Recycled Concrete Aggregate Modified with Polyvinyl

Alcohol and Fly Ash for Concrete Pavement Applications

Teerasak Yaowarat 1; Suksun Horpibulsuk, Ph.D. 2; Arul Arulrajah, Ph.D. 3;
Alireza Mohammadinia, Ph.D. 4; and Avirut Chinkulkijniwat, Ph.D. 5
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Nottingham Trent University on 07/31/19. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

Abstract: Recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) is traditionally limited to nonstructural applications. Although the crushing process results in
weak mortar particles and surface cracks throughout the RCA, RCA concrete can be employed as rigid pavement materials after its mechani-
cal strength has been improved. This research evaluated the novel use of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and fly ash (FA) for the improvement of
mechanical strengths of RCA concrete. The influence of PVA to binder (p=b) and FA/cement (FA=c) ratios on the mechanical strength of
RCA-PVA-FA concrete was assessed by compressive, split tensile, and flexural strength tests. The mechanisms controlling the improvement
of mechanical strengths were discussed based on the results of microstructural analysis using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and
energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) methods. The results of this research indicate that the addition of PVA resulted in a reduction of the com-
pressive strength of RCA concrete in both the short and the long term. However, with an optimum p=b of 1%, both the flexural and tensile
strengths increased significantly. At the optimal p=b, the PVA films infiltrated into cementitious matrixes and enhanced the reinforcing ability
within the matrixes. However, excess p=b retarded the hydration process and caused reductions in the cementitious tensile bonding. The long-
term mechanical strength (>28 days) was remarkably improved by FA addition at optimum FA=c of 20:80, and the presence of cementitious
products on the FA grains and in the voids was clearly observed. The highest long-term flexural and tensile strengths were found at p=b ¼ 1%
and FA=c ¼ 20∶80, whereby the 28-day flexural strength was higher than the requirement specified by the US Army and the US Air Force.
The 28-day compressive strengths were also higher than the requirements specified by Department of Highways, Thailand. The outcome of
this research will result in the promotion of using wastes, namely RCA and FA, in rigid pavement application, which is practical and preferred
from engineering, economic, and environmental perspectives. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002751. © 2019 American Society of
Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Polyvinyl alcohol; Recycled concrete aggregate; Fly ash; Flexural strength; Compressive strength; Split tensile strength;
Microstructure; Rigid pavement; Recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) concrete.

Introduction environmental impacts in civil engineering construction activities.

Past studies have shown that construction and demolition (C&D)
Research into alternative materials derived from construction and industrial wastes such as recycled glass, melamine debris, slag,
and industrial wastes has increased in recent years due to the pro- and recycled asphalt pavement can be suitable road construction
motion of sustainable practices and the need to reduce negative materials when stabilized with traditional and nontraditional chem-
icals (Arulrajah et al. 2017; Donrak et al. 2018; Hoy et al. 2016;
1
Ph.D. Scholar, School of Civil Engineering, Suranaree Univ. of Mohammadinia et al. 2018, Muhammad et al. 2018; Latifi et al.
Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima 30000, Thailand; Ph.D. Scholar, Dept. 2018a, b). Recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) was also used as
of Civil and Construction Engineering, Swinburne Univ. of Technology, an alternative aggregate in asphalt concrete (Paranavithana and
VIC 3122, Australia. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3897-4690. Mohajerani 2006).
Email: [email protected] Recycled concrete aggregate is a C&D material which is ob-
2
Professor, School of Civil Engineering, and Director, Center of Excel- tained from the demolition of aged concrete buildings and reused
lence in Innovation for Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Suranaree in the form of aggregates in concrete production. The reuse of RCA
Univ. of Technology, 111 University Ave., Muang District, Nakhon
significantly reduces waste stockpiles at landfills and also limits the
Ratchasima 30000, Thailand (corresponding author). Email: suksun@
g.sut.ac.th need for natural aggregate sources (Silva et al. 2014). Although the
3
Professor, Dept. of Civil and Construction Engineering, Swinburne use of RCA to replace the natural aggregate in concrete applica-
Univ. of Technology, Victoria 3122, Australia. ORCID: https://orcid.org tions is a widespread practice and is beneficial to the environment,
/0000-0003-1512-9803. Email: [email protected] the aged mortar attached to aggregates and the cracks around ag-
4
Research Fellow, Dept. of Civil and Construction Engineering, gregates caused by the recycling process results in low mechanical
Swinburne Univ. of Technology, VIC 3122, Australia. ORCID: https:// strength properties compared with conventional concrete (Buck
orcid.org/0000-0001-8564-2325. Email: [email protected] 1997; Limbachiya et al. 2000; Mohajerani et al. 2017; Omary et al.
5
Associate Professor, School of Civil Engineering, and Director, Center 2016). Therefore, the low mechanical strength properties are a huge
of Excellence in Civil Engineering, Suranaree Univ. of Technology,
barrier for successful RCA utilization.
Nakhon Ratchasima 30000, Thailand. Email: [email protected]
Note. This manuscript was submitted on August 21, 2018; approved on
The use of RCA affects the ultimate strength of RCA concrete,
January 3, 2019; published online on April 26, 2019. Discussion period resulting in a decrease in density, modulus of elasticity, and com-
open until September 26, 2019; separate discussions must be submitted pressive and flexural strengths (Behera et al. 2014; Hansen and
for individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Materials in Civil Boegh 1985; Hansen and Narud 1983; Kheder and Al-Windawi
Engineering, © ASCE, ISSN 0899-1561. 2005; Tangchirapat et al. 2008, 2010). Previous studies of RCA

© ASCE 04019103-1 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2019, 31(7): 04019103

 concrete have focused on the compressive strength improvement Materials and Experimental Program
to meet pavement strength and design requirements by introducing
the double mixing or two-stage mixing (TSMA) approaches Materials
(Otsuki et al. 2003; Tam et al. 2005). Nevertheless, the low flexural
strength of RCA concrete is still inferior to that of traditional con- Natural river sand with a fineness modulus of 3.70–3.78 was used
crete. The flexural strength is an essential characteristic for rigid as the fine aggregate for preparation of the RCA concrete. The river
pavement design, which controls the thickness and cracking of sand had a specific gravity in the saturated surface dry (SSD) state,
pavement concrete surface as a consequence of bending stress from percentage of voids, and water absorption of 2.56, 40.7%, and
traffic loads. Fiber-reinforced concrete has been introduced in civil 3.11%, respectively. The dry-rodded unit weight of the river sand
engineering structures which are subjected to substantial bending was 14.7 kN=m3 . Particle-size distribution of the river sand is
stresses and has gained popularity due to its superior performance, shown in Fig. 1.
such as hindrance of macrocrack propagation, prevention of growth The RCA specimens had particle sizes ranging between 4.75
and 19 mm. The grain-size distribution curve of RCA is shown
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Nottingham Trent University on 07/31/19. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

of microcracks to the macroscopic level, enhancement of residual

strength after formation of the first crack, improvement of ductility in Fig. 1. RCA had a specific gravity and a fineness modulus in
and flexural strength, and high toughness (Abbass et al. 2018; the saturated surface dry state of 2.71 and 1.37, respectively. Its
Jamsawang et al. 2015; Sukontasukkul 2004). dry-rodded unit weight was 12.5 kN=m3 . The presence of voids,
In addition to fiber reinforcement, water-soluble polymers can Los Angeles abrasion loss, and water absorption were 56%,
also be used to improve the flexural strength of concrete. Water- 38%, and 5.2%, respectively. Because the RCA was not scaled
soluble polymers have chemical interactions with the hydration to remove the attached mortar, it had lower specific gravity and
products, resulting in the creation of a film around the cement higher water absorption and porosity. Consequently, the RCA
grains (Gopinathan and Rao 1992; Kim et al. 1999). Polyvinyl al- was weaker than the natural aggregate (Chen et al. 2003; Salem
cohol (PVA), a water-soluble polymer, can efficiently enhance both et al. 2003).
conventional and RCA concretes similar to fiber reinforcement Ordinary portland cement (OPC) was used to make the RCA
(Allahverdi et al. 2010; Jaroslav et al. 2015; Yaowarat et al. concrete specimens in this study. The OPC had a specific gravity
2018). Although PVA films enhance the tensile strength from early and an average particle size of 3.15 and 14.7 μm, respectively. The
ages, they prevent water absorption in the hydration process and chemical composition of the OPC is shown in Table 1.
retard the growth of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) products, FA was obtained from the Mae Moh power plant in the northern
which affect the compressive strength at long-term condition. region of Thailand. This is the largest lignite power plant in
The optimal proportion of PVA to successfully enhance the flexural Thailand and is operated by the Electricity Generating Authority of
strength and with minimal strength reduction in RCA concrete to Thailand (EGAT). Table 1 summarizes the chemical compositions
meet the requirement of Department of Highways, Thailand was of FA using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis. Fig. 1 shows the
investigated by Yaowarat et al. (2018). grain-size distribution curve of FA, which was obtained by laser
Replacing portland cement with industrial pozzolan by-products particle-size analysis. The specific gravity of FA was 2.50.
such as fly ash (FA), bagasse ash, and palm oil fuel ash has been
found to improve cementation bonding of concrete; moreover, the
100
reuse of by-products has significant environmental and economic RCA.
benefits (Kua et al. 2016; Phetchuay et al. 2016; Somna et al. 2012; Sand.
RCA + Sand
Tangchirapat et al. 2012; Yoobanpot et al. 2017). For example, the 80 ASTM C33 .
Fly ash
compressive strength of both normal and RCA concrete was found
Percentage passing (%)

to be improved by using FA and ground rice-husk bark ash

(Tangchirapat et al. 2008, 2010). In addition, the use of FA, ground 60
granulated blast furnace slag, and metakaolin to partially replace
cement has been found to successfully increase the durability of
RCA concrete against chloride penetration (Ann et al. 2008; 40
Kou et al. 2007; Moon and Moon 2002) similarly to the durability
improvement of concrete by adding PVA (Singh and Rai 2001;
Viswanath and Thachil 2008). 20
To the authors’ knowledge, no previous work has studied the
improvement of mechanical properties of RCA concrete with
0
a combination of FA and PVA. Both the compressive and flexural .001 .01 .1 1 10
strengths can be improved in RCA-FA-PVA concrete, unlike Diameter (mm)
RCA-PVA concrete, in which the flexural strength is improved
but with a resulting reduction in the compressive strength. This Fig. 1. Particle-size distributions of sand, RCA, RCA and sand,
research is significant and novel because it for the first time and FA.
investigates the role of various influence factors such as the ce-
ment, PVA and FA contents and curing time on the mechanical
strength improvement. The mechanical performance was investi-
gated using compressive, flexural, and split tensile strength test- Table 1. Chemical composition of OPC and fly ash
ing of the RCA-PVA-FA concrete at various influence factors. Composition (%)
The microstructure was analyzed via scanning electron micros- Material SiO2 SO3 Fe2 O3 Al2 O3 CaO MgO Loss on ignition
copy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX)
to examine the role of influence factors on mechanical strength Cement 20.9 2.7 3.32 4.7 65.4 2.54 0.9
FA 39.18 4.29 15.45 22.64 11.3 1.69 1.61
improvement.

© ASCE 04019103-2 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2019, 31(7): 04019103

 Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) was purchased from Chemipan, is shown in Fig. 1 and compared with upper and lower boundaries
Bangkok, Thailand. It is a synthetic polymer that is achromatic, suggested by ASTM C33 (ASTM 2016b). The gradation of tested
odorless, and water-soluble (temperatures of 90°C–95°C are gen- aggregates was within the suggested boundary. The slump of the
erally required for complete solution). The PVA had a specific grav- fresh RCA-PVA-FA concrete was limited to 50–100 mm by vary-
ity, hydrolysis (the chemical breakdown of a compound due to ing the amount of Type F superplasticizer.
reaction with water), and molecular weight of 1.27–1.31, 87.83%, In this study, the two-stage mixing approach method (Tam et al.
and 22,000 g=mol, respectively. PVA has a film-forming property, 2005) was chosen to prepare the RCA-PVA-FA concretes because
high corrosion resistance to solvents and lubricating oil, and excel- this method has been proved to reduce the porosity of RCA, be-
lent adhesion. The flammable properties such as flashpoint and cause the produced cement gel fills the cracks and voids caused
autoignition temperatures are above 70°C and 440°C, respectively, during the crushing process of RCA.
whereas the combustibility of PVA is very low (Hassan and Peppas
2000a, b).
Compressive, Flexural, and Split Tensile Strengths
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Nottingham Trent University on 07/31/19. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

Specimen Preparation Based on ASTM C192 (ASTM 2016a), all the fresh concrete mix-
tures were prepared using a rotary drum mixer. For each concrete
RCA-PVA-FA concrete specimens were prepared at a fixed water/
mix, Ø100 × 200 mm cylindrical and 100 × 100 × 500 mm pris-
binder ratio (w=b) of 0.5, with various PVA and FA replacement
matic specimens were cast. The Ø100 × 200 mm cylinders were
ratios. The PVA solution was prepared in five different percentages
used to determine the compressive and split tensile strengths
with respect to the binder (cement and FA) weight: 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5,
according to ASTM C39 (ASTM 2016c) and ASTM C496
2.0, representing low to high values for improving workability and
(ASTM 2016e), respectively, with an average rate of testing of
water-retention abilities of the concrete (Kim and Robertson 1998;
1 mm=min. The 100 × 100 × 500-mm prismatic specimens were
Kim et al. 1999; Ohama 1998). The FA replacement [FA to cement
prepared for the flexural strength test with a center-point loading
(FA=c)] ratios were 10:90, 20:80, and 30:70. The PVA solutions
in accordance with ASTM C293 (ASTM 2016d) using a rate of
were prepared by adding PVA powder at a target PVA/binder
2 mm=min with a span length of 350 mm. The flexural strength
(p=b) ratio to 2 L boiled water until the PVA was entirely dissolved;
of the specimens was determined in accordance with ASTM
2 L water for producing normal concrete was removed and replaced
C293 using the following equation:
with 2 L PVA solution. The mixture was kept overnight in an open-
air atmosphere to allow the temperature of the mixture to cool to 3PL
room temperature before mixing it with cement slurry (Allahverdi Flexural strength ¼ ð1Þ
2bh2
et al. 2010; Singh and Rai 2001; Thong et al. 2016). The mixing
proportions of the RCA concrete specimens are summarized in where P = maximum applied load; L = span length; and b and
Table 2. The RCA was immersed under water for 24 h, wiped with h = average width and depth of the specimens, respectively.
a towel, and then mixed to ensure that the RCA was in the saturated The split tensile strength was determined in accordance with
surface dry state. The saturated surface dry RCA was used to fully ASTM C496 using the following equation:
replace the natural coarse aggregates in the mix proportion. The
ratio of fine to coarse aggregates was fixed at 45:55 by volume. 2P
Split tensile strength ¼ ð2Þ
The gradation of aggregate (mixture of fine and coarse aggregates) πld

Table 2. Mix proportions of concretes

Mix proportion (kg=m3 )
Mixa Cement Fly ash PVA weight RCAb Sand SPc Slump (mm)
FA0PVA0 417.4 0 — 1,187 890 0.5 95.00
FA0PVA0.5 417.4 0 2.087 1,185 873 0.63 80.00
FA0PVA1 417.4 0 4.174 1,191 874 0.75 75.00
FA0PVA1.5 417.4 0 6.261 1,182 867 0.94 85.00
FA0PVA2 417.4 0 8.348 1,178 864 1.25 65.00
FA10PVA0 375.7 41.7 — 1,185 873 0.56 60.00
FA10PVA0.5 375.7 41.7 2.087 1,192 877 0.75 85.00
FA10PVA1 375.7 41.7 4.174 1,187 870 0.94 70.00
FA10PVA1.5 375.7 41.7 6.261 1,173 860 1.25 80.00
FA10PVA2 375.7 41.7 8.348 1,175 852 1.38 85.00
FA20PVA0 333.9 83.5 — 1,174 860 1.25 65.00
FA20PVA0.5 333.9 83.5 2.087 1,186 871 1.38 75.00
FA20PVA1 333.9 83.5 4.174 1,189 873 1.56 85.00
FA20PVA1.5 333.9 83.5 6.261 1,177 862 1.69 90.00
FA20PVA2 333.9 83.5 8.348 1,184 869 1.88 85.00
FA30PVA0 292.2 125.2 — 1,173 855 1.44 85.00
FA30PVA0.5 292.2 125.2 2.087 1,193 878 1.63 65.00
FA30PVA1 292.2 125.2 4.174 1,187 866 1.81 90.00
FA30PVA1.5 292.2 125.2 6.261 1,169 854 1.84 70.00
FA30PVA2 292.2 125.2 8.348 1,177 859 1.94 75.00
a
FA0PVA0 denotes FA=c ¼ 0=100 with p=b (% by weight) = 0; FA30PVA2 denotes FA=c ¼ 30=70 with p=b (% by weight) = 2.
b
Recycled coarse aggregate in the saturated surface dry state.
c
Superplasticizer (SP) was assumed to be water 50% by weight.

© ASCE 04019103-3 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2019, 31(7): 04019103

 where l and d = average length and diameter of the specimens, aggregates. The EDX data were obtained using a microanalytical
respectively. unit that featured the ability to detect the small variations in
To ensure homogeneity, the OPC and FA were first mixed to- trace element content. Areas used for EDX analysis corresponded
gether for 3 min in the mixer, and then the TSMA method was directly to the SEM morphological examination at 2,500×
performed to make RCA-PVA-FA concrete. After mixing, the fresh magnification.
concrete was immediately cast into steel molds and compacted with
steel rods. The cast specimens were covered with plastic to prevent
water loss. The cylindrical and prismatic concrete specimens were Mechanical Strength Results
demolded after 24 h of curing at a room temperature, and then
cured in a water-curing tank at 27°C  2°C for the designed curing The compressive, flexural, and split tensile strengths of RCA-PVA-
age. The compressive, flexural, and split tensile strengths of RCA- FA specimens are summarized in Table 3. The compressive
PVA-FA concrete were investigated after 7, 28, and 60 days. The strength of RCA-PVA-FA concrete specimens after 7, 28, and
mean compressive, split tensile, and flexural strength values were 60 days of curing with different FA=c ratios 0, 10:90, 20:80, and
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Nottingham Trent University on 07/31/19. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

obtained from triplicate concrete specimens to ensure the consis- 30:70 are presented in Table 3 and Fig. 2. Fig. 2(a) shows that
tency of testing. In most cases, the results under the same testing the early 7-day compressive strength decreased with increasing
condition were reproducible with low mean standard deviation FA=c and p=c ratios. Therefore, the maximum 7-day compressive
(SD) SD/ x̄<10%, where x̄ is mean strength value. strength occurred at p=b ¼ 0, with values of 25.3, 23.0, 19.7, and
16.6 MPa for FA=c ¼ 0∶100, 10:90, 20:80, and 30:70, respectively,
whereas the minimum 7-day compressive strengths occurred
SEM and EDX Measurements at p=b ¼ 2, and were 14.8, 14.4, 12.7, and 10.6 MPa for FA=c ¼
The scanning electron microscope equipped with an energy disper- 0∶100, 10:90, 20:80, and 30:70, respectively.
sive X-ray detector is a highly effective instrument for in-depth However, this was not true for long-term conditions (28 and
analysis of cement and its additives. It is widely used for morphol- 60 days). Figs. 2(b and c) show that the 28-day and 60-day com-
ogy differentiation and verification of cemented materials. The role pressive strengths increased with the addition of FA=c ratio from
of FA=c and p=b ratios and curing time on the compressive, flexu- 0:100 to the optimal ratio at 20:80 and subsequently decreased at
ral, and split tensile strengths was therefore examined by SEM/ FA=c ¼ 30∶70. The shift of the maximum compressive strength
EDX analysis in this research. Specimens after curing for 7 and from FA=c ¼ 0∶100 for early curing to 20:80 for long-term curing
60 days were broken and the fractions in the middle part of the demonstrates that the pozzolanic reaction due to the contribution of
specimens were used for the analyses. Hydration of the cement FA replacement comes into play in long-term curing.
paste was stopped by freezing. A small specimen was frozen at Similar to the 7-day compressive strength development, the in-
−195°C by immersion in liquid nitrogen and coated with a layer crease of p=b ratio caused a reduction in compressive strength for
of gold approximately 20–25 Å thick using a blazer sputtering all FA=c ratios. Therefore, the maximum 28-day and 60-day com-
coater before SEM and EDX analysis (Sukmak et al. 2013) in order pressive strengths occurred at p=b ¼ 0 and FA=c ¼ 20∶80. The
to examine its localized morphology and elemental distributions at dotted line in Fig. 2(b) indicates the strength requirement after
the microscopic scale. The SEM was used to investigate the effect 28 days of curing for rigid pavement by the Thailand Department
of p=b and FA=c ratios on the concrete morphology, by collecting of Highways (1996). The ratios which met the strength requirement
data from at least five randomly selected sites from the cement were FA=c ¼ 0 and p=b ¼ 0, FA=c ¼ 0 and p=b ¼ 0.5, FA=c ¼
paste. Care was taken to examine only the cement paste, and 0 and p=b ¼ 1, FA=c ¼ 10 and p=b ¼ 0, FA=c ¼ 10 and
the sites were randomly selected to avoid overlapping areas and p=b ¼ 0.5, FA=c ¼ 10 and p=b ¼ 1, FA=c ¼ 20 and p=b ¼ 0,

Table 3. Compressive, flexural, and split tensile strengths (MPa)

Compressive strength Flexural strength Split tensile strength
Mix 7 days 28 days 60 days 7 days 28 days 60 days 7 days 28 days 60 days
FA0PVA0 25.28 38.93 42.12 2.83 4.06 5.23 1.50 1.91 2.12
FA0PVA0.5 23.28 35.97 40.61 3.61 4.78 6.14 1.57 2.03 2.27
FA0PVA1 22.22 32.33 36.77 4.57 5.35 7.03 1.76 2.07 2.42
FA0PVA1.5 18.98 25.61 31.29 3.01 3.29 4.86 1.73 2.12 2.55
FA0PVA2 14.79 19.51 27.22 2.23 2.94 3.67 1.70 2.08 2.11
FA10PVA0 23.01 40.38 42.77 2.56 4.20 5.57 1.47 1.97 2.19
FA10PVA0.5 21.53 36.82 41.13 3.25 4.92 6.42 1.54 2.05 2.32
FA10PVA1 19.30 32.91 38.86 4.17 5.57 7.23 1.73 2.12 2.54
FA10PVA1.5 17.54 25.87 32.51 2.66 3.58 5.23 1.65 2.23 2.62
FA10PVA2 14.42 19.86 28.29 2.08 2.88 3.94 1.62 2.12 2.18
FA20PVA0 19.74 41.96 45.12 2.24 4.33 6.08 1.45 2.07 2.33
FA20PVA0.5 19.01 38.04 42.56 3.04 5.14 6.95 1.50 2.16 2.42
FA20PVA1 17.07 33.21 39.38 3.81 5.65 7.86 1.72 2.24 2.64
FA20PVA1.5 15.68 26.44 33.21 2.19 3.87 5.84 1.54 2.38 2.78
FA20PVA2 12.73 20.82 29.54 1.81 2.96 4.67 1.54 2.22 2.31
FA30PVA0 16.58 38.09 41.53 1.96 3.80 5.15 1.38 1.92 2.19
FA30PVA0.5 14.29 36.71 39.42 2.62 4.59 5.92 1.45 2.02 2.25
FA30PVA1 13.13 31.09 36.13 3.01 4.95 6.54 1.58 2.09 2.43
FA30PVA1.5 12.25 23.48 31.93 1.51 3.22 4.76 1.51 2.15 2.53
FA30PVA2 10.62 17.17 27.14 1.24 2.72 3.62 1.50 2.11 2.17

© ASCE 04019103-4 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2019, 31(7): 04019103

 50 Flexural Str. Split tensile Str.
FA0 8 FA0 FA0 8
FA10 FA10 FA10

Split tensile Strength (MPa)

FA20 FA20

Flexural Strength (MPa)

40 FA20 FA30
Compressive Strength (MPa)

FA30
FA30 6 6

30
4 4

20
2 2

10
0 0
0.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Nottingham Trent University on 07/31/19. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

(a) p/b (wt.%)

0
0.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Flexural Str. Split tensile Str.
(a) p/b (wt.%)
FA0
8 FA0 8
FA10 FA10

Split tensile Strength (MPa)

50 FA20 FA20

Flexural Strength (MPa)

FA0 FA30 FA30
FA10 6 6
40 FA20 Departments of the Army
Compressive Strength (MPa)

4.5 MPa and the Air Force, USA

FA30
4 4
30
32 MPa.
2 2
20

0 0
0.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0
10
(b) p/b (wt.%)

Flexural Str. Split tensile Str.

0
8 FA0 FA0 8
0.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 FA10
FA10

Split tensile Strength (MPa)

FA20 FA20
(b) p/b (wt.%)
Flexural Strength (MPa)

FA30 FA30

50 6 6
FA0
FA10
FA20 4 4
40
Compressive Strength (MPa)

FA30

2 2
30

0 0
20 0.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0
(c) p/b (wt.%)

10 Fig. 3. Flexural and split tensile strength of RCA-PVA-FA concrete

at (a) 7 days of curing; (b) 28 days of curing; and (c) 60 days of
curing.
0
0.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0
(c) p/b (wt.%)

Fig. 2. Compressive strength of RCA-PVA-FA concrete at (a) 7 days of flexural strength at a particular FA=c ratio is herein defined as the
curing; (b) 28 days of curing; and (c) 60 days of curing. optimum p=b ratio. The optimum p=b ratio was the same, 1%, for
all FA=c ratios and curing times tested. The maximum flexural
strengths at FA=c ¼ 0∶100, 10:90, 20:80, and 30:70 at 28 days
of curing were 5.35, 5.57, 5.65, and 4.95 MPa and those at 60 days
FA=c ¼ 20 and p=b ¼ 0.5, FA=c ¼ 20 and p=b ¼ 1, FA=c ¼ 30 of curing were 7.03, 7.23, 7.86, and 6.54 MPa, respectively, an in-
and p=b ¼ 0, and FA=c ¼ 30 and p=b ¼ 0.5. crease of 34.4%, 29.8%, 29.3%, and 26.9% compared with RCA-
Fig. 3 shows the flexural and split tensile strengths of the FA concrete specimens (without PVA) at the same FA=c ratios.
specimens at various FA=c and p=b ratios and curing times. Unlike Excessive PVA (p=b > 1%) caused a reduction in the flexural
compressive strength, the flexural strength at a particular curing strength, similar to the results reported by Yaowarat et al. (2018)
time increased with an increase in p=b ratio up to the highest for RCA-PVA concrete. FA replacement was found to be useful for
value and then decreased. The p=b ratio providing the maximum the flexural strength improvement of RCA-PVA-FA concrete at

© ASCE 04019103-5 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2019, 31(7): 04019103

 8
PVA0 7 days of curing. PVA1 28 days of curing. PVA0 60 days of curing.
PVA0.5 PVA0.5 PVA0.5
PVA1 PVA1 PVA1
Flexural Strength (MPa)

6 PVA1.5 PVA1.5 PVA1.5

PVA2 PVA2 PVA2

0
0.0 .2 .4 .6 .8 .0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 1.2 .0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 1.2
Deflection (mm) Deflection (mm) Deflection (mm)
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Nottingham Trent University on 07/31/19. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

Fig. 4. Relationship between flexural strength and deflection of RCA-PVA-FA concrete at FA=c ratio of 20:80 for various curing times.

long-term curing, similar to the increase in compressive strength. 9

FA0 60 days of curing. 0%PVA
The optimal FA=c was 20:80, the same as that for compressive FA10 0.5%PVA
strength. 8 FA20 1%PVA
RCA concrete with and without FA had 28-day flexural strength FA30 y = 0.3171x - 4.8174 1.5%PVA

Flexural Strength (MPa)

2%PVA
lower than the requirement specified by the US Air Force and the R 2= 0.8255
7
US Army (TM, ARMY 1992) and the Virginia Transportation Re-
search Council (Lane 1998), 4.5 MPa (Fig. 3). The PVA of 0.5%
and 1.0% can significantly enhance the flexural strength to meet the 6 y = 0.5427x - 12.322
R 2= 0.818
requirement. The PVA also improved the ductility of RCA-PVA-FA
concrete at long-term curing, as indicated by the relationship be- 5
y = 0.3361x - 7.3975
tween flexural strength and deflection in the flexural beam tests
R2= 0.9685
of specimens at optimum FA=c ¼ 20∶80 (Fig. 4). The stiffness y = 0.2646x - 5.8437
4
(slope of the relationship) was more or less the same for all p=b y = 0.4235x - 7.9016 R2= 0.9706
ratios at 7 days of curing, whereas at curing times greater than R2= 0.9636
28 days, the stiffness decreased with increasing p=b ratio, indicat- 3
FA0 60 days of curing. 0%PVA
ing more ductile behavior. FA10 0.5%PVA
Similar to the flexural strength development (Fig. 3), the 2.8 FA20 1%PVA
optimal p=b and FA=c ratios giving the highest split tensile FA30 1.5%PVA
Split tensile Strength (MPa)

2%PVA
strength were p=b ¼ 1% and FA=c ¼ 20∶80, and the change
pattern of tensile strength versus p=b ratio was similar to that of 2.6
flexural strength versus p=b ratio. This result confirms that the y = 0.1256x - 1.4273 y = 0.072x + 0.0153
flexural failure is controlled by tensile stress at the base (below R 2= 0.7963 R2= 0.9437
2.4
neutral axis), not the compressive stress at the surface (above
neutral axis), because the concrete was strong in compression com-
pared with the strength in tension. The maximum split tensile 2.2
strengths at p=b ¼ 1% at 60 days were 2.62, 2.75, 2.85, and
2.60 MPa for FA=c ¼ 0∶100, 10:90, 20:80, and 30:70, respectively, 2.0 y = 0.0698x + 0.2375 y = 0.0561x + 0.0196 y = 0.048x + 0.1505
an increase of 23.6%, 25.5%, 22.3%, and 18.7% compared with R2= 0.8358 R2= 0.9207 R 2= 0.7707
RCA-FA concrete specimens (without PVA) at the same FA=c 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46
ratios. Compressive Strength (MPa)
Fig. 5 shows the relationships between flexural and tensile
strengths versus compressive strength at 60 days of curing at vari- Fig. 5. Relationships between the flexural and split tensile strength
ous cement and PVA contents. Because flexural strength is con- versus the compressive strength of RCA-FA concrete at 60 curing
trolled by the tensile strength, the relationships between flexural days.
and tensile strengths versus compressive strength were similar.
A linear relationship existed for a set of test data with same p=b
ratio even with different FA=c ratios. For different relationships,
the higher slope indicates higher flexural strength at the same com- Microstructural Analysis
pressive strength. The slope of the relationship increased with the
increase in p=b ratio up to the optimal value of 1%, indicating the SEM images of 7- and 60-day cured specimens at p=b ¼ 0% with
role of PVA in the flexural strength. various FA=c ¼ 0∶100, 10:90, 20:80, and 30:70 are shown in
Compared with the mechanical strength requirement for rigid Figs. 6–8. At 7 days and FA=c ¼ 0∶100 [Fig. 6(a)], the calcium
pavement (28-day compressive and flexural strengths greater than silicate hydrate matrix was porous, with many voids, whereas a
32 MPa and greater than 4.5 MPa, respectively), the RCA-PVA-FA denser matrix was clearly detected in the 60-day cured specimen
concretes met the requirement when FA=c ≤ 30∶70 for p=b ¼ [Fig. 6(b)]. In other words, the porosity decreased considerably
0.5% and FA=c ≤ 20∶80 for p=b ¼ 1%. with increasing the curing time (Kim et al. 2014). Fig. 6(c) presents

© ASCE 04019103-6 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2019, 31(7): 04019103

Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Nottingham Trent University on 07/31/19. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

Fig. 6. (a) SEM image for p=b ¼ 0% and FA=c ¼ 0∶100 at 7 days; (b) SEM image for p=b ¼ 0% and FA=c ¼ 0∶100 at 60 days; and (c) EDX
results.

Fig. 7. (a) SEM image at 7 days for p=b ¼ 0% and FA=c ¼ 10∶90; (b) SEM image at 7 days for p=b ¼ 0% and FA=c ¼ 20∶80; (c) SEM image at
7 days for p=b ¼ 0% and FA=c ¼ 30∶70; and (d) EDX results.

© ASCE 04019103-7 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2019, 31(7): 04019103

Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Nottingham Trent University on 07/31/19. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

Fig. 8. (a) SEM image at 60 days for p=b ¼ 0% and FA=c ¼ 10∶90; (b) SEM image at 60 days for p=b ¼ 0% and FA=c ¼ 20∶80; (c) SEM image at
60 days for p=b ¼ 0% and FA=c ¼ 30∶70; and (d) EDX results.

the EDX data at the locations marked in the SEM images. The ma- Groves 1997). Therefore, the 60-day cured specimen [Fig. 6(b)]
jor elements present within C-S-H product were Ca and Si, but with was considered to be the strong C-S-H structure, in which the ce-
different atomic Ca/Si ratios at different curing times; the atomic ment paste was almost fully hydrated. This confirms the growth of
Ca/Si ratios were 2.23 and 1.55 at 7 and 60 days, respectively. C-S-H products with curing time. Therefore, the strength of RCA
The Ca=Si ratio controls the physical and chemical properties of concrete gained from C-S-H structure due to the hydration of belite
C-S-H; the Ca/Si ratio of C-S-H decreases over time and generally (C2 S) and alite (C3 S) from cement grains (Mehta and Monteiro
is in the range 1.2–2.3 (Barnes and Bensted 2002; Richardson and 2006; Mindess et al. 2003).

Fig. 9. (a) SEM images at 60 days for p=b ¼ 1% and FA=c = 0:100; (b) SEM images at 60 days for p=b ¼ 1% and FA=c = 10:90; (c) SEM images at
60 days for p=b ¼ 1% and FA=c = 20:80; and (d) SEM images at 60 days for p=b ¼ 1% and FA=c = 30:70.

© ASCE 04019103-8 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2019, 31(7): 04019103

 The SEM images of RCA-FA concrete specimens at 7 days (Lee 1970; Taylor 1997), the Si and Al in FA are consumed to de-
(p=b ¼ 0% with FA=c ¼ 10∶90, 20:80, and 30:70) are shown in velop C-S-H and C-A-S-H. Therefore, the FA surface is covered
Figs. 7(a–c). The cementitious products on FA surface were little; with C-S-H gel and other hydration products (Berry et al. 1994;
most of the FA surfaces were smooth in all RCA-FA concrete sam- Xu et al. 1993; Xu and Sarkar 1994). As the process continues,
ples. Ettringite needles were observed in the pores. Fig. 7(d) shows the C-S-H gel layer on the FA grains thickens, fills the voids be-
EDX results of each specimen at locations close to FA particles; tween FA and cement grains, and afterward heavily precipitates
clear peaks of aluminum, silica, and calcium were detected. The throughout the matrix, increasing long-term compressive strength
products from activation of FA were similar to calcium silicate hy- (Jitchaiyaphum et al. 2013).
drate gel (C-S-H gel) from the portland cement activation process At FA=c ¼ 30∶70 and 60-day curing [Fig. 8(c)], many FA par-
(Park et al. 2016). Because the pozzolanic reaction of FA in con- ticles still had smooth surfaces, whereas some FA particles had
crete starts after 1 or more weeks, the increase in the FA additive dissolving surfaces, suggesting that some were unreacted or acted
does not necessarily proportionally increase the early 7-day com- as an inert material serving as a precipitation nucleus for CaðOHÞ2
pressive strength (Arulrajah et al. 2016; Fraay et al. 1989; Sybertz and C–S–H gel to increase the packing effect (Fraay et al. 1989).
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Nottingham Trent University on 07/31/19. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

and Wiens 1991). Although the FA=c ¼ 30∶70 increased Si and Al contents, FA par-
Activation of FA at 60 days of curing is shown in Fig. 8. At ticles mostly remained amorphous, causing an accumulation of
FA=c ¼ 10∶90 [Fig. 8(a)], FA particles had signs of etching on their unreacted FA particles, and did not form any cementitious bond
surfaces, indicating precipitation in the pozzolanic reaction (Berry (Arulrajah et al. 2016). Overall, the morphology in Fig. 8(c) indi-
et al. 1994; Fraay et al. 1989; Xu and Sarkar 1994). More cementi- cates less precipitation in the pozzolanic reaction compared with
tious products were found for FA=c ¼ 20∶80 [Fig. 8(b)]; the SEM FA=c ¼ 20=80.
image shows a denser structure and more FA particles in the ma- The EDX analysis of RCA-FA concrete is presented in Fig. 8(d),
trixes compared with FA=c ¼ 10∶90. Because the pozzolanic reac- which indicates calcium/silica ratios of 1.77, 1.89, and 1.87 at
tion is caused by FA activated by calcium hydroxide ½CaðOHÞ2  FA=c ¼ 10∶90, 20:80, and 30:70, respectively. The major elements

Fig. 10. (a) SEM images at 60 days for p=b ¼ 2% and FA=c = 0:100; (b) SEM images at 60 days for p=b ¼ 2% and FA=c = 10:90; (c) SEM images
at 60 days for p=b ¼ 2% and FA=c = 20:80; (d) SEM images at 60 days for p=b ¼ 2% and FA=c = 30:70; and (e) EDX results.

© ASCE 04019103-9 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2019, 31(7): 04019103

 such as Si, Ca, and Al, with some amount of sulfur and ferrite, were The additional PVA caused a reduction of compressive strengths
present in RCA-FA concrete, indicating the presence of calcium at all curing times, but improved tensile strength, i.e., the PVA
aluminosilicate hydrate (C-A-S-H) products (Garcia-Lodeiro et al. films reinforced the cementitious matrix; p=b ¼ 1% provided
2016). Comparing FA=c ¼ 10∶90 with FA=c ¼ 20∶80, the FA par- the maximum flexural and split tensile strengths for all FA=c ratios
ticles in the concrete matrix were fewer and the peak of Al was and curing times. At p=b > 1%, the excess PVA films covered
lower for FA=c ¼ 10∶90, leading to a low amount of precipitation cement grains and therefore prevented the water absorption for ce-
nuclei for CaðOHÞ2 and hence lower cementitious products. How- ment hydration and pozzolanic reaction, resulting in lower cemen-
ever, the increase in FA=c to 30:70 caused fewer cementitious tation bonding strength and hence the lower flexural and tensile
products in mixture compared with FA=c ¼ 20∶80, and hence strengths. The contribution of cementation bond strength to the
C-S-H and CaðOHÞ2 from the hydration reaction were reduced. flexural and tensile strengths could be improved with the addition
The lesser CaðOHÞ2 resultd in a lower degree of pozzolanic reac- of FA. The optimum FA=c ratio was found to be 20:80, at which the
tion. The decrease in the cementitious products from CaðOHÞ2 and maximum C-S-H was developed. The possibility of using other
types of pozzolanic materials such as bagasse ash, palm oil fuel
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Nottingham Trent University on 07/31/19. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

FA reactions is illustrated by the lowest peaks of Ca, Si, and Al in

the EDX of FA=c ¼ 30∶70. ash, rice-husk ash, and slag together with various natural and syn-
The RCA-PVA-FA concrete at 60 days of curing with p=b ¼ thetic polymers in rigid pavement applications is recommended for
1% and 2% are shown in Figs. 9 and 10, respectively. For the future study.
RCA-PVA-FA specimen, with p=b ¼ 1%, thin films of PVA were Based on the specifications of the Department of Highways,
detected on the cementitious products for FA=c ¼ 0∶100, 10:90, Thailand and the US Army and the US Air Force (minimum
20:80, and 30:70 [Fig. 9(a–d)]. PVA films infiltrate and cover ce- 28-day compressive and flexural strengths of 32 and 4.5 MPa, re-
spectively), FA=c ≤ 30∶70 with p=b ¼ 0.5% and FA=c ≤ 20∶80
mentitious matrixes. Over the time, the cementitious products grow
with p=b ¼ 1% were found to be applicable for roads, streets,
continuously and penetrate the thin films. Therefore, these films
walks, and open storage areas. The outcome of this research con-
reinforce cementitious matrixes and enhance the tensile strength
firms the viability of using PVA and FA to improve the flexural and
of the matrixes. Thicker films around the cementitious products
split tensile strength of RCA concrete to be used as an alternative
are observed at p=b ¼ 2% (compare Figs. 9 and 10). Although
sustainable rigid pavement.
a thicker film enhances the reinforcing ability, it retards the hydra-
tion and pozzolanic reaction like a large barrier around the matrix,
which prevents water absorption for the hardening and growth of
Acknowledgments
C-S-H structures (Yaowarat et al. 2018). Consequently, the growth
of C-S-H in the matrix is prevented, resulting in an extreme This work is financially supported by the Thailand Research Fund
reduction of compressive strength [Fig. 10(e)]. The EDX result under the TRF Senior Research Scholar program Grant No.
of RCA-PVA-FA concrete at p=b ¼ 2% also revealed that the RTA5980005, the Ph.D. Royal Jubilee program Grant No. 0143/
amount of major components such as Ca, Si, and Al was less than 2557, and Suranaree University of Technology.
at p=b ¼ 0%, which confirms the effect of retardation in the hy-
dration and pozzolanic reaction caused by excessive p=b ratio
(Contrafatto 2013; Yaowarat et al. 2018). References
It is evident that FA and PVA improve both the microstructure
and the mechanical strength of RCA-PVA-FA concrete. The poz- Abbass, W., M. I. Khan, and S. Mourad. 2018. “Evaluation of mechanical
zolanic reaction due to additional FA at optimum FA=c ¼ 20∶80 properties of steel fiber reinforced concrete with different strengths of
is clearly observed by etching on the FA surface, the growth of concrete.” Constr. Build. Mater. 168: 556–569. https://doi.org/10.1016
C-S-H, and the dense structure, which results in enhanced long- /j.conbuildmat.2018.02.164.
term mechanical strength (>28 days). The thin films of PVA at Allahverdi, A., K. Kianpur, and M. Moghbeli. 2010. “Effect of polyvinyl
optimum p=b ¼ 1% reinforce the cementitious matrix, hence alcohol on flexural strength and some important physical properties of
portland cement paste.” Iran. J. Mater. Sci. Eng. 7 (1): 1–6.
enhancing the tensile and flexural strengths after both short- and
Ann, K. Y., H. Y. Moon, Y. B. Kim, and J. Ryou. 2008. “Durability of
long-term curing.
recycled aggregate concrete using pozzolanic materials.” Waste Man-
age. 28 (6): 993–999. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2007.03.003.
Arulrajah, A., T. A. Kua, C. Suksiripattanapong, and S. Horpibulsuk. 2017.
Conclusions “Stiffness and strength properties of spent coffee grounds-recycled glass
geopolymers.” Road Mater. Pavement Des. 20 (3): 623–638. https://doi
This research investigated the possibility of using polyvinyl alcohol .org/10.1080/14680629.2017.1408483.
and fly ash to improve the properties of recycled concrete aggregate Arulrajah, A., A. Mohammadinia, S. Horpibulsuk, and W. Samingthong.
concrete as an alternative material for rigid pavements. The result 2016. “Influence of class F fly ash and curing temperature on strength
of RCA-PVA-FA concrete revealed that in the short term (7 days), development of fly ash-recycled concrete aggregate blends.” Constr.
the compressive strength decreased with increasing FA=c ratio, Build. Mater. 127: 743–750. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat
whereas in the long term (>28 days) FA=c ¼ 20∶80 was an appro- .2016.10.049.
priate proportion to achieve maximum compressive strength, indi- ASTM. 2016a. Standard practice for making and curing concrete test spec-
imens in the laboratory. ASTM C192. West Conshohocken, PA:
cating that the pozzolanic reaction comes into play in long-term
ASTM.
curing. The SEM image showed that growth of C-S-H and
ASTM. 2016b. Standard specification for concrete aggregates. ASTM
C-A-S-H on the FA surface and in the matrix with increasing FA=c C33. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
and the maximum cementitious products occurred at FA=c ¼ ASTM. 2016c. Standard test method for compressive strength of cylindri-
20∶80. Unreacted FA particles with relatively low cementitious cal concrete specimens. ASTM C39. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
products were found at higher FA=c ratios. Consequently, the op- ASTM. 2016d. Standard test method for flexural strength of concrete
timum FA=c providing the highest long term compressive strength (using simple beam with center-point loading). ASTM C293. West
was 20:80. Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.

© ASCE 04019103-10 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2019, 31(7): 04019103

 ASTM. 2016e. Standard test method for splitting tensile strength of cylin- Adv. Cem. Based Mater. 8 (2): 66–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1065
drical concrete specimens. ASTM C496. West Conshohocken, PA: -7355(98)00009-1.
ASTM. Kim, J. H., R. E. Robertson, and A. E. Naaman. 1999. “Structure and prop-
Barnes, P., and J. Bensted. 2002. Structure and performance of cements. erties of poly(vinyl alcohol)-modified mortar and concrete.” Cem.
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Concr. Res. 29 (3): 407–415. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(98)
Behera, M., S. K. Bhattacharyya, A. K. Minocha, R. Deoliya, and 00246-4.
S. Maiti. 2014. “Recycled aggregate from C&D waste and its use in Kim, Y. Y., K. M. Lee, J. W. Bang, and S. J. Kwon. 2014. “Effect of W/C
concrete—A breakthrough towards sustainability in construction sector: ratio on durability and porosity in cement mortar with constant cement
A review.” Constr. Build. Mater. 68: 501–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j amount.” Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2014: 11. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014
.conbuildmat.2014.07.003. /273460.
Berry, E. E., R. T. Hemmings, M. H. Zhang, B. J. Cornelius, and D. M. Kou, S. C., C. S. Poon, and D. Chan. 2007. “Influence of fly ash as cement
Golden. 1994. “Hydration in high-volume fly ash concrete binders.” replacement on the properties of recycled aggregate concrete.” J. Mater.
Mater. J. 91 (4): 382–389. Civ. Eng. 19 (9): 709–717. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561
Buck, A. D. 1997. “Recycled concrete as a source of aggregate.” Am. Concr. (2007)19:9(709).
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Nottingham Trent University on 07/31/19. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

Inst. J. 74 (5): 212–219. Kua, T. A., A. Arulrajah, S. Horpibulsuk, Y. J. Du, and S. L. Shen. 2016.
Chen, H. J., T. Yen, and K. H. Chen. 2003. “Use of building rubbles as “Strength assessment of spent coffee grounds-geopolymer cement uti-
recycled aggregates.” Cem. Concr. Res. 33 (1): 125–132. https://doi lizing slag and fly ash precursors.” Constr. Build. Mater. 115: 565–575.
.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(02)00938-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.04.021.
Contrafatto, L. 2013. “Mechanical properties of polyvinyl-alcohol Lane, D. S. 1998. Final report evaluation of concrete characteristics for
modified concrete.” In Proc., Advanced Materials Research Conf. rigid pavements. Charlottesville, VA: Virginia Transportation Research
Catania, Italy: Univ. of Catania. Council.
Donrak, J., S. Horpibulsuk, A. Arulrajah, H. Kao, A. Chinkulkijniwat, and Latifi, N., F. Vahedifard, E. Ghazanfari, S. Horpibulsuk, A. Marto, and
M. Hoy. 2018. “Wetting-drying cycles durability of cement stabilized J. Williams. 2018a. “Sustainable improvement of clays using low-
marginal lateritic soil/melamine debris blends for pavement applica- carbon nontraditional additive.” Int. J. Geomech. 18 (3): 04017162.
tions.” Road Mater. Pavement Des. 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080 https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0001086.
/14680629.2018.1506816. Latifi, N., F. Vahedifard, E. Ghazanfari, and A. S. A. Rashid. 2018b.
Fraay, A. L. A., J. M. Bijen, and Y. M. De Haan. 1989. “The reaction of “Sustainable usage of calcium carbide residue for stabilization of clays.”
fly ash in concrete a critical examination.” Cem. Concr. Res. 19 (2): J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 30 (6): 04018099. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)
235–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-8846(89)90088-4. MT.1943-5533.0002313.
Garcia-Lodeiro, I., V. Carcelen-Taboada, A. Fernández-Jiménez, and Lee, F. M. 1970. The chemistry of cement and concrete. London: Edward
A. Palomo. 2016. “Manufacture of hybrid cements with fly ash and Arnold.
bottom ash from a municipal solid waste incinerator.” Constr. Build. Limbachiya, M. C., T. Leelawat, and R. K. Dhir. 2000. “Use of recycled
Mater. 105: 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.12 concrete aggregate in high-strength concrete.” Mater. Struct. 33 (9):
.079. 574–580. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02480538.
Gopinathan, K., and R. Rao. 1992. “Influence of some water soluble poly- Mehta, P. K., and P. J. Monteiro. 2006. Concrete: Microstructure, proper-
mers on the mechanical properties of cement polymer composites.” In ties, and materials. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Proc., 9th Int. Congress on Chemistry of Cement (ICCC), 538–543. Mindess, S., J. F. Young, and D. Darwin. 2003. Concrete, 2003. Upper
New Delhi, India. Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Hansen, T. C., and E. Boegh. 1985. “Elasticity and drying shrinkage of Mohajerani, A., J. Vajna, T. H. H. Cheung, H. Kurmus, A. Arulrajah, and
recycled: Aggregate concrete.” J. Proc. 82 (5): 648–652. S. Horpibulsuk. 2017. “Practical recycling applications of crushed
Hansen, T. C., and H. Narud. 1983. “Strength of recycled concrete made waste glass in construction materials: A review.” Constr. Build. Mater.
from crushed concrete coarse aggregate.” Concr. Int. 5 (01): 79–83. 156: 443–467. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.09.005.
Hassan, C. M., and N. A. Peppas. 2000a. “Structure and applications of Mohammadinia, A., A. Arulrajah, A. D’Amico, and S. Horpibulsuk. 2018.
poly (vinyl alcohol) hydrogels produced by conventional crosslinking “Alkali-activation of fly ash and cement kiln dust mixtures for stabili-
or by freezing/thawing methods.” In Biopolymers·PVA hydrogels zation of demolition aggregates.” Constr. Build. Mater. 186: 71–78.
anionic polymerisation nanocomposites, 37–65. Berlin: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.07.103.
Hassan, C. M., and N. A. Peppas. 2000b. “Structure and morphology of Moon, D. J., and H. Y. Moon. 2002. “Effect of pore size distribution on the
freeze/thawed PVA hydrogels.” Macromolecules 33 (7): 2472–2479. quantities of recycled aggregate concrete.” KSCE J. Civ. Eng. 6 (3):
https://doi.org/10.1021/ma9907587. 289–295. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02829151.
Hoy, M., S. Horpibulsuk, and A. Arulrajah. 2016. “Strength development Muhammad, N., S. Siddiqua, and N. Latifi. 2018. “Solidification of sub-
of recycled asphalt pavement-fly ash geopolymer as a road pavement grade materials using magnesium alkalinization: A sustainable additive
material.” Constr. Build. Mater. 117: 209–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j for construction.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 30 (10): 04018260. https://doi.org
.conbuildmat.2016.04.136. /10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002484.
Jamsawang, P., P. Voottipruex, and S. Horpibulsuk. 2015. “Flexural Ohama, Y. 1998. “Polymer-based admixtures.” Cem. Concr. Compos.
strength characteristics of compacted cement-polypropylene fiber 20 (2): 189–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0958-9465(97)00065-6.
sand.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 27 (9): 04014243. https://doi.org/10.1061 Omary, S., E. Ghorbel, and G. Wardeh. 2016. “Relationships between
/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001205. recycled concrete aggregates characteristics and recycled aggregates
Jaroslav, T., P. Zdenek, I. Katerina, and P. V. Tomáö. 2015. “Effect of PVA concretes properties.” Constr. Build. Mater. 108: 163–174. https://doi
modification on the properties of cement composites.” Acta Polytech. .org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.01.042.
55 (1): 64–75. https://doi.org/10.14311/AP.2015.55.0064. Otsuki, N., S. I. Miyazato, and W. Yodsudjai. 2003. “Influence of recycled
Jitchaiyaphum, K., T. Sinsiri, C. Jaturapitakkul, and P. Chindaprasirt. 2013. aggregate on interfacial transition zone, strength, chloride penetration
“Cellular lightweight concrete containing high-calcium fly ash and and carbonation of concrete.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 15 (5): 443–451.
natural zeolite.” Int. J. Min. Metall. Mater. 20 (5): 462–471. https://doi https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2003)15:5(443).
.org/10.1007/s12613-013-0752-1. Paranavithana, S., and A. Mohajerani. 2006. “Effects of recycled concrete
Kheder, G. F., and S. A. Al-Windawi. 2005. “Variation in mechanical prop- aggregates on properties of asphalt concrete.” Resour. Conserv. Recycl.
erties of natural and recycled aggregate concrete as related to the 48 (1): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2005.12.009.
strength of their binding mortar.” Mater. Struct. 38 (7): 701–709. Park, S. M., J. G. Jang, S. Chae, and H. K. Lee. 2016. “An NMR spectro-
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02484315. scopic investigation of aluminosilicate gel in alkali-activated fly ash in a
Kim, J. H., and R. E. Robertson. 1998. “Effects of polyvinyl alcohol on CO2 -rich environment.” Materials 9 (5): 308. https://doi.org/10.3390
aggregate-paste bond strength and the interfacial transition zone.” /ma9050308.

© ASCE 04019103-11 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2019, 31(7): 04019103

 Phetchuay, C., S. Horpibulsuk, A. Arulrajah, C. Suksiripattanapong, and Tangchirapat, W., R. Buranasing, C. Jaturapitakkul, and P. Chindaprasirt.
A. Udomchai. 2016. “Strength development in soft marine clay stabi- 2008. “Influence of rice husk-bark ash on mechanical properties of
lized by fly ash and calcium carbide residue based geopolymer.” Appl. concrete containing high amount of recycled aggregates.” Constr. Build.
Clay Sci. 127: 134–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2016.04.005. Mater. 22 (8): 1812–1819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2007
Richardson, I. G., and G. W. Groves. 1997. “The structure of the calcium .05.004.
silicate hydrate phases present in hardened pastes of white portland Tangchirapat, W., S. Khamklai, and C. Jaturapitakkul. 2012. “Use of
cement/blast-furnace slag blends.” J. Mater. Sci. 32 (18): 4793–4802. ground palm oil fuel ash to improve strength, sulfate resistance, and
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018639232570. water permeability of concrete containing high amount of recycled con-
Salem, R. M., E. G. Burdette, and N. M. Jackson. 2003. “Resistance to crete aggregates.” Mater. Des. 41: 150–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j
freezing and thawing of recycled aggregate concrete.” Mater. J. .matdes.2012.04.054.
100 (3): 216–221. Taylor, H. F. 1997. Cement chemistry. London: Thomas Telford.
Silva, R. V., J. De Brito, and R. K. Dhir. 2014. “Properties and composition Thailand Department of Highways. 1996. Standards for highway construc-
of recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste suitable tion. DH-S309/2544. Bangkok, Thailand: Thailand Dept. of Highways.
for concrete production.” Constr. Build. Mater. 65: 201–217. https://doi Thong, C. C., D. C. L. Teo, and C. K. Ng. 2016. “Application of polyvinyl
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Nottingham Trent University on 07/31/19. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.04.117. alcohol (PVA) in cement-based composite materials: A review of

Singh, N. B., and S. Rai. 2001. “Effect of polyvinyl alcohol on the hydra- its engineering properties and microstructure behavior.” Constr. Build.
tion of cement with rice husk ash.” Cem. Concr. Res. 31 (2): 239–243. Mater. 107: 172–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.12
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(00)00475-0.
.188.
Somna, R., C. Jaturapitakkul, and A. M. Amde. 2012. “Effect of ground fly
TM, ARMY. 1992. Pavement design for roads, streets, walks, and open
ash and ground bagasse ash on the durability of recycled aggregate con-
storage areas. Washington, DC: Dept. of the Army and the Air Force.
crete.” Cem. Concr. Compos. 34 (7): 848–854. https://doi.org/10.1016/j
Viswanath, P., and E. T. Thachil. 2008. “Properties of polyvinyl alcohol
.cemconcomp.2012.03.003.
Sukmak, P., S. Horpibulsuk, and S. L. Shen. 2013. “Strength development cement pastes.” Mater. Struct. 41 (1): 123–130. https://doi.org/10
in clay-fly ash geopolymer.” Constr. Build. Mater. 40: 566–574. https:// .1617/s11527-007-9224-2.
doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.11.015. Xu, A., and S. L. Sarkar. 1994. “Microstructural development in high-
Sukontasukkul, P. 2004. “Tensile behaviour of hybrid fibre-reinforced con- volume fly-ash cement system.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 6 (1): 117–136.
crete.” Adv. Cem. Res. 16 (3): 115–122. https://doi.org/10.1680/adcr https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(1994)6:1(117).
.2004.16.3.115. Xu, A., S. L. Sarkar, and L. O. Nilsson. 1993. “Effect of fly ash on the
Sybertz, F., and U. Wiens. 1991. “Effect of fly ash fineness on hydration microstructure of cement mortar.” Mater. Struct. 26 (7): 414–424.
characteristics and strength development.” In Proc., Int. Conf. on https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02472942.
Blended Cements in Construction. Sheffield, UK: Univ. of Sheffield. Yaowarat, T., S. Horpibulsuk, A. Arulrajah, M. Mirzababaei, and
Tam, V. W., X. F. Gao, and C. M. Tam. 2005. “Microstructural analysis A. S. Rashid. 2018. “Compressive and flexural strength of polyvinyl
of recycled aggregate concrete produced from two-stage mixing alcohol-modified pavement concrete using recycled concrete aggre-
approach.” Cem. Concr. Res. 35 (6): 1195–1203. https://doi.org/10 gates.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 30 (4): 04018046. https://doi.org/10.1061
.1016/j.cemconres.2004.10.025. /(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002233.
Tangchirapat, W., R. Buranasing, and C. Jaturapitakkul. 2010. “Use of high Yoobanpot, N., P. Jamsawang, and S. Horpibulsuk. 2017. “Strength behav-
fineness of fly ash to improve properties of recycled aggregate con- ior and microstructural characteristics of soft clay stabilized with ce-
crete.” J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 22 (6): 565–571. https://doi.org/10.1061 ment kiln dust and fly ash residue.” Appl. Clay Sci. 141: 146–156.
/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000054. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2017.02.028.

© ASCE 04019103-12 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2019, 31(7): 04019103