LAB REPORT

EXPERIMENT -4

NAME – DEBJIT DE SARKAR

ROLL NO. – 18079
OBJECTIVE:
The aim of this lab session you are expected to design various
diode
applications as listed below
1. Half wave rectifier - Determine ripple factor
2. Full wave rectifier - Determine ripple factor
3. Clipper circuit: which should be able to clip any signal
amplitude greater than 5V.
4. Clamper circuit: Shift up the DC level of the input by 5V
5. Voltage doubler
6. Logic gates (design inverter, NOR and NAND)
1.Half-wave Rectifier
Brief Description: Description about the components used-

Resistance- 1 kohm

Voltage Source - 10 V(magnitude), sinusoidal wave , Frequency – 50Hz

Diode – 1N4148

Schematic diagram:

Output:
Discussion:

Input Parameter: Source Voltage (V)

Output Parameter: Voltage across load resistor

The input voltage is sinusoidal however the output voltage is somewhat constant i.e. during 1st
charging half cycle the capacitor charges to its max value (which is less than that of source voltage
because of the voltage drop across diode) after that in the discharge cycle when the diode is reversed
biased the capacitor starts to discharge however discharging is not completed because the time
constant for RC is very high as compared to that of input source voltage time period and then the
capacitor again starts charging And the cycle goes on thereby providing a positive voltage across load.

Capacitor and inductor are used to keep the Ripple factor low. This is because the smaller the value

of Ripple factor better is the rectifier.

Calculation:

From the graph we see that,

Peak Voltage (Vm ) = 4.3 V

Peak to Peak Output Voltage (Vrpp) = 4.3 – 3.61 V = 0.69 V

We calculate,
Vrpp
Vr,rms = = 0.2 V
2√3
Vrpp
Vdc = Vm – = 4.1 V
2
Vr,rms
Ripple Factor: = γ = = 0.049
Vdc

Real World applications:

1. It is used in AM radio.

2. Mosquito repellent to drive the lead for the fumes.

3. The use of a half-wave rectifier can help us achieve the desired dc voltage by using a step-down

or step-up transformers.

4. Pulse generating circuits and firing circuits use half-wave rectifiers.

5. In a modulating signal, for demodulating the amplitude, a half-wave rectifier is used.

2.Full-wave Rectifier
Brief Description: Description about the components used-

Resistance- 1 kohm

Voltage Source - 10 V(magnitude), sinusoidal wave , Frequency – 50Hz

Diode –Regular Diode

Schematic diagram:

Output:
Discussion:

Input Parameter: Source Voltage (V)

Output Parameter: Voltage across load resistor

During positive half cycle the diodes D1 and D4 conducts and provides voltage across load and in the next half
cycle D2 and D3 conducts and provides voltage across load the main point to be noted is that the polarity of
voltage across the load is same in both cases there by providing a more or less positive voltage throughout the
cycle.
Capacitor and inductor are used to keep the Ripple factor low. This is because the smaller the value
of Ripple factor better is the rectifier.

Calculation:

From the graph we see that,

Peak Voltage (Vm) = 3.57 V

Peak to Peak Output Voltage (Vrpp) = 3.57 – 3.292 V = 0.278 V

We calculate,
Vrpp
Vr,rms = = 0.08 V
2√3
Vrpp
Vdc = Vm – = 3.431 V
2
Vr,rms
Ripple Factor: = γ = = 0.023
Vdc

Real World applications:

1. It is used in home inverters to convert from AC to DC.

2. Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) to convert from AC to DC.

3. Car Alternator to charge the battery during running of car.

4. Full-wave rectifiers are also used for powering up the devices which work on DC voltage like

motor and led.

5. Full Wave Bridge Rectifier is used to detect the amplitude of the modulating radio signal.
3. Clipper Circuit
Brief Description: Description about the components used-

Resistance- 10 kΩ(Load Resistance)

Voltage Source - 10 V(magnitude), sinusoidal wave , Frequency – 50Hz

Diode –1N914, Ideal Diode

Schematic diagram:

Output:
Discussion:

Input Parameter: Source Voltage (V)

Output Parameter: Voltage across load resistor

1. The maximum and minimum voltage drop due to 1kΩ resistor at input is:

For minimum voltage across 1kΩ resistor the diode is reversed biased for V1<5.7 V (at least is
actually greater due to R1) hence the KVL is:-
Let R1 is 1kΩ resistor and R2 is 10kΩ resistor
V1 = VR1 + VR2
Minimum value of V is -10V
𝑅1
VR1 = V1*( ) = -10* (1/11) = -0.91V
𝑅1+𝑅2

For maximum value across R1 the V1 or source voltage is at 10V hence the diode is forward
biased so the KVL is:
V1 = VR1 +VD1 + V2
10 = VR1 + 0.7 + 5
VR1 = 4.3 V

2. Maximum output voltage 5.71 V and minimum output voltage is -9.06V.

3. In the first half cycle the diode remains reverse biased and output follows input until the magnitude of
source voltage overcomes the reverse biasing voltage and the output remains constant at 5.68 V and
again it decreases to 0 V when the diode becomes reverse biased.

4. During the next half cycle the diode is reverse biased hence its acts as an open circuit and the output
follows the input with some loss due to 1kΩ resistor.

5. The cycle repeats again.

Real World applications:

1. Clippers are frequently used for the separation of synchronizing signals from the composite

picture signals.

2. The excessive noise spikes above a certain level can be limited or clipped in FM transmitters by

using the series clippers.

3. For the generation of new waveforms or shaping the existing waveform, clippers are used.

4. The typical application of a diode clipper is for the protection of transistors from transients, as a

freewheeling diode connected in parallel across the inductive load.

5. Clippers can be used as voltage limiters and amplitude selectors.

4. Clamper Circuit
Brief Description: Description about the components used-

Resistance- 10 kΩ(Load Resistance)

Capacitor - 10µF

Voltage Source - 10V(magnitude), sinusoidal wave , Frequency – 50Hz

Diode –1N914, Ideal Diode

Schematic Diagram:

Output:
Discussion:

Input Parameter: Source Voltage (V)

Output Parameter: Voltage across load resistor

1. As the diode is forward biased initially hence it stores charge up to the voltage of 4.3V when the source
voltage increases above 4.3 V the diode is reversed biased and the output voltage becomes sinusoidal up
to 13.88 V.

2. As the capacitor is not ideal so during the time source voltage drops to 0 V it discharges slightly but during
negative half cycle the diode is again forward biased and the voltage across capacitor increases to 14.35
V and stays like that for some time with a little discharge.

3. Again, in next positive half cycle the diode is forward biased however the capacitor is not charged any
further and after some time when the diode gets reversed biased then the output voltage starts following
input voltage in addition to the voltage due to charge stored in capacitor thereby getting and output
somewhat sinusoidal voltage for positive half cycle.

4. And during negative half cycle the output is constant at 4.24 V as the diode becomes forward biased.

Real World applications:

1. These are frequently used in test equipment, sonar, and radar systems.

2. For the protection of the amplifiers from large errant signals, clampers are used.

3. Clampers can be used for removing the distortions

4. For improving the overdrive recovery time clampers are used.

5. Clampers can be used as voltage doublers or voltage multipliers.

5. Voltage Doubler
Brief Description: Description about the components used-

Capacitor – 1 µF

Voltage Source – 5 V(magnitude), sinusoidal wave , Frequency – 50Hz

Diode – Ideal Diode

Schematic Diagram:

Output:
Discussion:

Input Parameter: Source Voltage (V)

Output Parameter: Voltage across capacitor

During the negative half cycle of the sinusoidal input waveform, diode D1 is forward biased and
conducts charging up the pump capacitor, C1 to the peak value of the input voltage. Because there is
no return path for capacitor C1 to discharge into, it remains fully charged acting as a storage device
in series with the voltage supply. At the same time, diode D2 conducts via D1 charging up
capacitor, C2.

During the positive half cycle, diode D1 is reverse biased blocking the discharging of C1 while
diode D2 is forward biased charging up capacitor C2. But because there is a voltage across
capacitor C1 already equal to the peak input voltage, capacitor C2 charges to twice the peak voltage
value of the input signal.

In other words, V (positive peak) + V (negative peak), so on the negative half-

cycle, D1 charges C1 to Vmax and on the positive half-cycle D2 adds the AC peak voltage
to Vmax onC1 and transfers it all to C2. The voltage across capacitor, C2 discharges through the load
ready for the next half cycle.

Then the voltage across capacitor, C2 can be calculated as: Vout = 2Vmax, (minus of course the
voltage drops across the diodes used) where Vmax is the peak value of the input voltage. Note that
this double output voltage is not instantaneous but increases slowly on each input cycle, eventually
settling to 2Vmax.

As capacitor C2 only charges up during one half cycle of the input waveform, the resulting output
voltage discharged into the load has a ripple frequency equal to the supply frequency, hence the
name half wave voltage doubler. The disadvantage of this is that it can be difficult to smooth out this
large ripple frequency in much the same way as for a half wave rectifier circuit. Also,
capacitor C2 must have a DC voltage rating at least twice the value of the peak input voltage.

Real World applications:

1. These are frequently used in TV sets, lasers, air purifiers, industrial smoke-stack dust removers,
negative-ion generators.

2. For supplying required voltage to circuits.

3. Heavy and expensive step-up transformers can be replaced in some applications by this voltage
doubler.
5. Logic Gates
Brief Description: Description about the components used-

Resistance – 1 kOhm

Voltage Source – 5 V(magnitude), D.C. source

Diode – Ideal Diodes, LED

Transistor – NPN BJT

Schematic Diagram:

a) NOT Gate

b) NAND Gate
 c) NOR Gate

Output:

Here input 1 means 5 V D.C. voltage and 0 means 0 V

a) NOT Gate

INPUT OUTPUT

1 0

0 1

b) NAND Gate

A B OUTPUT

0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0
 c) NOR Gate

A B OUTPUT

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 0

Discussion:

a) NOT Gate
• When 1 (or 5V) is applied in the input then D1 is reverse biased hence the transistor
conducts so all the current coming from V1 goes through BE junction of transistor and goes
to the ground. So, no current reaches LED and it doesn’t glow hence output is 0.

• When 0 (or 0V) is applied in the input the D1 is forward biased so no current moves through
the transistor as current is short circuited through forward biased D1 and transistor is off
and most of it goes through LED and it glows making output 1.

b) NAND Gate
• When both inputs are 1(or 5V) then both D1 and D2 are reverse biased the transistor is
active and conducts current through BE junction to ground so no current reaches LED and it
doesn’t glows giving output 0.

• When either one or both inputs are 0(or 0V) the either D1 or D2 or both forward biased and
short circuits current to ground and the transistor becomes inactive and current goes
through LED thereby making it to glow giving output 1.

c) NOR Gate
• When both inputs are 0(or 0V) the both D1 and D2 are reverse biased and the transistor
becomes inactive and doesn’t conducts current and the current goes through LED lighting it
up and output becomes 1.

• When either one or both inputs are 1(or 5V) the either D1 or D2 or both forward biased and
the transistor becomes active and conducts the current to ground and no current flows
through LED and it doesn’t glow or output is 0.
Real World applications:

1. NAND Gates are used in Burglar alarms and buzzers.

2. They are basically used in circuits involving computation and processing.

3. They are also used in push button switches. E.g. Door Bell.

4. They are used in the functioning of street lights.

5. AND Gates are used to enable/inhibit the data transfer function.

6. They are also used in TTL (Transistor-Transistor Logic) and CMOS circuitry.