of India until Devanagari script replaced all of
them. The word “Nandi pada” in this inscription adds mystery to the Brahmi script. ("foot of
Nandi") It is an ancient Indian symbol, also called a taurine symbol, representing a bull's hoof
or the mark left by the foot of a bull in the ground. The Nandi pada and the zebu bull are
generally associated with Nandi, Shiva 's humped bull in Hinduism. The Nandi pada symbol
also happens to be similar to the Brahmi letter "ma" but often confused with the Buddhist
Triratna symbol. The Nandi pada appears on numerous ancient Indian coins, such as coins
from Taxila. Strangely ,there is a town called Nandi pada in Odisha India in ancient state of
Kalinga.

What it suggest that Brahmi was extensively used in Mauryan time as a script. During
Buddha’s life, Kharosthi was in use in North India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and central Asia.
This should support the hypothesis that why bilingual script existed some of the Ashoka’s
inscriptions. This raised the possibility that Ashoka Maurya’s inscription were in Brahmi that
may have been added to preexisting edicts already erected by Ashoka of Sisunaga dynasty.
Ashoka Maurya may have erected more edicts at obscure places on travel route due to his
propagandist attitudes as well as new places in south, where he erected stupas and vihara at
place of importance that he considered important throughout his empire. He maintained
basic uniformity of message while extending his own tailored messages.

40
 Terracotta discovery in Telangana state of south India with Brahmi script-Mauryan period

The Aramaic inscription of Laghman is attributed to person called Piyadassi that is popular in
Buddhist text but does not specify the name of king or attach a “Devanpriya” title to that.
This is categorized as a Rock edict , but it is intended to provide direction to the traveler.
There are unrecognizable characters that cannot be deciphered to call this missing part as
“Dhamma edict” because we do not know the full script. This was discovered in the area of
ancient Laghmân, Afghanistan. It is deciphered as:

“In the year 10, behold, the king Piyadassi expelled vanity from among prosperous men,
friends of that which is vain, friends of those who fish creatures. At 200 "bows", there is over there the place
called Tadmor. This is the “KNPTY?” road, that is to say (the road) of the Garden:
more than 120 ("bow"). At TRT', here: 100. Above: 80………. (erased and intelligible)”

Done with Wasu The Judge……………— Translation by André Dupont-Sommer. This was enacted by a person
designated as a judge as written on local King’s command. It is in Aramaic script that people understood in
antiquity.

41
 Aramaic inscription of Laghman

Heliodorus, who was an ambassador of the Yavana (Indo-Greek) king Antialcidas from Taxila
and was sent to the Indian ruler Bhagabhadra built a stone pillar with a dedication written in
Brahmi script that was inscribed on the pillar itself, venerating Vasudeva (Krishna). The
Heliodorus pillar site is located near the confluence of two rivers, and 6.8 mi from the
Buddhist stupa of Sanchi. On the top is defaced deity Garuda, that was the vehicle of Visnu.

Heliodorus Pillar uses Brahmi script in India Proper, even though the donor come from Indo-Greek kingdom of
Bactria

42
Edicts distributions in India proper of Buddhist Emperors

This map only charts the discovered edicts, and it is quite possible that there were more edicts that were
destroyed or not found or defaced as unrecognizable. This assumption is based on ancient Buddhist texts. The
Map shows the limit of Sisunaga Empire and Maurya Empire.

43
Locations of Edicts:

Romila Thapar devoted an entire chapter on the locations of Dharma edicts of Ashokas in her
work. She believes that:

“The locations of the edicts are of geographical importance, as the selection of their sites was not arbitrary.
They were deliberately placed either near habitations, or on important travel routes, or at places of religious
interest, thereby ensuring that they would be visible to as many people as possible. ... Such an analysis demands
considerable archaeological evidence to substantiate literary and epigraphical indications”

Harry Falk on other hand concluded after his visit to all the edicts that:

“The Major Rock Edicts are located on the borders of the empire, while Pillar Edicts are connected with the
places associated with the Buddhist Sangha and where there are wells in the vicinity. On the other hand, Minor
Rock Edicts seem to be found at a certain distance from the habitation sites of little or no historical importance.
However, these remote places are visited on certain occasions once a year in the course of a Yatra or gathering
of some as Girnar edict.‟

What Chinese Buddhist monks Faxien and Xuan Zang visited they described
them as “Buddhist Topes” were stupas:

Xuan Zang
1. Kapisa containing the Buddha's relics, near Kabul, Afghanistan, that was called Gandhara
region in ancient period.
2. Nagar (Jalalabad) Nangarhar district of Afghanistan.
3. Uddayana (where the Buddha, as king Siva, shed his body to ransom a pigeon from a
hawk), presently is in swat district where Big Rajgriha stood. The first Rajgriha or little
Rajgriha once was situated near Balkh as per Faxien, Chinese traveler. That will give us an
idea of ancient Indian geography was more northward as described in one of my article.
4. Taxila (the tope, where the Buddha gave his head away in charity (legend), and the tope
marking the spot, where Prince had his eyes torn out by his stepmother). This reference is for
Kunala of Jaina story , who was blinded by a stepmother queen. However, Buddhist and
puranic text does not confirm it.
5.Sinhapur (including the one where the Buddha fed the hungry tigress by his body- a legend)
6. Uras ; Kashmir (with the Buddha's relics)
7. Sthaneswara, Buddhist King Harsha’s capital city.
8. Srughna or Shrughna was at Yamuna-Ganges river where Vihara was located in Haryana
state. This Vihara or stupa contained the relics of two Bodhisattvas- Sariputta and
Maudgalyayana.
9 Govisana (where the Buddha preached)
10. Ahichchhatra, an ancient city of Malla Republic in UP near Ramnagar.
11. Pilosanna, near ancient Ahichatra, Ahi-Kshetra, where Buddha preached , presently in UP.
12.Kanauj (where the Buddha preached)
13. Hayamukha (where the Buddha preached)

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14. Prayaga (where the Buddha defeated his Ajivikas opponents in controversy)
15. Kosambi (where the Buddha preached) Ancient Videha
15. Srivasti (with Buddha’s relics) Ancient Videha
16. Kapilavastu (to mark places where the Buddha was born, had the first bath, and met and
taught his father after his Buddhahood) Ancient Videha, Buddha’s home and Shakya city.
17. Rāmagāma (to mark the places ,where the Buddha cut off his hair and stopped to turn
back his hairdresser Chandaka and his horse) Ancient Videha but present Nepal, where Koliya
tribe had settlement.
18. Kusinagara (the second to mark the place of the division of the relics among the eight
kings) Ancient Malla where Buddha spent significant amount of time.
19.Sarnath where Buddha taught Dharma at Deer Park.20. Ghazipur (with relics, and where
the Buddha had also preached) *other names were Issipatana, saranghantha or outskirt of
old Kasi.
21. Mahasala (near Arrah to mark the place where were the relics were deposited by Brahmin
Drona, also called the Kumbha Stupa)
22. Vaishali (where the Buddha preached) and then became a capital of Shakya, Licchavis and
Vajjian republic.
23. Gaya (where the Buddha uttered the Ratnamegha Sutra) or Bodhgaya (to mark the place
where the grass-cutter gave the Buddha grass for his seat)
24. Pataliputra (for relics), capital of Magadha.
25. Rajgriha; near Nalanda in Bihar (one marking the place of disciple Mudgalaputra, birth
and death, and the other of the Buddha's preaching)
26. Tāmraliptika ,Karnasuvarna—several topes to mark the places where the Buddha
Preached-located in west Bengal.
27. Orissa—more than 10 topes to mark places of Buddha's teaching. This was ancient
Kalinga. Buddha had visited there.
28. South Kosala (where the Buddha defeated the Tirthikas (Ajivikas) in argument.
29. Chola country conquered by Maurya in south India.
30. Davida and Kafichi(Pallava kingdom) conquered by Maurya in south India.
31. Several topes ; Maharashtra , area was conquered by Maurya in south India.
32. several topes in Vallabhi, Saurashtra. area was conquered by Maurya in south India.
33. A place called Potato (near Multan), Pakistan, area was conquered by Maurya in south
India
34. Afantu (in Sindh); and Sindh with " some tens of topes as memorials of the Buddha's
visits. This are had changed the hands but was reconquered by Maurya.
35. The Asokarama or Kukkutarama at Pataliputra, which was large enough to accommodate,
according to the tradition recorded by Xuan Zang accommodated the assembly of 1000
monks. Vihara was extended by Maurya.

The question of authorship of edicts and Ownership of Vihara-stupa erection

Both Asokasa per Indian texts are credited as the great builder of Viharas, Stambha and
monolithic sandstone pillars based on Buddhist and other texts with physical evidence of
existing edicts, of which only few are now extant . The one at Vaishali where first Ashoka

45
(Kalashoka) resided , two out of three pillars have vanished, but one still stands without any
inscription . This is not unusual as it may not have been the part of the edict pillar . Faxien, an
early Chinese traveler noticed only six pillars, of which two were on each side of the door of
the Jetavana Vihara at Srivasti with a Dharma wheel on their tops ; one at Sahkasya, with
height of 50 cubits, with niches containing shining images of the Buddha on its four sides ; the
fourth, an inscribed one, on the way to Vaisali from Kusinagara. One another one is also
inscribed at Pataliputra, already described, and the sixth in the same locality, more than 30 ft.
high [p. 80]. He was informed by a Buddhist monk that all viharas and related construction
were erected by Ashoka Raja and Kanishka Raja when he was passing through Afghanistan on
his way to Northeast India. However, there are no other specific details provided in his
account except a general statement. Simultaneously Rajtarangni statement that Ashoka of
Sisunaga built thousands of viharas and Agraharas is also vague. It does not say that it is
within Kashmira kingdom or entire Magadha kingdom ruled by him. Dipavamsa echoes the
statement with Buddha’s prophesy of Great King Ashoka 100 years after his Pari-Nirvana and
that was Ashoka of Sisunaga dynasty.

Later traveler Xuan Zang and his companion Tsing noticed fifteen of such pillars of which four
or five can now be identified with inscriptions. Obviously ,Xuan Zang itinerary was very broad
and can easily have escaped the notice of the predecessor Chinese pilgrim Faxien. The pillar
and rock edicts in Gujarat, Maharashtra and south of Vindhya mountain may have not been
noticed or skipped by Faxien. Later itinerary of Xuan Zhang and T-sing visited and noticed
more sites as per the list provided above. The primary purpose of their visit was the learning
and collect manuscript to take them back to china and not to analyze the edicts or which king
erected them. The reconstructed map of Faxien Journey is given below that was tailored to
cover Buddha’s memories as where he resided, preached, and attained Nirvana.

It is clear from Xuan Zhang listing that Viharas at the places where Buddha visited may have
been first erected by Ashoka of Sisunaga dynasty (list 1 through 27). However, it will not
prevent Ashoka Maurya to rebuild, repair or refurbish Viharas or edicts associated with the
structure or add additional features such as same generic description of Dhamma in another
script of Brahmi or add a tailored and specific message. The addition of Brahmi to already
inscribed Kharosthi to increase the awareness to more people who may not understand
Kharosthi script can also be his objective. Kharosthi scrip was more common with early
migrants, who settled in Ganges doab though Gandhara and central Asia. Brahmi became
more popular and used as an official language during Mauryan period in extended empire. It
did not make any sense to use Kharosthi in south India, where people spoke and understood
different language. There is a version of Tamil Brahmi in south India that support this
proposition.

The major Edicts found at Manshera and Shahbazgarhi and a Pillar Edict found at
Ranighat(Nepal) were written in Kharosthi script using Prakrit language. Most these edicts
refer to the ruler as “Devanampriya Priyadarshi” and this epithets are absolutely in line with
the text of the other discovered edicts. There is one edict at Maski that calls out Ashoka’s
name.

46
Maski is located in Karnataka where Ashok Maurya name is inscribed and that is definitely
belonged to Ashok Maurya because Ashoka of Shishunaga empire did not extend to
Karnataka . It appears from Ashoka Kalasoka’s deeds that he was quite content in using his
epithet of “Devanpriya Piyadassi”, while not revealing his personal name on Dharma edict.

Faxien visited India around 6th Century BCE and not 3rd century AD as stipulated by colonial
Historians and Xuan Zang and his companions followed them around early common era or 1st
century BCE. These new chronological revisions are driven by Chinese archeologist with new
discoveries of tombs of various dynasty and they are dated earlier using advanced dating
system.

Faxien’s Travel Itinerary

Faxien departed china at later period of western Zhou dynasty (1050-777BCE). He mentioned
Kanishka and Ashoka both who lived in the past history and constructed various vihara and
stupa (topes) but did not mention their dynasty or lineage. Xuan Zhang followed him 3 to 4

47
centuries later. Their notes were compiled in Chinese few centuries later in at least two to
three versions that were later translated by western historians in English. Their notes may
contain various Buddhist tales but provides very useful information on the regions, customs,
dresses and the terrains of their travel and Buddhist places and sights, they visited. According
to Faxien , some of the Viharas in Afghanistan only had Buddha’s images and only in few
instances they encountered some minor inscriptions. They do not mention any edicts by
names, and we can assume that they did not understand the language. What they learned as
tourists was through their inquiries to other Indian monks, who may be acting as guides. They
did not write down in their notes the Dhamma message or script used, if they observed any
edicts. Again, there can be errors in English translations, discrepancy in reading ancient
Chinese characters from the original manuscripts, but what they provides other important
information.

Edict Pillar at location near ancient Vaishali ,“Home of Shakya, Licchavis, Koliya and Vajjian” with no inscription

Lion capital and symbolism:

As shown above the Gold comb of Scythian or Saka people of prehistory, the lion was their
predominant symbol. The interpretations of lions as symbol may vary. The Lion was the
symbol of city of Vaishali, the tribes of Licchavis, Shakya and other tribes and was probably
displayed in the flags of Vaishali or Vajjian Republics. The lion symbolized the courage,
personal strength, and power. Later, it was used for “sages and Arahants and Jina”, who
endures all physical hardships and survives and gains spiritual power to become omniscient.
Then he is considered “Jina” or “conqueror” like a lion. The Licchavis of ancient history along

48
with Shakya and other clans were great fighters and used the Lion as emblem to display their
tribal identity. Tibetan and Sri-Lankan Buddhist nations also embedded lion in their flag.

Sri-Lankan Flag Tibetan Flag

The lion capital showing “Dharma chakra” or image of “Shakya Muni” is found at Vaishali site,
where Sisunaga dynasty first rose in Lichhavi clan and later took over Magadhan empire. This
is consistent with Shishunaga’s rule as described in Indian texts that narrates the history of
ancient Magadhan empire.(shown in the map of Sisunaga dynasty). Lichhavi clan then moved
to Nepal and took over Kirata kingdom and they ruled there for long time. Chandra Gupta of
Gupta dynasty married Lichhavi Princess of Nepal. Licchavis were ruling dynasty of Vaishali
that was federated with Vajjian Republic with Vaishali as their administrative capital. Upon
annexation and aggression by larger and powerful states like Magadha , Avanti, Kosala they
decided to form republic federation of smaller Janapadas consisting of various clans. Non-
Monarchial/Republican Vajjian confederate state included the following clans:

Kamboj of Kapisa, Kuru of Hastinapur, Koliyas of (Rāmagāma), Malla of Kusinagara, Moriya of

Pipalivahana, Shakya of Kapilvastu (Buddha), Vajjian of Panchal, Licchavis of Vaishali,
Bhaggas of Sumsumasa, Kalamas of Kesaputta, Videha of Mithila and Jnatrikas of
Kundalgrama (Mahavira’s clan).

There is a Hindu temple in Kathmandu that depicts the lion that was the original symbol of
Vaishali that Licchavis tribe carried to Nepal. All clans adopted this symbol of Vajjian
Republic. Mahavira who became Arahant and founded modern Jainism also depicted with
Lion symbol. ( See his statue below) He belonged to Janatri-Lichhavi tribe. Prior to 1947, the
flag of the subcontinent had Lion and sun depicted in the imperial Indian flag and even Mogul
Emperor adopted it as state Emblem to continue the tradition with minor modification such
as replacing saffron background with green background as shown below.

49
 Changu Narayan Temple-Nepal India’s old flag during Mogul period showing Sun and Lion

From religious point of view, the lion was Buddha and Mahavira, the Arahants, the
Shakyamuni and Jaina, the conquerors, who were considered as symbols of power, courage,
and victory. Mahavira, 24th Tirthankara of Jaina also showed Lion as his symbol, because he
was conqueror like Buddha with power, courage, and victory against desires, instincts and
temptation of karmas, a very typical characteristic for all “Arahants” and omniscient sages,
who developed the ability to see past, present and future and attain a divine status.

Gandhara or Kandahar Bilingual edicts in Greek and Aramaic

Although, Kharosthi was widely used in Gandhara region, this inscription carries Greek and
Aramaic inscription for different audience. This edict is now called "Chehel Zina Edict"
located outside of modern India, that are bilingual in Aramaic and Greek languages. This edict
is carved in stone and was intended for religious propaganda on main trade route heading to

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silk road. It may have been erected by Kanishka who ruled that area and organized fourth
Buddhist council. This edict does not use the term “Devanpriya” but only “Piyadassi”.

Since Devanpriya epithet was reserved for king ,emperor or Arahant alike, it opens up the
number of possibility that even viceroys, vassalage or court official may have been asked to
erect an edict with inscribed message. This was inscribed on large stone to accommodate
bilingual message for people who can read either of the scripts. There are no dates to
indicate the time period. We know that the number of Buddhist emperors ruled over this
area. Asoka Maurya and Kanishka clearly exercised the control.

Unlike the other edicts in India, there are no presence of Kharosthi and Brahmi scripts that
suggest that it was aimed at different audience . There is a good question if Menander had
something to do with this edict of Kanishka ?

The Geographical limits of two Ashoka’s empires are shown above in the map. The red line shows shishunaga’s
empire and green shows Maurya empire extension.

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Why we need bilingual inscription in India when Kharosthi was not being used
in most of the India ?

If Ashoka Maurya knew that Brahmi was well understood in entire India including south,
then question is why there is a Kharosthi inscription writing in some of the edicts ?
All the archeological evidence suggest that during Mauryan period Brahmi was being used
and was popular as a script in India and Sri-Lanka. Where Tamil language was spoken, Tamil
Brahmi was used.

However, we can conclude from ancient history of Vaishali, where many Vratya tribes were
settled that migrating from North either from Bactria, Siestan, Iran, central Asia, and
Afghanistan, they would be more likely to use “Kharosthi” script for writing. The reference
found in Buddhist text of Buddha’s going to writing school to learn script or “Lipi” is
suggestive of the use of either Sanskrit, Pali , scripts of Kharosthi and Brahmi, among other
scripts of North.

We can also suggest that Ashok Maurya may have applied “Mauryan Polish” on sandstone
pillar that may have been already erected by Ashoka Sisunaga. While refurbishing some
pillars with Mauryan polish , you are likely to risk losing some inscribed letters. The number
of inscription shows missing letters or words. Although this can also happen with other
reasons like relocating pillars in case of Delhi. It is also possible that he added Brahmi
inscriptions to make them bilingual that copied the basic sentence already inscribed in
Kharosthi .

The expanded geographical areas that he controlled in India through conquest by his
grandfather, he could easily install additional sentences that are more detailed and
instructive to the readers. Although, this is a hypothesis but raise a question on the use of
bilingual inscription.

There is one more edict In Bairat district near Vihara in Rajasthan housed in Calcutta museum
and referred as Bhabhra edict, where the edict refers himself as “Piyadassi laja Magadhe”
(Piyadassi, King of Magadha). This area was not part of Sisunaga empire , so we can attribute
that to Ashoka Maurya and its reading is very much suggestive of Ashoka Maurya, where he
states his faith in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha as follows:

"His Gracious Majesty, King of Magadha, bows down to the Sangha and — hoping that they are free from
disease and living in peace — addresses them as follows: You know well the extent of my reverence and faith in
the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha. Whatever has been said by the Buddha has of course been well-said. But
may I be permitted to point out the passages of scripture I have selected that the True Dhamma might last a
long time: Vinaya-Samukasa, Aliya-vassani, Anagata-bhayani, Muni-Gatha, Mauneya-sute, Upatisapasina, and
the Instructions to Rahula beginning with (the topic of) falsehood, as taught by the Blessed One.
"Reverend Sirs, I would like the reverend bhikkhus and bhikkhunis — as well as the laymen and laywomen — to
listen to these passages frequently and to ponder on them.”

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This is a dictate from the King Ashoka Maurya, who strongly suggest to all Buddhists, which
Buddhist texts are more important to follow. He ruled from Patliputra, while Kalashoka ruled
from Vaishali and Kashmir most of his life , when Patliputra was undergoing construction.
During Kalasoka’s time, there were schism within sanghas and this edicts is more suggestive
of united Sangha that he devised by purging out dissidents. The inscription is classified as
minor rock edict in Brahmi script, very typical of Mauryan period.

Edicts’ architectural considerations and possible impact on ownership

The architectural art during the Mauryan period widely found in the areas that were
considered outside of the Magadha kingdom of Sisunaga period. (see the maps above). The
pillar edicts found in extended empire (south of Vindhya mountain) and various types of
edicts at strategic routes must have been erected during Mauryan period. Sisunaga did not
control the areas that Maurya controlled. However, all “Buddhist places associated with
Buddha” did fall into Shishunaga’s empire and as the assertion given by Kalhana of
Rajtarangni and the history of Vaishali , those edicts had to be there since Shishunaga’s
period along with Buddha’s relics. What we do not know what Ashoka Sisunaga did besides
constructing vihara. Did he erect associated “Dhamma edicts “ consistent with Indian
tradition ? He did maintain all viharas and stupas that housed Buddha’s relics from the time
of Ajatshatru. The fair conclusion is that he would have used Kharosthi script that was more
widely used during his time and Brahmi was not used. It is therefore more likely that the
edicts that have the bilingual inscriptions had dual authorships of two Ashokas.

Two mutilated pillars exist at Rampurva in the Champaran district of Bihar. One Pillar was
surmounted by a finely designed lion and the other uninscribed pillar had a bull capital. The
pillar found at Sarnath is the most famous among all pillars. The abacus has an originality in
having four animals – elephant, horse, bull, and lion – separated from one another by figure
of wheels. These wheels and animals have been carved out in moving position. The pillar
represents the high watermark of the evolution of the capital on the pillar. The whole pillar is
elegantly carved stones, and it ranks as best detailed stone architecture. It seems that all
religious symbols of Shaivite, Buddhist and other religions are embodied into one as
described above.

The two Ashokan pillars that are found in Delhi were transported by Muslim Sultan of 16th
century A. D. from other places. Other than lunacy of his decision to relocate as trophies of
victory ( historians and people regarded him as insane, iconoclast-Muslim sultan Firoz) ,
however, its transportation and reerection in Delhi proves the best testimony of the skill and
resource of the workers that were involved in his project. No pillar has yet been discovered in
the distant provinces, where the Rock Edicts were inscribed. However, a predictive computer
model built on existing placement of finds reveals more inscription yet to be discovered.

The stone cutting and Polishing technology in ancient India

53
It is not difficult to determine the origin of the pillar as a structure that may go even back to
Neolithic period of megaliths. The Pillars were generally cut from a single block of stone and
stood in an enclosure which was regarded as sacred. Examples are Pyramids and Ziggurats
around the world. Egyptians and Assyrians of the pre-history provides us the glimpse of the
early archeology and technology of stone cutting and polishing. The engravings associated
with these pillars as a gate for the entrance of the palace or religious monuments have given
us some clues that the knowledge of polishing and stone cutting was more advanced during
Bronze age then many think otherwise.

The Son Bhandar caves, also Sonebhandar, are two artificial caves located in Rajgriha in the
state of Bihar in India. They are built for Ajivikas monks by Bimbisara of Haryanka dynasty but
later was used by Jaina and Buddhist monks. Haryanka dynasty preceded Sisunaga dynasty.
Buddhist Texts give Bimbisara the credit for constructing them as a habitat for the monks as
well as building a pathway to Girthkutta mountain. They have some dedicatory inscriptions
dated to Gupta period. The main cave is rectangular with a pointed ceiling, and the entrance
is trapezoidal, reminiscent of the structure of the Barbara caves. The quality of the cave finish
is inferior, when compared to the sandstone pillar finishing of edicts. The reason is obvious,
two different type of stones. The caves built in later period at Ajanta-Ellora shows advanced
techniques and quality.

The stone of Son Bhandar is relatively less hard to work with than the granite stone of the
Barbara caves. However, when compared to sand stones, they both appears as inferior stone
polishing due to type of stone.

Son Bhandar caves in Rajgir, India

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The sand stones were easily available from chunar region of Madhya Pradesh in India.
Depending on type of stones and available polishing tools, the work may realize different
quality of finish, when compared to easy sandstone polishing, although the technology of
tools and methods are the same. Therefore, we see different degree of finishing.

“ Mauryan finish” is an academic perception that was first introduced by Marshall after his
visit to Persepolis column. Therefore, the conclusion that the technology of polishing
sandstone pillars during Mauryan period was superior to Pre-Mauryan period is unwarranted.
With trade links with Egypt and Assyria, the knowledge and technology could have been
transferred in either direction to Persia and ancient India. The Egyptian technology of stone
carving was available to all. Ashok Maurya with his huge financial resources would have
reworked already erected pillars to give them improved appearance . However, the
sandstone is very delicate and any reworking to already etched out inscription can be
destroyed, while applying “Mauryan Polishing”.

The inscriptions, drawing and sketches were placed either in sacred enclosures, caves or else
in the vicinity of towns. The Heliodorus pillar is a stone column that was erected around 773
BCE in Madhya Pradesh at Besnagar (ancient Videha). The pillar was called the Garuda-
column of Heliodorus, deity Garuda associated with God Vishnu. Heliodorus represented
Indo-Greek king of Taxila and was sent to the Sunga King of Patliputra Bhagabhadra. This
Pillar is a good example of cultural import after Mauryan period. Another aspect of this
column again is the use of single inscription using Brahmi script. This dedication written in
Brahmi script, venerating Vasudeva as "God of Gods" attest to two things. 1. Popular use of
Brahmi Mauryan period and 2. Sunga’s orientation back to original Brahminic religion. This
dated using old Vikram era vs. new Vikram era, a difference of 660 years in common era.

The advantage of erecting polished pillars made out of suitable stones that allowed the
etching of inscription on permanent basis was well known to Indo-Iranian culture. We have
found the pillars with animals capital at different places in India assumed to be associated
with various dynasty. The sandstone or similar soft rocks are ideal for such pillars as long as it
has sufficient molecular dense structure for carving. The pillars , large boulders were
considered dedicatory structures erected near vihara ,temple, chaityas, and other holy
pilgrimage places in ancient India often recording donor, Royal patron, the name of God
worshipped and date. Heliodorus pillar is a perfect example.
There are about 30 pillar edicts installed at different places of India by Buddhist Kings as we
analyze from various sources. Some of the edicts are in Northeast India, where both
Ashoka’s empire overlayed upon each other. (see above maps), but covered Buddha’s
geography and travel.

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 Persepolis (Iran) gates and pillars

Sphinx- Delphi, Greece Pillar Achaemenian Pillar capital-Iran Lion of Vaishali-India

Despite the temptation and compulsion to call all pillar edicts belonging to either Sisunaga or
Mauryan period , regardless of the assumption and interpretation from various texts, a
caution must be exercised. A careful analysis of the inscription and style requires
archeological forensic examination with advanced technology to rule out any other
possibilities. We can say than any edicts that are placed in obscure travel places or outside of
Sisunaga empire was most probably constructed by Ashoka Maurya’s command. We can also
say that any edicts that only is in Brahmi script may also belong to Ashoka Maurya.

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We can also say that any edicts inscribed in Kharosthi placed near Buddha’s relics or places
where Buddha lived or visited as listed above more likely belonged to Ashoka of Sisunaga
dynasty. Any edicts with dual inscription in Kharosthi and Brahmi can be either joint
ownership or reworked ownership by both Ashokas depending on the geographical locations,
they controlled.

There are no references or textual evidence that Ashoka Sisunaga had a troubled childhood
like Ashoka Maurya’s history . Asokavadana and Divyadana makes it abundantly clear what
Ashok Maurya was like. Ashoka Sisunaga was also not a propagandist like Ashoka Maurya.

Ashok Maurya leaves us with numbers of questions unanswered. He controlled a very large
empire and administered it ruthlessly as per Asokavadana and Divyadana. His torture
chamber was very well known. His own brother was afraid of him and refused to move in the
same city with him. The sandstone finish that existed before Ashoka Maurya may have been
eroded or may not of the same quality, requiring rework either in stones or sand stones. He
may have altered already erected sculptures by adding the portraits of Yakshas and Yakshini.
Two such Yakshas have been found at Patna. However, the ascription of these figures to the
Mauryan period is by no means certain. Other sculpture should be studied to see if they
depict Mauryan period architecture found in other exhibits.

In India, the stonework was known since Neolithic age as depicted in various cave painting
etched out in various cave formations. During the stone age man made weapons were made
out of flints, quartz, and similar materials available in various regions of India, particularly in
Madhya Pradesh. Some authors have credited Mauryan polishing to chunar sandstone found
in Madhya Pradesh. However, the sandstone were available in other regions as well, but the
chunar sandstone may be more popular or in abundance along with flint type of tools that
acted as sandpaper for polishing. The Ropes that were made out from Jutes fibers in
Punḍravardhana region (United Bengal of British Period) that both Ashokas had accessed to
and controlled. The rope and wells are mentioned in various ancient texts of Buddhism,
Jainism and Hinduism. The cloths made out of Jutes were worn by people during the same
period by tribal and ascetics. Still the jute fiber from tree is extensively used for making Jute
bags , ropes etc. A piece of cloth can be made from jute and using ancient natural resins from
the tree, finely crushed flint powder can be glued on the surface of jute or cotton cloth that
can work as primitive finishing sandpaper as a finishing tool for sandstone. We do not have
any archeological evidence, but it is very reasonable assumption based on Neolithic age- cave
paining, where etched out outline is filled with natural dies made from Vegetables and other
materials by unknown painters.

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 Jute made clothes of India Neolithic cave painting

The Mauryan architecture makes a major departure due to fusion with other cultures of Asia.
The surviving monument of Mauryan era is the palace at Pataliputra (kumrahar) is considered
belonging to Maurya dynasty. The excavations conducted by Waddell and Spooner confirm
that was attributed to Arrian’s writing based on Megasthenes notes and can be regarded as a
proof that stones were employed for construction purposes, while the wood was used for
more decorative purposes on outside. The wooden structure of earlier ages were gone and
destroyed. The Greek historians relying on same notes suggested that the Mauryan palace
excelled that of Persian palaces at Susa and Ecbatana. They described that the Mauryan
Palace was adorned with gilded pillars decorated with plant and bird motifs, embossed in
gold and silver. Although now only ruins that can be seen, the excavated Royal audience Hall
suggest that it was devised and constructed on the Persepolis model or other way around.
The city itself was well fortified with moat, watch towers and high walls.

India’s traditional sources of Purana and other texts do not consider Ashoka Maurya as a
great monarch and perhaps that is because he was Buddhist and was not as kind to other
sects as claimed in his edicts until he was rediscovered by British historians who restored him
from oblivion. This issue continue to trouble many as well as his biography presented in
Divyadana and Asokavadana. Koenraad Elst, an Indologist opined that: “Under Jawaharlal
Nehru, India’s first Prime Minister, Buddhism was turned into the unofficial state religion of
India, adopting the “lion pillar” of the Buddhist Emperor Ashoka as state symbol and putting
the 24-spoked Chakravarty wheel in the national flag.”

Another famous historian opined that: “Ashoka remained largely a name in the dynastic king
lists of Purana, as obscure during the later centuries as the script in which he had his edicts
engraved. The fact that the work of Ashoka as a monarch was almost erased from Indian
history and that thought cannot be overlooked.”

This may have bothered staunch Buddhist Dr. Ambedkar, who pushed Nehru to adopt
Ashoka’s lion and wheel as a national emblem for the Indian flag.

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Attitudes towards other sects in Buddhist Edicts

There is some degree of certainty that all Magadhan kings from Haryanka dynasty forward
were the followers of Ajivikaism. Pursuant to diminishing presence of Arya Kshatriyas after
MH war, North India started emerging as a melting pot of the various culture, ethnicities, and
religious traditions. The Brahminism survived but with growing defection from its ranks. The
heretic traditions of Buddhism, Ajivikaism and its successor Jainism attracted many Brahmin
defectors and created intellectual environment for advancing theology and philosophy
among various heretical groups. Some rulers may have some strong preferences for certain
doctrines but for public display and governance, they would have treated all regions fairly
and equally. Asoka, although Buddhist with questionable early history came from the family
religion of Ajivikas. The Edicts confirms that.

It is quite understandable that Jainism as understood in modern time was not there and none
of the edicts specified them by its current names because it was not evolved and was blended
with Ajivikaism or other similar sects. We can tell due to sketchy references and details
available for previous Buddha and Tirthankaras. As per Purana chronological order,
Mahāvira was born after Buddha and Ashoka. Hemachandra had made an error in identifying
king’s name and using wrong eras. This error was compounded by Rhys Davids and Herman
Jacobi. Ajivikas, a harsh ascetic tradition of Proto-Jainism as mentioned in edicts and Buddhist
text was present but lacked the doctrines and orderly religious theology with required
monastic discipline that Jaina Mahavira organized and his sect of Jinakalpa or Sthavira
tradition branched off from earlier tradition.

Satvahana and Chedi dynasty were tributary to Maurya but also the followers of Ajivikas and
early Shaivism. When Asoka officially decided to patronize Buddhism using state institutions,
the Brahmins of India felt petrified and felt a crushing blow. The Brahmins made their living
out of Vedic rituals and sacrifices. Their age-old hereditary profession was economically
disfranchised. Asoka’s Dhamma doctrines meant that people need not employ the Brahmins
to perform minor ceremonies like birthday, wedding, Raksha-Bandhan and many other trivial
occasions that occurred in a day-to-day life. The Chanakya’s episode with Nanda king serves
as a good illustration. As per the legend, the Nanda king instead of issuing a land grant or
granting customary gift to Chanakya threw him out of his royal court that Chanakya took as
personal insult.

The decline of Brahmanism during Maurya and other Buddhist kings was heralded in Buddhist
texts, but Purana scribes placed those kings in a bad light and that displays the hostilities
existed between Brahminism and anti-Brahminic heretical sects. This may indicate economic
disfranchisement the Brahmin scribes might have felt. As a matter of fact, the sanghas of
heretical sects swelled in numbers of Brahmin recruits due to large defection during
Mauryan’s rule. It is interesting to note that the “Brahmins were the one who as the learned
intellectuals of India” wrote most of the religious canonical texts of Jainism and Buddhism
and contributed greatly to developing the religious theologies.

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However, the edicts written and sanctioned by Asoka undoubtedly prove that Asoka adopted
a tilt towards Buddhism but he had his own version of “Dhamma” (Dharma) which was a
hybrid philosophy that combined the elements of all reformist sects to a certain extent. To
what extent he implemented that in his personal life is a debatable questions. Beside
organizing third council to strengthen monastic rules of Buddhist viharas, he limited his time
at Buddhist monastery, probably long enough to earn the status of “Upasaka” but he did not
practice that as stringently as required, since he had to run his empire. He never abandoned
his throne. He choose Buddhism after some initial hesitation as one of his edict implies.
According to the edict, he says that he adopted Buddhism for two to three years after the
conclusion of Kalinga war. So, these are the revelations that must be understood in proper
context to understand the authorship of edict.

It is important to note that Jaina Texts never mentions Buddhism as its competitor but
Ajivikas were frequently mentioned as their key competitor by Buddhist. South India was
always the bedrock of Shramanic traditions like Ajivikas, Shaivism and other allied non-Vedic
faiths, so it is natural that the Brahmanism rose again in south India after its exile from North
due to some of the reason outlined. The prosecuted heretics naturally found safe heavens in
south and western coast of India.

Asokavadana describes Emperor Maurya Ashoka's life through both legendary and historical
accounts. According to Jean Przyluski, the text of Asokavadana was composed by the
Buddhist monks of the Mathura region, as it highly praises the city of Mathura, its
monasteries, and its monks. It describes early life of Ashoka Maurya. However, it also
mentions the dark side of Ashoka Maurya.

“The palatial torture chamber was artfully designed to make its exterior visually pleasing and was referred to
as the "beautiful gaol". Beneath the veneer of beauty and deep inside the exclusive mansion, however,
chambers were constructed filled with sadistic and cruel instruments of torture—including furnaces used to
melt the metals that were to be poured on prisoners. According to the narrations of Asokavadana, Emperor
Ashoka, prior to his conversion to Buddhism, was a fierce and sadistic ruler, known as Ashoka the Fierce, who
sent his minions on a quest to find a vicious man to work as his official executioner”.

In another incident Asokavadana states “In another instance, a non-Buddhist in Punḍravardhana drew a
picture showing the Buddha bowing at the feet of Nirgantha, an Ajivikas leader of Buddha’s period, On a
complaint from a Buddhist devotee, Ashoka issued an order to arrest him, and subsequently, another order to
kill all the Ajivikas in Punḍravardhana. Around 18,000 followers of the Ajivikas sect were executed as a result of
this order. Sometime later, another Nirgantha follower in Pataliputra drew a similar picture. Ashoka burnt him
and his entire family alive in their house. He also announced an award of one dinara (silver coin) to anyone who
brought him the head of a Nirgantha heretic. According to Asokavadana, his own brother, Vitashoka, who had
left him out of fear and living as a monk was mistakenly Caught as a heretic. This incident compelled him to
change his behavior.”

Kalinga War

This remains an open question that which king was responsible for Kalinga war?

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As mentioned earlier, Chandra Gupta Maurya had already expanded his empire to cover most
of India and Afghanistan and Baluchistan. Asoka Maurya inherited a big empire. Why then it
was necessary to invade and Kalinga and commit a genocide.? Will Ashoka’s earlier history
prior to his conversion to Buddhism can be reconciled with Kalinga episode ? We do not have
the answer. Ananthan Padmanabhan is described as the king defeated by Ashoka Maurya. He
did not belong to Chedi dynasty, so it is uncertain, if it ever took place during Mauryan rule.

We also know from Purana and other texts that Mahanandin and Sisunaga had running feuds
with Kalinga state. An Unknown Chedi Kings of Kalinga fought war with Nanda kings and not
Ananthan Padmanabhan during expansive phase of Magadha Kingdom as a paramount ruler
of North India. The custody of the idols and control of maritime trades are cited as the issues
between warring states. However, this information cannot be validated or reliable. It was
believed that later Kharvela king retrieved the idol and gained the independence several
centuries later. Nanda and Sisunaga also maintained a very large army that ultimately
Maurya inherited. Were they responsible for the Kalinga massacre ?

Is Dharmasoka Ashoka (as Mahavamsa calls him) is simply apologizing for the acts of his
predecessors ? Rajtarangni, Asokavadana and Purana texts are silent or not very specific. We
do not have clarity on that issue either. We also do not know the final status of relationship
between Kalinga and Magadha. All modern interpretations are derived from the edicts itself
that Kalinga war took place that is located in Shahbazgarhi at a 1,000 miles away from the
actual site of Kalinga state

In the Sri Lankan Pali Chronicles, Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa, Ashoka’s conversion was
credited to a young Buddhist monk named Nirgodha, who turned out to be the son of
murdered Sushima, his elder brother and the crown prince. while in the Sanskrit
Asokavadana and Divyāvadāna, Ashoka’s conversion is credited to miracles performed by the
monk Samudra. The narrative in Asokavadana detailed how Samudra was taken to Ashoka’s
hell chamber, while tortured in a cauldron full of boiling water, human blood, bone marrow
and excrement, caused the contents of the cauldron to cool down and then sat meditating
cross-legged on a lotus sprouting from the fluid. The narrative further describes that when
Ashoka heard of this miracle, he was overcome with curiosity and decided to enter the
chamber to verify for himself the veracity of the miracle. After arriving there, he witnessed
Samudra levitating with half his body over fire and the other half in raining water. Intrigued
he asked Samudra to identify himself. Samudra told him he was the follower of Buddha and
adherent to the Dharma. Samudra then chastised Ashoka for having built the torture
chamber and further instructed him to build more viharas. In Kalinga edicts, Ashoka nowhere
states that the Kalinga war led to his conversion to Buddhism. The texts and other edict says
that his increased zeal for the practice and propagation of Dhamma is contrived to be a
reference to his conversion.

The minor rock edict I states that “ A little more than two years and a half have passed since I have been
avowedly a lay follower (Upasaka) of the Buddha. It is now more than a year since the Saṅgha has been
intimately associated with me (saṅghe upayīte) and I have been exerting myself in the cause of the Dharma.”

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This edict suggest a time more likely before Kalinga war.

No doubt, he mentioned in his edict at Shahbazgarhi that he was grief stricken due to the loss
of life, but it is noteworthy that he did not put down his arms when he joined Buddhist
sangha. He did not say war must not be resorted to.

As a matter of fact, in the same edict, he warns suggestively that people should stick to his
"dhamma", so no adverse suffering is caused. In words of American scholar John S. Strong, it
is suggestive to think of Ashoka Maurya's messages as mere propaganda by a politician,
whose aim is to present a favorable image of himself and his administration, rather than
record historical facts.

Reason for Kalinga war ?

Sanjeet Sanyal in his article on Ashoka Maurya similarly raises similar question as to which
Ashoka this war should be attributed to ? The reason and timing of his conversion is also an
issue for the debate based on various edicts. Most of the accounts derived from various
sources suggest that Ashoka had already converted to Buddhism from family religion of
Ajivikaism, few years before the dates of war on Kalinga. His first love of life, Shakya Kumari
belonged to Shakya clans. There is no certainty that what religion she had followed. It is more
likely that she followed Buddhism and exposed Ashoka of Buddhism when he was a prince
and governor. “Asoko rajjaṁ kāresi Pāṭaliputte puruttame, abhisitto tīṇi vassāni pasanno
buddhasāsane”. Asoka ruled in Pāṭaliputta, best of towns; three years after his coronation he
was converted to Buddha’s faith.( Dipavamsa (VI.18)).Therefore, the conversion of Ashoka is
said to be three years after his coronation.

“When king Devanampriya Priyadarshini had been anointed eight years, (the country of) the
Kalinga was conquered by (him). One hundred and fifty thousand in number were the men
who were deported thence, one hundred thousand in number were those who were slain
there, and many times as many those who died.” (13th rock edict at Kandahar)
Another edict near by
The edicts located in Kalinga state are at Dhauli and Jaugada. The message in the edicts are
given below.

Edicts of (Dhauli and Jaugada)-near Bhubaneshwar close to site of Kalinga

“By order of the Beloved of the Gods: the officers and city magistrates at Tosali / Sarnapa (ancient samapal or
sarnapa or Tosali) are to be instructed thus:

Whatever I approve of, that I desire either to achieve by acting or to obtain by effective means. This is what I
consider the chief method in this matter, and these are my instructions to you. You are in charge of many
thousands of living beings. You should gain the affection of men. All men are my children, and just as I desire for
my children that they should obtain welfare and happiness both in this world and the next, the same do I desire
for all men. But you do not realize how far this principle goes - possibly one man among you may realize it, but
even he only in part and not entirely, reflect on it well even those of you who are well placed. Often a man
suffers imprisonment or torture and then is released from prison, without reason, and many other people suffer

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further. You should strive to practice impartiality. But it cannot be practiced by one possessing any of these
faults -jealousy, shortness of temper, harshness, rashness, obstinacy, idleness, or slackness. You should wish to
avoid such faults. The root of all this is to be even-tempered and not rash in your work. He who is slack will not
act, and in your official functions you must strive, act, and work. So, he who approves this should say to you,
'Think of clearing the debt- thus and thus, does the Beloved of the Gods instruct.' There is great advantage in
conforming to this instruction and great loss in not conforming to it. For by disregarding, it you will gain neither
heaven nor the favor of the king. Why do 1 devote my mind to this matter so extensively? Because by
conforming you will reach heaven and will discharge your debt to me.

This edict is to he proclaimed on the eighth day of the star Tisya, and at intervals between the Tisya-days it is to
be read aloud, even to a single person. By doing this you may be able to conform to my instructions. This
inscription has been engraved here in order that the city magistrates should at all times act to it that men are
never imprisoned or tortured without good reason. And for this purpose, I shall send out on tour every five
years, an officer who is not severe or harsh, who, having investigated this matter. . . , shall see that they carry
out my instructions. The prince at Ujjain shall send out a similar group of officers, but at intervals not exceeding
three years. Similarly, at Taxila when the officers go out on tour, they shall investigate this, without neglecting
their normal duties and shall carry out the king's instructions.” Here, he admits the torture as a officially
sanctioned punishment. Another edict nearby repeats the same thing and instructing the
officers to observe the instruction and don’t cause the hardship through cruelty. No need to
repeat with minor wording change. These inscription has been engraved here for the purpose
of reconciliation to whoever were left, and the Officers shall who were engaged in the affairs
of the frontiers people and to promote Dhamma among them.

Neither edicts at Dhauli and Jaugada matches the Shahbazgarhi edict that expressly describes
his remorse. This raises the question the intent and purpose of Shahbazgarhi edict. If
Divyadana and Asokavadana to believe (Northern tradition), Ashoka Maurya was hardly a
man to be easily shocked by the sight of blood. The main evidence of Kalinga war comes from
his repentance inscribed in Shahbazgarhi edict in modern Pakistan, over 1,000 miles away
located near a trade route to North of India, where he professed his Kalinga deeds to
different audience. It was the same region where he curbed the rebellion acting as a viceroy.
Here it sounds like Ashoka Maurya, a propagandist . The Sri-Lankan tradition of Dipavamsa
and Mahavamsa do not even mention Kalinga war.

Shahbazgarhi Major Edict

Shahbazgarhi is a village and historic site located in Mardan District in the North West
Frontier Province of Pakistan. I (Edict XIII, Shahbazgarhi version of the Great Rock Inscriptions, quoted
from E. Hultzsch, Inscriptions of Asoka, Inscription Indicarum, vol. I, Oxford 1925, pp. 68-70). This refers to
Kalinga war.

“ When king Devanampriya Priyadarshini had been anointed eight years, (the country of) the Kalinga was
conquered by (him). One hundred and fifty thousand in number were the men who were deported thence, one
hundred thousand in number were those who were slain there, and many times as many those who died. After
that, now that (the country of) the Kalinga has been taken, Devanampriya (is devoted) to a zealous study of
morality, to the love of morality, and to the instruction (of people) in morality. This is the repentance of
Devanampriya on account of his conquest of (the country of) the Kalinga. For, this is considered very painful and
deplorable by Devanampriya, that, while one is conquering an unconquered (country), slaughter, death,
and deportation of people (are taking place) there. But the following is considered even more deplorable than

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this by Devanampriya.(To) the Brahmanas or Sramanas, or other sects or householders, who are living there,
(and) among whom the following are practiced: obedience to those who receive high pay, obedience to mother
and father, obedience to elders, proper courtesy to friends, acquaintances, companions, and relatives, to slaves
and servants, (and) firm devotion,—to these then happen injury or slaughter or deportation of (their) beloved
ones. Or, if there are then incurring misfortune the friends, acquaintances, companions, and relatives of those
whose affection (for the latter) is undiminished, although they are (themselves) well provided for, this
(misfortune) as well becomes an injury to those (persons) themselves. This is shared by all men and is
considered deplorable by Devanampriya. And there is no (place where men) are not indeed attached to some
sect. Therefore, even the hundredth part or the thousandth part of all those people who were slain, who died,
and who were deported at that time in Kalinga, (would) now be considered very deplorable by Devanampriya.
And Devanampriya thinks that even (to one) who should wrong (him), what can be forgiven is to be forgiven,
and even (the inhabitants of) the forests which are (included) in the dominions of Devanampriya, even those he
pacifies (and) converts. And they are told of the power (to punish them) which Devanampriya (possesses) in
spite of (his) repentance, in order that they may be ashamed (of their crimes) and may not be killed. For
Devanampriya desires towards all beings abstention from hurting, self-control, (and) impartiality in (case of)
violence. And this conquest is considered the principal one by Devanampriya, viz. the conquest by morality
[dhamma Vijaya]. And this (conquest) has been won repeatedly by Devanampriya both here and among all (his)
borderers, even as far as at (the distance of) six hundred yōjanas,where the Yōna king named Antiyoka (is
ruling), and beyond this Antiyoka, (where) four—4—kings (are ruling), (viz. the king) named Turamaya, (the
king) named Antikini, (the king) named Maka, (and the king) named Alikaṣudara, (and) towards the south,
(where) the Chōḍas and Pāṇḍyas (are ruling), as far as Tāmraparṇī. Likewise, here in the king’s territory, among
the Yōnas and Kambōyas, among the Nabhakas and Nabhitis, among the Bhōjas and Pitinikas, among the
Andhras and Palidas,—everywhere (people) are conforming to Dēvānāṁpriya’s instruction in morality
[dhamma]. Even, those to whom the envoys of Dēvānāṁpriya do not go, having heard of the duties of morality,
the ordinances, (and) the instruction in morality of Dēvānāṁpriya, are conforming to morality and will conform
to (it). This conquest, which has been won by this everywhere,—a conquest (won) everywhere (and)
repeatedly,—causes the feeling of satisfaction. Satisfaction has been obtained (by me) at the conquest by
morality but this satisfaction is indeed of little (consequence). Dēvānāṁpriya thinks that only the fruits in the
other (world) are of great (value). And for the following purpose has this rescript on morality been written, (viz.)
in order that the sons (and) great-grandsons (who) may be (born) to me, should not think that a fresh conquest
ought to be made, (that), if a conquest does please them, they should take pleasure in mercy and light
punishments, and (that) they should regard the conquest by morality as the only (true) conquest. This (conquest
bears fruit) in this world (and) in the other world. And let there be (to them) pleasure in the abandonment of all
(other aims), which is pleasure in morality. For this (bears fruit) in this world (and) in the other world.

First question arises is why erect this edict on Northern border of Pakistan related to war in
Kalinga (Odisha) ? was this to impress travelers traveling on Trunk road who probably cared
less what happened in Kalinga or deter the potential adversaries who were rebellious ? or to
advertise the conquest and capability of the king to wage a war ? The third question is what
king this really belonged to ? Sri-Lankan chronicle derived from Atthakatha, a loose leaves
collection of Buddhist tale that was incorporated into genealogy of the Sri-Lankan kings with
the myth of Vatsa kingdom and lion origin have also had the kings name Devanpriya and
Priyadarshi separately and individually.

If Shishunaga or Nandas, who preceded the Maurya had already conquered Kalinga then it is
unnecessary to conquer Kalinga by Ashok Maurya. As I mentioned before Ashoka Maurya had
already inherited vast kingdoms stretching up to central Asia. Chanakya would not have
tolerated an independent state, so close to Mauryan seat of power at Pataliputra with its
main export port at Tāmraliptika in Bengal competing with ports in the Kalinga state and in

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those circumstances, Kalinga would have major problem maintaining an independent state.
It can be existed as vassal state like Andhra. So, it is more likely that Nanda and or Sisunaga
may be responsible for Kalinga war and some Buddhist kings (one of the Ashoka) is
expressing regret with an edict near a Buddhist Vihara in Shahbazgarhi. Since there is a gap in
the history of Kalinga after Chedi dynasty, this issue may not be easily resolved. In that case,
Maurya dynasty may have been wrongfully assigned the Kalinga guilt by historians . The
entire equation of declaring Ashoka Maurya as the owner of all edicts comes from the
discovery of Maski edict, when Ashoka name was added to “Devanpriya Piyadassi” epithets
and colonial historians therefore concluded that all edicts must belonged to him and the
ownership of all edicts were assigned to Ashoka Maurya. Rajtarangni was not discovered
then. Prior to that Ashoka’s name was relegated to genealogical table of Purana. Due to his
reputation as mentioned in Northern tradition by Brahmin scribes.

Ashok Sisunaga may be a likely candidate for edict in Kandahar. It certainly adds to the
confusion between two Buddhist Ashokas. In edict itself Kalinga is described as unconquered
territory. As mentioned earlier, Hathigumpha inscription’s references to the aqueduct built
by Nanda King in disrepair, clearly acknowledging the Kalinga under Nanda’s domain. Why
will Nanda build an aqueduct canal in an unconquered territory ?

Asoka’s Stella, his famous Chakra- coronation, conversion to Buddhism and ruined Buddhist monastery

References:

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Asie, Volume 13, 2002

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