THF FinalReport

CL 452 – Design Project
Spring 2019
Group 05
Production of Tetrahydrofuran
Report - Final Stage Evaluation
Members:
Suraj Malu: 150020042
Kanishka Soni: 150020068
Harshit Jain: 150020076
Kanishka Patil: 150020028
Sanidhya Pandey: 150020061
Department of Chemical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay

Abstract
This report entails information regarding production of Tetrahydrofuran (THF) using

Maleic Anhydride (MAH) and Hydrogen (H2) as the raw materials. The major steps
involved in the process are the reaction mechanism involved where selectivity of THF is
98% and Pressure Swing Distillation where 2 Distillation columns are operated, the first
one at 1 bar and the second Distillation column at 8 bar. In the mechanism used, water is
produced and THF water forms an azeotrope. In order to separate this azeotrope, pressure
swing distillation is used where the azeotropic composition changes with pressure and
thereby we get purer THF as final product. The equipment selection for the reactors and
other auxiliary equipment have been done on the basis of process conditions, quality and
quantity of raw materials. A pen-and-paper linear mass balance (assuming sharp
separation) is performed to have a rough idea of the plant input, output, loads of various
equipment and emissions from the plant. This mass balance is then refined and compared
using ASPEN PLUS process simulations, so as to incorporate energy balance, where each
major equipment has been optimised for higher THF production. The Distillation Column
System being one of the critical equipment of the process has been designed in detail. The
plant economics have also been carried out to have a general idea of the capital
investments required and the net profit generated each year. Through our calculations we
arrive at a payback period of 5.15 years for our plant. A heat integration analysis of the heat
exchangers of the plant has also been carried out to minimize the utility requirement of the
plant. Lastly an environmental impact study has been done to keep in check all the
emissions from the plant
1
Contents
List of figures 5
List of tables 7
Introduction 9
1.1 Tetrahydrofuran 9
1.2 Applications of Tetrahydrofuran 10
1.3 Specifications 12
2. Market Survey & Global Demand 13
2.1 Indian Market 13
2.2 Global Demand 14
2.3 Global Importers & Exporters 16
3. Production Process of THF 18
3.1 Main Reaction 18
3.2 Side Reactions 18
4. Process Flowsheet 21
5. Process Description of Major Equipments 22
5.1 Reactor 22
5.2 Flash 101 22
5.3 Flash 102 22
5.4 Distillation System 23
5.4.1 DC101 23
5.4.2 DC102 23
6. Process Equipment Selection 24
6.1 Reactor 24
6.2 Heat Exchanger 25
6.3 Pump 26
2
6.4 Compressor 27
7. ASPEN PLUS Flowsheet 28
7.1 Property Method 28
7.2 Flowsheet Development 28
7.3 ASPEN PLUS Flowsheet 29
7.3 Stream Summary 31
8. Key Equipments and Mass Balance 33
8.1 Reactor 33
8.2 Flash F101 34
8.3 Flash F102 35
8.4 Distillation Column - DC101 36
8.5 Distillation Column - DC102 37
8.6 Overall Mass Balance 38
9. Sensitivity Analysis 40
9.1 DC101 40
9.2 DC102 42
10. Equipment Sizing & Costing 44
10.1 Reactor 44
Cost of Vessel 44
Cost of Catalyst 46
10.2 Flash 47
Size Estimation: 51
Sizing of shell 51
Reboiler and Condenser 53
Cost Estimation 54
3
Cost of shell 54
Cost of Sieve Trays 55
Cost of Reboiler 55
Cost of Condenser 57
10.4 Heat Exchangers 57
10.5 Compressor 60
Cost Estimation 61
10.6 Pump 62
Cost Estimation 63
11. Plant Economics 64
11.1 Major Equipment Costing 64
11.2 Capital Investment Estimation 65
11.3 Revenue Calculation 66
11.4 Raw Material & Total Product Cost 66
11.5 Lang Factor 67
11.6 Turnover Ratio 68
11.7 Payback Period 68
12. Process Control and Instrumentation 69
12.1.1 Degree of Freedom 69
12.1.2 Variable Involved 70
12.1.2 Pressure Control 71
12.1.2 Reboiler Control 71
12.1.3 Controlling Top Composition 72
12.1.3 Maintaining Level in Distillation Column 73
12.1.4 Feed Control 73
4
12.2 Control Strategy for F102 System 74
12.2.1 Cooler 74
12.2.2 Level Control for F102 74
12.2.3 Pressure Control for F102 74
12.2.4 Controller for Pump 74
12.3 Overall Control Diagram 75
13. Environmental Impact Assessment 76
13.1 Emissions from Boundary Streams 77
13.1.1 Emissions from Stream number 31 77
14. Heat Integration 82
14.1 Streams present in plant 82
14.1.1 Segregation to Sensible and Latent Heat part 82
14.1.2 Problem table method for pinch analysis 83
5
List of figures
1.1 2D and 3D conformer of Tetrahydrofuran 09
1.2 Products and byproducts of Tetrahydrofuran 11
2.1 Total VOlume & value of imports in India 14
2.2 Trend of material used in sportswear 15
2.3 World consumption of THF 15
2.4 Forecasted Market size and CAGR of THF globally 16
2.5 Major importers of THF 17
2.6 Major exporters of THF 17
3.1 Main Reaction 18
3.2 First Side Reaction 19
3.3 Second Side Reaction 19
3.4 Third Side Reaction 19
3.5 Block Diagram for Flowsheet development 20
4.1 Process FLow Diagram 21
7.1 Aspen Plus Flowsheet (Part 1) 29
7.2 Aspen Plus Flowsheet (Part 2) 30
8.1 Reactor 33
8.2 Flash F101 34
8.3 Flash F102 35
8.4 Distillation Column DC101 36
8.5 Distillation Column DC102 37
9.1 Change in purity of THF in Distillate of DC-102 on changing input
feed stage in DC-101 40
9.2 Change in mass flowrate of THF in Distillate of DC102 on changing
input feedstage in DC-101 40
9.3 Change in mass flow rate of water in bottom of DC-101 on changing
input feed stage in DC-101 41
9.4 Change in mass flow rate of THF in Distillate of DC-101 on changing
9.5 Change in mole fraction of water in bottom of DC-101 on changing
9.6 Change in purity of THF in Bottom of DC-102 on changing input
feed stage in DC-102 42
9.7 Change in mass flow rate of THF in Bottom of DC-102 on changing
10.1 Design Velocity Factor v/s Vapour-Liquid Separation Factor Curve 48
10.2 Graph for calculating Flooding Velocity 52
6
10.3 Cost of shell against weight for Distillation column 54
10.4 Installed cost of sieve trays against column diameter 55
10.5 Cost of shell & tube heat exchanger against area 56
10.6 Isentropic Efficiency v/s Compression ratio 60
12.1 Degrees of Freedom Analysis of Distillation Column 69
12.2 Pressure Control 71
12.3 Reboiler Control 72
12.4 Temperature Profile of DC101 73
12.5 Reflux Ratio Variation 73
12.6 Pump Control 74
12.7 Overall Control Diagram 75
14.1 Heat Exchanger Network 85
List of Tables
1.1 General Properties of Tetrahydrofuran
10 1.2 General Product specification
12 6.1 Comparison between Centrifugal & Reciprocating Pump
24
6.2 Heat Exchanger Comparison 25
6.3 Comparison between Centrifugal & Reciprocating Pump 26
6.4 Comparison between Centrifugal & Reciprocating Compressor 27
7.1 Stream Summary 31 32
8.1 Reactor stream summary 33
8.2 Flash 101 Stream Summary 34
8.3 Flash 102 Stream Summary 35
8.4 DC101 Stream Summary 36
8.5 DC 102 Stream Summary 37
10.1 Catalyst Composition 46
10.2 Catalyst Cost 47
10.3 Flash Vessel Sizing 50
10.4 Flash Costing 51
10.5 Distillation Column Information - DC101 52
10.6 DC101 and DC 102 Design Parameters 53
10.7 Areas of Reboiler and Condenser 53
10.8 Shell cost of DC-101 and DC-102 54
10.9 Total cost of Trays - DC101 and DC102 55
10.10 Reboiler cost of DC101 and DC102 56
10.11 Condenser cost of DC101 and DC102 57
7
10.12 Heat exchanger type factor 58
10.13 Heat exchanger pressure factor 58
10.14 Heat exchanger Material factor 58
10.15 Heat exchanger double pipe pressure factor 59
10.16 Heat Exchanger Costing 59
10.17 Power requirement of Compressor 61
10.18 Cost of Compressor 61
10.19 Power requirement of Pumps 62
10.20 Cost of Pumps 63
11.1 All Major Equipment Cost 64
11.2 Total Capital Investment 65
11.3 Revenue Calculation 66
11.4 Raw Material Cost 66
11.5 Total Product Cost 66
12.1 Variables in Process and Instrumentation Diagram 70
13.1 Emissions in kilograms/day 76
13.2 Emission from stream no. 31 77
14.1 Stream listing for heat exchanger network 82
14.2 Stream listing for heat exchanger network below pinch point 83
14.3 Stream listing for heat exchanger network above pinch point 84
14.4 Utilities cost after heat integration 85
8
1. Introduction
This chapter is aimed towards providing a brief overview about the subject and also the
motivation for the need of detailed study which includes restropection of trends and
analysis of future prospects of tetrahydrofuran.
1.1 Tetrahydrofuran
THF is composed of 4 carbon atoms, 8 hydrogen atoms, and 1 oxygen atom. It is most
importantly characterized as being a heterocyclic ether. The ring in the compound is
non-planer. It is an organic compound, cyclic aliphatic ether, with the chemical formula
C4H8O, with IUPAC name Oxolane.
Fig 1.1 - 2D and 3D conformer of Tetrahydrofuran [1.1]1[1.2]2
THF is a highly volatile, chemically neutral compound with low boiling point and odor
similar to acetone. Important structural property of THF is that it is a polar molecule. Since
oxygen is more electronegative than carbon and hydrogen, the oxygen pulls electron
density towards itself in the form of the covalent bonds within the ring structure. As a
consequence of this, polarity is introduced and hence THF mixes readily with other polar
species like water, methanol, ethanol, and acetonitrile, just to name a few. On contact with
air it readily oxidizes to form peroxides, which can be inhibited to a certain extent by
adding stabilizers.[3]
1
[1.1] THF Image on Indiamart https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/tetrahydrofuran-8120213188.html
2
[1.2] THF 3D conformer Image https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/tetrahydrofuran-4621862848.html
9
Table 1.1: General Properties of Tetrahydrofuran [1.3]3
Common Name Tetrahydrofuran
IUPAC Name Oxolane
Molecular Formula C4H8O
Boiling Point 66 °C
Molar Mass 72.11 g/mol
Density 889 kg/m3
Melting Point -108.4 °C
Enthalpy of Vapourization 29.8 kJ/mol
Flash Point -7 °C
Solubility in water ≥ 100 g/L
1.2 Applications of Tetrahydrofuran

Pure tetrahydrofuran has many applications as a solvent, reaction medium or starting
product for syntheses. Only a few of the many examples of its usefulness are presented
below [1.4]4[1.5]5-
1. Solvent - THF is most commonly used as organic solvent. It’s use as a solvent is
widespread from small scale laboratory experiments to manufacturing of PVC (Poly
Vinyl Chloride) which indeed has its use as material of plumbing and piping
equipments, healthcare devices, cable insulation etc.
2. PTMEG - Polytetrahydrofuran, also known as PTMEG is prepared by acid catalysed

technique for polymerizing THF. PTMEG in turn is used in manufacturing of
synthetic fibres, Spandex (also known as Lycra) which is known for its elasticity and
is popularly used in making of sports wear.
3
[1.3]THF Properties - https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/tetrahydrofuran#section=Boiling-Point
4
[1.4] Application of THF - http://www.basf-petronas.com.my/sites/default/files/Tetrahydrofuran.pdf
5
[1.5] Application of THf - https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/tetrahydrofuran#section=MS-MS
10
3. Reaction medium - The property of being a powerful solvent is utilized by the
pharmaceutical industry. THF is used in many reactions like Grignard reaction,
Wittig reaction etc. Many Grignard and organometallic compounds can be obtained
using THF as the reaction medium.
4. Chromatography - It is used in various types of chromatographies like liquid

chromatography, gel permeation chromatography, gas chromatography etc.
Fig. 1.2 Products and byproducts of Tetrahydrofuran [1.6]6
6
[1.6] Products & Byproducts of THF
http://www3.hkexnews.hk/listedco/listconews/sehk/2010/1130/01887_947325/ewf114.pdf?fbclid=IwAR
2mo8KMPJsOywa-8ikyXgIjGsPiwk816KvzMd-FSJtJoCfJIRJEU6oj9Q0
11
1.3 Specifications
Tetrahydrofuran has various uses, and product specification needs to satisfied on several
grounds. On contact with air it readily oxidizes to form peroxides, which is required to be
inhibited to a certain extent by adding stabilizers. As an antioxidant, 250 ppm of BHT
(2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol) is usually added.
Table 1.2 General Product specification [1.7]7
Item Specification
Hue (Hazen) <10
Moisture (%) <0.02
Specific Gravity (20/4℃) 0.886～0.889
Purity (%) 98%
Peroxide (ppm) <100
7
[1.7] Product specification
https://www.m-chemical.co.jp/en/products/departments/mcc/c4/product/1201006_7922.html
12
2. Market Survey & Global Demand
In this chapter we will see the demand and supply scenario of THF over the years which
also includes the market survey of chemical plants actively producing THF to meet the
global demands. We will also analyse the price trends and the products influencing the
production.
2.1 Indian Market

India accounts for about 16 percent of total THF imports in the world, but its share in terms
of exports is very small which is about 1.2 percent. Some of the possible reasons for the
production of THF in India can be [2.1]8-
1. Unavailability (includes low production of raw materials, transportation,

environmental laws etc.) of raw materials for the production of THF. For example
Maleic Anhydride production is not very popular in India which in turn is used as
raw material in manufacturing THF
2. Chinese market has expanded aggressively in all domains (includes rapid increase in
industries producing chemicals along with manufacturing industries consuming it),
hence Indian industry faces fierce competition from cheap Chinese products
3. Foreign suppliers from China, Vietnam, Korea etc. have reduced the price of Spandex
to ₹ 100/kg (2016) and import duty being reduced to 1% has the worsen the
situation for Indian suppliers affecting the profitability of business.
4. India must revise its anti dumping duty to protect the Indian manufacturers
8
[2.1] Article on Spandex production in India
http://www.indiantextilemagazine.in/corporate-news/indorama-seeks-sops-to-encourage-domestic-spande
x-production/
13
The below mentioned image gives a trend of total volume and value of imports between
February 2013 & November 2016
Fig 2.1: Total Volume & value of imports in India
The total value of imports of THF market in India is about $27,605,949, total quantity is
about 12,478,750 kg as of Nov 2016. [2.3]9
2.2 Global Demand

The global demand of THF has seen a steep rise in last decade, this is mainly due to the
increase in consumption of THF in production of majorly Spandex used in making the
synthetic elastic sports wear; due to shifts in trends and growth of sports industry in
general there has been increase in demand of Spandex thus boosting the global production.
About 70% of the total revenue is from the manufacturing of PTMEG which in turn is used
to make Spandex. [2.4]10
China is the largest consumer of THF, refer the figure below to analyse the market
consumption
9
Trend of volume and value of THF import in India
https://www.zauba.com/importanalysis-tetra+hydro+furan-report.html
10
Trend of materials used in sportswear
http://emergingtextiles.com/?q=art&s=170321-spandex-market-price&r=free&i=samplearticle
14
Fig 2.2: Trend of material used in sportswear
The production and increase in of goods like - cosmetics, adhesives, surface coatings, inks,
PVC (Poly Vinyl Chloride) etc. also have contributed in increasing the demand of THF.
In the period of 2012-15 the global market has seen a growth of about 40% but in coming
years we can expect the growth by just 5%, with Chinese market witnessing the highest
growth. The largest producers of THF globally are- BASF and Dairen Chemical Corporation.
Fig 2.3: World consumption of THF [2.5]11
11
[2.5] world consumption of THF
https://ihsmarkit.com/products/tetrahydrofuran-chemical-economics-handbook.html
15
Projected growth of THF market is from USD 2.95 Billion in 2017 to USD 4.12 Billion in
2022 at CAGR of 6.9%, with China as the country with highest projected CAGR. Asia Pacific
is the largest market of THF globally. Due to boost in manufacturing sector industries like
chemical, automotive, packaging etc. countries like India have also contributed in creating
demand of THF.
Asia Pacific is dominating as global hub both in terms of volume and value.
Fig 2.4: Forecasted Market size and CAGR of THF globally [2.6]12
2.3 Global Importers & Exporters

The major countries that import THF are-
1. South Korea ($50.4M)
2. India ($37M)
3. Belgium-Luxembourg ($22.1M)
4. Japan ($13.3M)
5. United States ($11.9M)
12
[2.6] Forecasted market size and CAGR of THF globally
https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/Market-Reports/tetrahydrofuran-thf-market-180054945.html
16
Fig2.5 : Major importers of THF [2.7]13
The major countries that export THF are-
1. Germany ($80.6M)
2. Other Asia ($48.5M)
3. Malaysia ($21M)
4. United States ($18.9M)
5. China ($16.9M)
Fig 2.6: Major exporters of THF [2.8]14
13
Global importers of THF https://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/profile/hs92/293211/
14
Global exporters of THF https://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/profile/hs92/293211/
17
15
3. Production Process of THF
In this process we are using, one main reaction and three side reactions are taking place.
All the reactions are happening in a single reactor. The main reaction is a 3-step reaction.
3.1 Main Reaction

In the first step, maleic anhydride is being hydrogenated in the presence of metal catalyst
to obtain succinic anhydride. In the second step, Succinic anhydride is also hydrogenated,
water is removed and ɣ-Butyrolactone is formed. In the third and final stage of main
reaction, ɣ-Butyrolactone formed in 2nd step is hydrogenated again, water is removed and
THF is obtained as the final product.
Besides the main reaction, 3 side reactions are also happening. Although, main reaction has
a very high selectivity i.e. about 98% and rest of the reactions have the conversion of the
order of 10-2.
Fig 3.1: Main Reaction
3.2 Side Reactions

First side reaction happening is forming n-butanol as the side product. In this reaction, first
two steps are same as main reaction, maleic anhydride is being hydrogenated in the
presence of a metal catalyst to obtain succinic anhydride. In the second step, Succinic
anhydride is also hydrogenated, water is removed and ɣ-Butyrolactone is formed. The
lactone formed in the second step attains an equilibrium with acid (ɣ-Hydroxybutyric acid).
15
[3.1 ]The hydrogenation of maleic anhydride to γ-butyrolactone using mixed metal oxide catalysts in a
batch-type reactor
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378382005002055
18
This formed acid is then hydrogenated to form n-butanol.
Fig 3.2: First Side Reaction
Second side reaction happening is forming n-propanol as the side product. In this reaction,
first step is same as main reaction, maleic anhydride is being hydrogenated in the presence
of metal catalyst to obtain succinic anhydride. In second step, succinic anhydride is
subjected to hydration, propionic acid along with carbon dioxide is formed as a result. In
last step, Propionic acid undergoes hydrogenation, water is removed and formation of
n-propanol takes place.
Fig 3.3: Second Side Reaction
Third side reaction which is happening is consuming the product of main reaction i.e. THF.
In this reaction THF is reacting with hydrogen to form butane, butanol and water as the
products.
Fig 3.4: Third Side Reaction
19
Fig 3.5 Block Diagram for Flowsheet development
20
4. Process Flowsheet
Fig 4.1 Process Flow Diagram
21
5. Process Description of Major Equipments
5.1 Reactor
Mixture of Hydrogen gas (from feed and recycle) and Maleic Anhydride (stream number-4,
Pressure-40, Temperature-220°C, phase-liquid) are fed to the reactor which operates at
pressure 4 0 bar and t emperature 240°C . The reactor is fixed bed adiabatic type of reactor
which is producing THF (Tetrahydrofuran), along with unreacted Maleic Anhydride and
Hydrogen; side products in outlet stream are Butane, Butanol, Water and Propanol. The
outlet stream (stream number 8) is passed through a heat exchanger before doing flash
separation. Catalyst used is oxides of different materials at different percentages, base used is of
aluminium {oxides of- Copper(45%), Zinc(20%), Alumina(30%) and Chrome(5%)}
5.2 Flash 101

The main purpose of Flash 101 is to separate Hydrogen from the outlet stream of reactor
(stream number 8) and recycle it back since it is one of our key raw material. Flash is done
at 40 bar to save compression cost of recycle stream. Stream 26 is the vapour outlet stream
of flash which majorly contains Hydrogen and Maleic Anhydride which is recycled back to
the reactor. Stream 10 is liquid outlet stream with major components- THF and Water
along with little amount of Butanol, Propanol and Maleic Anhydride. Stream 10 is further
heated, mixed with recycled stream of DC 102 and directed towards DC101 for further
purification by separating leftover components.
5.3 Flash 102

The Flash vessel is placed between the two distillation columns DC101 and DC102, having
stream 16 as the input containing THF, Butane and Water. The flash here is positioned
strategically to save costs by liquifying the distillate from DC101 using flash and then using
pump to input the stream at pressure of 8 bar to DC 102; the alternative to this is relatively
an expensive process where distillate from DC101 is directly compressed using compressor
to provide input to DC102 at 8 bar. The vapour outlet (stream number 31) containing little
amount of water vapour, THF, carbon dioxide and butane is purged in the atmosphere. The
liquid outlet (stream number 17) containing majorly THF, Water and Butane is pumped to
pressure of 8 bar and temperature 120°C a s the f eed (stream 19) to the DC 102
22
5.4 Distillation System
We are using pressure swing distillation as we need to separate azeotropic mixture of
water and THF.
5.4.1 DC101
The DC101 column is largely to separate water from the feed mixture. The distillation
column operates at ambient pressure. The feed stream (stream number 13) is fed at stage
number 5 . The distillate (stream number 15) contains large fraction of THF and small
fraction of Butane and Water, which is cooled before doing flash separation. The bottoms
stream (stream number 14) which contains large fraction of water along with some
amount of Butanol and Maleic Anhydride.
5.4.2 DC102
The distillation column DC102 functions at pressure 8 bar . The input stream (stream
number 19) containing majorly THF and some amount of THF and Water is fed at stage
number 4 . The purpose of this distillation column is to first produce THF of required purity
and second to recycle back some condensable containing mixture of Water and THF as part
of swing distillation system. The distillate (stream 21) contains large fraction of THF and
small fraction of Water and Butane, from which Butane is separated using separator and
purged, rest is cooled and recycled back to DC101. The bottoms (stream number 20)
contains our product THF of p urity 9
8.4%.
23
6. Process Equipment Selection
16
6.1 Reactor
Table 6.1: Comparison between Centrifugal & Reciprocating Pump
Reactor Type Advantages Disadvantages
● Easy to operate at high ● Channeling may occur, resulting

temperature & pressure to inefficient conversion
Fixed Bed ● Energy consumption is low ● Development of hotspots due to
Reactor since solid are stagnant, not solvent evaporation
suspended in slurry
● It offers low catalyst attrition ● Performs poorly when liquid
● Based on PFR model not uniformly distributed
● Good temperature control and ● Reactor may get plugged due to

heat recovery catalyst
● Large heat capacity of reactor ● Higher ratio of liquid to catalyst
Slurry Reactor acts as a safety feature than in other reactors
● Can be used for the catalysts ● There are uncertainties in design
which can’t be pelletized process
● Based on CSTR model
In our reactor we have three phases. Maleic Anhydride is coming as a liquid, hydrogen as
gas and the reaction is happening over a solid catalyst.
The fixed bed reactor is modelled as an PFR and Slurry Type reactor is modelled as an
CSTR. The patent state the PFR has better efficiency and conversions, hence we are using a
3 Phase Fixed bed reactor.
16
[6.1]Visual Encyclopedia of Chemical Engineering/Slurry Reactor
http://encyclopedia.che.engin.umich.edu/Pages/Reactors/Slurry/Slurry.html
[6.2] Visual Encyclopedia of Chemical Engineering/Fixed Bed Reactor
http://encyclopedia.che.engin.umich.edu/Pages/Reactors/Tricklebed/Tricklebed.html
24
6.2 Heat Exchanger
A comparison between Shell & Tube heat exchanger & Plate type heat exchanger has been
done to decide which type of heat exchanger is to be used.
Table 6.2 : Heat Exchanger Comparison
Heat Exchanger
Advantages Disadvantages
Type
● Less expensive than plate type heat ● Less efficient than plate type heat
exchanger exchanger
Shell & Tube ● Pressure drop across the tube is less ● Its capacity can not be increased
Heat Exchangers ● Can be operated in systems with high ● Occupies more space as compared
temperature & pressure conditions to plate type heat exchanger
● Tube leaks are easy to locate and ● Cleaning and maintenance is
repair since pressure test is easy comparatively difficult
● It’s compact in size and no extra space ● Initial investment is high because of
is required for dismantling expensive plate material
● Higher heat transfer efficiency than ● Locating leakage is difficult since
Plate Type Heat shell & tube heat exchanger pressure test is difficult to perform
Exchangers ● Capacity can be increased by ● Bonding material between plates
introducing new plates cause hindrance to operating temp,
● Is easy to clean & maintain ● Pressure drop is higher than tube
exchanger
As we can see from the above mentioned table plate heat exchanger is more efficient than
shell & tube heat exchanger but it is also more expensive than the shell and tube heat
exchanger. Plate heat exchanger is more efficient than shell and tube exchanger and it’s
capacity can also be increased by adding more plates.
Although plate heat exchanger is better in terms space occupancy and efficiency, we will be
using she17ll and tube heat exchanger, since it is cheaper, offers lower pressure drop,
detection and rectification of leakages can be done easily, also it can be operated at high
temperature and pressure . These advantages gives it an edge over plate heat exchanger.
17
[6.3] Advantages and Disadvantages of Shell and Tube and Plate type Heat Exchangers
https://marineengineeringonline.com/advantages-disadvantages-shell-tube-plate-type-heat-exchangers/
[6.4] “General Engineering Knowledge” by H.D. McGeorge
25
6.3 Pump
A comparison between Centrifugal & Reciprocating pumps has been done to decide which
type of pump is to be used.
Table 6.3: Comparison between Centrifugal & Reciprocating Pump
Pump Type Advantages Disadvantages
● It discharges fluid continuously ● Less efficient than reciprocating

and smoothly pump
Centrifugal ● Can be used to pump large ● Priming needs to be done before
Pump quantity of fluid startup
● Cheaper as compared to ● Can’t handle viscous fluids
reciprocating pump efficiently
● Offers higher efficiency than ● Discharge of fluid is fluctuating

reciprocating pump & pulsating
Reciprocating ● Can handle viscous fluids ● Can only handle small quantities
Pump efficiently of fluid
● Can offer high heads for small ● Expensive as compared to
discharges centrifugal pump, cost is almost
4 times for same capacity
18
It is obvious from the comparison that centrifugal pumps should be used because of its
ability to discharge large quantity of fluid continuously. In addition to that, it is also
cheaper than reciprocating pumps.
18
[6.5] ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
http://constructionmanuals.tpub.com/14265/css/Advantages-and-Disadvantages-of-Centrifugal-Pumps-21
5.htm
[6.6] Comparison between Centrifugal pumps and Reciprocating Pumps
https://theconstructor.org/water-resources/comparison-between-centrifugal-reciprocating-pumps/4786/
26
19
6.4 Compressor
A comparison between Centrifugal & Reciprocating Compressor has been done to decide
which type of compressor is to be used.
Table 6.4: Comparison between Centrifugal & Reciprocating Compressor
Pump Type Advantages Disadvantages
● Offers higher efficiencies than ● High initial investment is required

reciprocating compressor ● Need special bearings,
● Does not require special sophisticated vibration and
Centrifugal foundation since much less clearance monitoring
Compressor vibration is there ● Issue of surging, stalling &
● Suitable for continuous, high choking
flow rates.
● Requires very lowinitial ● Have more moving parts than

expenditure centrifugal compressor so need
Reciprocating
more maintenance
Compressor
● Can be used to reach very high ● It is not suitable for continuous
pressure and high flow rates
Although reciprocating compressor is cheaper and can be used to develop high pressure in
comparison to centrifugal compressor, it has a major disadvantage that it is suitable for
continuous and high flow rates. That is why, centrifugal compressor should be used.
19
[6.7] “Process Equipment Selection” CL 415 slides
https://moodle.iitb.ac.in/pluginfile.php/206689/mod_resource/content/1/Compressors%202%20-%20Fin
al.pdf
27
7. ASPEN PLUS Flowsheet
To resemble actuality and also account for energy balance, we simulate our process plant in
ASPEN PLUS process simulator to get better and real life matching insights in the plant. We
initially describe the property method chosen and then look at the stream summary to get
an overview of products generated.
7.1 Property Method

We have chosen NRTL-RK (Redlich Kwong) as preferred thermodynamic model on
account of following reason:
1. Using Aspen method assistant section; based on type of chemical process and
azeotropic separation of Two liquid phases which suggested use of NRTL or
UNIQUAC system or their variance.
2. In our reference they had used NRTL model20
3. The NRTL model can handle any combination of polar and non-polar compounds, up
to very strong nonideality, which is present in our case in terms of THF + Water +
Butanol system
4. We have used RK method to take into account non-ideality in the vapour phase as
per discussion with the panel
7.2 Flowsheet Development

We have modelled various equipments in ASPEN, so let us look what has been modelled by
what below.
Feed Streams - Hydrogen is obtained at 25 bar in vapor phase and Maleic Anhydride
(MAH) is obtained at STP, which is in solid state and liquified using a heater in a vessel.
Reactor - We have modelled reactor as RStoic as we had conversion data. Later on we
didn’t get equilibrium data so finally we have kept it as RStoic. The H2:MAH ratio in the
reactor is 30:1 and it lies in the prescribed range mentioned in the patent.
Distillation Columns - We could not use DSTWU block in ASPEN because DSTWU fails
most of the time in case of azeotropic systems. So we did a logical hit and trial and found
out optimal number of stages and reflux ratio. Also, we have 2 distillation columns which in
combination are used to separate azeotropic components using Pressure Swing concept. By
altering pressure, we get different composition of THF and water, as composition of
azeotropes change with pressure.
20
http://jingwang.yolasite.com/resources/Senior%20Design.pdf | Synthesis of Tetrahydrofuran
28
7.3 ASPEN PLUS Flowsheet
Fig 7.1 Aspen Plus Flowsheet (Part 1)
29
Fig 7.2 Aspen Plus Flowsheet (Part 2)
30
7.3 Stream Summary
Table 7.1: Stream Summary
31
32
8. Key Equipments and Mass Balance
8.1 Reactor
Fig 8.1: Reactor

Table 8.1: Reactor stream summary
STREAM No. 4 (FEED) 30 (RECYCLE) 8 (OUTPUT)
Mass Flows (kg/hr) 6152.40 5218.81 11371.20
Mass Fractions
MALEI-01 1 0 0.01
HYDRO-01 0 0.77 0.30
TETRA-01 0 0.22 0.49
BUTANOL 0 0.00 0.00
1-PRO-01 0 0 0
WATER 0 0.01 0.20
CARBO-01 0 0.00 0.00
BUTANE 0 0.00 0.00
33
8.2 Flash F101
Fig 8.2: Flash F101
Table 8.2: Flash 101 Stream Summary
STREAM NUMBER 9 (FEED) 26 (VAPOR) 10 (LIQUID)
Mass Flows (kg/hr) 11371.20 4621.34 6749.87
Mass Fractions
MALEI-01 0.01 0 0.02
HYDRO-01 0.30 0.74 0.00
TETRA-01 0.49 0.25 0.65
BUTANOL 0.00 0.00 0.01
1-PRO-01 0 0 0
WATER 0.20 0.01 0.32
CARBO-01 0 0 0
BUTANE 0 0 0
34
8.3 Flash F102
Fig 8.3: Flash F102

Table 8.3 Flash 102 Stream Summary
STREAM NUMBER 16 (FEED) 31 (VAPOR) 17 (LIQUID)
Mass Flows (kg/hr) 7536.91 3106.46 7536.9
Mass Fractions
MALEI-01 0 0 0
HYDRO-01 0 0 0
TETRA-01 0.94 0.88 0.94
BUTANOL 0 0 0
1-PRO-01 0 0 0
WATER 0.05 0.11 0.05
CARBO-01 0.00 0 0
BUTANE 0.01 0.01 0.01
35
8.4 Distillation Column - DC101
Fig 8.4: Distillation Column DC101
Table 8.4: DC101 Stream Summary
13 (FEED) 14 (BOTTOMS) 15 (DISTILLATE )
Mass Flows (kg/hr) 9856.27 2319.36 7536.91
Mass Fractions
MALEI-01 0.01 0.05 5.97E-15
HYDRO-01 0.00 1.22E-47 0.00
TETRA-01 0.72 1.05E-09 0.94
BUTANOL 0.01 0.02 1.14E-05
1-PRO-01 0 0.00 6.53E-05
WATER 0.26 0.93 0.05
CARBO-01 0.00 1.76E-25 0.00
BUTANE 0 1.84E-08 0.01
36
8.5 Distillation Column - DC102
Fig 8.5: Distillation Column DC102
Table 8.5: DC 102 Stream Summary
19 (FEED) 20 (BOTTOMS) 21 (DISTILLATE )
Mass Flows (kg/hr) 7536.9 4637.04 3169.86
Mass Fractions
MALEI-01 6.04E-15 1.04E-14 1.68E-22
HYDRO-01 1.52E-06 1.46E-55 3.63E-06
TETRA-01 0.94 0.98 0.88
BUTANOL 1.15E-05 1.97E-05 1.01E-07
1-PRO-01 6.59E-05 0.00 6.97E-06
WATER 0.05 0.02 0.11
CARBO-01 0.00 2.78E-27 0.00
BUTANE 0.01 3.10E-05 0.01
37
8.6 Overall Mass Balance
This chapter concerns with doing linear mass balance. To satisfy the degrees of freedom we
take an assumption of sharp separation in the product streams of Flash and Distillation
Column.
Key Points from Patent:
1. Selectivity of THF is 98%
2. H2:MAH feed ratio lies in the range 50:1 to 500:1
3. Amount of THF in the distillate part of DC-101 is 95% (Azeotropic composition)
4. Overall conversion is 100% of Maleic Anhydride
Points to note:
1. Basis chosen - H2:MAH = 100:1 such that feed to the reactor is 101 moles/hr
2. The distillate of DC-102 will contain THF and water in the azeotropic composition at the
pressure at which the DC-102 is operated. (Azeotropic Mole fraction of THF is 0.64 at
P=8 bar)
Assumptions:
1. Main reaction has 98% conversion [Chosen logically since 98% selectivity of main
product is given]
2. Side reactions have 1% conversion each
3. As per literature, we normally purge 1% and recycle 99% as the raw materials form a
major cost (around 50%)
38
Step 1:
Now, using the above facts mass balance is carried out. As mentioned above, basis is chosen
and knowing the conversion of each of the reaction, mass balance is carried out on the
reactor. (All numbers are shown in the Excel file)
Step 2:
Now, the products of the reactor are to be separated into 2 streams viz., one which will give
the products and the one which needs to be recycled. This mass balance is done using
Flash. Since recycle is done a fraction of that is purged to avoid accumulation of the inerts
which are produced by the side reaction.
Step 3:
Now the mass balance is done on the first Distillation column. We use the fact stated in the
patent and do a linear mass balance. We are able to separate water as residue and send
purer azeotropic mixture of THF Water in the distillate.
Step 4:
The DC-102 distillation is operated at a higher pressure due to Pressure Swing Distillation
method which helps us in obtaining THF. In this distillation column, we get pure THF as
bottom product because THF-Water form a minimum boiling azeotrope and hence the
azeotrope goes in the upper product part of the DC-102. Now this is recycled to DC-101 and
a part of it is purged.
Overall mass needs to be conserved and it is being followed in the mass balance carried
out.
The molar basis chosen was 1:100 for Maleic Anhydride:H2 (as per patent).
Mass Inlet (tones/year) Mass Outlet (gms)
65,050 65,050
39
9. Sensitivity Analysis
9.1 DC101
a. Studying global and local effects on simulation on varying Input Feed

Stage
Sensitivity done around value: feed stage - 5
Variation in global parameters

We find out that THF purity as well as its mass flow rate increases to very
small extent then approaches the constant value
Fig 9.1 : Change in purity of THF in Distillate of DC-102 on changing

input feed stage in DC-101
Fig 9.2 : Change in mass flow rate of THF in Distillate of DC-102 on

changing input feed stage in DC-101
40
Variation in local parameters
We find out Water flow rate in bottom stream of DC-101 increases slightly on
increment in feed stage then becomes constant; this implies not much effect
of feed stage on flow rates and purity.
Fig 9.3 : Change in mass flow rate of water in bottom of DC-101 on

Fig 9.4 : Change in mass flow rate of THF in Distillate of DC-101 on

41
Fig 9.5 : Change in mole fraction of water in bottom of DC-101 on
9.2 DC102
i) Variation of Purity and Flow rate of THF via bottom of DC 102 against feed
stage
Fig 9.6 : Change in purity of THF in Bottom of DC-102 on changing input

feed stage in DC-102
42
Fig 9.7 : Change in mass flow rate of THF in Bottom of DC-102 on
We have Feed stage as stage number 5. So, we have done a sensitivity analysis to check
what happens to the product (THF) flow if we vary feed stage from 3 to 6. We can look from
the above 2 graphs, that there is a meagre change in the purity and flow rate of THF on
changing the feed stage in the vicinity of the chosen feed stage. Hence, we can conclude that
feed stage is insensitive towards purity of THF.
43
10. Equipment Sizing & Costing
10.1 Reactor
Cost of Vessel
We are using a fixed bed reactor but, kinetics data is not available for our reactions so we
assumed it to be a vertical column and calculations are done accordingly. For material of
construction we are taking carbon steel because constituents of the process are
non-corrosive in nature.
𝞽 = Time constant for fixed bed reactor = 13.6 sec
3
Vflow =
Feed volumetric flow rate = 0.577 m /sec
V reactor
τ= V f low
Vreactor = Volume of the reactor 7.85 m3
Assuming a ratio of L/D = 2

where, L = length of vessel
D = internal diameter of vessel
We get, L = 3.41 m
D = 1.7 m
For cylinder thickness calculation,

P *D i
t ≥ 2[S a *E − 0.6*P ]
where, t = Thickness of vessel
P = Design Pressure
Sa = Allowable Stress
E = Weld joint efficiency = 0.85
For top and bottom thickness calculation,

P* R c * W
t ≥ 2[S a * E − 0.1 * P ]
44
P = Design pressure
Rc = Crown radius = Vessel inner diameter
W = 0.25*[ 3 + (Rc/Rk)0.5 ]
Rk = Knuckle radius = 6% of crown radius
After calculating the thickness, we add corrosion and milling tolerance to the thickness to
calculate trecommended.
t+ε
t recommended = m
1 − 100
where, 𝞊 = corrosion allowance = 1.5 mm
m = milling tolerance = 12.5%
After obtaining the thickness required for construction, we calculate the weight of material
required for the construction of vessel.
Vessel length (L) = 3.41 m
Vessel inner diameter (D) = 1.7 m
Vessel thickness = 25.71 mm
Head & Bottom thickness = 61.45 mm
Volume of MoC = 0.767 m3
Density of MoC = 7850 kg/m3
Weight of MoC (W) = 6021.34 kg = 13246.96 lb
For costing of reactor vessel we have followed the method stated in the book21
C = F m *C b + C a $
C b = 1.218 * exp [ 9.1 - 0.2889 * ln(W) + 0.04576 * ln(W) * ln(W) ] $
21
Chemical Process Equipment - Selection and Design 2nd edition by James R. Couper W. Roy Penney James
R. Fair
45
C a = 300 * D 0.7396 * L 0.7066 $
where, Fm = cost factor associated with material of construction
Cb = cost accounting the weight of material used
Ca = cost accounting the platforms and ladders with the vessel
C = total cost of vessel
Ca = $ 1,690.92
Cb = $ 43,372.57
C = $ 45,064 (in 2003)
C = $ 75,891 (in 2008) = INR 53,12,335
Cost of Catalyst
In the fixed bed reactor, we are using a catalyst comprising of mixture of oxides of copper,
zinc, aluminium & chromium. The composition of constituents of the catalyst was taken
from the Budge et al22. We have assumed that 80% of the total volume of reactor is
occupied by the catalyst bed, 20% has been left for the inflow & outflow of reactant &
product streams. We have assumed a void fraction of 0.4 for the catalyst bed. Data
regarding catalyst life was not available so, we have assumed that 10 % of the total catalyst
weight will be replaced every year during shutdown period.
Volume of reactor (V) = 7.85 m3
Void fraction (vf) = 0.4
Volume occupied by catalyst = 0.8 * V * ( 1-vf )
= 3.76 m3
Table 10.1: Catalyst Composition
Sr. No Catalyst Percentage Density Weight Required

(%) (kg/m3) (kg)
1. Copper Oxide 45 6000 8929.02
2. Zinc Oxide 20 5600 3968.45
3. Aluminium Oxide 30 3950 5952.68
4. Chromium Oxide 5 5220 992.11
22
VAPOR-PHASE HYDROGENATION OF MALEIC ANHYDRIDE TO TETRAHYDROFURAN AND GAMMA-BUTYRO
-LACTONE, PATENT NUMBER 4,965,378
46
Average Density = [ ∑ Densityi*Percentagei ] /100 where i = 1,...,4 (Sr no.)
= 52966 kg/m3
Total weight of = Average Density*Volume occupied by catalyst
catalyst (WT)
= 19842.28 kg
Weight required of = (WT*Percentagei)/100 where i = 1,...,4 (Sr no.)
ith catalyst
Table 10.2: Catalyst Cost
Sr. Catalyst Cost Weight Cost

No ( $ per tonne) Required ($)
(tonne)
1. Copper Oxide 9275 8.929.02 91,290.31
2. Zinc Oxide 2400 3968.45 10,498.79
3. Aluminium Oxide 545 5952.68 3,576.15
4. Chromium Oxide 3850 992.11 4,210.72
Total Cost in USD 1,09,575.72
Total cost of catalyst = $ 1,09,575.72 = INR 76,70,300

Total cost of reactor = Total cost of vessel + Total cost of catalyst
= INR 1,29,82,636
Total cost of reactor including = INR 1,29,82,636*1.15
installation cost
= INR 1,49,30,031
47
10.2 Flash
Calculation for sizing and costing of flash vessel will be done as stated in the book23.
First step is to calculate a vapour liquid separation factor Sv,

ρv
S v = [ ρl
] 0.5
𝝆liq = Liquid Phase Density = 930.01 kg/m3
𝝆vap = Vapour Phase Density = 2.10 kg/m3
Sv = Vapour-liquid separation factor = 0.047
Next we use below mentioned graph to find Kv, the design velocity factor. This plot is for
85% flooding
Sv
Fig 10.1: Design Velocity Factor v/s Vapour-Liquid Separation Factor Curve24
Kv = 0.42
Using Kv, we calculate (Uv)max , then using (Uv)max and Qv we calculate Amin and thus Dmin .
ρ liq − ρ vap
(U v ) max = K v [ ρ vap
] 0.5
Qv
A min = (U v ) max
23
Chemical Process Equipment Selection and Design by Stanley M. Walas
24
48
4*A min
D min = [ π
] 0.5
Qv = Volumetric flow rate = 91.53 m3
Amin = Minimum vessel cross sectional area
Dmin = Minimum vessel diameter
For Flash F101

(Uv)max = Kv[(𝝆liq - 𝝆vap)/𝝆vap]0.5 ft/sec
(Uv)max = 8.82 ft/sec = 2.68 m/s
Amin = Qv/(Uv)max m2 = 0.63 m2
Dmin = (4*Amin/𝜋)0.5 = 0.9 m
Assuming a ratio of L/D = 2.5
where, L = length of vessel
D = internal diameter of vessel
We get, L = 2.25 m
For thickness calculation,

PD i
t ≥ 2[S a *E − 0.6*P ]
P = Design Pressure
After calculating the thickness, we add corrosion and milling tolerance to the thickness to
calculate trecommended.
t+ε
t recommended = m
1 − 100
where, 𝞊 = Corrosion allowance = 1.5 mm
49
m = Milling tolerance = 12.5%
trecommended = 14.54 mm
After obtaining the thickness required for construction, we calculate the weight of material
required for the construction of vessel.
Vessel length (L) = 2.25 m
Vessel inner diameter (D) = 0.9 m
Vessel thickness = 14.54 mm
Volume of MoC = 0.095 m3
Density of MoC = 7850 kg/m3
Weight of MoC (W) = 981.46 kg = 2159.21 lb
Table 10.3: Flash Vessel Sizing
Flash Lengt Inner Vessel Head & Volume Weight Weight

Vessel h (m) diamete Thickness Bottom of MOC (kg) (lb)
r (m) (mm) Thickness (m3 )
(mm)
F101 2.25 0.9 14.54 1.98 0.097 768.53 1690.78
F102 3.67 1.06 2.08 1.51 0.028 221.87 488.13
For costing of reactor vessel we have followed the method stated in the book25
C = F m *C b + C a $
C b = 1.218 * exp [ 9.1 - 0.2889 * ln(W) + 0.04576 * ln(W) * ln(W) ] $
C a = 300 * D 0.7396 * L 0.7066 $

where, Fm = Cost factor associated with material of construction
Cb = Cost accounting the weight of material used
Ca = Cost accounting the platforms and ladders with the vessel
25
R. Fair
50
C = Total cost of vessel
Ca = $ 803.91
Cb = $ 17,614.16
C = $ 18,418 (in 2003)
C = $ 31,017 (in 2008) = INR 21,71,224
Table 10.4: Flash Costing
Flash Ca Cb C C C

Vesse (USD) (USD) (USD) (USD) (INR)
l (2003) (2018) (2018)
F101 803.91 15962.73 16,767 28,236 19,76,545
F102 1255.88 10534.67 11,791 19,856 13,89,936
Total Cost 33,66,481
Total cost with installation = 33,66,481*1.1 = INR 37,03,129

Sample for sizing of distillation column (DC-101) is shown below and for DC-102 column
the calculations are done in similar manner.
Size Estimation:
Sizing of shell
To find this we need to calculate diameter and height of column.
Diameter calculation: As we know that flooding velocity decides limit on the max
allowable vapour flow to the column. So using Souders Brown equation we found Dmin for
rectifying and stripping section then took maximum diameter as esign diameter.
51
Fig 10.2: Graph for calculating Flooding Velocity26
Generally design velocity is 80% of flooding velocity. We have/will generate following

information:
Table 10.5: Distillation Column Information - DC101
Section Rectifying Stripping
Distillate flow rate - cubic-feet/sec 32.520
Reflux 0.440
Vapour flow rate (Wv) 46.829 22.147
Liquid flow rate (Wl) 14.309 0.024
Density (vapour)(gm/cc) 0.002 0.001
Density (liquid) (gm/cc) 0.870 0.890
x-axis of Graph 0.015 0.00004

(L/G*sqrt(Rhog/Rhol)^0.5)
Tray Spacing (inch) 24.000 24.000
C (y-axis of Graph) 0.380 0.400
Ug (Flooding velocity) - fps (feet per 7.725 11.926

second)
% of flooding 0.800 0.800
Ug allowable 6.180 9.541
26
52
Diameter (ft) 3.106 1.719
Diameter of Sieve Tray - calculation 0.947 0.524

(m)
Diameter of Column (m) - Aspen 0.939 0.613
Area of sieve tray 0.704 0.216
Diameter of Column from 1.079 0.597

calculation (m)
Area of sieve tray - Aspen 0.483 0.51
Diameter of sieve tray - aspen (m) 0.784 0.612
Table 10.6: DC101 and DC102 Design Parameters

DC101 DC102
Diameter (m) 1.079 0.589
Number of stages 16 20
Tray efficiency 0.7 0.7
Number of trays 22 28
Buffer height (m) 2.5 2.5
Height of Column net (m) 15.302 18.959
Reboiler and Condenser

Calculation for area is done similar to a heat exchanger and applied suitable factor, for
pressure, tube length etc. at the time of costing.
In case of kettle reboiler, shape factor of 1.35 is used and considered for the cost calculation
while for condenser (DC-101 uses fixed head and DC-102 uses floating head, this is decided
on account of temperature difference between hot and cold ends)
Table 10.7: Areas of Reboiler and Condenser
Area (m2) Reboiler Condenser
DC-101 26.99 28.05
DC-102 41.76 2.90
53
Cost Estimation
Cost of shell
a. We can calculate cost per height of column given column diameter from
graph given below:
Fig 10.3: Cost of shell against weight for Distillation column27
Table 10.8: Shell cost of DC-101 and DC-102
Shell cost USD Height (in ft) Shell cost USD Shell cost INR
(per ft) (1987) (2018)
DC-101 1032 42 43,344 57,46,737
DC-102 946 54 51,084 67,72,940
27
Bookmatter Chemical Engineering Economics
https://www.scribd.com/document/392007315/1989-Bookmatter-ChemicalEngineeringEconomics
54
Cost of Sieve Trays
Given column diameter we can calculate installed cost of tray and apply cost index to scale
cost upto 2018.
Fig 10.4: Installed cost of sieve trays against column diameter28
Table 10.9: Total cost of Trays - DC101 and DC102
Number of Column Installed Total cost INR

trays Diameter (m) Cost/tray USD (2018)
(2002)
DC-101 22 1.079 400 14,34,519
DC-102 28 0.589 320 12,26,297
Cost of Reboiler
We have used graph (shown below) mentioned in lecture of Sieder. To read from graph all
you need is total heat transfer area, which is calculated using standard heat exchanger
calculation.
28
Plant design and economics for chemical engineers by Peters, M. S., K. D. Timmerhaus
55
Fig 10.5: Cost of shell & tube heat exchanger against area29
Table 10.10: Reboiler cost of DC-101 and DC-102
Reboiler Pressure Pressure Tube Cost in 2000 Cost in 2018

Cost (USD) of reboiler correction length (USD) (INR)
from (psi) factor correction
graph factor
DC-101 22000 14.5 0.983 1.05 22,706.04 24,45,049
DC-102 24200 116.03 1.003 1.05 25,498.27 27,45,724
Cost of Condenser
Fixed and floating head readings are taken from above graph corresponding to heat
transfer area as calculated above.
29
Lec 06 Equipment Sizing and Capital Cost Estimation
https://www.seas.upenn.edu/~dlewin/CACHE_Workshop/LECTURE_06_Equipment_Sizing_and_Capital_Cost
_Estimation.pdf
56
Table 10.11: Condenser cost of DC-101 and DC-102
Condenser Pressure Pressure Tube Cost in 2000 Cost in 2018

Cost (USD) of reboiler correction length (USD) (INR)
from (psi) factor correction
graph factor
DC-101 8800 14.5 0.983 1.05 9,802.41 9,78,020
DC-102 7700 116.03 1.003 1.05 8,113.08 8,73,640
10.4 Heat Exchangers

We have 8 heat exchangers in our plant. All the heat exchangers are modelled as shell &
tube heat exchanger. In coolers cooling water is used as a cooling agent, in heaters different
types of steam are used according to the requirement. Material of construction used is
carbon steel.
We have performed sample calculation for the H105.
Process stream is at 41℃ & 8 bar pressure and needs to be heated upto 120℃ & 8 bar.
We are using MP steam at 175℃ & 10 bar to heat the process stream, it will cool down to
174℃ & 10 bar.
ΔTLMTD = 88.7 ℃
Q = 377568.11 Watt
U = 100 BTU / (hr ft2 ℉) = 567 W/[ m2*K]
A = Q / ( A * ΔT LM T D )
A = 7.5 m2
Area obtained from Aspen comes out to be 8.49 m2. Both the areas are reasonably close.
For costing of heat exchangers we have used the book30 as the reference performed
calculations as mentioned in the book.
C = 1.218 * f d * f m * f p * C b
C b = exp [8.821 − 0.30863 * ln(A) + 0.0681 * ln(A) * ln(A) ]
30
R. Fair
57
where, C = Total cost of heat exchanger
fd = Cost factor which accounts for the type of heat exchanger used
fp = Cost factor associated with operating pressure
fm = Cost factor accounting for material of construction used
Cb = basic cost of heat exchanger for a defined area
A = area in sq feet
Table 10.12: Heat exchanger type factor
Type fd
Fixed-Head Exp [-1.1156 + 0.0906 * ln(A)]
Kettle Reboiler 1.35
U-Tube Exp [-0.9816 + 0.0830 * ln(A)]
Table 10.13: Heat exchanger pressure factor
Pressure Range (psi) fp
100-300 0.7771 + 0.04981*ln(A)
300-600 1.0305 + 0.07140*ln(A)
600-900 1.1400 + 0.12088*ln(A)
Table 10.14: Heat exchanger Material factor
Material: Shell/Tube fm
CS/CS 1
CS/304L stainless 1.9
CS/316 stainless 2.2
58
Table 10.15: Heat exchanger double pipe pressure factor
Pressure (Bar) fd
≤4 1.00
4-6 1.10
6-7 1.25
From these calculations we obtain the cost of heat exchanger in USD in the year 2002.
Using Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for the year 2002 and 2018 we obtain
the cost in USD in the year 2018 and than in INR in the year 2018.
CEPCI (2002) = 359.90
CEPCI (2018) = 606.10
1 USD ($) = INR 70
Table 10.16: Heat Exchanger Costing
Heat Exchanger Type Area (m2) Cost (in INR)
E101 Heater 25.94 8,09,575
E102 Heater 6.71 5,83,122
E103 Heater 5.62 5,42,585
E104 Heater 22.07 8,16,394
E105 Heater 8.49 4,78,313
E106 Heater 42.95 15,95,539
E107 Cooler 123.10 34,66,098
E108 Cooler 233.40 37,56,840
E109 Cooler 27.99 12,14,313
59
10.5 Compressor
Compressors can be of two types- positive displacement compressors and dynamic
compressors. Dynamic compressors can be further divided as Axial and Centrifugal
compressors. Analysing our plant condition i.e. high flow rates and high pressure difference
we choose centrifugal as our type of compressors.
We calculate the work done by the formula -
W = P 1 * V 1(n/(n − 1)) [(P 2/P 1) (n−1/n) − 1]
But since the value of n depends upon the design and operation of the machine (we know
this from slides of course- Process equipment selection) and as our references did not
mention anything about value of ‘n’ we assume it to be equal to (Cp/Cv). We calculate the
work done as an isentropic process but to approximate towards actual answer we used
polytropic efficiency by using relation between polytropic and isentropic efficiency.
E c = (P 2/P 1) ( −1)/Y
− 1/ (P 2/P 1) ( −1)/Y Ep
−1
Ec = Isentropic efficiency
Ep = Polytropic efficiency
Isentropic efficiency is found from the graph-
Fig. 10.6: Isentropic Efficiency v/s Compression ratio31
Next step is calculating work required -
31
Plant design and economics for chemical engineers by Peters, M. S., K. D. Timmerhaus
60
Work required (W’) = W/ Efficiency
Mass flow rate (m) = Flow rate / V1
Hence, Power required = W’*m
[Here P1, V1 stands for pressure and volume at the initial conditions and P2, V2
corresponds to the final conditions, in theoretical calculation we assume no change in
)
temperature and

Table 10.17: Power requirement of Compressor
COMPRESSOR Power (kW) Power (kW) - Aspen
C101 206.05 206.01
Cost Estimation
For cost estimation, the cost of compressor is calculated as a relation of its power [10.1] -
C ost = 7.9 * (P ower) 0.62
where, Cost is in dollars
Power is in horsepowers (=1.34*Power(in KWh))
Now since these cost refer to the year 2002 we need to use cost index to map it to the
current year and also convert it to Rupees from Dollars.
Table 10.18: Cost of Compressor
COMPRESSOR Power (kW)-Aspen Cost (in ₹)
C101 206.01 2,80,38,840
61
10.6 Pump
Analysing our flow rates and head requirements we chose centrifugal pumps from various
types of pumps available.
We first calculate the work done by the formula-
W p = (ΔP /ρ) + (ΔP f /ρ) + g * ΔZ

Wp = Pump work J/Kg
ΔP = Pressure difference N/m2
ΔZ = Difference in elevation, here we assume it to be 0 since we are dealing with the

preliminary design and not the detailed one, hence we don’t know the elevation in
the plant
ΔP f = Pressure drop due to friction in pipe, fitting and equipment, here we assume
it to be 0 since we are dealing with preliminary design and not detailed one hence
we don’t know the exact piping conditions
ρ = Density of the fluid (Kg/m3)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
Now Power required (P) = (Wp*m)/E
m = Mass flow rate kg/s
E = Pump efficiency
P = Power to be supplied to the pump driven from an external source, W
Density and operating conditions are found from Aspen.

Table 10.19: Power requirement of Pumps
PUMP Power (kW) Power (kW) - Aspen
P101 16.97 16.96
P102 4.21 4.21
62

Cost Estimation
For cost estimation, the cost of pump is calculated as a relation of its flow rate and head
[10.1]-
Cost = Cb*FM*FT
FM = from the table provided in the book as per material used (Cast steel)
ˆ ˆ ˆ
Cb = 1.39 * e (8.833−0.6019*(ln(f l*((H) 0.5) + 0.0519*(ln(f l*(H) 0.5) 2))))
ˆ ˆ ˆ
FT = e (9.8849+ (−1.6164*(ln(f l*(H) 0.5))+0.0834*(ln(f l*(H) 0.5)) 2))
Where, fl = Flow rate in gpm (1 m3/s = 15850.32314 gpm), H = Head(ft.)
Factors FT, Cb are mentioned in [10.1] as part of cost estimation of multistage centrifugal
pump.
Now since these cost refer to the year 2002 we need to use cost index to map it to the
current year.
Table 10.20: Cost of Pumps
PUMP Power (kW)- Aspen Cost (in ₹) - 2018
P101 16.97 42,08,832
P102 4.21 4,31,632
63
11. Plant Economics
11.1 Major Equipment Costing
The equipment costing methods employed are taken from the books Peters et. al. and
Walas et. al.
The dollar to INR conversion factor of 70 is used.
The Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index(CEPCI) is used to calculate the cost to year
2018.
Table 11.1: All Major Equipment Cost
Equipment Total Equipment Cost (2018 INR)
Flash 40,73,442
Heat Exchanger 1,60,47,960
Reactor 1,44,07,305
Distillation System 2,89,05,379
Pump 89,19,910
Compressor 2,92,96,254
Total Cost 10,16,50,253
11.2 Capital Investment Estimation

The total equipment costs are used to calculate the total capital investment in the plant.
The working capital capital is calculated as 15% of the total capital investment (TCI). The
total capital investment (TCI) and fixed capital investment (FCI) estimates including direct
and indirect plant costs are calculated below.
64
Table 11.2: Total Capital Investment
Direct Costs % of FCI Normalized % of FCI Cost
Purchased Equip. Cost 30 19 10,16,50,253

(Delivery + Installation)
Instrumentation and 8 5 2,71,06,734

control
Piping 15 10 5,08,25,126
Electrical Systems 10 6 3,38,83,418
Buildings 10 6 3,38,83,418
Yard Improvements 2 1 67,76,684
Service Facilities 25 16 8,47,08,544
Land 2 1 67,76,684
Total Direct Cost 34,56,10,860
Indirect Costs % of FCI Normalized % of FCI Cost
Engineering and 20 13 6,77,66,835

supervision
Construction Expenses 15 10 5,08,25,126
Legal Expenses 2 1 67,76,684
Contractor’s Fee 5 3 1,69,41,709
Contingency 10 6 3,38,83418
Total Indirect Cost 17,61,93,772
Total FCI 52,18,04,632
Working Capital 9,20,83,170
Total Capital Investment 61,38,87,802
65
11.3 Revenue Calculation
The revenue generated from the plant is calculated on year basis in the given Table 11.3
Table 11.3: Revenue Calculation
Product Flow Rate (tons/year) Price/ton Total Revenue /year (INR)
THF 41500 49000 2,03,35,00,000
11.4 Raw Material & Total Product Cost

The total product cost is estimated from the cost of raw materials. The raw material being
used in the plant are Hydrogen and Maleic Anhydride (MAH). Cost of the raw material are
listed below.
Table 11.4: Raw Material Cost
Constituent Flow Rates (ton/year) Cost/ton Total Cost (INR)
MAH 59449.8 39200 2,33,04,32,160
Hydrogen 6666.38 33.41 2,22,708
Utilities 74,11,167
Total Cost 2,33,80,66,035
Table 11.5: Total Product Cost
Particular % of Product Cost Normalized Cost (INR)
Raw material 45 44.8 2,33,06,54,868,
Operating Labour 2 2 10,35,84,661
Supervising Labour 3 3 15,53,76,991
Catalyst 3 3 15,53,76,991
Repair & 5 5 25,89,61,652
66
maintenance
Operating Supplies 1 1 5,17,92,330
Laboratory Charges 1 1 5,17,92,330
Patents 2 2 10,35,84,661
Fixed charges 10 10 51,79,23,304
Plant Overhead Cost 12 11.9 62,15,07,965
Admin Costs 1.5 1.5 7,76,88,496
Distribution & 10 10 51,79,23,304

Marketing
R&D Cost 5 5 25,89,61,652
Total 100.5 100 5,20,51,29,204
11.5 Lang Factor

Lang Factor for a chemical processing plant is defined as the ratio of Total Fixed capital
investment and Purchased Equipment Cost.
For our calculations,
Purchased Equipment Cost = 101,522,524
Total Fixed Capital Investment = 521,148,955
Lang Factor = 5.13
11.6 Turnover Ratio

Turnover ratio for a chemical processing plant is defined as the ratio of Total Revenue
generated in a year and Total Fixed Capital Investment.
For our calculations,
Revenue Generated = 20,33,500,000
Total Fixed Capital Investment = 521,148,955
Turnover Ratio = 3.9
67
11.7 Payback Period
Payback period is defined as the time after which you recover your total fixed capital
investment.
The price of our final products as well as raw materials is considered to be constant for
profit calculations. A total of 90 percent of FCI excluding the land cost is considered
depreciable over a period of 10 years. A linear depreciation model is used to estimate the
average depreciation occurring for the plant.
A bank rate of 6 percent over Total Capital estimate is also assumed.
Total depreciable FCI = INR 47,89,36,834
Total depreciation per year = INR 4,78,93,683
Total Product Cost = INR 1,62,69,44,825
Base taxation rate = 30%
Taxation including surcharge = 33%
TCI = INR 47,89,36,834
Average yearly profit = INR 7,46,50,054
Bank Interest = 6%
Interest Possible on TCI = Bank Rate * TCI = INR 2,87,36,210

Depreciable F CI + Interest on T otal Capital
P ayback P eriod = Avg yearly P rof it +Avg yearly depreciation
Payback Period = 5.15 years
68
12. Process Control and Instrumentation
We will treat DC101 as an independent unit for process control as minor disturbances in
this unit can directly affect the quality of product produced. Therefore, we ensure the
quality of product in distillate of DC101.
We will later integrate the CO103 and F102 in process control to stabilize the feed to
DC102.
For Designing the control strategy for Distillation column the book “Distillation Design and
Control” by William Luyben is referred.
12.1.1 Degree of Freedom
The degrees of freedom of a process system are the independent variables that must be
specified in order to define the process completely. [An approach was developed by
Waller, V. (1992)]
There are five control valves, one on each of the following streams: distillate, reflux,
coolant, bottoms and heating medium. The feed stream is considered being set by the
upstream process. In this way, the column will have five degrees of freedom. Inventories in
any process must be always controlled which involve liquid levels and pressures. This
means that the liquid level in the reflux drum, the liquid level in the column base, and the
column pressure must be controlled.
Figure 12.1 - Degrees of Freedom Analysis of Distillation Column [12.1]32
32
Degree of Freedom Analysis for Distillation Column
69
To find the DOF we count the total number streams involved and separately add up extra
phases i.e. add up all occurrences of phases greater than one in all units. The number of
control degrees of freedom is the difference between these two numbers.
egrees of Freedom = 5
From, Theory, D
So the number of degrees of freedom is 5. However, a typical control strategy for such a
process would use only 4 of these - feedrate, column pressure, top and bottom composition.
This is because the column and condenser are normally maintained at the same pressure.
Same is the case in or DC101 system.
12.1.2 Variable Involved
Controlled Variable: The process variable which we want to maintain at particular value
Manipulated Variable: Process variable that is adjusted to bring the controlled variable
back to set point.
Disturbance Variable: Any process variable that can cause the controlled variable to
change.
Table 12.1: Variables in Process and Instrumentation Diagram
Controlled Variable Manipulated Variable Disturbance Variable
distillate composition distillate flow feed flow

bottom composition
accumulator level bottom flow feed composition feed
temperature
sump level reflux flow
reboiler heat supply
column pressure reboiler duty condenser cooling supply
condenser duty and weather
http://homepages.ed.ac.uk/jwp/control06/controlcourse/restricted/course/fourth/course/module3-
1.html
70
12.1.2 Pressure Control
Pressure is often considered the prime distillation control variable, as it affects

temperature, condensation, vapourisation, compositions, volatilities and almost any
process that takes place inside the column. Column pressure control is frequently
integrated with the condenser control system. Pressure is adjusted by varying the flow of
vapor from the reflux drum.
Fig 12.2: Pressure Control [12.2]33
12.1.2 Reboiler Control
This is required to provide good response to column disturbances, and to protect the
column from disturbances occurring in the heating medium.
The reboiler boil-up is regulated either:

(1) to achieve desired product purity
(2) to maintain a constant boil-up rate
For inlet steam controlled reboiler, the heat transfer rate is regulated by varying the steam
control valve opening, thereby changing the steam condensing pressure and temperature.
33
For Pressure Control of Distillation Colum
http://www.separationprocesses.com/Operations/POT_Chp03.htm
71
Fig. 12.3: Reboiler control [12.2]
When an additional boil-up is required, the valve opens and raises the reboiler pressure,
which increase the temperature, and in turn increases the boil-up rate. This scheme has the
disadvantage of non-linear relationship between pressure and boil-up, and is affected by
fouling in the reboiler.
12.1.3 Controlling Top Composition
The other to be controlled is the composition of the tops product. The reason is that the
final product is directly linked to the top of DC101 hence it is important to control its
composition.
Top Composition is controlled by controlling the reflux ratio of DC101.
Temperature at a particular stage in a distillation column can be directly related to

composition in the distillate stream. We detect this change in temperature and this is then
cascade this to the reflux stream.
But change in concentration can be related to change in temperature inside the distillation
column only when a sufficient gradient is present. And in our system such a gradient is
available between tray 4-5-6.
72
Fig 12.4 Temperature Profile of DC101
Figure 12.5 - Reflux Ratio Variation [12.1]
12.1.3 Maintaining Level in Distillation Column
We need to make sure that there is required head in distillation column is maintained.
Here, we can manipulate it with adjusting the feed rate or rate to release of water at
bottom.
The Level sensor of distillation column is then cascaded with flow sensor in the water exit
line and hence liquid level in distillation column can be maintained.
12.1.4 Feed Control
Variations in the feed stream are very possible due to upstream processes. We need to
make sure that feed to distillation is maintained at constant rate. Here, a simple flow
controller can do this task.
73
12.2 Control Strategy for F102 System
12.2.1 Cooler
Variations in the temperature of the feed stream to this cooler can be present due to
upstream processes. We need to make sure that the outlet comes at a constant temperature
of 40. Therefore we sense the temperature of outlet stream of Heat Exchanger and this is in
turn controlled by the rate of cooling water.
Variations in flow in the outlet are okay because F102 can cope with this changes.
12.2.2 Level Control for F102
We need to make sure that there is required head in flash is maintained. Here, we can
manipulate it with adjusting the feed rate or rate to release of fluid at bottom.
The Level sensor of distillation column is then cascaded with flow sensor in the water exit
line and hence liquid level in distillation column can be maintained.
12.2.3 Pressure Control for F102
We need to make sure that operates at a constant pressure. The top of the flash is a purge
stream to remove the minimal hydrogen impurity on this loop.
The pressure in this vessel is adjusted by controlling the outlet of this line.
12.2.4 Controller for Pump
Fig. 12.6: Pump Control
A pump is very sensitive to flow to it. If not properly maintained can shut down.
Therefore a controller to this is very important.
In this type of control scheme if flow to pump reduces the valve opens and liquid start
flowing in the pump loop. When a considerable flow is achieved it is noted by the flow
sensor and and then the valve can close as the pump is now safe from cavitation.
74
12.3 Overall Control Diagram
Fig 12.7: Overall control Diagram
75
13. Environmental Impact Assessment
In theory, our plant is not emitting any harmful gases in the atmosphere. In our flowsheet,
we have 7 boundary streams. Two of these boundary streams are input streams from
which maleic anhydride & hydrogen enter the system. Remaining 5 streams include purge
streams from various equipments and stream from the bottom of distillation columns.
Following table gives an account of what is being emitted in the environment by boundary
streams.
Table 13.1: Emissions in kilograms/day
Amount
Emissions Process
(kg/day)
Maleic Anhydride From the bottom of DC101 2894.01
Hydrogen Purge from F102, separator S1 1636.60
Tetrahydrofuran Purge from F102, separator S1 & separator S2 2680.11
Butanol Bottom of DC101 & DC 102 1143.48
CO2 Purge from F102, separator S1 12.93
Butane Purge from F102 & separator S2 152.81
76
13.1 Emissions from Boundary Streams
13.1.1 Emissions from Stream number 31
Stream number 31 is purge stream of flash F102. This stream is at 40℃ & 1 bar pressure.
Table 13.2: Emission from stream no. 31
Component Mass Fraction Mass Flows (kg/day)
Maleic Anhydride 3.31E-17 4.98876E-14
Hydrogen 0.036 54.82152
Tetrahydrofuran 0.85 1280.04
Butanol 4.33E-05 0.0651912
Propanol 1.70E-05 0.0255708
Water 0.03 48.6912
Carbon Dioxide 0.007 10.945368
Butane 0.07 110.94432
THF is highly soluble in acetone and benzene. So we can do a Liquid-Liquid Extraction by

using acetone/benzene as a solvent and passing stream 31 from the bottom. THF will be
extracted in acetone/benzene and the remainder gases such as CO2, butane can be left into
air as per the regulatory norms. Butane in vapour phase is not harmful and thus can be let
in air. Else, we can do the following-
Firstly, we will increase the pressure of this stream, than flash this stream. This would
result in separation of THF & water mixer and rest of the components. THF & water will go
in liquid output of flash vessel and rest of the components in vapour phase. We can use THF
& water obtained here in DC101. In vapor phase which is being released, propanol, carbon
dioxide and butane is present, none of which are harmful.34
34
[13.1] MSDS Butane
http://www.afrox.co.za/en/images/Butane_tcm266-27624.pdf
[13.2] MSDS Butanol
https://www.cdhfinechemical.com/images/product/msds/19_1391926836_n-Butanol-CASNO-71-36-3-MSD
S.pdf
77
Stream number 28 is purge stream of separator S1. This stream is at 142℃ & 25 bar
pressure.
Maleic Anhydride 3.76E-06 0.007
Hydrogen 0.76 1581.78
Butanol 0.0001 0.270
Propanol 5.24E-06 0.01
Water 0.01 24.46
Carbon Dioxide 0.0009 1.99
Butane 0.0005 1.16
Hydrogen (H2): Majority of H2 is being released from S1 separator. The temperature of this
stream is 142℃ and pressure is 25 bar. The major components are H2, THF, water, butane
and CO2. All of these will be in liquid form except H2. So, we first we will flash this stream
to separate H2 and remaining components. This separated H2 can be sent back to the input.
In mixture of remaining components, we will reduce the pressure so that condensables can
be removed and THF and water can be fed into the DC101.
[13.3] MSDS Propanol

https://www.cdhfinechemical.com/images/product/msds/19_766128779_1-Propanol-CASNO-71-23-8-MSD
S.pdf
78
Stream number 22 is purge stream of separator S2. This stream is at 134.74℃ & 8 bar
pressure.
Hydrogen 4.88E-06 5.4E-03
Butanol 6.86E-06 0.007
Water 0.1 121.06
Carbon Dioxide E-04 0.17
Butane 3.7E-2 41.86
THF is highly soluble in acetone and benzene. So we can do a Liquid-Liquid Extraction by

using acetone/benzene as a solvent and passing stream 31 from the bottom. THF will be
extracted in acetone/benzene and the remainder gases such as CO2, butane can be left into
air as per the regulatory norms. Butane in vapour phase is not harmful and thus can be let
in air. Else we do the following.
In this stream THF mass fraction is 0.85, water mass fraction is 0.1 rest 0.05 comprises of
butane, carbon dioxide and remaining components. Here, first we will reduce the pressure
upto 1 bar , than cool down the stream upto 40-50℃. After reaching the temperature flash
the stream, we will get THF & water in liquid stream of flash vessel and rest of the
components will go in vapour stream. We can send the THF & water obtained here to
DC101.
79
Stream number 20 is bottom stream of distillation column DC102. This stream is at
140.95℃ & 8 bar pressure.
Hydrogen 2.35E-55 2.44498E-50
Butanol 1.25E-3 130.054
Water 1.19E-2 1239.69
Carbon Dioxide 8.64E-28 8.97418E-23
Butane 1.17E-05 1.21
This stream is our main product stream. THF mass fraction is 0.98
80
Stream number 14 is bottom stream of DC101 . This stream is at 97.04℃ & 1 bar pressure.
Maleic anhydride: Majority of maleic anhydride emission is coming from the bottom of
DC101 which is about 2.89 tons/day, which is a big number considering the fact it is one of
the raw material and is very expensive. So, we may want to recycle it. In order to recycle it
we need to remove water & butanol which is present in this stream along with maleic
anhydride. Butanol boils at about 117℃ and water at 100℃. Butanol and water form an
azeotrope which boils at about 90 ℃, also maleic anhydride boils at 200℃ . What we can
do here is to raise the temperature of this stream upto 150-170℃ and flash it. This will
separate all the components in the stream from maleic anhydride. Maleic anhydride will
leave the flash vessel in liquid phase and rest of the components in vapour phase.
Else we can do is that the temperature of this stream will be dropped to 50 degree, as
melting point of Maleic Anhydride is 65 degree, its state will change to solid form.
This solid can be recovered by filtration and rest can be emitted out.
Hydrogen 1.38E-47 2.44498E-50
Tetrahydrofuran 1.26E-10 102444.24
Butanol 1.81E-2 130.054
Propanol 5.76E-06 17.55
Water 0.92 1239.69
Carbon Dioxide 2.87E-26 8.97418E-23
Butane 4.08E-09 1.21
81
14. Heat Integration
14.1 Streams present in plant
14.1.1 Segregation to Sensible and Latent Heat part
Analysing the streams in the plant we found - 6 Cold stream and 4 Hot stream details of
which can be found in table below. FCph [W/C] and FCpc [W/C] represents ratio of change
in enthalpy to temperature over than enthalpy range.
Change in enthalpy values has been segregated into sensible and Latent heat part. To find
FCph and FCpc, we took out the latent heat part from total enthalpy given by aspen then
took ratio of remaining enthalpy with temperature change as shown in sample calculation
below.
Table 14.1: Stream listing for heat exchanger network
Sample Calculation (Steps are shown from 1-5):
1. Delta H(given by aspen) for E104 = 890908 W

2. Delta_T = 29
3. Sensible heat = 229828
4. Latent Heat = 661080
82
5. FCpc = Sensible heat / delta_T
= 7925.11 [W/C]
14.2 Problem table method for pinch analysis - Zone wise

stream matching
We have set HRAT = 10 C. After pinch analysis we found that above pinch point, there was
no possibility of heat integration as FCPh > FCpc.
While below the pinch temperature, we have integrated E107 with E101, E104, E105 as
FCph > FCpc, table is attached for below pinch point temperature, above pinch point stream
E102, E103, E106 and E107 (till pinch temperature) has to be cooled using utilities.
Table 14.2: Stream listing for heat exchanger network below pinch point
35
Table 14.3: Stream listing for heat exchanger network above pinch point
35
The green colour in Hot stream section shows that heat is available in this section and amount is mentioned
in Watts. The red colour in Cold stream shows that heat is required and amount is mentioned in Watts
83
We have used problem table method36 for pinch analysis, we found pinch temperature to
be 136 C.
For hot stream (Pinch temp) - 141 C
For cold stream (Pinch temp) - 131 C
Now, for E 110 (product stream) we would use cooling water which is discharged from
E109, E108 or E107 stream, in this way cost for cooling product would be negligible.
Cost of utility for all streams is shown in table 14.4 below.
Table 14.4: Utilities cost after heat integration
36
Harvard (18th ed.) - COULSON, J. M., RICHARDSON, J. F., & COULSON, J. M. (2002). Coulson & Richardson's
chemical engineering. Oxford, Butterworth-Heinemann.
84
a. Operating Cost before heat integration = INR 11,70,41,789
b. Operating Cost after heat integration = INR 8,16,02,985
c. Savings = INR 3,54,38,804
14.3 Heat Exchanger Network

Fully detailed heat exchanger network is shown below.
Figure 14.1: Heat exchanger network
Blue lines represent hot streams which are cooled with the means of heat exchange while
red line represent the cold streams which are heated via same heat exchange.
This represent process exchanger This represents Utility exchanger
HY - Heater; CY - Cooler
Where Y represents a Natural number
85

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CL 452 – Design Project

Suraj Malu: 150020042

Kanishka Soni: 150020068

Harshit Jain: 150020076

Kanishka Patil: 150020028

Sanidhya Pandey: 150020061

Department of Chemical Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology Bombay

This report entails information regarding production of Tetrahydrofuran (THF) using

1.2 Applications of Tetrahydrofuran 10

2. Market Survey & Global Demand 13

2.1 Indian Market 13

2.2 Global Demand 14

2.3 Global Importers & Exporters 16

3. Production Process of THF 18

3.1 Main Reaction 18

3.2 Side Reactions 18

5. Process Description of Major Equipments 22

5.2 Flash 101 22

5.3 Flash 102 22

5.4 Distillation System 23

6. Process Equipment Selection 24

6.2 Heat Exchanger 25

7. ASPEN PLUS Flowsheet 28

7.1 Property Method 28

7.2 Flowsheet Development 28

7.3 ASPEN PLUS Flowsheet 29

7.3 Stream Summary 31

8. Key Equipments and Mass Balance 33

8.2 Flash F101 34

8.3 Flash F102 35

8.4 Distillation Column - DC101 36

8.5 Distillation Column - DC102 37

8.6 Overall Mass Balance 38

10. Equipment Sizing & Costing 44

10.3 Distillation System 51

Reboiler and Condenser 53

Cost of Sieve Trays 55

10.4 Heat Exchangers 57

11. Plant Economics 64

11.1 Major Equipment Costing 64

11.2 Capital Investment Estimation 65

11.3 Revenue Calculation 66

11.4 Raw Material & Total Product Cost 66

11.5 Lang Factor 67

11.6 Turnover Ratio 68

11.7 Payback Period 68

12. Process Control and Instrumentation 69

12.1 Distillation System 69

12.1.1 Degree of Freedom 69

12.1.2 Variable Involved 70

12.1.2 Pressure Control 71

12.1.2 Reboiler Control 71

12.1.3 Controlling Top Composition 72

12.1.3 Maintaining Level in Distillation Column 73

12.1.4 Feed Control 73

12.2.2 Level Control for F102 74

12.2.3 Pressure Control for F102 74

Molecular Formula C4H8O

Density 889 kg/m3

Solubility in water ≥ 100 g/L