MATH 175 , VECTORS AND MECHANICS

Ishmael Takyi
Department of Mathematics
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
Kumasi, Ghana

January 21, 2021

Course Outline
Part A: VECTORS AND GEOMETRY
I Scalar and Vector quantities
I Properties of vectors
I Geometrical Application of Vectors
I Multiplication of vectors and it Application
Part B: VECTORS AND MECHANICS
I Vector Functions
I Kinematics of a single Particle
I Relative Motion
I Forces
I Work, Energy and Power
Recommended Books
I Introduction to vectors Analysis for KNUST DISTANCE
EDUCATION PROGRAM. By G.O. Lartey, PhD, BD.
I Mathematical Methods for Mathematics, Science and
Engineering students Volume 1, By J.S. Gyakye Jackson.
I Elementary Vector Analysis with Application to Geometry and
Physics by C.E. Weatherburn.
NOTATIONS

Vector ~a

For All ∀

There Exist ∃

Unit vector â

Perpendicular ⊥

Parallel k
Vectors And Geometry

A Scalar quantity is any quantity which has a magnitude but has

no direction attached to it. Example of such are mass, volume,
density, temperature, work, quantity of heat, electric charge and
potential.
A Vector quantity is a quantity which has a magnitude and a
direction, examples of vector quantities are displacement, velocity,
acceleration,momentum, force, electric and magnetic intensities.
I Notation: Vectors are shown by using a directed line-segment

Figure: 1.0

A = Initial point
B = Final/terminal point
−→
denoted by AB or a single letter a = ~a.
e

−→ −→
AB = AB êAB

or

~a = |~a|â = aâ
The magnitude of the vector is proportional to its lenght
−→ −→
AB 6= BA because their directions are not the same.
Some Special Vectors
−→ −→
a Zero vector: The vector AA is a zero vector, i.e AA = 0.
It has a magnitude of zero and it direction is undefined
b Unit Vector A unit vector is the vector whose magnitude is 1.

~a
~a = |~a|â =⇒ â =
|â|

 
 ~a 
∴ |â| =   = 1 × |~a| = 1
|â|  |~a|

it is of the same direction as the original vector.

 PROPERTIES OF VECTORS
1. Addition Rule
a. Triangle Law of vector addition If three points A,B,C are
−→ −→ −→
chosen so that AB = a and BC = b , then the vector AC = c
is called the vector sum
e or resultante of a and b , i.e e
e e
−→ −→ −→
AB + BC = AC

Figure: 1.1
we have
−→ −→ −→
AB + BB = AB

i.e a + 0 = a as C → A
e e

Also
−→ −→ −→
AB + BA = AA = 0
−→ −→
∴ AB = −BA

NB: In case of triangle law the two vectors must have a initial
point and a terminal point.
b. Parallelogram law of vector Addition This law states that if
two vectors a and b are represented by the two adjacent sides
of a parallelogram
e
then the resultant a + b is represented by
e
the diagonal of the parallelogram starting
e e
from the point of
intersection of the two vectors

Figure: 1.2
 −→ −→ −→
AB + AC = AD
−→ −→
AB = CD
=⇒ ~a + ~b = ~c
i.e vector algebra is commutative.
c. Associative Law

Figure: 1.3
Using parallelogram law of vector addition
−→
AC = ~a + ~b
−→ ~
BD = b + ~c

but
−→ −→ −→
AD = AC + CD = ~a + ~b + ~c

−→ −→ −→
AB = AB + BD = ~a + ~b + ~c

∴ ~a + ~b + ~c = ~a + ~b + ~c

=⇒ vector addition is associative.

=⇒ ~a + ~b + ~c = ~a + ~b + ~c = ~a + ~b + ~c



Theorem:The commutative and associative law hold for the
addition of any numbers of vectors. The sum is independent of the
order and the grouping of the terms.
d. Subtraction

~a − ~b = ~a + − ~b

Figure: 1.4
 Multiplication Of a Scalar and Vector Quantity
What does it mean to say ~a + ~a = ~a


=⇒ ~a 6= ~a = |~a|â + |~a|â = |~a| â + â

= 2|~a|â = 2~a
i.e 2~a is in the same direction as ~a, but of 2 times its length. Also

−~a − ~a = (−~a) + (−~a) = 2(−~a) = −2~a

This implies −2~a is the vector in the opposite direction to ~a, and
of 2 times its length.(Thus to multiply a vector by negative real
number -2 reverse it s direction and multiply by 2)
In general

~a + ~a + · · · + ~a(ntimes) = n~a
−~a − ~a − · · · − ~a(ntimes) = −n~a
 Definition: Scalar Multiple Of A Vector
Let λ be a scalar and ~a a vector then by λ~a, we mean the vector
|λ||~a| where λ is a real number.
Note

|2~a| = 2|~a| = 2a

| − 2~a| = | − 2||~a| = 2a
(
λ if λ > 0
|λ| =
−λ if λ < 0
NB
Direction depends on the direction λ. |λ| is always a positive
number.
 Some General Rules
Law Of Scalar Multiplication of vector
1. Commutative law for scalar Multiplication.
For any vector ~a and scalar λ, λ~a = ~aλ
2. Associative law for scalar multiplication.
For any vector ~a and scalars λ, and µ




λµ ~a = µλ ~a = λ µ~a

multiplication is associative to ordinary real number.

3.

λ + µ ~a = λ~a + µ~a
is also distributive(Distributive Law of vector over scalar )
4. Distributive law of scalar over vector addition

λ ~a + ~b = λ~a + µ~b


=⇒ The magnitude on the left hand-side is equal to the
magnitude on the right hand-side, the same apply to the direction
Examples
−→ −→ −→
I In a quadrilateral ABCD, the vectors AB,BC ,DC are
represented by the symbols ~a, ~b and ~c respectively. Find the
−→ −→ −→
vectors represented by the line segment AC , BD,AD

Figure: 1.5
 −→ −→ −→
a. AC = AB + BC = ~a + ~b
−→ −→ −→ −→ −→
b. BD = BC + CD = BC + (−DC ) = ~b − ~c
−→ −→ −→ −→ −→
c. AD = AC + CD = AC + (−DC ) = (−~a + ~b) − ~c = ~a + ~b − ~c
or
−→ −→ −→
AD = AB + BD = ~a + (~b − ~b) = ~a + ~b − ~c
I ABCD is parallelogram, E is a point on AB such that
−→ −→ −→ −→ −→
AB = λAE and F is a point on ED such that FD = λEF .
Prove that
−→ −→
AC = (λ + 1)AF
Figure: 1.6
 −→ −→
AD = −BC
−→ −→
AB = DC
−→ −→
AB = λAE
−→
FD = λEF

−→ −→ −→ −→ −→
AC = AB + BC = λAE + AD
−→ −→ −→
= λAE + AF + FD
−→ −→ −→ −→ −→
−→
= λAE + λEF + AF = λ AE + EF + AF
−→ −→ −→

−→
= λAF + λAF = AF λ + 1 = λ + 1 AF
 Position Vector Of a point
They are vectors whose initial points are already determined. Let
O be a point fixed in space, where O is the reference point of a
−→
given coordinate system. If A is any other point in space then OA
is called the position vector A relative to the fixed point O. Where
−→
there is no ambiguity about the relative points; OA is referred to
−→
as the position vector of A. If B is also a point in space then AB
means the position vector of B relative to a fixed point A. In a
plane

Figure: 1.7
−→
OA = ~a ∴ the position vector of A is ~a =⇒ A(~a).
APPLICATIONS TO COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Division of line by a point in a given plane
1. Internal division

Figure: 1.8
Consider a line segment AB and a point C on AB such that
−→
|AC | α
−→ = β (1)
|CB|

This kind of division is know as internal division. We wish to find

the position vector of the point C .
From equation(1) we have
−→ −→
β|AC | = α|CB
 −→ −→
But AC and CB are in the same direction
−→ −→
=⇒ β|AC | = α|CB =⇒ β ~c − ~a = α ~b − ~c

−→ −→
−→ −→

β OC − OA = α OB − OC

β~a + α~b
~c =
α+β
Alternatively
−→
Using triangle law ~c = ~a + AC
−→ α −→ α −→ −→

AC = AB = OB − OA
α+β α+β
α ~

=⇒ ~c = ~a + b − ~a
α+β
β~a + α~b
~c =
α+β
2. External Division

Figure: 1.9
 −→
If C lies on AB such that
−−→
|AC | α
−−→ = β (2)
|BC |

This kind of division is know as external division

−−→
|AC | α −−→ −−→
−−→ = β =⇒ β |AC | = α|BC |
|BC |
 −→ −→
But AC and BC are in the same direction
−→ −→
∴ AC = BC

=⇒ β ~c − ~a = α ~c − ~b

β~a + α~b
=⇒ ~c =
β−α
Alternatively
−→
By triangle law: ~c = ~a + AC
−→ α −→ α ~

AC = AB = b − ~a , α > β or β > α
α−β α−β

−β~a + α~b β~a − α~b

∴ ~c = =
α−β β−α
Special Cases
1. Suppose C is the midpoint of AB

Figure: 1.10
 1 −→ 1
α + ~b and AB = (AB)


~c =
2 2
~c is called the centroid of A and B or centre of mean position of A
and B.
2. Suppose C divides AB internal in the ratio 1 : 2
 Figure: 1.11

The point C is know as the point of trisection.

Generally suppose we have n points A1 , A2 , · · · , An . Then the
centroid of the point is define as that point G whose position
vector ~g is given as
n
1
X
~g = a~1 + a~2 + · · · + a~n = ai
n i=1

NB
The centroid is independent of the origin of vectors
Example
Prove that the line joining the midpoints of two sides of a triangle
is parallel to the third side and equal to one-half of it.

Solution

Figure: 1.12

Let the position vector of A, B, C , D, E = ~a, ~b, ~c , ~d, and ~e

~d = 1 a + b
, ~e = 1 a + c

2 2
−→
DE = ~e − ~d
 1
1

=a+c − a+b
2 2
1
1

= a+c −a−b = c −b
2 2
1
= BC
2
−→ 1 −→
∴ DE = BC
2
NB
Two vectors are parallel if one is a scalar multiple of the other
Example
Prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other

Solution
 Figure: 1.13

Let the position vectors of A, B, C , and D be ~a, ~b, ~c and ~d.

Since it is a parallelogram,

−→ −→ ~b + ~d ~a + ~c
AB = DC =⇒ ~b − ~a = ~c − ~d = =
2 2
−→ −→
=⇒ The midpoint of BD is equal to the midpoint of AC
Example
Prove that a line drawn parallel to the base of a triangle divides
the other two sides in equal ratios.

Solution

Figure: 1.14

Let the position vectors of A, B, C , D, E = ~a, ~b, ~c , ~d, and ~e

−→ −→
DE = λAB
 ~e − ~d = λ ~b − ~a =⇒ ~e − ~d = λ~b − λa

λ~b − ~e = λa − ~d
λ~b − ~e λ~a − ~d
∴ = = ~c , λ 6= 1
λ−1 λ−1

Example
ABCD is parallelogram M is the midpoint of AD and P is the
midpoint of CM. If BP meet CD at N
Find −−→ −−→
1. |DN| : |NC |
−−→ −−→
2. |BP| : |PN|

Solution
 Figure: 1.15

Let the position vectors of ABCDMNP = ~a, ~b, ~c , ~d, m

~ , ~n, ~p
Given that ABCD is a parallelogram
−→ −→
AD = BC =⇒ ~d − ~a = ~c − ~b (3)
m = ~a + ~d
2~ (4)
2~p = ~c + m
~ (5)
from (4) and (5) we have
 4~p = 2~c + ~a + ~d (6)

from (3) ~a = ~d + ~b − ~c
substituting into (6)
4~p = 2~c + ~d + ~d + ~b − ~c
= ~c + 2~d + ~b
4~p − ~b ~c + 2~d
=⇒ = = ~n
4−1 1+2
Collinear Points
Point that lies on the same straight line are said to be collinear
Conditions For 3 points to be collinear
Three points A(~a), B(~b), C (~c ) are collinear if and only if there exit
scalars λ, µ, ν such that
λa + µb + νc = 0 and
λ+µ+ν =0
Proof
Suppose A, B, C are collinear, there exit scalars α, β such that
−−→
|AB| α
−−→ = β
|BC |

Figure: 1.16

−→ −→
since AB and BC are in the same direction
−→ −→
β AB = αBC
 β(~b − ~a) = α(~c − ~b)
=⇒ −βa + ~b(α + β) − αc = 0
Also
−β + (α + β) − α = 0
Proof Of Converse
λ~a + ν~b + ν~c = 0
λ+µ+ν =0


µ=− λ+ν
∴ λ + ν ~b = λ~a + ~c

assume that µ 6= 0 then (λ + µ 6= 0)

~b = λ~a + ν~c
λ+ν
Hence B divides AC into
−−→
|AB| ν
−−→ = λ
|BC |
Alternative Form of ratios of Collinear 3 points

λ~a + µ~b + ν~c = 0 (7)

λ+µ+ν =0 (8)


From (8) µ = − λ + ν
∴ (7) becomes

λ~a − λ + ν ~b + ν~c = 0

λ~a − λ~b + ν~c − ν~b = 0

λ ~a − ~b + ν ~c − ~b = 0

−→ −→
λAB = ν BC
−→ −→ α
or BA = αBC , α =
λ
That is two vector are collinear if one is the scalar multiple of the
other.
Non Parallel and Parallel Lines
1 λ~a + µ~b = 0
−µ
=⇒ λ~a = −µ~b =⇒ ~a = α~b, α =
λ
~
If λ, µ 6= 0 then ~a and b are parallel vectors.
∴ λ~a + µ~b = 0 where λ,µ are not zero =⇒ a,b are parallel.
2 What if ~a,~b are not parallel, then λ~a + µ~b is the resultant of
parallelogram i.e

Figure: 1.17
with
λ~a + µ~b = 0
λ=µ=0
Hence
a λ~a + µ~b = 0 where λ and µ are not zero then ~a,~b are linearly
dependent.
b If λ~a + µ~b = 0 and λ = µ = 0 then ~a,~b are linearly
independent where ~a,~b are non parallel
Example
−→ −→
In a triangle A, B, C P divides BC in the ratio −2 : 1,Q divides CA
−→
in the ratio 3 : 4 and R divides AB in the ratio 2 : 3. Show that
P, Q, R are collinear.
Solution

Figure: 1.18

−2~c + ~b
~p =
−2 + 1
−~p = −2~c + ~b (9)
7~q = 3~a + ~c (10)
5~r = 2~b + 3~a (11)

(10)-(11)
=⇒ 7~q − 5~r = 4~c − 2~b = 2~p
= 2(2~c − ~b)
=⇒ 2~p − 7~q + 5~r = 0
=⇒ 2 − 7 + 5 = 0
Alternatively
−→ 1
PQ = ~q − ~p = 3~a + ~c − 2~c + ~b


2
1
= 3~a + 4~c − 14~c + 7~b


7

1
3~a − 10~c + 7~b


=
7
−→ 1
3~a + 2~b − 2~c + ~b


PR =
5
1
3~a + 2~b − 10~c + ~b


=
5
1
3~a + 7~b − 10~c


=
2
−→ 1 −→
=⇒ PQ = .5PR
7
Coplanar and Non-coplanar Vectors
Definition (1)
The vectors (in space) A~a,B~b and C~c if they are linearly dependent
to each other and there exit scalars λ,µ,ν not all zero such that
λ~a + µ~b + ν~c = 0 and λ + µ + ν = 0

Definition (2)
A, B, C are said to be non-coplanar if ~a,~b and ~c does not lie on the
same plane and are such that

λ~a + µ~b + ν~c = 0

λ=µ=ν=0

We say ~a,~b and ~c are linearly independent

Components Of a Vector

Figure: 1.19

−→ −→ −→
Vector p can be expressed in OA,OB and OC
−→ −→ −→ −→
i.e OP = ON + NP = ON + λ =⇒ parallel

Also
−→
ON = µ~a + ν~b (same place)
−→
OP = µ~a + ν~b + λ~c
−→
∴ µ~a,ν~b,λ~c are vector components of OP
The rectangular artisan Coordinate System
Two dimensional

Figure: 2.0

−→ −→ −→
OA = ON + NA

Let ı̂ and ̂ represent unit vector along the direction ox and oy .

−→ −−→ −→ −−→
Then ON = |ON|ı̂, NA = |NA|̂
−−→ −→
Let |ON| = a1 ı̂ and NA = a2 ̂


=⇒ ~a = a1 ı̂ + a2 ̂ = a1 , a2


a1 , a2 are referred as the points of the coordinate of a vector a.
Three Dimensions

Figure: 2.10

Consider a point A in space. Writing A in terms of components in

ı̂, ̂, and k̂ directions.
−→ −→ −→
OA = ON + NA
−−→

= a1 ı̂ + a2 ̂ + |NA|k̂ = a1 ı̂ + a2 ̂ + a3 k̂ = a1 , a2 , a3


∴ ~a has components of a1 , a2 , a3
 Figure: 2.20

−→
OA = a1 ı̂ + a2 ̂
a1 a2
cos θ = −−→ sin θ = −−→
|OA| |OA|
−→ −−→ −−→
∴ OA = |OA| cos θı̂ + |OA| sin θ̂
−−→

= |OA| cos θı̂ + sin θ̂
−→ −−→
but OA = |OA|ê
∴ ê = cos θı̂ + sin θ̂
Vector Rules/ Operations in component Form
1 Addition and subtraction of vectors
let

~a = a1 ı̂ + a2 ̂ + a3 k̂
~b = b1 ı̂ + b2 ̂ + b3 k̂

then

~a + ~b = a1 ı̂ + a2 ̂ + a3 k̂ + b1 ı̂ + b2 ̂ + b3 k̂








= a1 ı̂ + b1 ı̂ + a2 ̂ + b2 ̂ + a3 k̂ + b3 k̂




= a1 + b1 ı̂ + a2 + b2 ̂ + a3 + b3 k̂

also

~a − ~b = a1 ı̂ + a2 ̂ + a3 k̂ − b1 ı̂ + b2 ̂ + b3 k̂








= a1 ı̂ − b1 ı̂ + a2 ̂ − b2 ̂ + a3 k̂ − b3 k̂




= a1 − b1 ı̂ + a2 − b2 ̂ + a3 − b3 k̂
2. Scalar Multiple of a Vector
let ~a = a1 ı̂ + a2 ̂ + a3 k̂ and λ is a scalar then


λ~a = λ a1 ı̂ + a2 ̂ + a3 k̂


= λ a1 ı̂ + a2 ̂ + λa3 k̂
= λa1 ı̂ + λa2 ̂ + λa3 k̂

3. Equality of Vectors
let ~a = a1 ı̂ + a2 ̂ + a3 k̂ and ~b = b1 ı̂ + b2 ̂ + b3 k̂
a=b

=⇒ a1 ı̂ + a2 ̂ + a3 k̂ = b1 ı̂ + b2 ̂ + b3 k̂



=⇒ a1 ı̂ + a2 ̂ + a3 k̂ − b1 ı̂ + b2 ̂ + b3 k̂ = 0




=⇒ a1 − b1 ı̂ + a2 − b2 ̂ + a3 − b3 k̂ = 0
NB
ı̂,̂ and k̂ do not lie in the same plane and are linearly independent
vectors =⇒ ı̂,̂ and k̂ are non-coplanar
4 Magnitude Of a vector
Let ~a = a1 ı̂ + a2 ̂ + a3 k̂. Them the magnitude of a denoted
~ is denoted by
by |a|
q
~ =
|a| a12 + a22 + a32
∴ a1 = b1 , a2 = a2 and a3 = b3
5 Parallel Vectors
~b = λ~a where λ is real


b1 ı̂ + b2 ̂ + b3 k̂ = λ a1 ı̂ + a2 ̂ + a3 k̂
= λa1 ı̂ + λa2 ̂ + λa3 k̂
=⇒ b1 = λa1 , b2 = λa2 , b3 = λa3 , i.e
b1 b2 b3
= = =λ
a1 a2 a3
Example
If ~a = 3ı̂ − ̂ − 4k̂, ~b = ı̂ + 3̂ − 2k̂ and ~c = 4ı̂ + 3̂ + 2k̂ find
i. ~a-2~b
ii 21 3~a + ~b + 4~c

Solutions
i)

~a − 2~b = 3ı̂ − ̂ − 4k̂ − 2 ı̂ + 3̂ − 2k̂

= 3ı̂ − ̂ − 4k̂ − 2ı̂ + 6̂ − 4k̂




= 3 − 2 ı̂ − 1 + 6 ̂ − 4 − 4 k̂
= ı̂ − 7̂

ii)

3~a + ~b = 3 3ı̂ − ̂ − 4k̂ + ı̂ + 3̂ − 2k̂

= 9ı̂ − 3̂ − 12k̂ + ı̂ + 3̂ − 2k̂


= 9 + 1 ı̂ − 14k̂ = 10ı̂ − 14k̂
 1
3~a + ~b = 5ı̂ − 7k̂


∴
2
1
3~a + ~b + 4~c = 5ı̂ − 7k̂ + 4 4ı̂ + 3̂ + 2k̂ + 2k̂



2



= 5 + 16 ı̂ + 12̂ + − 7 + 8 k̂
= 21ı̂ + 12̂ + k̂

Example
If ~a = ı̂ − ̂ + k̂, ~b = 2ı̂ + 3j − k. Find the coordinate of the
terminal points if the position vector is ~a + 3~b where the initial
point is ı̂ + 2̂ + 3k̂.
Solution
Let Q be the terminal point of the directed line segment ~a + 3~b
and P = ı̂ + 2̂ + 3k̂ be the initial position, then
−→
PQ = ~a + 3~b



= ı̂ − ̂ + k̂ + 3 2ı̂ + 3j − k
= 7ı̂ + 8̂ − 2k̂
 q − p = 7ı̂ + 8̂ − 2k̂

where P = ı̂ + 2̂ + 3k̂

q = p + 7ı̂ + 8̂ − 2k̂

q = ı̂ + 2̂ + 3k̂ + 7ı̂ + 8̂ − 2k̂
= 8ı̂ + 10̂ + k̂


hence coordinate of Q are 8, 10, 1
Example
If

~a = 3ı̂ + 5̂ + 7k̂ (12)

~b = 2ı̂ + 7̂ + 8k̂ (13)
~c = ı̂ + 9̂ + 9k̂ (14)

Shoe that the points A, B, C are collinear

Solution
Eliminating ı̂ from (12) and (14) gives


~a − 3~c = −22̂ − 20k̂ = −2 11̂ + 10k̂
Eliminating ı̂ form (13) and (14) gives
~b − 2~c = 11̂ − 10k̂
∴ ~a − 3~c = 2 ~b − 2~c

=⇒ ~a − 2~b + ~c = 0
1−2+1=0
1
or ~a + ~c = 2~b =⇒ ~b = ~a + ~c


2
Alternatively

−→


AB = 2ı̂ + 7̂ + 8k̂ − 3ı̂ + 5̂ + 7k̂
= −ı̂ + 2̂ + k̂
−→


AC = ı̂ + 9̂ + 9k̂ − 3ı̂ + 5̂ + 7k̂
 = −2ı̂ + 4̂ + 2k̂
−→ −→
=⇒ AC = 2AB

∴ A, B, C are collinear.
Example
Show that ~a = 2ı̂ + 3̂ − 6k̂, ~b = 6ı̂ + 2̂ + 3k̂ and ~c = 3ı̂ − 6̂ − 2k̂
are linearly independent

Solution
Let α~a + β~b + γ~c = 0




α 2ı̂ + 3̂ − 6k̂ + β 6ı̂ + 2̂ + 3k̂ + γ 3ı̂ − 6̂ − 2k̂ = 0

2α + 6β + 3γ = 0 (15)
3α + 2β − 6γ = 0 (16)
−6α + 3β − 2γ = 0 (17)
From equation (15) and (16) we have

−14α + 21β = 0 (18)

From equation (16) and (17) we have

21α − 7β = 0 (19)

(18) → 3β − 2α = 0
−β + 3γ = 0

=⇒ 7α = 0 =⇒ α = 0, β = 0, γ = 0
Dot/Scalars Product of Vectors
Given two vectors ~a and ~b with common initial points and both
vectors pointing away from the initial point
 Figure: 2.30

The scalar product of ~a and ~b denoted by ~a · ~b is defines as

~a · ~b = |~a||~b| cos θ

Properties Of Scalar Product

a. If ~a and ~b are ⊥ (perpendicular) then ~a · ~b = 0
Conversely
If ~a · ~b = 0 then |~a||~b| cos θ = 0
π
cos θ = 0 =⇒ θ =
2
b. If ~a · ~b are parallel (k)

Figure: 2.40

the angle between them is 0 and

~a · ~b = |~a||~b| because cos θ = 1 if ~a and ~b are anti parallel

Figure: 2.50

then ~a · ~b = |~a||~b| cos π = −|~a||~b|

 c. If ~b → ~a for parallel

~a · ~a = |~a|2 = a2
√
Hence the magnitude of the vector ~a = ~a · ~a ≥ 0 positive
definite law.
Other
Properties
~a · λ~b = |~a||λ~b| cos θ, θ depends on λ.

1. If λ > 0 then θ is the angle between ~a and ~b

2. If λ < 0 then λ~b is in the opposite direction ~a and ~b

Figure: 2.60
then

~a · λ~b = |~a||λ~b| cos(π − θ)

= |λ||~a||~b| − cos θ
= −λab(− cos θ) = λab cos θ

Scalar and Vector Properties

Figure: 2.7
Projection of ~b on ~a means perpendicular divisions of C and D to
give C 0 and D 0
−−→
C 0 D 0 = CE = ||CD| cos θ = ~b cos θ

But
~
~b cos θ = ~a · b = ~a · ~b = |~a||~b| cos θ
|~a|
proj ~b · ~a = proj ~b,~a = |b| cos θ

and
~a · ~b = |~a|proj ~b,~a

NB
The vector projection is defined simply as the scalar projection on
direction ~a i.e
proj ~b,~a = |~b| cos θâ


Laws of Scalar product operation
1 ~a · ~b = ~b · a Commutative
2 λ~a · ~b = ~a λ~b = λ~a~b distributive over scalar

3 ~a · ~b + ~c = ~a · ~b + ~a · ~c

also ~b + ~c · a = ~b · ~a + ~c · ~a

i.e Dot product is distributive over vector addition.

Example
If ~a and ~b have length 3 and 5. Find the lenght of the vector
~a + ~b given that ~a,~b are included to each other at an angle of π/3

Solution

| ~a + ~b | = ~a + ~b · ~a + ~b

= |~a|2 + 2~a · ~b + |~b|

π
= |~a|2 + 2|~a||~b| cos θ + |~b| = 9 + 2(3)(5) cos + 25 = 49
3
 √
| ~a + ~b| =


49 = 7units
Application Of scalar product
1 Pythagoras’s Theorem
Given any triangle A, B, C

Figure: 2.80

−→
2
AC = ~a + ~b
 = |~a|2 + 2~a~b + |~b|2
−−→ −−→
= |AB|2 + 2~a~b + |BC |2

Hence if ~a · ~b = 0 ie right angle and B then

−−→2 −−→2 −−→2
|AC | = |AB| + |BC |

2. Cauchy-Schwartz Inequality
By definition

~a · ~b = |~a||~b|| cos θ but | cos θ| ≤ 1

∴ |~a · ~b| = |~a||~b|| cos θ ≤ |~a||~b|

3 The Triangle Inequality

Figure: 2.90

| ~a + ~b |2 = ~a + ~b · ~a + ~b

= |~a|2 + 2~a~b + |~b|2

 = |~a|2 + 2|~a||~b| cos θ + |~b|2
~ 2 + 2|~a||~b| + |~b|2
≤ |A|

2
= |~a| + |~a|

Hence |~a + ~b| ≤ |~a| + |~b|

4. The cosine rule
By triangle law ~a + ~b = ~c

Figure: 3.0
Let angle C = γ i.e ∠C = γ

~c = ~a + ~b

2
∴ |~c |2 = ~a + ~b = |~a|2 + 2~a~b + |~b|2
= |~a| + |~b|2 + 2~a~b
= |~a|2 + |~b|2 + 2|~a||~b| cos π − γ

= |~a|2 + |~b|2 − 2|~a||~b| cos γ

c 2 = a2 + b 2 − 2ab cos γ, γ < c

The Scalar product in terms of Component
Let ~a = a1 ı̂ + a2 ̂ + a3 k̂ and ~b = b1 ı̂ + b2 ̂ + b3 k̂ be two vectors.
NB
ı̂ · ̂ = ̂ · k̂ = k̂ · ı̂ = 0
ı̂ · ı̂ = ̂ · ̂ = k̂ · k̂ = 1
then


~a · ı̂ = a1 ı̂ + a2 ̂ + a3 k̂ · ı̂


= a1 + ı̂ + a2 ̂ · +a3 k̂ = a1

Similarly ~a · ̂ = a2 and ~a · k̂ = a3

∴ ~a · ~b = ~a · b1 ı̂ + b2 ̂ + b2 k̂

= ~a · (b1 ı̂) + ~a cot(b2 ̂) + ~a(b3 k̂)

= b1 a1 · ı̂ + b2~a cot ̂ + b3~ak̂
= b1 a1 + b2 a2 + b3 a3

ie ~a · ~b = b1 a1 + b2 a2 + b3 a3
The angle between two vectors
let ~a = ~
qa1 ı̂ + a2 ̂ + a3 k̂ and b =qb1 ı̂ + b2 ̂ + b3 k̂ be two vectors.
|~a| = a12 + a22 + a32 and |~b| = b12 + b22 + b32
~a · ~b
∴ ~a · ~b = |~a||~b| cos θ =⇒ cos θ =
|~a||~b|

a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
ie cos θ = q q
a12 + a22 + a32 × b12 + b22 + b32

Example
Find the scalar product of ~a = 4ı̂ − 4̂ + 7k̂ and ~b = −ı̂ + 4̂ + 8k̂
and hence find the angle between them.

Solution
∴ ~a · ~b = |~a||~b| cos θ

~a · ~b = (4)(−1) + (−4)(4) + (78) = −4 − 16 + 58 = 36

 q √ √
|~a| = 42 (−4)2 + 72 =
16 + 16 + 49 = 81 = 9
q √ √
|~b| = (−1)2 + (4)2 + (82 ) = 1 + 16 + 64 = 81 = 9

~a · ~b 36 4
∴ cos θ = = =
~
|~a||b| 9×9 9

4
 
−1
θ = cos = 63.61◦
9

Example
Given the vector ~a = 6ı̂ − 3̂ + 2k̂ and ~b = 2ı̂ + k̂. Find the scalar
and vector projection of ~b and ~a

Solution

~
proj ~b,~a = proj b, â = â · ~b = ~a|~a·b|

· ~b = (6)(2) + (−3)(0) + 2(1) = 14

But ~a q
√
|~a| = 62 + (−3)2 + (2)2 = 49 = 7
 ∴ proj b · â = 14


=2

7
vector proj b · â = 2â = 72 6ı̂ − 3̂ + 2k̂

Direction Cosine
~a = a1 ı̂ + a2 ̂ + a3 k̂ we have seen that ~a · ı̂ = a1 , ~a̂ = a2 and
~ak̂ = a3 .
Suppose the angle between ~a and ı̂, ~a and ̂, ~a and k̂ are α, β, γ
then

a1 = |~a| cos α
a2 = |~a| cos β
a3 = |~a| cos γ


∴ ~a = |~a| ı̂ cos α + ̂ cos β + k̂ cos γ
~a
∴ ~a = = ı̂ cos α + ̂ cos β + k̂ cos γ
|~a|
Let cos α = l, cos β = m, cos γ
=⇒ ~a = ı̂l + ̂m + k̂n, Hence l 2 + m2 + n2 = 1
α,β,γ are called direction angles l, m, , n as direction cosine. â is
the unit direction vector with ~a = |~a|â
Example


Find the lenght of the vector
whose initial points A 3, 1, 6 and
whose end point is B 6, 2, 4 . Find also the direction cosines of
−→
AB.

Solution
−→
Let AB = ~b − ~a = 6ı̂ + 2̂ + 4k̂ − 3ı̂ + ̂ + 6k̂

= 3ı̂ + ̂ − k̂
−→ q 2 √
AB = (3) + (1)2 + (2)2 = 14
−→
Let ê be the unit vector of AB
−→ −−→
∴ AB = |AB|ê
−→
AB 1

=⇒ ê = −−→ = √ 3ı̂ + ̂ − 2k̂
|AB| 14
direction cosines of
−2
ı̂ =⇒ cos α = √314 , ̂ =⇒ cos β = √1
14
and k̂ =⇒ cos γ = √
14

Example



The points


A, B, C have coordinate 4, −1, 5 , 8, 0, 6 and
5, −3, 3 respectively. Show that angle BAC is a right angle and
the cosines of angle ACB. Find also the area of the triangle ABC

Solution

Figure: 3.1
 −→


i. AB = 8ı̂ + 6k̂ − 4ı̂ − ̂ + 5k̂ = 4ı̂ + ̂ + k̂
−→


AC = 5ı̂ − 3̂ + 3k̂ − 4ı̂ − ̂ + 5k̂ = ı̂ − 2̂ − 2k̂
−→ −→


AB · AC = 4ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ · ı̂ − 2̂ − 2k̂
= 4 + (−2) + (−2) = 0

∴ BAC is a right angle.

−→
ii. CA = −ı̂ + 2̂ + 2k̂

Figure: 3.2
 −→


CB = 8ı̂ + 6k̂ − 5ı̂ − 3̂ + 3k̂ = 3ı̂ + ̂ + 3k̂
−→ −→
CA · CB
cos γ = −−→−−→
|CA||CB|
−→ −→


CA · CB = − ı̂ + 2̂ + 2k̂ · 3ı̂ + 3̂ + 3k̂ = −3 + 6 + 6 = 9

−−→ q √
|CA| = (−1)2 + (2)2 + (2)2 = 9 = 3
−−→ p 2 √ √
|CB| = 3 + 32 + 32 = 27 = 3 3
9 1
∴ cos γ = √ =√
(3)(3 3) 3
 iii. Area 4ABC = 12 bh

−−→ p √ √
b = |AB| = 42 + 12 + 12 = 18 = 3 2
−−→
h = |AC | = 3

1 √ 9√
∴ Area = ·3 2·3= 2units
2 2
Example
Given that ~a = 2ı̂ − ̂ + k̂, ~b = ı̂ + 2̂ − k̂ and ~c = ı̂ + ̂ − 2k̂. Find
a unit vector in the plane of ~b and ~c which is perpendicular to ~a

Solution
Let ~d be a vector in the plane of b, c then
~d = β~b + γ~c (20)

where β and γ are scalars.

Also
~ =1
|d| (21)

But
~d · ~a = 0 (22)

From (20) and (22)

0 = β~a · ~b + γ~a · ~c

~a · ~b −γ
∴ =
~a~c β
But ~a · ~b = −1 and ~a · ~c = −1

∴ γ = −β

∴ ~d = β ~b − ~c


~b − ~c = ı̂ + 2̂ − k̂
− ı̂ + ̂
− ı̂ + ̂ − 2k̂
= ̂ + k̂

~ 2=1
∴ ~d = β ̂ + k̂ , But |d|

1
∴ β 2 + β 2 = 1 =⇒ β = ± √
2
∴ d = ± √12 ̂ + k̂

Cross Product/Vector Product

Given ~a,~b
~ |b|
~a ∧ ~b or ~a × ~b is a vector quantity whose magnitude is |a| ~ sin θ
with direction denoted as n̂ where θ is the (inclined) angle between
~ |b|
~a and ~b. ie ~a ∧ ~b = |a| ~ sin θn̂.
n̂ is ⊥ to both ~a and b ~

Figure: 3.3
Handedness
~a, ~b,~a ∧ ~b forms aa right handed system.

Figure: 3.4

If ~a, ~b, ~c is a right handed, then c, a, b is a left handed.

Properties of the Vector Product
1. If ~a or ~b is a zero vector then the direction of ~a and ~b cannot
~ ~b = 0
be determined i.e since |a|or

=⇒ ~a ∧ ~b = 0

2. If ~a, ~b are parallel then the angle sin θ = 0 and

~a ∧ ~b = 0 =⇒ |a| ~ |b|
~ =0
This means in particular that ~a ∧ ~a = 0 for all a
Thus ı̂ ∧ ı̂ = 0, ̂ ∧ ̂ = 0 and k̂ ∧ k̂ = 0
3. Vector ⊥ to ~a and ~b
Given any two non-zero vector ~a and ~b there exit a vector ~c
which is ⊥ to both ~a and ~b and is given by

~c = λ~a ∧ ~b

4. Non-commutativity property of vector products

 Figure: 3.5

~ |a|
−~b ∧ ~b = (−~b) ∧ ~a = |b| ~ sin π − θ
n̂
where n̂ is in the same direction as (−b) rotation to ~a

~ |a|
=⇒ −~b ∧ ~a = |b| ~ sin θn̂
~ |b|
= |a| ~ sin θn̂
∴ −~b ∧ ~a = ~a ∧ ~b
or ~a ∧ ~b = −~b ∧ ~a

5. Vector product of mutually perpendicular vector If ~a, ~b are ⊥

~ |b|n̂
~a ∧ ~b = |a| ~

~a ∧ ~b
=⇒ n̂ = = ~a ∧ ~b
~ |b|
|a| ~

Then the three unit vectors
~a,~b and n̂ are said to be mutually
perpendicular. =⇒ ~a, ~b, n̂ is a right handed system of mutually
⊥ vectors (ı̂, ̂, k̂)
 ı̂ ∧ ı̂ = k̂ = −̂ ∧ ı̂
̂ ∧ k̂ = ı̂ = −k̂ ∧ ̂
k̂ ∧ ı̂ = ̂ = −ı̂ ∧ k̂

Distributive laws
a. ~a ∧ λ~b = λ~a ∧ ~b = λ~a ∧ ~b
b. ~a ∧ ~b + ~c = ~a ∧ ~b + ~a ∧ ~c

c. ~b + ~c ∧ ~a = ~b ∧ ~a + ~c ∧ ~a

NB
~a
i. has no meaning in vector algebra.
~b
ii. ~a · ~b = ~a · ~c is not the same
as ~b = ~c but
~a · ~b = ~a · ~c =⇒ ~a · ~b − ~c = 0 i.e cancellation law has no
meaning in vector algebra.
 iii. ~a ∧ ~b = ~a ∧ ~c is not the same as ~b = ~c but

~a ∧ ~b = ~a ∧ ~c
=⇒ ~a ∧ ~b − ~c = 0

=⇒ ~b − ~c = λ~a

Example
Simplify the expression q~a + r ~b ∧ s~a + t ~b

Solution
Let ~p + q~a + r ~b

~p ∧ s~a + t ~b = s~p ∧ ~a + t~p ∧ ~b

= s q~a + r ~b ∧ ~a + t q~a + r ~b ∧ ~b

= s(q~a) ∧ ~a + s(r ~b) ∧ ~a + t(q~a) ∧ ~b + t(r ~b) ∧ ~b

= −rs~a ∧ ~b + tq~a ∧ ~b = tq − rs ~a ∧ ~b


Example
The vector ~a,~b and ~c are distinct unit vectors such that the angle
between ~a and ~c is π/4. If ~a ∧ ~c = ~b ∧ ~c show that ~a is ⊥ to ~b

Solution
Since a, b , c are unit vectors
e e e
|a| = |b | = |c | =
e e e
Also
π 1 1
a · c = |a||c | cos =1·1· √ = √
e e e e 4 2 2
Also from a ∧ c = ~b ∧ ~c we have
e e


a − b ∧ c = 0 =⇒ a − b = λc (23)

Let θ be the angle between b and c then from ~a ∧ ~c = ~b ∧ ~c we

have e e
 π

sin − sin θ n̂ = 0
θ
∴ sin θ = sin π4 = √1
2
∴ θ = π4 , 3π
4 from (23)

1
=⇒ λ = a · c − b· = √ − cos θ
2
If θ = π4 ,
1 1
λ= √ −√ =0
2 2
3π
and if θ = 4 ,
1 1 √
λ= √ +√ = 2
2 2
√
∴a=b+ 2c
Hence
e e
√
a·b =1+ 2b · c
e e e e
Geometrical Meaning of a ∧ b
e e

Figure: 3.6

−→
Area of parallelogram ABCD = |AB|h
h 
sin θ = −→
AD 

−→ −→
∴ Area = |AB||AD| sin θ = ka|b | sin θ
ee
=⇒ |a ∧ b | = |a||b | sin θ
e e e e
Hence a ∧ b is known as the vector area of a parallelogram with
non-parallel
e e
sides a, b
NB e e
Since ABCDis equivalent to two triangles ABD,BDC , the area of
−→ −→
any triangle ABC is 12 AB ∧ AC .
Condition for 3 Points to be Collinear

Figure: 3.7

−→ −→
Area of 4ABC = 21 AC | ∧ AC  Vectors area of
−→ −→ −→ −→
4ABC = 12 AB ∧ AC If A, B, C are collinear then AC ∧ AC = 0
 −→ −→ −→ −→
conversely if AB ∧ AC = 0 =⇒ AC = λAB
=⇒ A, B, C are on the same straight line.
Sine Rule

Figure: 3.8

From the addition law

a+b =c (24)
e e e
=⇒ a ∧ c = −b ∧ c = c b
e e e ee
=⇒ |a||c | sin βn̂ = |c ||b | sin βn̂
e e e e
 sin β sin α
=⇒ =
|b | |a|
e e
Similarly, vector multiply by b from (24) gives
e
sin γ sin β
=
|c | |b |
e e
Vector Products in terms of components
If a = a1 ı + a2  + a3 k and b = b1 ı + b2  + b3 k
Wee use the
e
3 ×e 3 determinant
e e
to determine
e e a∧ e
b
e e
 
ı  k 

a ∧ b =  a1 ae a3 
e e
2
e e  
b1 b2 b3 
     
a a3  a
 3 a1 
a
 1 a2 
 
= ı 2  +  +k

e b2 b3  e b3 b1  e b1 b2 





= a2 + b3 − a3 b2 ı + a3 b1 − a1 b3  + a1 b2 − a2 b1 k
e e e
Example
1. Given that a = 3ı −  + 2k and b = 2ı +  + k Find a ∧ b and
tangent of the
e
angle
e e
between
e
a and
e
be e e e e
2. Find a unit vector which is perpendicular
e e
to the vectors
a = ı − 2 + 3k and b = ı −  − 2k
3. e
Findethe
area of
e
the
triangle
e e e
whosee vectors


are
A 1, 6, 2 ,B 2, 7, −2 and C − 1, 5, 1

Equation of a Straight line


Consider the set A, p1 , p2 · · · , pn i.e the point A lies on the same
line.

Figure: 3.9
 −→
the equation of the straight line AP is
−→
AP = λd
e
where d is a constant and λ is scalar. 
For twoe points lying on a line i.e the set A, B, P1 , P2 · · · , Pn

Figure: 4.0

the equation of the lines

−→ ~B~ and
AP = t A
−→ −→
BP = s AB

where s, t are scalars



In terms of the position vectors A, B, P the vector equation of a
line is
r = a + td
e e e
and the vector equation of 2 points lying on a line is


r −a =t b−a (25)
e e e e

r −b =s b−a (26)
e e e e
Equation of a straight line in plane

Figure: 4.1

−−−→


P1 P2 = p2 − p2 = x2 ı + y2  − x1 ı + y1 

e e
e e
= x2 − x1 ı + y2 − y1 
e
∴ equation of line passing through
e
p1 , p2 is
−−−→

r = x1 ı + y 1 + t P1 P2
e e e  



= x1 ı + y1  + t x2 − x1 ı + y2 − y1 
 e e
  e e


= x1 + t x2 − x1 ı + y1 + t y2 − y1
e

∴ x = x1 + t x2 − x1


y = y1 + t y2 − y1

these are know as parametric form of the equation of a line.

Relationship of a direction vector to the gradient of a line

Figure: 4.2

y2 − y1 ∆y
tan θ = = =m
x21 − x1 ∆x
the direction vector is
−−−→
d = P1 P2
e


= x2 − x1 ı + y2 − y1 
e e
= ∆x ı + ∆y 
e e
If ∆x 6= 0 then
 ∆y
 


d = ∆x ı +  = ∆x ı + m
e e ∆x e e e


=⇒ d = λ ı + m
e e e
Example
1. Find
a vector equation of the line passing through the points
2, 3 and is parallel to the vector 5ı − 7 and deduce that



M 17, −18 lies on the line but not the point
e e
N 6, 3
Solution
Vector equation of a line given as

r = a + td
e e e

= 2ı + 3 + t 5ı − 7
e e
e e

= 2 + 5t ı + 3 − 7t 
e e
M lies on L if there exist uniqueness values of t such that



17ı − 18 = 2 + 5t ı + 3 − 7t 
 2 + 5t = 17 (27)
3 − 7t = −18 (28)

From (27) t = 3 substitute t = 3 on L.H.S of equation(28)

3 − 7t = 3 − 21 = −18 = R.H.S Hence M lies on the line.
Similarly N lies on
line if ∃ a uniqueness


t such that
6ı + 3 = 2 + 5t ı + 3 − 7t 
e e e e
2 + 5t = 6 (29)
3 − 7t = 3 (30)

From (29) t = 4/5, substitute t = 4/5 on L.H.S of (30)

3 − 7t = 3 − 7 45 = 15−28 = − 13


3 15 6= 3
∴ N does not lie on the line
Example
2. Find a vector equation


of the


line that passes through the
points A − 5, 3 ,B 7. − 3
3. Write down a direction vector of a line with gradient -1/3.
Hence find a vector equation of the
line with gradient -2/3
that passes through the points 2, 3
Angles Between two lines in terms of direction vectors

Figure: 4.3

The angle between 2 lines L1 , L2 with direction vectors d1 , d2 is

given by θ or π − θ . f f
By definition:
d1 · d2 = |d1 ||d2 | cos θ or


df1 · df2 = |df1 ||df2 | cos π − θ = |d 1 ||d 2 | cos θ
f f f f e e
 d1 · d2
∴ cos θ = ± f f = ±dˆ1 · dˆ2
|d1 ||d2 |
f f

1. If θ = 0 or π, L1 and L2 are parallel then

d1 · d2 = ±|d1 ||d2 |
thus
f f if d1 = f
ı +fm1 , d2 = ı + m2 
f qe e f e e

2
2
1 + m1 m2 = ± 1 + m1 1 + m2 =⇒ m1 = m2
Alternatively L1 , L2 parallel =⇒ d1 ∧ d2 = 0
f f
 
ı  k 


1 m 1 0  = k m2 − m1 = 0
e e e
  e
1 m 2 0
=⇒ m1 = m2
π
2. If L1 and L2 are perpendicular to each other =⇒ θ = 2
∴ d2 · d2 = 0 =⇒ 1 + m1 m2 = 0
=⇒ m2 = m1
f f
Example
Find the angle between the lines defined by



r = 1 + 3t ı + 2 1 + 2t 
e
e
e
r = 1 + 2s ı + 1 − s 
e e e
Intersection of 2 lines in a plane
Let the vector equation of L1 ,L2 be

r = a1 + λd1
e f f
r = a2 + µd1
e f f
Assume that L1 ,L2 are not parallel then they intersect. This is only
possible if unique vectors of λ, µ exits such that
a1 + λd1 = a2 + µd2
=⇒ λd f − µd =f a 1 − a1
1 2
f
In component form f f
f f



λ d11 ı + d12  − µ d21 ı + d22 
e e e e



= a21 ı + a22  − a11 ı + a12 
e e e e
i.e
λd11 − µd21 = a21 − a11
λd12 − µd22 = a22 − a12
Example
Find the position vector of the point of interaction of the z lines


r = 4ı − 3 + λ 3ı − 4
e e e
e
r = ı +  + µ 4ı + 3
e e
Normal Form of the equation of a line in a plane

Figure: 4.4

−−−→
r = P1 + λ P1 P2
e  




x ı + y  = x1 ı + y1  + λ x2 − x1 ı + y2 − y1 
e e e e e e


∴ x = x1 + λ x2 − x1


y = y1 + λ y2 − y1
Eliminating λ we get
y − y1 y2 − y1
=
x − x1 x2 − x1





y − y1 x2 − x1 = y2 − y1 x − x1





=⇒ y x2 − x1 −1 x2 − x1 = x y2 − y1 − x1 y2 − y1



=⇒ x y2 − y1 + y x1 − x2 + y1 x2 − x1 y2 = 0
ax + by + c = 0
where a = y2 − y1 , b = x1 − x2 , c = y1 x2 − x1 y2 i.e a linear
equation of x , y .
ie Equation of a line in a plane.
Normal vector to a line

Figure: 4.5

ax + by + c = 0 (31)
If P0 lies on L, then
ax0 + by0 + c = 0 (32)



a x − x0 + b y − y0 (33)
But

−−→
PP0 = r0 − r



= x0 ı + y0  − x ı + y 
e
e e
e
= x0 − x ı + y0 − y 
e e

let

n = aı + b
e e e

Then (33) can be expressed as

−−→
n · P0 P = 0
e
∴n·r +c =0
 n = aı + b
e e e
is a vector in the plane which is perpendicular to c. Therefore the
normal form of the equation of line is n · r + c = 0
Relationship between n and d e e
e e
n is perpendicular d
e e
=⇒ n · d = 0
e e
Suppose n = aı + b given d = d1 ı + d2  then n · d = 0
e e e e e e e e
ad1 + bd2 = 0 (34)
If d1 = 0 =⇒ bd2 = 0 =⇒ b = 0 and d2 = 0
i.e d = d2  =⇒ n = aı
From (34)ead1 = −bd2
e e e
d1 b
=−
d2 a
d1 = tb,d2 = ta


∴ d = d1 ı + d2  = tbı − ta = t bı − a
e e e e e e
thus we can choose
d = bı − a if n = aı + b
e e e e e e
Example
1. Write down a vector equation of the line whose Cartesian (or
normal) equation is 5x − 12y + 26 = 0
Solution
We can write the normal equation as


r · 5ı − 12 + 26 = 0
e e e
n = 5ı − 12 =⇒ d = 12ı + 5
e e e e


By inspection the point A 2, 3 lies on the given line.
Hence

r = a + λd
e

= 2ı + 3 + λ 12ı + 5
e e e e
Example
2. Find the normal form of the equation of the line


r = 3ı +  + s 7ı − 3
e e e e e

Solution
Directional vector d = 7ı − 3
∴ the normal vectore
of ae line eis n = 3ı + 7
e e e




r · 3ı + 7 = 3ı +  · 3ı + 7 = 9 + 7 = 16
e e e e e e e
=⇒ 3x + 7y = 16
Angle between 2 lines(In terms of their normal Vector)
Let n1 , n2 be the normal vector of the lines L1 , L2

Figure: 4.6

∴ n1 · n2 = |n1 ||n2 | cos θ

=⇒f cosf θ = nˆ · nˆ
1 2
Example


1. Find the angle between the lines r · 3ı + 2 + 1 = 0 and


r · ı − 2 − 3 = 0
e e e
2. Find the value of m if the line
e e e


r = ı + 7 + λ 3ı + m
e e e
e e
r · 2ı − 9 + 5 = 0
e e e
if
i. The two lines are parallel
ii. The two lines are perpendicular
Solution

i.
Figure: 4.7



d1 · n2 = 0 =⇒ 3ı +  · 2ı − 9 = 0
=⇒ 9m = 6 =⇒ m = 32
 ii.
Figure: 4.8

=⇒ n1 = td2 =⇒ n1 ∧ d2 = 0
 
ı  k 

=⇒ 2 −9 0  = 0 =⇒ 2m + 27 = 0
e e e
 
3 m 0

m = −27/2
Example
3. Find the
equation of the line that passes through


the points
− 2, 4 and is parallel to the line r · ı + 4 + 6 = 0
e e
Intersection of 2 lines

Figure: 4.9

r · n1 = c1 and r · n2 = c2
A point o the plane L1 , L2

=⇒ r = λd1 + µd2
e f f
∴ r · n1 = λd1 · n1 + µd2 · n1 = µd2 · n1 = c1
e f f f f f
r · n2 = λd1 · n2 + µd2 · n2 = µd2 · n2 = c2
e f f f f f
 c2 c1
∴r = d1 + d2
d1 · n1 f d2 · n1 f
f f f f
let d1 = d11 ı + d12  and d2 = d21 ı + d22 
thenfn1 = de12 ı − de11  n2 f
= d22 ı −e d21  e
f e ef e e
d2 · n1 = −d1 · n2
f f f f
1

r= c2 d1 − c1 d2
e d1 · n2 f f
f f
Equation of the line thus the common point of intersection
of two lines

Figure: 5.0


r · n1 = c1 and r · n2 = c2 at A a we have
e f e f e
r · n1 = c1 (35)
e f
r · n1 = c1 (36)
e f
multiply (36) by λ and adding it with (35)


a · n1 + λn2 = c1 + λc2
e f f
=⇒ A lies on the line


a · n1 + λn2 = c1 + λc2
Example
Find the equation of the line which passes through the point of
intersection of the lines


r · ı − 4 − 7 = 0
e e e

r · 2ı +  − 1 = 0
e e e
and which also

i. passes through the point 1, 3

ii. is parallel to the line r · 5ı − 2 = 7
Solution e e e
Any line which passes through the point of intersection of the
two given lines is of the form



r · ı − 4 − 7 + λ r · 2ı +  − = 0
e e e e e e



=⇒ r ı − 4 + λr · 2ı +  −7−λ=0
ee e e e e
i. But line passes through B(b ) = ı + 3
e e e




∴ ı + 3 · ı + 2λ ı + − 4 + λ  − 7 − λ = 0
e e e e e

=⇒ 1 + 2λ + 3 − 4 + λ − 7 − λ = 0
−18 + 4λ = 0
9
=⇒ λ =
2

ii. L is parallel to r · 5ı − 2 = 7
 e e e 




=⇒ 1 + 2λ ı + − 4 + λ  ∧ 5ı − 2 = 0
e e e e
 
 ı  k


1 + λ −4e+ λ 0 = 0
 e e

−2
 
 5 0


=⇒ −2 1 + 2λ − 5(−4 + λ) = 0
−2 − 4λ + 20 − 5λ = 0
−9λ = −18, λ = 2
Equation of the bisectors of the angles between two given
lines

Figure: 5.1

If 0 < θ < π/2 then at P1 (r1 ) we have

r1 · n1 + c1 r2 · n2 + c2
=
|n2 | |n2 |
f f

Similarly at the point P2 (r2 ). Hence equation of the internal +

external bisectors are
 r1 · n1 + c1 r2 · n2 + c2
=±
|n2 | |n2 |
f f


=⇒ r · nˆ1 + cˆ1 = ± r · nˆ2 + c2
e e
where cˆ1 = c1 /|n1 | and cˆ2 = c2 /|n2 |
Hence equation of the bisectors are


nˆ1 + cˆ1 = − r · nˆ2 + c2 Internal bisector
e f

nˆ1 + cˆ1 = r · nˆ2 + c2 External bisector equation
e
or


r · nˆ1 + n2 + cˆ1 + cˆ2 = 0
e f f

r · nˆ2 − n1 + cˆ2 − cˆ1 = 0
e f f
Example
Find the equation of the bisectors of angles between the lines


r · ı− −1=0
e e e

and distinguish between them.
Solution
x − y = 1 and 7x + y = 3

Figure: 5.2
−→ −→
AB = ı +  and CD = 37 ı − 3 = 3


7 ı − 7
Equation
e e
of bisectors aree e e e



r · ı− −1 r · 7ı +  − 3
e e √e = ±e e√ e
2 50
ı −  7ı +   1 3
r · e√ e + √e =√ +√
e 2 50 2 50
ı −  7ı +  1 3

r · e√ e − √e =√ −√
e 2 50 2 50


Internal bisectors is r · 3ı −  − 2 = 0 and External bisector is


r · ı + 3 + 1 = 0
e e e
e e e
 VECTOR AND MECHANICS
1. Vector Function
Consider a vector b = b (v ) where v is a parameter. Them
B(v ) is called a vectore


e
function of the parameter v .
If b = b v1 , v2 ,··· , vn then b is a vector function of the n
parameters
e e
v1 , v2 ,··· , vn e

Differentiation of Vector Functions

We define the derivative of the vector function b (v ) with respect
to v as

e
e
d b v + ∆v − b (v )
b (v ) = lim e e
dv e ∆v →0 ∆v
If b (v ) = B1 (v )ı + B2 (v ) + B3 (v )k then
e e e e
db (v ) d d d
= B1 (v )ı + B2 (v ) + B3 (v )k
dv dv dv dv
e
e e e
Example

3
1. Let b (v ) = v 2 + 1 ı + v 3  + v 2 + 1 k . Find the value of

db e e e e
i.
dve 
 db 
ii.  e  where
 dv  v = 1.
2. Let a function A be given by
1
a(t) = − t 2 ı + 3t cos t − 2t + 1 k


e 2 e e e
Find the values of
da
i. dte
d 2a
ii. dte2 at t = 0

Rules for Differentiation

Let a(v ) and b (v ) be two vector functions and φ(v ) a scalar
function
e
of thee single parameter v . Then
d

dφ d
1. dv φa(v ) = dv a (v ) + φ dv a(v )
e e e
 d

da db
2. dv a · b = dve · b + a · dve
e e e e
d

da db
3. dv a∧b = dve ∧ b + a ∧ dve
e e e e
Example
Let
c (t) = 2tı − t 3  + sin tk
e e e e
 
d
Find dt t 4 c (t)
e
Integration of Vector equation
d
Let a(v ) and b (v ) be two vector function such that a(v ) = dv b (v )
thene e e e
d
Z Z
a(v )dv = b (v )dv = b (v ) + c
e dv e e e
where c is constant vector. this gives the indefinite integral of the
vector efunction a(v ).
e
If a(v ) is expressed in component form
e
a(v ) = A1 (v )ı + A2 (v ) + A3 (v )k
e e e e
then
Z Z  Z  Z 
a(v )dv = A1 (v )dv ı + A2 (v )  + A3 (v ) k
e e e e

The definite integral is given by

Z β Z β β
d 
a(v )dv = b (v )dv = b (v ) = b (β) − b (α)
α e α dv e e α e e

Example
1. Let a(v ) = v 2 + v ı + 12 v 3  − 3v 2 + 2 k Find



R e
i. a(v )dv
e e e
R 2e
ii. 0 a(v )dv
e
Example
2. Let a(v )be a vector function such that
e
d 2a 2
e = 2v ı + v  − 2k if at v = 0, a = ı + 
dv 2 e e e e e e
da
and dve = 2 − k find at any v .
da e e
i. e
dv
ii. a(x )
e
Kinematics of a Single Particle
i. Velocity of a particle
Let r (t) be the position of a particle in space at any time t.
We edefine the instantaneous velocity (simply velocity) at any
time t as

dr r t + ∆t − r (t)
v= = lim e e
e dt ∆t→0 ∆


Let P x , y , z be any variable point on the path c of the
particle. Then the position vector r of the particle at P is


r = r x , y , z = x ı + y  + zk
e e e e e
=⇒ r (t) = x (t)ı + y (t) + z(t)k
e e e e
dr dx dy dz
v= e= ı+ + k
e dt dt e dt e dt e

ii. Speed of a particle The speed of a particle is defined as the

magnitude of the velocity thus
v
  u  2  2  2
 dr  u dx dy dz
v = |v | =  e  =
  t + +
e dt dt dt dt

iii. Acceleration
The acceleration of the particle is given by


dv v t + ∆t − v (t)
a(t) = e = lim e e
e dt ∆t→0 ∆
If r (t) = x (t)ı + y (t) + z(t)k , then
e e e
dv d 2rd 2x d 2y d 2z
a= e = = ı +  + k
dt dt 2 dt 2 e dt 2 e dt 2 e
e
e
The magnitude of the acceleration is given by
v
  u 2 2  2 2  2 2
 dv  u d x d y d z
a = |a(t)| =  e  = t 2
+ 2
+
e dt dt dt dt 2

Example
1. A particle moving in space has a position at any time t, given
by
r (t) = 2t 2 + 1 ı + t − t 2 + 3t k



e e e e
at time t = 1 determine
i. The velocity
ii. The speed
iii. The acceleration and its magnitude of the particle
Example
2. A particle having position vector r (t) at any time t has
acceleration given by


a(t) = 2 − t ı + 2t + 3k
e e e e
If v (0) = 2ı −  and r (0) = 0, find the position of the particle
at eany timee t. e~aā
iv. Motion of Constant Velocity
Consider a particle moving in space with constant velocity u
and passing through a point p with position vector p at t =e 0
e

Figure: 5.3

Since v is constant, the motion will be along a straight line

through
e
P. At any point, R, having position r the
displacement vector from P is given by e

−→
PR = t ṽ

where t is the time, the particle has used from P the point P.
This can be written as
−→ −→
OR − OP = tv =⇒ r = p + tv
e e e e

Example
A particle moves with velocity v = 2ı −  + k m/s
a. How far the particle is from
e
theepoint
e peafter time t = 2sec
b. The Position of the particle at any time t
Solution
a. At time t > 0, the displacement vector is


d = tv = t 2ı −  + k
e e e e e


At t = 2sec, d(2) = 2 ı −  + k = 4ı − 2j + 2k .
The distance from P ise e e e e e
q √ √
|d(2)| = 42 + (−2)2 + (2)2 = 24 = 2 6m

b. The position of the particle is




r (t) = p + tv = ı − 2 + 3k + t 2ı −  + k
e e e e e e e



e
= 1 + 2t ı + − 2 − t  + 3 + t k
e e e

v. Motion With Constant Acceleration

Let v (t) be the velocity of the particle at anytime t, then

dv
=a
dt
Assume that, at the start of the motion the particle was
moving with speed v0 and was at the point x = x0 , then we
have v = at + c at t = 0, v0 = c

v = v0 + at (1)

and it is term the first kinematic equation of a particle But

v = dx dx
dt =⇒ dt = v0 + at
Integrating, this gives
1
x (t) = v0 t + at 2 + c
2
at t = 0, x (0) = x0 = c

1
=⇒ x (t) = x0 + v0 t + at 2 (2)
2
Note
a. If in (1), the particle from rest, the equation would be v = at.
b. If in (2), the particle started from the origin then x0 = 0 and
we have
1
x (t) = v0 t + at 2
2
If its start from root then
1
x (t) = at 2
2
 Deductions
a. Making a the subject in (1) gives
v − v0
a=
t
and (2) becomes
1

x (t) = x0 + v + v0 t (3)
2
b. Using chain rule we can write
dv dv dx dv
= . =v
dt dx dt dx
dv
=⇒ v = a =⇒ vdv = adx
Z v dx Z x
=⇒ v 0 dv 0 = adx 0
v0 x0
1 v x
 
=⇒ v 2  = ax 0 
2 v0 x0
 1 2
v − v02 = a x − x0



2
v 2 = v02 + 2a x − x0


(4)

Example
A particle moving on a straight path has initial velocity of 3m/s. If
the particle has an acceleration of 4m/s 2 and covers a distance
5m, find
i. It velocity
ii. The time taken to cover the distance.

Solution
i. We use the fact that
v 2 = v02 + 2a x − x0

a = 4m/s 2 , v0 = 3m/s and distance covered x − x0 = 5m so

we have
v 2 = 32 + 2(4)(5) = 49

=⇒ v = ±7m/s
ii. We use
v − v0
v = v0 + at =⇒ t =
a
7−3
=⇒ t = = 1s
4
one can also use
1
x − x0 = v0 t + at 2 .
2

vi When acceleration depends on time only

Suppose the particle moving along a straight line have
acceleration a(t), a function of time. If v (t) is the velocity of
the particle ar anytime t then
Z v Z t
dv 0
= a(t) =⇒ dv = a(t 0 )dt 0
dt v0 0
Z t
=⇒ v − v0 = a(t)dt.
0