Aqa A Level Chemistry Cheatsheet 3
Aqa A Level Chemistry Cheatsheet 3
Aqa A Level Chemistry Cheatsheet 3
THE ULTIMATE
A-LEVEL AQA CHEMISTRY
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How to Use
The aim of this pack is simple — we wanted to condense the A-level Chemistry course into a few super condensed
pages. Now you have a concise summary of the entire course that focuses on the most important definitions, key
terms, diagrams and concepts.
We’ve spent weeks working with top designers, academic writers and illustrators to ensure this is the best cheatsheet
out there. Our promise to you is you won’t find anything better. The cheatsheet pack has been built off the AQA
specification to ensure no important information is missed — below is a table which summarises how our cheatsheets
map to the AQA specification.
Specification Points Cheatsheet
3.1.1 Atomic Structure, Mass, Mass Spectrometry & Electronic Configuration
3.1.2 Ionisation Energy & Basic Equations
3.1.3 Bonds
3.1.4 Enthalpies, Calorimetry & Hess’s Law
3.1.5 Collision Theory, Maxwell-Boltzmann, Rate of Reaction & Chemical Equilibrium
3.1.6 - 3.1.7 The Haber Process, Equilibrium Constant, Redox Reactions & Lattice Enthalpy
3.1.8 Born-Haber Cycles, Entropy & Gibbs Free Energy
3.1.9 Rate of Reaction & Rate Equations
3.1.10 - 3.1.11 Kp, Electrode Potentials & Cells
3.1.12 Acids, Bases, Titration & Buffers
3.2.1 - 3.2.3 Periodic Table
3.2.5 - 3.2.6 Transition Metals
3.3.1 Precipitate Reactions & Introduction to Organic Chemistry
3.3.2 - 3.3.3 Alkanes & Haloalkanes
3.3.4 - 3.3.5 Alkenes & Alcohols
3.3.6 - 3.3.8 Organic Analysis, Optical Isomers, Aldehydes & Ketones
3.3.9 - 3.3.10 Carboxylic Acids, Esters & Benzene
3.3.11 - 3.3.12 Amines, Condensation Polymers & Amino Acids
3.3.13 - 3.3.14 Proteins, Enzymes, DNA & Organic Synthesis
3.3.15 - 3.3.16 NMR & Chromatography
We hope you enjoy using it and wish you the best of luck in your A-levels.
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BONDS
CHEAT SHEET
Ions Covalent Bonds Metallic Bonding
• An ion is an atom or molecule with a net charge formed • Covalent bonding usually occurs between two atoms of non- • Metallic bonding is the bonding in metals
through the gain or loss of electrons metals, so that the atoms each gain a stable full outer shell • Metallic bonding is the strong electrostatic attraction between
• A cation is formed from the loss of electrons • A covalent bond is a strong electrostatic attraction between positive metal ions and negative delocalised electrons in a
• An anion is formed from the gain of electrons a shared pair of outer electrons and the nuclei of the bonded metal lattice
• The noble gases do not form ions, as they already have a stable atoms • Metals have a fixed lattice structure of positive
full outer shell of electrons, making them unreactive. • A single covalent bond involves one shared pair of outer ions. The outer shell of electrons is delocalised.
• Molecular ions are formed when groups of two or more atoms electrons • Metals are good electrical conductors, due to
that are covalently bonded gain or lose electrons • A multiple covalent bond involves more than one shared pair of the delocalised electrons free to move and
outer electrons carry the current.
Charge Molecular ion • A co-ordinate (dative covalent) bond involves one atom donating • Metals have high melting and boiling points
+1 Ammonium: NH4+ both electrons in a covalent bond. due to the large amounts of energy needed to overcome the
-1 Hydroxide: OH- • A dative covalent bond is represented metallic bonds. Melting point is influenced by:
Nitrate: NO3- by an arrow from the atom that is ◦ Charge of metal ion - Metal ions of greater charge contribute
Hydrogencarbonate: HCO3- donating both electrons to the atom more electrons to the delocalised sea, therefore there are
that is accepting both electrons more electrostatic forces of attraction between the ions and
-2 Carbonate: CO32-
Sulphate: SO42- electrons, resulting in a higher melting point
◦ Size of metal ion - smaller cations are closer to the
Sulphite: SO32- Crystalline Structures delocalised electrons, resulting in a stronger metallic bond,
• Ionic compounds are composed of oppositely charged ions. The
overall charge is zero as the ionic charges balance. and a higher melting point
Crystal Type of Melting Conductivity Diagram • Metals are malleable and ductile. The ions can slide and move
e.g. write the formula of sodium carbonate structure point
Sodium is in Group 1, and so it will lose one electron, Na+ past each other as there are no bonds holding specific ions
Diamond Giant High None together
The carbonate ion has the formula CO32-
We need 2 x Na+ to balance the -2 charge of CO32- covalent
The formula is Na2CO3
Simple Molecules
• The shape of a molecule or ion is dictated by the number of
Ionic Bonding electron pairs around the central atom and whether they are
• An ionic bond is an electrostatic attraction between positive Graphite High Yes (has bonding or lone pairs.
and negative ions, resulting in a lattice delocalised • Bonding pairs and lone pairs of electrons are charge clouds that
• A lattice is a giant three-dimensional structure, where each ion electrons repel each other
is surrounded by oppositely charged ions as carbon • Electron pairs in the outer shell arrange themselves as far apart
• They are often formed between ions of metals and non-metals, as possible to minimise repulsion
makes only
where each atom aims to gain a stable full outer shell. 3 bonds)
• Electrons are represented by dots and crosses, which helps
visualise the origin of the electrons clearly Ice Molecular Low None • Bonding pairs repel each other equally. While lone pairs repel
other pairs more because they are more electron dense.
• Each lone pair reduces the bond angle by about 2.5o.
• A normal line represents the bond is in plane of the
paper. A dotted wedge is a bond going into the
paper and a bold wedge is a bond coming out of
the paper.
Iodine
Electron Bonding Lone Bond
Pairs Pairs Pairs Angles Example
Linear 2 2 0 180° CO2
Trigonal Planar 3 3 0 120° BF3
• The strength of an ionic bond depends on Bent 3 2 1 <120° SO2
◦ The charge on the ions - Ions with higher charges will have a Magnesium Metallic High In all states Tetrahedral 4 4 0 109.5° CH4
greater electrostatic attraction between them and will form Trigonal Pyramidal 4 3 1 107° NH3
stronger bonds. V-Shaped 4 2 2 104.5° H2O
◦ The distance between the ions - Smaller ions have a smaller
internuclear distance so the electrostatic forces of attraction Trigonal Bipyramidal 5 5 0 90°, 120° PCl5
will be greater. Smaller ions form stronger ionic bonds in Seesaw 5 4 1 87°, 102° SF4
Sodium Ionic High Only when
more closely packed lattices. T-Shaped 5 3 2 88° ClF3
chloride aqueous or
• Properties of ionic structures Linear 5 2 3 180° XeF2
molten
◦ High melting and boiling points Octahedral 6 6 0 90° SF6
◦ Soluble in polar solvents
Square Pyramidal 6 5 1 <90° BrF5
◦ Electrical conductivity when molten or dissolved in water
Square Planar 6 4 2 90° XeF4
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THE HABER PROCESS, EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT, REDOX REACTIONS & LATTICE ENTHALPY
CHEAT SHEET
Haber Process Equilibrium Constant Redox Reactions
• Nitrogen gas reacts with hydrogen gas to form ammonia in the • The equilibrium constant, KC, indicates where the equilibrium • Redox reactions involve both oxidation and reduction
Haber process lies – it is the ratio of the concentration of products and • Oxidising agents cause oxidation of other species, and so are
–1
• N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g) ΔH = –92 kj mol reactants in a reversible reaction themselves reduced
• Reducing agents cause reduction of other species, and so are
• The optimum conditions for the Haber process are: • The concentration, in mol dm–3, of a species X involved in the
themselves oxidised
◦ High pressure — increasing the pressure will cause the expression for KC is represented by [X]
• Disproportionation reactions involve both oxidation and
position of equilibrium to shift to the right, favouring the
• For the general reaction: aA + bB ⇌ dD + eE reduction of the same element
forwards reaction as there are fewer moles on the right
e.g. The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
(two moles) than on the left (four moles). Therefore, more
ammonia is produced, and the pressure will be reduced, 2H2O2 Æ 2H2O + O2
opposing the change Oxidation Number of O: –1 Æ –2 0
◦ Low temperature — the forward reaction is exothermic, O is both oxidised and reduced during this reaction
• The units of the equilibrium constant will vary depending
so decreasing the temperature will cause the position of on how many species take part in the reaction and the
equilibrium to shift to the right, favouring the forwards
reaction. Therefore, more ammonia is produced and the
stoichiometry Lattice Enthalpy
temperature increases, opposing the change • The magnitude of KC indicates the extent of the reaction: • Standard lattice enthalpy of formation, ΔLEH⦵ is the enthalpy
• These optimum conditions are not favourable because: ◦ KC = 1: equilibrium lies halfway between the reactants and the change when one mole of an ionic lattice is formed from its
◦ Maintaining high pressures is expensive and unsafe products gaseous ions under standard conditions.
◦ Low temperature would mean a slow rate of reaction ◦ KC > 1: equilibrium lies further to the right and the products • Standard lattice enthalpy of dissociation is the enthalpy change
• In industry, conditions must be used that strike a balance are favoured when one mole of an ionic lattice completely dissociates into its
between obtaining a good yield and being economically ◦ KC < 1: equilibrium lies further to the left and the reactants gaseous ions under standard conditions.
feasible are favoured • The enthalpy of formation and the enthalpy of dissociation are
• Compromise conditions must be used in industrial processes to • Factors including pressure, concentration and the addition of a opposites.
ensure a good yield whilst considering the following factors: catalyst does not affect the value of the equilibrium constant. • Lattice enthalpy gives an indication of the strength of the ionic
◦ The rate of reaction bonds
◦ Cost and risks of equipment • Temperature does affect the equilibrium constant. If the forward • Lattice enthalpy cannot be measured directly, so other
◦ Side reactions reaction is exothermic and the reverse reaction is endothermic: measurements need to be known
• The industrial conditions used today in the Haber process are a ◦ Increasing the temperature, will favour the endothermic • Standard Enthalpy of Formation, ΔfH⦵ is the enthalpy change
compromise and are: reaction, forming less product and decreasing KC when one mole of a compound is formed from its constituent
◦ 400–500 °C — allows a reasonable rate of reaction and yield ◦ Decreasing the temperature will favour the exothermic elements in their standard states, under standard conditions
◦ 200 atm — allows a high yield without costing too much or reaction, forming more product and increasing KC • Standard Enthalpy of Atomisation, ΔaH⦵ is the enthalpy change
posing a safety risk when one mole of gaseous atoms are formed from an element
◦ Iron catalyst increases the rate of reaction and allows in its standard state.
equilibrium to be established more quickly at a lower Oxidation Numbers • First ionisation energy, ΔI1H⦵is the energy required to remove
temperature, saving energy and increasing profits one mole of electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms to form
• Oxidation number is a number representing the number of
one mole of gaseous 1+ ions.
electrons lost or gained by an atom in a compound.
• Second ionisation energy, ΔI2H⦵ is the enthalpy change when
Redox Equations • Oxidation is a loss of electrons during a reaction or an increase one mole of gaseous 2+ ions are formed from one mole of
in oxidation number. gaseous 1+ ions
• A redox reaction can be constructed from two half–equations; • Reduction is a gain of electrons during a reaction or a decrease • First electron affinity, ΔEA1H⦵is the enthalpy change when one mole
one representing an oxidation process, and the other a in oxidation number of gaseous 1– ions are formed from one mole of gaseous atoms
reduction process • Second electron affinity, ΔEA2H⦵ is the enthalpy change when
• To construct a full equation from half equations: • The rules for assigning oxidation numbers: one mole of gaseous 2– ions are formed from one mole of
◦ Balance the electrons ◦ An uncombined element has an oxidation number of 0 gaseous 1– ions
◦ Combine the equations ◦ A simple ion (of a single element) has an oxidation number • The first electron affinity is always exothermic because the
◦ Cancel the electrons equal to the charge on the ion electron is attracted to the positively charged nucleus of an
◦ Check the charge balance and stoichiometry ◦ The sum of oxidation numbers of the elements in a atom. But the second electron affinity is endothermic because
e.g. compound is equal to the overall charge of the compound energy must be put in to overcome the repulsion between the
Mg Æ Mg2+ + 2e– ◦ The charge on a complex ion, e.g. NH4+, is equal to the sum electron and negatively charged ion
of the oxidation numbers
Cu2++ 2e– Æ Cu ◦ The most electronegative element in a compound always has
1) Mg Æ Mg2+ + 2e– a negative oxidation number
◦ Oxygen is always –2 except in peroxides where its –1
Cu2+ + 2e– Æ Cu
◦ Hydrogen is +1 except in metal hydrides where its –1
2) Mg + Cu2+ + 2e– Æ Mg2+ + 2e– + Cu
• Oxidation numbers are represented by Roman numerals when
3) Mg + Cu2+ Æ Mg2+ + Cu naming compounds First Electron Affinity Second Electron Affinity
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• Calculations involving group 2 elements require extra steps Gibbs Free Energy
compared to sodium chloride:
◦ There are two moles of chlorine ions in each mole of MgCl2, • Whether a reaction will happen spontaneously depends on
so the atomisation enthalpy of chlorine needs to be doubled temperature, enthalpy change and entropy changes
◦ Group 2 elements form 2+ ions, so the second ionisation • The Gibbs Free–Energy Equation:
energy of sodium must also be included • Standard Enthalpy of Solution, ΔsolH⦵ is the enthalpy change
◦ The first electron affinity of chlorine also needs to be doubled when one mole of solute dissolves completely in sufficient ∆G = change in free energy of the system (kj mol–1)
as two moles of Cl– ions are being formed solvent under standard conditions to form a solution in which ∆H = change in enthalpy of the system (kj mol–1)
• The Born–Haber cycle can also be used to calculate one of the the molecules or ions are far enough apart not to interact with T = temperature of the system (K)
other enthalpy changes in the same way each other ∆S = change in entropy of the system (J K–1 mol–1)
e.g. • The hydration of ions requires the interactions between • ∆G allows us to predict whether a reaction is feasible
the solvent and the solute to be of similar strength to the • Reactions are only feasible
interactions between the positively and negatively charged ions if ∆G is zero or negative
in the lattice for the ions to dissolve • ∆G depends on
• Ions dissolve well in polar solvents, like water, because of the temperature – some
favourable electrostatic interactions between the oppositely reactions may be feasible
charged ions in the solvent and the ions at one temperature and
• Standard enthalpy of hydration, ΔhydH is the enthalpy change not another
when one mole of aqueous ions is formed from gaseous ions • To calculate the
under standard conditions. temperature at which a
• The enthalpy of solution and the enthalpy of hydration provides reaction becomes feasible,
another path to calculate the lattice enthalpy of dissociation / the Gibbs Free–Energy
formation equation has to be
rearranged
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KP, ELECTRODE POTENTIALS & CELLS
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CHEAT SHEET
Partial Pressure Electrode Potentials Electrochemical Cells
• Mole fractions indicate the fraction of a mixture occupied by a • Redox reactions can be used in electrochemical cells to • Electrochemical cells can be used as a commercial source of
particular gas. generate electricity (a flow of charge). electrical energy
• An electrochemical cell is a device capable of generating a • In a rechargeable battery, when the chemicals have reacted
potential difference from redox reactions fully, a potential difference can be applied to the cell in the
• Electrochemical cells consist of two half–cells. At one oxidation opposite direction, which will regenerate the original chemicals
occurs, at the other reduction. Electrons flow between the two • Lithium–ion batteries are rechargeable:
• Partial pressure is the pressure each gas in a mixture would
cells, driving the redox reaction. At the postiive electrode:
exert on its own. The partial pressure of a gas A is denoted by
p(A) or PA. Zn → Zn2+ + 2e–
Li+ + CoO2 + e– → Li+[C0O2]– EƟ = +0.56 V
Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu
• The total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of all partial An equilibrium is reached: At the negative electrode: Li → Li+ + e– E Ɵ = –3.04 V
pressures from each gas. Cu2+ (aq) + 2e– ⇌ Cu (s)
• The amount of pressure a gas exerts in a fixed volume depends • Each one of these beakers • Some cells are non–rechargeable and disposed of when the
on how many particles there are – more particles means greater is a half–cell. A solution in a chemicals have fully reacted.
pressure. standard half–cell will have a • In fuel cells the chemicals are stored externally and are fed into
concentration of the cell when electricity is required.
• p(A) = mole fraction of gas A x total pressure 1.00 mol dm–3 • An alkaline hydrogen fuel cell:
p(A) partial pressure of gas A (kPa) • An electrode is a solid
mole fraction of gas A (mol) surface which allows the
transfer of electrons to and from it.
total pressure (kPa) • In half cells involving gases, the gas is bubbled through the
liquid and an electrode provides a surface for the reaction to
Equilibrium Constant, Kp
occur on.
• In half cells with both oxidation states present as aqueous ions,
• Kp is an equilibrium constant associated with equilibrium equimolar solutions of both ions are present with a platinum
reactions, only involving gases. It is written in terms of partial electrode.
pressures rather than concentrations. • The standard electrode potential, EƟ is the voltage measured
under standard conditions when the half–cell is connected to
• For the equilibrium reaction: a standard hydrogen
aA (g) + bB (g) ⇌ cC (g) + dD (g) electrode.
• Standard conditions
includes 298K,
100 kPa and 1.00 mol
dm–3.
• The units of Kp are variable and depend on the specific reaction • EƟ gives the position
that is under consideration of equilibrium,
telling us a half–cell’s
• Temperature can affect the position of equilibrium tendency to accept
◦ Increasing the temperature will cause the position of Positive electrode: O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + 4e– → 4OH– (ag)
or release electrons
equilibrium to shift in the endothermic direction. Increasing Kp • The voltage EƟ = +0.40 V
◦ Decreasing the temperature will cause the position of measured is also Negative electrode: 2H2 (g) + 4OH– (ag) → 4H2O (I) + 4e–
equilibrium to shift in the exothermic direction. Decreasing Kp known as the
EƟ = –0.83 V
• Pressure can affect the position of equilibrium electromotive force
◦ Increasing the pressure will shift the position of equilibrium of the cell (EMF). Overall reaction: 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (g)
to the side with less moles of gas • An electrochemical EƟcell = +1.23 V
◦ Decreasing the pressure will shift the position of equilibrium series is a list of
to the side with more moles of gas standard electrode Advantages Disadvantages
potentials of all the 1. They are more efficient than 1. Energy is needed to build
• Changing pressure will not affect the value of Kp; instead, the possible half–cells. burning fossil fuels the fuel cells and produce
position of equilibrium will shift to keep Kp constant. • The more negative 2. They release water, which isn’t hydrogen — this energy
• Catalysts do not affect the value of Kp. Instead, it affects how the electrode harmful comes from fossil fuels
quickly equilibrium is reached. potential, the 3. They do not need to be 2. Hydrogen is highly flammable
more the oxidation recharged — they keep so needs to be carefully
(backwards) reaction is favoured. producing electricity for as handled
• long as they have fuel
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Buffers
◦ The concentration of HA present is given by the concentration of HA • A buffer is a solution that minimises changes in pH upon dilution or
before any dissociation minus the concentration of H+ ions: on the addition of a small amount of an acid or a base.
• Acidic buffers are a mixture of a weak acid and
the salt of the same weak acid Strong Acid–Weak Base: Weak Acid–Weak Base:
• Basic buffers are a mixture of a weak
◦ As the degree of dissociation of the weak acid is very small:
base and the salt of the same weak base
• The pH of a buffer solution can be
calculated if the concentration of H+ ions is known:
◦
◦ the H+ ion concentration can be used to find the pH ◦ It Is assumed the concentration of the acid before dissociation
• A logarithmic scale for pH can be used is equal to the concentration of the acid at equilibrium:
•
• The weaker the weak acid, the smaller the Ka value, and therefore, the ◦ It is also assumed the salt is ionic so will fully dissociate:
higher the pKa ◦
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PERIODIC TABLE
CHEAT SHEET
Period 3 Periodic Table Group 7, The Halogens
• Across period 3, the trend in meting • In the Periodic Table, elements are arranged • The halogens exist as diatomic (X2) molecules
point relates to the structure of the in order of increasing atomic number
elements. The melting point increases • Elements can be grouped into periods Halogen Appearance
from Na to Al as the ionic charge (horizontal rows) and groups (vertical F2 Pale yellow gas
and the number of delocalised electrons increases. Silicon has a columns).
giant covalent structure with strong covalent bonds. P4, S8, and • Periodicity is a regularly repeating pattern Cl2 Green gas
Cl2 are all simple molecular covalent substances. From P4 to S8 of atomic, physical, and chemical properties with increasing atomic
number Br2 Red-brown liquid
there are more electrons and stronger London forces. From S8 • The Periodic Table can be split into s-, p-, d-, and f- blocks. Which is
to Cl2 to Ar there are fewer electrons and I2 Black solid
determined by which orbital the highest energy electron is in.
weaker London forces.
• Across the period, the atomic radius • Down the group electronegativity decreases, as atomic radius
decreases as effective nuclear charge and shielding increases, reducing the force on electrons. So
increases and there is no increase in shelving. Group 2, Alkaline Earth Metals oxidising ability also decreases.
• Across the period, the ionisation energy • All Group 2 elements have 2 electrons in their outer s-subshell. • Down the group boiling point increases, as the molecules have
increases as nuclear charge increases. • Down the group ionisation energy decreases, as the atomic a greater surface area and electrons for stronger London forces
◦ Aluminium is an exception as the 3s radius and shielding increases, decreasing the attraction of the
electrons shield the 3p electron • A more reactive halogen will displace the halide ion of a less
electron to the nucleus reactive halogen from solution
◦ Sulfur is an exception as an electron • Melting point also decrease down the group due to the
is being removed from an p orbital increased atomic radii and shielding, so metallic bonding is Halogen Colour in Water
containing 2 electrons, so there is weaker
electron-pair repulsion • Group 2 elements react with water to form hydroxides Chlorine Pale green
and hydrogen gas Bromine Orange
Mg (s) + 2H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Oxidation numbers 0 +1 +2 0 Iodine Brown
Properties of Period 3 Elements • Magnesium can also react with steam
• Sodium halides will react with concentrated sulphuric acid.
Mg (s) + H2O (g) → MgO (s) + H2 (g)
• 2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g) (fast reaction) Oxidation numbers: 0 +1 +2 0 NaX (s) + H2SO4 (l) → NaHSO4 (s) + HX (g)
• Mg (s) + 2H2O (l) → Mg(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g) (slow reaction)
• All of the Period 3 elements can react with oxygen to form Group 2 Group 2 • Halide ions react with silver nitrate solution to form a silver
Solubility of Hydroxide halide precipitate
oxides to form Na2O, MgO, Al2O3, SiO2, P4O10, SO2 and SO3 Element Hydroxide
Mg Mg(OH)2 Slightly soluble Ag+ (aq) + X– (aq) → AgX (s)
• Sodium burns with a yellow flame,
magnesium burns with a white Ca Ca(OH)2 Sparingly soluble • Dilute nitric acid removes any soluble impurities that could
flame, aluminium with a brilliant More soluble than Mg(OH)2 and interfere with the test to identify halide ions
white flame and sulfur with a blue Sr Sr(OH)2
Ca(OH)2 Silver Colour of Addition of Dilute Addition of Concentrated
flame. Halide Precipitate Ammonia Ammonia
• Na2O (s) + H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) pH 12-14 Ba Ba(OH)2 Most soluble
MgO (s) + H2O (l) → Mg(OH)2 (aq) pH 9-10 • Mg(OH)2 (milk of magnesia) is used to neutralise excess Dissolves to give a Dissolves to give a
AgCl White
These species can react in this way hydrochloric acid in the stomach, relieving indigestion colourless solution colourless solution
because they are purely ionic, so • Titanium oxide reacts with carbon and chlorine to form titanium Dissolves to give a
chloride, which is purified by fractional distillation and then AgBr Cream Does not dissolve
hydration can occur colourless solution
• Aluminium oxide and silicon dioxide are reduced to titanium using magnesium
TiCl4 (l) + 2Mg (s) → 2MgCl2 (s) + Ti (s) AgI Yellow Does not dissolve Does not dissolve
both insoluble and do not react with
water due to the strong covalent bonds • Ca(OH)2 (hydrated lime) is used to neutralise acidic soil
• CaO and CaCO3 can be used to remove SO3 from flue gases • Use of Chlorine and Chlorate
• When the non-metal oxides react with CaO (s) + 2H2O (l) + SO2 (g) → CaSO3 (s) + 2H2O (l) • Chlorine can dissolve in water to form hydrochloric acid and
water, acidic solutions are formed. CaCO3 (s) + 2H2O (l) + SO2 (g) → CaSO3 (s) + 2H2O (l) + CO2 (g) chloric(I) acid (disproportion reaction).
P4O10 (s) + 6H2O (l) → 4H3PO4 (aq) Cl2 (g) + H2O (l) → HCl (aq) + HClO (aq)
SO2 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO3 (aq) Group 2 Element Group 2 Sulphate Solubility of Sulphate Oxidation States: 0 -1 +1
SO3 (l) + H2O (l) → H2SO4 (aq)
• The basic oxides act as bases and neutralise acids: • Chloric(I) acid is an oxidising agent that kills bacteria and
Mg MgSO4 Soluble sanitises water
Na2O (s) + 2HCl (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
MgO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → MgSO4 (aq) + H2O (l) Ca CaSO4 Slightly soluble • 2Cl2 (g) + 2H2O (l) → 4HCl (aq) + O2 (g)
• The acidic oxides act as acids and neutralise bases: Sr SrSO4 Insoluble
• Cl2 (g) + 2NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + NaClO (aq) + H2O (l)
SiO2 (s) + 2NaOH (aq) → Na2SiO3 (aq) + H2O (l) Ba BaSO4 Insoluble
P4O10 (s) + 12NaOH (aq) → 4Na3PO4 (aq) + 6H2O (l) • Sodium chlorate(I) has a bleaching action which allows it to be
SO2 (g) + 2NaOH (aq) → Na2SO3 (aq) + H2O (l) • BaSO4 can be ingested to visual soft tissue in imaging an active ingredient in household bleach.
SO3 (l) + 2NaOH (aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l) • Acidified BaCl2 can be used to test for the presence of sulphate
ions as barium sulphate, a white precipitate, will be formed. • The advantages of using chlorine to treat water is that it
• Al2O3 is an amphoteric oxide and can act as either an acid or The solution needs to be acidified to remove any sulphites prevents the spread of waterborne disease and sanitises water.
base. It neutralises both acids and bases: or carbonates, which would result in the formation of a white However, it is added without direct customer consent, chlorine
Al2O3 (s) + 3H2SO4 (aq) → Al2(SO4)3 (aq) + 3H2O (l) precipitate is a respiratory irritant and it could react to form chlorinated
Al2O3 (s) + 2NaOH (aq) + 3H2O (l) → 2NaAl(OH)4 (aq) • Ba2+ (aq) + SO42+ (aq) → BaSO4 (s) hydrocarbons, implicated in cancers.
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TRANSITION METALS
CHEAT SHEET
General Properties of Transition Metals Complex Ions Variable Oxidation States
• A transition element is a d–block element which has at least one • Complex ions most • Vanadium has 4 oxidation states II, III, IV & V
stable ion with an incomplete d–subshell commonly form • Vanadium species in oxidation states IV, III and II are formed by
• Transition metal ions form coloured compounds because octahedral complexes the reduction of vanadate(V) ions by zinc in acidic solution
of the movement of electrons in partially filled d–orbitals. with small ligands (eg Reduction from V(V) to V(IV)
Particular wavelengths of light are absorbed, so the remaining H2O and NH3). Octahedral 2VO2+ (aq) + 4H+ (aq) + Zn (s) → 2VO2+ (aq) + Zn2+ (aq) + 2H2O (l)
wavelengths are the colour perceived. complexes can display cist–trans isomerism with monodentate
• All the transition metals have more than one oxidation state. ligands and optical isomerism with bidentate ligands Reduction from V(IV) to V(III)
• The highest oxidation states will readily accept electrons (be • Tetrahedral complexes are commonly 2VO2+ (aq) + 4H+ (aq) + Zn (s) → 2V3+ (aq) + Zn2+ (aq) + 2H2O (l)
reduced), which makes them powerful oxidising agents. formed with larger ligands e.g. Cl–.
• Transition metals and their compounds act as catalysts by: Reduction from V(III) to V(II)
[Ag(NH3)2]+ has a linear shape — this is
◦ Providing a surface for the reaction to take place formed when Tollens’ reagent is used 2V3+ (aq) + Zn (s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2V2+ (aq)
◦ Binding to reactants to form intermediates • Cis and trans isomers can also exist if • Electrode potentials for a transition metal ion changing from
• Transition metals often form complexes. A complex is a central the complex is square planar with two a higher to a lower oxidation state gives the thermodynamic
metal atom or ion surrounded by ligands. pairs of identical ligands.e.g. cisplatin, feasibility of the reduction.
• A ligand is a molecule or ion that forms a co–ordinate bond which acna bind to DNA to prevent • redox potentials are influenced by pH and by the ligand. Redox
with a transition metal by donating a lone pair of electrons. replication causing death of cancer cells. potentials are larger in more acidic solutions as it is easier to
• The co–ordination number is the number of co–ordinate bonds But transplatin cannot. reduce the ion
to the central metal atom or ion. • redox titrations can be carried out to show how much oxidising
agent is needed to react exactly with a reducing agent.
Formation of Coloured Ions • Manganate(VII) ions are readily reduced to Mn2+ ions underin
Substitution Reactions • Transition metal ions have distinctive colours which are used to acidic conditions (purple to colourless). This can be used to find
• All ligands contain at least one lone pair of electrons in their identify them the amount of Fe3+ in a solution
outer shell • d electrons move from the ground state to an excited state Oxidation: Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e–
• Monodentate ligands can donate just one lone pair of electrons when light is absorbed
each and form one coordinate bond. E.g. H2O, NH3 and Cl– Reduction: 8H+ + MnO4– + 5e– → Mn2+ + 4H2O
• The ligands NH3 and H2O are similar in size and are uncharged. Overall: 8H+ + MnO4– + 5Fe2+ → Mn2+ + 4H2O + 5Fe3+
Therefore, exchange of a H2O ligand for a NH3 occurs without ΔE difference in energy (J)
change of co–ordination number. h Planck’s constant (Js)
[Cu(H2O)6]2+ (aq) + 4NH3 (aq) ⇌ [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+ (aq) + 4H2O (l) ν frequency of light absorbed (s–1 or Hz)
This ligand substitution is incomplete c speed of light in vacuum (3.00 x 108 ms–1) Catalysts
[Co(H2O)6]2+ (aq) + 6NH3 (aq) ⇌ [Co(NH3)6]2+ (aq) + 6H2O (l) λ wavelength of light absorbed (m) • Transition metals and their compounds can act as
This ligand substitution is complete • Changes in oxidation state, co–ordination number and ligand heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts
• The Cl– ligand is larger than the uncharged ligands NH3 and alter ∆E and this leads to a change in colour • Heterogeneous catalysts are spread onto a support medium to
H2O. Therefore, exchange of the ligand H2O by Cl– can involve • A simple colorimeter can be used maximise their surface area and minimise the cost
a change of co–ordination number to calculate the concentration of • Heterogeneous catalysts can become poisoned by impurities
[Cu(H2O)6]2+ (aq) + 4Cl– (aq) ⇌ [Cu(Cl)4]2– (aq) + 6H2O (l) transition metal ions in solution that block the active sites and consequently have reduced
[Co(H2O)6]2+ (aq) + 4Cl– (aq) ⇌ [CoCl4]2– (aq) + 6H2O (l) • The wavelength of visible light
efficiency. They can be expensive to replace.
[Fe(H2O)6]3+ (aq) + 4Cl– (aq) ⇌ [FeCl4]– (aq) + 6H2O (l) absorbed can also be used to
spectroscopy for identification of ions. • in the Contact process V2O5 acts as a heterogeneous catalyst
• Bidentate ligands have 2 lone pairs it can
donate e.g, H2NCH2CH2NH2 and C2O42– 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2SO3 (g)
• Multidentate ligands can donate multiple ◦ Sulphur dioxide adsorbs onto vanadium(V) oxide
lone pairs of electrons from different ◦ V2O5 (s) + SO2 (g) → V2O4 (s) + SO3 (g)
atoms within the ligands to form multiple
coordinate bonds eg EDTA4–
Reactions of Ions in Aqueous Solution ◦ V2O4 (s) + 1/2O2 (g) → V2O5 (s)
◦ Desorption
• Chelation is when multidentate ligands • In aqueous solution, the following metal–aqua ions are formed: • The reaction between the persulphate ion (S2O82–) and
replace monodentate ligands in complexes ◦ [M(H2O)6]2+ when M = Fe or Cu the iodide ion is catalysed by the homogenous catalyst
[Cu(H2O)6]2+ (aq) + EDTA4– (aq) → ◦ [M(H2O)6]3+ when M = Al or Fe
[Cu(EDTA)]2– (aq) + 6H2O (l) Fe2+. S2O82– (aq) + 2I– (aq) → 2SO42– (aq) + I2 (aq)
• The acidity of [M(H2O)6]3+ is greater than that of [M(H2O)6]2+.
• For the reaction to be thermodynamically feasible, the Gibbs ◦ S2O82– (aq) + 2Fe2+ (aq) → 2SO42– (aq) + 2Fe3+ (aq)
This is because M3+ ions are smaller and have a higher charge,
free energy change must be negative. so the electrons from the oxygen atoms of the water ligands ◦ 2I– (aq) + 2Fe3+ (aq) → I2 (aq) + 2Fe2+ (aq)
• The haem group in haemoglobin is n Fe(II) complex with are more strongly attracted to the M3+ ions This weakens the • The reaction between ethanedioate ions and potassium
a multidentate ligand O–H bonds in the water ligands, meaning H+ ions are more manganate(VII) which is catalysed by Mn2+ (autocatalysis).
• Oxygen can reversibly form a coordinate 2MnO4– (aq) + 5C2O42– (aq) + 16H+ (aq) → 2Mn2+ (aq) + 10CO2 (g)
easily lost
bond to the Fe2+ ion and travel through the + 8H2O (l)
bloodstream, being released where it’s needed • Aluminium hydroxide shows amphoteric character by dissolving
in both acids and bases ◦ 2MnO4– (aq) + 16H+ (aq) + 8Mn2+ (aq) → 8H2O (l) + 10Mn3+ (aq)
• Carbon monoxide is toxic because it binds
irreversibly to haemoglobin, forming a stronger Al(H2O)3(OH)3 (s) + 3HCl (aq) → [Al(H2O)6]3+ (aq) + 3Cl– (aq) ◦ 5C2O42– (aq) + 10Mn3+ (aq) → 10CO2 (g) + 10Mn2+ (aq)
bond than oxygen does. Al(H2O)3(OH)3 (s) + OH– (aq) → [Al(OH)4]– (aq) + 3H2O (l)
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Chlorination of Alkanes
Fractional Distillation • Alkanes react with the halogens, specifically chlorine and • Nucleophilic substitution with ammonia:
• Crude oil is a fossil fuel formed from the breakdown of plant bromine, in the presence of UV light to form haloalkanes
and animal remains that have been subjected to high pressure • Methane reacts with chlorine to form chloromethane and
over millions of years. It is composed mainly of alkanes. hydrogen chloride: CH4 + Cl2 Æ CH3Cl + HCl if ammonia is used in excess:
• Fractional distillation will separate crude oil into different fractions • This reaction is a free radical substitution with the steps: • Going down Group 7, the
• A fraction is a group of hydrocarbons that have a similar boiling ◦ Initiation — free radicals are formed when exposed to UV Cl2 electronegativity of the halogen
point Æ 2Cl• atoms decreases, so the polarity
• The crude oil is vaporised in a furnace and passed into the ◦ Propagation — free radicals are used up and created in a of the C-X bond also decreases. We would expect fluoroalkanes
bottom of a fractionating column chain reaction Cl• + CH4 Æ •CH3 + HCl to be the most reactive, however iodoalkanes are the most
• In the column, there is a temperature gradient where it is hotter •CH3 + Cl2 Æ CH3Cl + Cl• reactive because bond enthalpy decreases down the group. C-I
at the bottom and cooler at the top ◦ Termination — free radicals are removed. bond is the longest and weakest
• The vapour passes up the column and the different fractions will 2Cl• Æ Cl2 • When a haloalkane is reacted with hydroxide ions under
condense at different heights onto trays. Longer hydrocarbons 2•CH3 Æ C2H6 different conditions, an elimination reaction occurs, as the
have higher boiling points, so condense lower down •CH3 + Cl• Æ CH3Cl hydroxide ions act as a base.
• 2-bromopropane
reacts with potassium
Combustion of Alkanes Ozone Depletion hydroxide to form
• Alkanes can be used as a fuel source • In the Earth’s atmosphere, there is a layer of ozone (O3) which propene, water, and a
• In complete combustion, the alkane burns with a clean protects us from the harmful UV radiation produced by the sun bromide ion:
blue flame. Water vapour and carbon dioxide are formed • Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are a type of organic compound
(greenhouse gases). E.g. that contain chlorine and fluorine atoms. They can diffuse • Major and minor
C3H8 (g) + 5O2 (g) Æ 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (g) through layers of the atmosphere where they are exposed to products can form. The
• In incomplete combustion, the alkane burns with a dirty yellow UV radiation major product has more
flame. It can produce carbon, carbon monoxide and unburned substituted double
hydrocarbons as products. bonds
CH4 (g) + O2 (g) Æ C (s) + 2H2O (g)
CH4 (g) + 1.5O2 (g) Æ CO (g) + 2H2O (g) • When haloalkanes react
• Sulfur-containing alkenes can produce sulphur dioxide during with OH- ions, there
combustion that dissolves in rainwater to cause acid rain. are two possibilities:
• Sulfur dioxide can be removed from flue gases using • The chlorine radials produced cataluse the decomposition of substitution or
calciul oxide or calcium carbonate ozone elimination. Dependant
CaO (s) + 2H2O (l) + SO2 (g) Æ CaSO3 (s) + 2H2O (l) Cl• + O3 Æ ClO• + O2 on conditions used
CaCO3 (s) + 2H2O (l) + SO2 (g) Æ CaSO3 (s) + 2H2O (l) + CO2 (g) ClO• + O3 Æ 2O2 + Cl•
Substitution Elimination
• Combusting nitrogen-containing alkanes will form nitrogen Overall: 2O3 Æ 3O2
• Ethanol (anhydrous) as solvent
oxides, which contribute to acid rain and photochemical smog. • The chlorine radicals are regenerated and act as a catalyst in • Aqueous ethanol as a solvent • Anhydrous conditions
• Catalytic converters can remove gaseous pollutants from internal the breakdown of ozone molecules into oxygen • Aqueous hydroxide • High temperature — heat under
combustion engines by using precious metals spread over a • Holes in the ozone layer increase the likelihood of skin cancers • Mixture must be warmed reflux
mesh to form less harmful products such as N2, CO2, and H2O. and sunburns
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Advantages Disadvantages
If water if added, an alcohol will reform: • Fast rate of reaction • Advanced equipment
• Ethanol produced is pure needed
• Continuous process — low • Ethene used is non-
• The alkenes produced can be used to form addition polymers production costs renewable
without using monomers derived from crude oil. • High pressure means high
energy costs
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Organic Synthesis
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) • Chemists
• DNA is made up of avoid using
nucleotide monomers: solvents and
• There are three levels of protein structure: primary, secondary a phosphate group, aim to use
and tertiary 2-deoxyribose non-hazardous
◦ Primary structure is the pentose sugar and starting
sequence of amino acids in a base. The base can materials to
the polypeptide chain. be adenine, cytosine, reduce the
◦ Secondary structure is the guanine or thymine. potential for
way the chains of amino • A strand of DNA accidents and
acids interact with each is a polymer of environmental
other to form either an nucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds between the damage and
α-helix or a β-pleated sheet. phosphate group of one nucleotide and the 2-deoxyribose of the amount of
◦ Tertiary structure is the another nucleotide. Resulting in a sugar-phosphate backbone. waste.
three-dimensional shape • Chemists aim
into which the α-helix or to design
β-pleated sheet is folded. production
• The secondary and tertiary methods
structures are a consequence with fewer
of various types of steps that
intermolecular forces have a high
◦ Hydrogen bonds — these percentage
stabilise both the secondary and atom economy
tertiary structures to reduce waste and convert more of the reactants to products.
◦ London and dipole-dipole
forces — these stabilise the
tertiary structure • The DNA double helix is composed of two complementary
◦ Disulphide bonds — these are DNA strands held together by hydrogen bonds between
only important when the amino complementary base pairs
acid cysteine is part of the ◦ Adenine and thymine form two hydrogen bonds
protein in the tertiary structure ◦ Cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds
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