Christopher Wilkinson - Python Data Science - An Ultimate Guide For Beginners To Learn Fundamentals of Data Science Using Python (2020)

Python
Data Science
An Ultimate Guide for Beginners to Learn Fundamentals of Data
Science Using Python
☐ Copyright 2019 by Christopher Wilkinson - All rights reserved.
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Table of Contents
An Ultimate Guide for Beginners to Learn Fundamentals of Data Science
Using Python 2
Chapter 1: Basics of Python for Data Science 7
1.1 What is Data Science? 7
1.2 Python and its History 7
1.3 Unique Features and Philosophy 7
1.4 Python Applications 9
1.5 Why Python to Conduct Data Analysis 10
1.6 Python Version List 11
1.7 How to Install Python 11
CHAPTER: 2 Python Functions and File Handling 13
2.1 Functions in Python 13
2.2 File Handling of Python 42
Chapter 3: Variables, Operators, and Data Types of Python 44
3.1 Variables of Python 44
3.2 Operators in Python 45
3.3 Python Data Types 49
Chapter 4: Python Regular Expressions, Statements, Loops 55
4.1 Python Regular Expressions 55
4.2 Python Statements 55
4.3 Loops in Python 61
Chapter 5: Python OOPs Concepts 68
5.1 Python OOPs Concepts 68
5.2 Python Class and Objects 70
5.3 Python Constructor 71
5.4 Python Inheritance 74
5.5 Python Stack and Queue 79
Chapter 6: Python Modules, Exceptions and Arrays 83
6.1 Python Modules 83
6.2 The Exceptions in Python 92
6.3 Python Arrays 94
Chapter 7: Python Data Science Libraries and General Libraries 97
7.1 Python Data Science Libraries 97
7.2 Python General Libraries 103
CHAPTER 8: Python Interpreters, Compilers, IDEs and Text
Editor 115
10.2 Factors behind the Python growth in Modern World 136
Conclusion 140
Introduction
Python is a well-known, high-level object-oriented programming language that
is used by many software designers and data scientists across the globe. Guido
van Rossum structured this in 1991, and Python Software Company has further
developed it. Despite the fact that there were many OOP languages, the principal
reason to build this language was to underscore code coherence, and logical and
numerical processing (for example NumPy, SymPy, Orange). Python's syntax is
simple and short. It is an open-source and versatile language that supports a large
standard library.
Python is a broadly useful programming language that is well known for
information science. Organizations worldwide are using Python to collect bits of
knowledge from their information and addition a focused edge. In contrast to
other Python instructional exercises, this comprehensive book on Python is
explicitly for data science. It has a collection of amazing approaches to store and
control information and accommodating information science apparatuses to
direct your own examinations.
In the contemporary world, every business is focused on data security,
management, and utility. All the renowned companies are playing with data
through complex Python algorithms to store, manipulate, and process data to get
useful information and to use it materially to benefit the business. Have you ever
thought about Facebook pixels to re-target you on your profile page with the
same product you viewed on an e-commerce website? Or Google's
recommendations based on a place you visited previously? Nowadays, Android
Speech Recognition and Apple Siri understand your speech signals with
accuracy and respond to you accordingly. In all these high-tech products, there
are algorithms and complex codes of machine language structured by Python.
This book "Python Data Science," an Ultimate Guide for Beginners to Learn
Fundamentals of Data Science Using Python, I offer an extraordinary approach
toward learning this high-level language to equip you with a complete method of
using Python for big data management. As technology is growing fast, every
organization requires a highly efficient system for processing data to achieve
desired results. It is a detailed book with a comprehensive knowledge of data
science, Python data structures, standard libraries, data science frameworks, and
predictive models in Python.
Chapter 1: Basics of Python for Data Science
1.1 What is Data Science?
Data science is a gathering of different instruments, data interfaces, and
calculations with AI standards (algorithms) to find concealed patterns from raw
data. This data is put away in big business data distribution warehouses and
utilized in inventive approaches to create business value.
A data examiner (analyst) and a data scientist are unique. An analyst attempts to
process the data history and clarify what is happening. Whereas a data researcher
needs different propelled calculations of AI (algorithms of machine learning) for
an event of a specific occasion by utilizing analysis.
1.2 Python and its History
Python is a translated, high level, universally useful programming language.
Developed by Guido van Rossum and first discharged in 1991, Python's plan
reasoning accentuates code clarity with its eminent utilization of critical
whitespace. Its language develops and object-arranged methodology plan to
enable software engineers to compose clear, sensible code for small and big
scale projects.
Python was first developed in the late 1980s as a successor to the ABC language.
Python 2.0, discharged in 2000, presented highlights, like rundown perceptions
and a trash gathering framework, fit for gathering reference cycles. Python 3.0,
discharged in 2008, was a noteworthy modification of the language, and much of
the Python 2 code doesn't run unmodified on Python 3. Language designer
Guido van Rossum carried sole duty regarding the undertaking until July 2018,
yet now shares his administration as an individual from a five-man directing
council.
1.3 Unique Features and Philosophy
Python is a versatile programming language that supports Object-Oriented
Programming (OOP) and other practical computer program languages. Initially it
was not designed for data science, but as field, professionals started using it for
data analysis and it became a priority for data science. Many different standards
are bolstered utilizing expansions, including a plan by contract and rationale
programming. Likewise, it includes dynamic name goals (late authoritative),
which tie technique and variable names during system operations. It has
channel, guide, and decrease capacities, list understandings, word references,
sets, and generator expressions. The standard library has two modules that
actualize useful devices acquired from Haskell and Standard ML.
As opposed to having the majority of its usefulness incorporated with its center,
Python was intended to be profoundly extensible. This reduced measured quality
has made it especially well known as a method for adding programmable
interfaces to existing applications. Van Rossum's vision of a central language
with a huge standard library and effectively extensible translator originated from
his dissatisfactions with ABC, which upheld the inverse approach.
Python makes progress toward a less complex, less jumbled language structure
and punctuation, while allowing engineers to make decisions in their coding
approach. As opposed to Perl's "there is more than one approach to do it"
proverb, Python grasps a "there ought to be one—and ideally just one—clear
approach to do it" plan. Alex Martelli, from the Python Software Foundation and
Python book writer, states that "To depict something as 'sharp' isn't viewed as a
compliment in the Python culture”.
Python's engineers attempted to maintain a strategic distance from untimely
advancement, and reject patches to non-basic pieces of the CPython that would
offer minimal increments in speed at the expense of clarity. When speed is
significant, a Python software engineer can move time-basic capacities to
expansion modules written in dialects. For example, C, or use PyPy, an in the
nick of time compiler. Cython is likewise accessible, which makes an
interpretation of a Python content into C and makes direct C-level API calls into
the Python translator.
Python's advancement was improved to a great extent by the Python
Enhancement Proposal (PEP) process. This included gathering community
contribution on issues and recording Python structure decisions. Python coding
style is canvassed in PEP 8. Outstanding PEPs are assessed and remarked on by
the Python community and the controlling council.
Improvement of the language compares with the advancement of the CPython
reference usage. The mailing list, Python-dev, is the essential discussion for the
language's advancement. Explicit issues are talked about in the Roundup bug
tracker kept up at Python.org. Development initially occurred on a self-
facilitated source-code storehouse running Mercurial, until Python moved to
GitHub in January 2017.
CPython's open discharges come in three kinds, recognized by which part of the
adaptation number is augmented.
Backward-contrary variants is where code is required to break and should be
physically ported. The initial segment of the adaptation number is increased.
These discharges happen rarely—for instance, adaptation 3.0 was discharged
eight years after 2.0.
Major or "feature" discharges are like clockwork, and include new features. The
second piece of the form number is increased. Each significant variant is upheld
by bug fixes for quite a long while after its release.
Bug-fix discharges , which present no new includes, happen at regular intervals
and are made when an adequate number of bugs have been fixed upstream since
the last discharge. Security vulnerabilities are, likewise fixed, in these
discharges. The third and last piece of the form number is incremented.
Numerous alpha and beta discharge up-and-comers are additionally discharged
as sneak peeks, and for testing before conclusive discharges. Even though there
is an unpleasant timetable for each discharge, they are frequently deferred if the
code isn't prepared. Python's advancement group screens the condition of the
code by running a huge unit test suite during improvement, and utilizing the
BuildBot ceaseless combination system. The community of Python engineers
has additionally contributed over 86,000 programming modules. The real
scholastic Conference on Python is PyCon. There are likewise extraordinary
Python coaching programs, for example, Pyladies.
1.4 Python Applications
Python is known for its broadly useful nature that makes it relevant in practically
every space of programming advancement. Python can be used in a plethora of
ways for improvement; there are specifying application territories where Python
can be applied.
Web-Applications
We can utilize Python to create web applications. It gives libraries to deal with
web conventions, for example, HTML and XML, JSON, email handling,
demand, beautiful soup, Feedparser, and so on. Additionally, it there is
Frameworks. For example, Django, Pyramid, Flask, and so on to structure and
develop electronic applications. Some significant improvements are
PythonWikiEngines, PythonBlogSoftware, and so on.
Desktop GUI Applications
Python gives a Tk-GUI library to create UI in Python based application. Another
valuable toolbox includeds wxWidgets, Kivy, and is useable on a few stages.
The Kivy is well known for comp sing multitouch applications.
Software Development
Python is useful for programming advanced processes. It functions as a help
language and can be utilized for fabricating control and the board, testing, and so
forth.
Scientific and Numeric
Python is mainstream and generally utilized in logical and numeric figuring.
Some helpful libraries and bundles are SciPy, Pandas, IPython, and so forth.
SciPy is a library used for the collection of bundles of designing, science, and
arithmetic.
Business Applications
Python is utilized to manufacture business applications, like ERP and online
business frameworks. Tryton is an abnormal state application stage.
Console Based Application
It can be utilized for support-based applications. For instance: IPython.
Audio or Video-based Applications
Python is great for playing out various assignments and can be utilized to create
media applications. Some of the genuine applications are TimPlayer, cplay, and
so on.
3D CAD Applications
To make CAD application, Fandango is a genuine application that gives full
highlights of CAD.
Enterprise Applications
Python can be utilized to make applications that can be utilized inside an
Enterprise or an Organization. Some ongoing applications are OpenERP, Tryton,
Picalo, etc.
10) Applications for Images
Utilizing Python, a few applications can be created for a picture. Various
applications include VPython, Gogh and imgSeek.
1.5 Why Python to Conduct Data Analysis
Different programming languages can be utilized for data science (for example
SQL, Java, Matlab, SAS, R and some more), yet Python is the most favored by
data researchers among the various programming languages in this rundown.
data researchers among the various programming languages in this rundown.
Python has some exceptional features including:
• Python is solid and basic with the goal that it is anything but difficult to gain
proficiency in the language. You don't have to stress over its linguistic
structure on the off chance that you are an amateur. Its syntax is similar to
English writing; that's why it is an easy to use the programming language.
• Python supports almost all platforms, like Windows, Mac, and Linux.
• It has multiple data structures with which complex calculations can easily
be simplified.
• Python is an open-source programming language that enables the data
scientists to get pre-defined libraries and codes to perform their tasks.
• Python can perform data visualization, data investigation, and data control.
• Python serves different ground-breaking libraries for algorithms and logical
calculations. Different complex logical figuring and AI calculations can be
performed utilizing this language effectively in a moderately basic
sentence structure.
1.6 Python Version List
Python programming language is updated constantly with new components and
supports.
Below is the list of Python versions with its released date is given:
Python Version Released Date
Python 1.0 January 1994
Python 1.5 December 31, 1997
Python 1.6 September 5, 2000
Python 2.0 October 16, 2000

Python 2.1 April 17, 2001
Python 2.3 July 29, 2003
Python 2.4 November 30, 2004

Python 2.6 October 1, 2008
Python 2.7 July 3, 2010

Python 3.1 June 27, 2009
Python 3.2 February 20,2011

Python 3.4 March 16, 2014

Python 3.7 June 27, 2018
1.7 How to Install Python

Python is easily available on internet and can be downloaded from various
websites. A few examples for installation of Python are as follows:
Installation on Windows
Open the link https://www.Python.org/downloads/ in order to download the
latest release of Python. In this method, a window will open with different
versions of Python, and you can install Python 3.6.7.
After selecting that, double-click the executable file, which is downloaded. A
window will open.
Select Customize installation and proceed.
Now a window will depict all the optional features. All the features needed to be
installed and are checked by default.
Click next to continue.
Window pops-up show advanced options. Check all of the required options and
click next.
Then we can to install Python-3.6.7.
Now, let's run Python on the command prompt. Write the command Python; it
may show error. This is because the path has not been set.
In order to set the path of Python, right-click on "My PC" and select Properties
In order to set the path of Python, right-click on "My PC" and select Properties
→ select Advanced → select Environment Variables.
New Path in the user variable section will be added
Write PATH as the variable name and set the path to the installation directory of
Python.
When the path is set, we can now run Python on our local system. Restart CMD,
and type Python again. Finally, Python interpreter will be opened where we can
execute the Python statements.
The least demanding approach to introduce things in the Command line is
utilizing the apt-get application's install functionality. You need to type apt-get
install. If the extra exists, apt-get will discover and submit it. Unfortunately, the
version of apt-get on your server isn't the latest one, so as an initial step, update
it with this Command:
sudo apt-get update
Through this command, you can update the version and can run the installation
process.
CHAPTER: 2 Python Functions and File Handling
Python functions and file handling are the most important part of Python for data
science. Without using these functionalities, no data scientist can achieve results.
They are easy to understand codes that can be called up anywhere in the main
Python code.
2.1 Functions in Python
Python functions are highly useful small block of code that can be called to run a
specific function. They are used in programs to perform special roles. Basically,
they are unique statements that are enclosed by {}. They can be called as many
times as required.
Advantage of Python functions
Here are some major advantages of Python functions:
• They avoid repetition of code. With a single statement, the whole function
can be called. It saves a lot of time.
• Their reusability is a very attractive feature. It can be called a number of
times in a program.
• Through these functions, a large program can be divided into multiple
functions. It enhances the usage.
Functions of Python
There are many functions in Python programming language. They can be called
from interpreter package to use in any program. Without these functions, this
language has no attraction for the software community. Nowadays, they are
being used across the world to perform major programming tasks related to data
science and other projects.
The abs() Function in Python

This function is mainly for numeric values. It gives back an absolute value when
you enter any integer. It is specifically for getting absolute values against one
single argument. Here are some examples of absolute numbers to understand the
concept.
For Example
# int number
Int= -25
Print(‘ abs value of -25 is', abs(int)
#float number
Float= -55
Print(‘abs value of -55', abs(float)
Result/ Output:
abs value of -25 is: 25
abs value of -55 is: 55
These results are defining ‘how function’ works.
The bin() Function in Python

This function, bin(), returns the binary results of an integer. The binary output
has prefix 0b at the start of value.
For Example
Let’s evaluate this function from this syntax elaboration of function.
c=20
d= bin(a)
print(d)
Output:
0b2020
The bool() Function in Python

This function gives an output in Boolean value by using truth testing methods. It
is a very important built-in function of Python. If there is any value input, the
result is true, otherwise it prints false.
For Example
X1=[5]
Print(x1, ‘is',bool(x1)
x1= No-value
Print(x1, ‘is',bool(x1)
Result/ Output:
[5] is True
No-value is False
The bytes() Function in Python

The bytes() function is very useful to get object in bytes. It belongs to the
command byte-array. Mostly, Python programming experts get help by
generating objects through this command.
For Example
String= "Hi Python."
Array= bytes(String, ‘utf-8')
Print(Array)
Results:
' Hi Python.'
The callable() Function

This function investigates and shows up ‘true’ when objects seems callable,
otherwise it shows False. This function saves time by notifying the user about
the availability of an object with s single command.
For Example
C= 12
Print(callable(C))
Result/ Output:
False
The compile() Function in Python

The compile() works on source code by using the compilers of Python, and
ultimately generates an object with code. Later, we execute this code by using
the function exec() in the same program.
For Example
Code_str= c=10\n d=15\n print("sum=",c+d)'
Code=compile(code_str, "sum.py','exec')
Print(type(code))
Exec(code)
Exec(c)
Output:
sum = 25
The exec() Function in Python

The exec() function has extra importance within the built-in functions of Python.
It runs the programs of Python and produces results. Without this function,
Python programs can’t execute.
For Example
b = 12
exec('print(b==12)')
exec('print(b+4)')
Results:
True
16
The sum() Function in Python

When we work with arithmetic operations by using numerical data, the Sum()
function becomes inevitable. We use this function to perform addition of values
available in the list.
For Example
x = sum([2, 5,4 ])
print(x)
x= sum([4, 2, 4], 10)
print(x)
Output:
11
20
The any() Function in Python

The any() function of Python gives the result or output in Boolean value, which
may be true or false. It prints true when there is any value ‘true’ in the list. But if
there is not any value true, it gives a false. It is also a very useful function for
data scientist who work on big data projects.
For Example
5=[4, False,9]
Print(any(5))
5=[]
Print(any(5))
Result:
True
False
The ascii() Function in Python

The ascii() function has an important role in Python data science programming.
The output value of this function is always ‘string’. It doesn’t print other ascii
characters.
For Example
nT= ‘Have a good day'
print(ascii(nT))
oT= ‘Have a good day'
print(ascii(oT))
print(‘Have\xf6n a good day')
Output:
‘Have a good day'
'Have\xf6n a good day'
‘Have a good day'
The bytearray() Function in Python

The bytearray function plays an integral role in Python programming. To create
an object, this command helps users or software professionals without wasting
time.
For Example
String1= "Python Data Science"
#string1 with encode ‘utf-8'
Array1= bytearray(string, ‘utf-8')
Print(array1)
Result:
bytearray(b'Python Data Science')
The eval() Function in Python

The eval() function has an additional role in Python programming. This function
executes itself in a running program, helping the code manager to get work done
quickly.
For Example
Y= 6
Print(eval(‘Y+1')
Output :
7
The format() Function of Python

This format() function of Python makes the coding easier for every programmer.
By formatting the values and other given data, it saves the time of the coding
master.
For Example
# d, f and b are a type
# integer
print(format(515, "d"))
# float arguments
print(format(515.7898, "f"))
# binary format
print(format(15, "b"))
Result/Output :
245
363.790
35
The frozenset() Funcion of Python

The frozenset() function provides a changeable frozen-set object. This is a very
useful function of Python.
For Example
letter = ('j', 'k', 'l', ‘m', 'p')
frozSet = frozenset(letter)
print('Frozen set:', frozSet)
print('set with no value:',Frozenset())
Outcome:
Frozen set: ({'k', 'p', 'j', 'm', 'l'})
Set with no val: frozenset()
The getattr() Function of Python

This function has a very important role in Python language. With this command,
the user is able to get object’s attribute. Software programmers use this function
to assign names to the objects.
For Example :
class Details:
age = 21
name = "john"
detail = Details()
print('age:', getattr(detail, "age"))
print('age:', detail.age)
Result/ Output:
age: 21
age: 21
The globals() Function of Python

This function enables the user to get the table of global symbols (data structure)
with all the information of variables and methods. It is a mandatory function to
have all the symbols ready to use in any Python program. Let’s see into this
example to understand this function:
Example:
Id = 25
globals()['Id'] = 25
print(' My id :', Id)
Result:
My id : 25
The hasattr() Function of Python

This function is based on Boolean returns: true and false.
For Example
l = [0, False, 5]
print(any(l))
l = []
print(any(l))
Results:
True
False
The iter() Function of Python

This function is commonly used as it plays with the values inside an object list.
It prints the values in a list one by one.
For Example
# list of numbers
list = [6,7,8,9,}
listIter = iter(list)
# prints '6'
print(next(listIter))
# prints '7'
# prints '8'
# prints '9'
Result/Output:
6
7
8
9
The len() Function of Python

It is a simple, but extremely important function of Python programming. The
users or programmers measure the length of items by using this function.
For Example
stringX = 'Data'
print(len(stringX))
Result:
4
The list() Function of Python

This function is one of the most commonly used functions which generates a
complete list of a set of given instructions.
For Example
print(list())
#for empty list
# string
String = 'abcde'
print(list(String))
# tuple
Tuple = (1,2,3,4,5)
print(list(Tuple))
# list
List = [1,2,3,4,5]
print(list(List))
The locals() Function of Python

It provides a Boolean result against the input (True or False). It takes two inputs
and returns true or false according to the defined program.
For Example
def localsJunior():
return locals()
def localstSenior():
Senior = True
return locals()
print('localsNoAutority:', localsJunior())
print('localsHighAuthority:', localsSenior())
Result:
localsJunior: {}
localsSenior: {'present': True}
The map() Function of Python

This function is really important, as it provides an item’s list processed under
this function.
For Example
def calculateAddition(n):
return n+n
numbers = (1, 2, 3, 4)
result = map(calculateAddition, numbers)
print(result)
# converting map object to set

numbersAddition = set(result)
print(numbersAddition)
Result / Output:
<map object at 0x7fb04a6bec18>
The delattr() Function in Python

This function is more important than the addition function. On every step, a
developer or user needs to delete attributes from class and shows errors on
calling the same attribute.
For Example
Class Employee:
ID= 21
Name= "John"
Email= "john@xyz "
Def getinfo(self):
Print( self.id, self.name, self.email)
E=employee()
e.getinfo()
delattrib(Employee, ‘Job Description')
e.getinfo()
Result / Output :
21 John John@xyz
The divmod() Function in Python

This function performs a numerical operation on given values. The arguments
that this function uses are numeric values. In all numeric operations, this
function is frequently used and preferred.
For Example
X = divmod(30,5)
print(X)
Result/ Output:
(6, 0)
The enumerate() Function of Python

This function is based on sequence of index numbers. Through using element’s
sequence and index, it generates an object with numerical values.
For Example
Y = enumerate([4,5,6])
print(Y)
print(list(Y))
Result/ Output:
[(0, 4), (1, 5), (2, 6)]
The dict() Function of Python

It returns a dictionary. This function generates three types of dictionary:
Empty Dictionary: When there is no argument passed.
Identical Key-value pair Dictionary: When there is a potential argument given.
Keyword and Value added Dictionary: When there is a keyword argument.
For Example
X = dict()
Y = dict(c=4,d=5)
print(result)
print(result2)
Result/ Output:
{} #empty dictionary
{'c': 4, 'd':5} #dictionary with values
The filter() Function of Python

It is used for the filtration of values by providing two arguments: function and
iterable. In case of (none) function, it returns only TRUE.
For Example
def filterdata(y):
if y>4:
return y
Result = filter(filterdata,(1,2,7))
print(list(Result))
Result/ Output:
[7]
The hash() Function of Python

It generates the numeric value through hash algorithm. These values may be
integers used for comparison of dictionary keys.
For Example
X = hash(35)
Y = hash(35.6)
print(X)
print(Y)
Output :
35
756783388388221
The help() Function of Python

It calls help to assist the process of object passage. Through an additional
parameter, this function shares the help data with you.
For Example
Information = help()
print(Information)
Output :
Help Centre!
The min() Function of Python
This function helps get the smallest or basic element by taking two arguments as
input: elements list and Key.
For Example
X = min(2100,221,225)
Y = min(1000.25,2025.35,5625.36,10052.50)
print(X)
print(Y)
Output :
221
1000.25
The set() Function of Python

It generates an object by using iterable object. This function of Python
programming is considered the base of programs.
For Example
b = set('25')
c= set('Python')
print(b)
print(c)
Output:
{'2', '5'}
{'y', 'o', 't', 'h',', 'p', 'n'}
The hex() Function of Python
It converts the integer argument into hexadecimal string value. This function
makes the conversion easy for all the programmers, software engineers and
professional IT experts.
For Example
a = hex(4)
b= hex(140)
print(a)
print(b)
Result/ Output:
0x2
0x70
The id() Function of Python

This function generates an identity (integer) by using an argument. Let’s try to
understand this concept through an example
Example:
X = id("Python")
Y = id(1500)
Z= id([95,236,92,3225])
print(X)
print(Y)
print(Z )
Result/Output :
59696771728
66864236539
19945047867
The setattr() Function of Python

It helps in setting of an attribute of an object. It takes different values and after
application of function, it gives nothing.
For Example:
RN = 0 #RN- roll number
Name = ""
def_init_(my, RN, Name):
my.RN = RN
self.Name = Name
X= Student(121,"John")
print(X.RN)
print(X.Name)
#print(X.email) product error
setattr(X, 'email','[email protected]') # adding new attribute
print(X.email)
Output :
121
John
[email protected]
The slice() Function of Python

This function gives slice from a group of elements. Initially it takes a single
argument, but a second function requires three arguments to proceed.
For Example:
X = slice(7)
Y = slice(0,7,3)
print(X)
print(Y)
The sorted() Function of Python

It is for the sorting of elements in ascending order. To proceed, this function
normally uses four values.
For Example
X = "javapoint"
Y = sorted(X) # sorting string
print(Y)
The next() Function of Python

This function enables you to get the next element from the given group. Through
two arguments, this function produces a single element.
For Example:
X = iter([128, 16, 42])
Y= next(X)
print(Y)
Y = next(X)
print(Y)
Y= next(X)
print(Y)
#X is number
#Y is item
Result/ Output :
128
16
42
The input() Function of Python

This function is for taking instructions from the programmer or software
developer or user. After getting information, it converts the value into program
required data format.
For Example:
Value = input("Please insert value: ")
print("You entered:",Value)
Result/ Output:
Please Insert value:22
You entered: 22
The int() Function of Python

This function is designed to get integers; normally users use it to convert strings
and other data structures into specified integer value.
For Example:
a = int(15) # integer
b = int(15.52) # float
c = int('15') # string
print("Int val:",a, b, c)
Result/ Output :
Int val : 15 15 15
The pow() Function of Python

It computes number power to define it for some specific results needed for the
project or program. It is really an important function to carry out many algebraic
solutions.
For Example:
#Positive a, Positive b (a**b)
print(pow(2, 3))
# Negative a, Positive b
print(pow(-2, 3))
# Positive a, Negative b (x**-y)

print(pow(2, -3))
# Negative a, Negative b
print(pow(-2, -3))
Result/ Output :
8
8
The print() Function of Python

It gives the print of the object on screen.
For Example
Print("Python Data Science")
a = 7
print("a =", a)
b = a
print('a =', a, '= b')
Results / Output:
Python Data Science
a = 7
a = 7 = b
The range() Function of Python

It provides the sequence: begins at 0 normally and it increases by 1 and stops on
a specific number.
For Example:
print(list(range(9,12)))
range(start, stop)
Result/ Output :
[10,11]
The reversed() Function of Python

It returns the reverse sequence of a given sequence.
For Example:
String = 'Python'
print(list(reversed(String)))
Tuple = ('J', 'a', 'v', 'a')

print(list(reversed(Tuple)))
Range = range(10, 12)

print(list(reversed(Range)))
List = [1, 2, 7, 5]
print(list(reversed(List)))
Result/ Output:
['n', 'o', 'h', 't', ‘y','P']
The round() Function of Python

This function is mostly used when there are decimals in the list of numbers.
Let’s look at this example to understand this function.
For Example:
print(round(8))
print(round(10.4))
print(round(6.6))
Result/ Output:
8
10
7
The str() Function of Python

It transforms any value into string. This conversion function helps user to get
things done quickly.
For Example:
str('6')
Result/ Output:
'6'
The tuple() Function of Python

It generates an object through this function. This function allows users to get
their required object by writing a simple syntax.
For Example:
a = tuple()
print('a=', a)
b = tuple([2, 8, 10])
print('b=', b)
a = tuple('Python')
print('a=',a)
a = tuple({4: 'four', 5: 'five'})
print('a=',a)
Result/ Output :
a= ()
b= (2, 8, 10)
a= ('P', 'y', 't', 'h','o','n')
a= (4, 5)
The type() function of Python

This function is normally applied to understand the type. With three arguments,
the type function gives an object.
For Example:
X = [4, 5] #LIST
print(type(X))
Y = {4: 'four', 5: 'five'} #Dictionary
print(type(Y))
class Python:
a = 0
InstanceOfPython = Python()
print(type(InstanceOfPython))
Result/ Output:
<class 'X'>
<class 'Y'>
<class '__main__.Python'>
The vars() function of Python

It returns the attribute that belongs to the dictionary. It is an important function
of Python.
For Example:
class Python:
def _init_(my, a = 7, b = 9):
my.a = a
my.b = b
InstanceOfPython = Python()
print(vars(InstanceOfPython))
Result/ Output:
{'b': 9, 'a': 7}
The zip() Function of Python

It gives an object having the same index with several containers. Through this
function, results can be produced in zip form.
For Example:
numericalList = [4,5, 6]
stringList = ['four', 'five', 'six']
X = zip()
XList = list(X)
print(XList)
X= zip(numberList, stringList)
XSet = set(result)
print(XSet)
2.2 File Handling of Python

Python also supports files and enables clients to deal with the reading and
writing of documents, alongside numerous methods to deal with the available
file documents. The idea of file management has extended over different
languages. This programming language has multiple unique features and
functions to take care of files. It distinguishes other high-level programming
languages on the basis of the structural organization of file management. It is an
easy to learn and implement the coding module in Python. We should begin with
Reading and Writing files.
The linguistic structure is: open(filename, mode). Here is a list of some
commands to open the file.
File Opening Using Function open()

We utilize open () function for reading and writing. As stated above, it restores
an object in file format. We utilize open() work alongside two contentions that
acknowledge file management.
Syntax for file opening
Object File= open(<name>, <mode>, <buffering>)
For Closing of flie: close() function of Pyhton

After the completion of the program, the user must close the file by using Python
script: close(). It secures the file from external threats and manipulation of
functionalities.
Syntax : file.close()
Example:
Fileabc=open("file.txt","r")
if fileabc:
print("opened successfully")
fileabc.close()
Chapter 3: Variables, Operators, and Data Types of
Python
There are some really very important concepts in Python that are considered as
basic building blocks of this high-level programming language. We use them to
program our projects and get the required results through their functionalities.
Data types are essential concepts, and no one can understand the Python
programming without having command over these basic concepts. We will
discuss the important variables, operators, and data types of Python
programming language.
3.1 Variables of Python
Variable, a name identifier, is a term that is used to imply memory zone. In
Python, we don't need to decide the kind of factor, since Python infers language
and is astute enough to understand variable sort.
In any case, we need a letter or an underscore. Use lowercase letters for the
variable names. Mallet and sledge are two exceptional elements.
Naming of Identifier
Factors are the situation of identifiers. An identifier is used to perceive the
literals used in the program. The standards to name an identifier are given below.
• The essential character of the variable must be a letter or underscore ( _).
• Every one of the characters beside the essential character may be a letter
arranged by lower-case(a-z), promoted (A-Z), underscored, or a digit (0-9).
• The identifier name must not contain any void zone, or extraordinary
characters (Ex: ! @, #, %, ^, and, *).
• The identifier name must not resemble any catchphrase portrayed in Python
syntax.
• They are case sensitive. For example, my name, and My name isn't
recognized as the same.
• Instances of considerable identifiers: a123, _n, n_9, etc.
• Instances of invalid identifiers: 1a, n%4, n 9, etc.
Multiple Assignments
Python enables doling out an incentive to numerous variables in a solitary
explanation, which is otherwise called multiple assignments. It can be applied in
two different ways: either by doling out a solitary incentive to various variables,
or relegating various qualities to numerous variables.
Example:
a=b=c=60
print
print z
Output :
>>>
60
60
60
>>>
Example:
x,y,z=21,25,45
print x
print y
print z
Output:
>>>
21
25
45
>>>
3.2 Operators in Python

Operator is portrayed as a symbolic representation of a function that does a
particular activity between two operands to achieve a specific result. Operators
are viewed as the mainstays of a program in which the rationale is worked in an
individual programming language. Assortment of operators given by Python is
portrayed as pursues. Here are some commonly used operators to perform
special operations:
• Arithmetic operators
• Comparison operators
• Assignment Operators
• Logical Operators
• Bitwise Operators
• Membership Operators
• Identity Operators
Arithmetic operators
These operators are used for specific arithmetic operations to get results. Two
operands are taken, and activity through an operator is performed resulting in
some desired value.
Here is some very important arithmetic operators used in Python.
Detailed Description
ADDITION +
It is to perform addition or sum function between two operands. E.g. if x = 25,
y = 15 => x+y = 40
SUBTRACTION -
It subtracts 2nd operand from the 1st operand. E.g. if x = 40, y = 10 => x - y =
30
DIVISION /
It divides the 1st operand by 2nd operand, and gives quotient. e.g. if x = 20, y =
2 => x/y = 10
MULTIPLICATION *
It performs a multiplication operation. For example, if x = 30, y = 10 => x * y =
300
REMAINDER %
It performs the operation of division and gets remainder. For example, if x=30,
y=10, x/y=0
Comparison operator in Python

They are used to compare two operands, and returns Boolean (TRUE or FALSE)
respectively.
Description of Python Comparison Operators

==
True: when the values are equal
!=
True: When the values are unequal.
<=
True: When 1st operand is smaller than or equal to the second operand.
>=
True: When 1st operand is greater than or equal to the second operand.
<>
True: when the values are not equal.
>
True: when 1st operand is greater than 2nd Operand.
<
True: when 1st operand is less than the 2nd operand.
Assignment operators in Python

In Python, assignment operators are utilized to assign the value of the right
expression to the left operand.
Description of Python's Assignment Operators

=
Normally it assigns value of the right expression to the left operand.
+=
It builds the estimation of the left operand by the estimation of the correct
operand and appoints the altered an incentive back to left operand. For instance,
if a = 10, b = 20 => a+ = b will be equivalent to a = a+ b and hence, a = 30.
-=
It diminishes the estimation of the left operand by the estimation of the correct
operand and doles out the changed incentive back to left operand. For instance,
if a = 20, b = 10 => a-= b will be equivalent to a = a-b and in this way, a = 10.
*=
It increases the estimation of the left operand by the estimation of the correct
operand and appoints the altered incentive back to left operand. For instance, if a
= 10, b = 20 => a* = b will be equivalent to a = a* b and subsequently, a = 200.
%=
Divides the estimation of the left operand by that of the correct operand and
appoints the update back to the left operand. For instance, if a = 20, b = 10 => a
% = b will be equivalent to a = a % b and thusly, a = 0.
Logical Operators in Python

They are used to evaluate the expression to reach a decision. They are very
helpful to write any logic in an understandable way. Here is the list of logical
operators with a brief description to build a better understanding of these
operators in Python.
Logical Operator Description
and
True Condition: If an expression "a" is true, and another expression "b" is true as
well, then the result will be true.
For example, a → true, b → true => a and b → true.
or
True Condition: If an expression "a" is true, and another expression "b" is false,
then the result will be true.
For example, a → true, b → false => a or b → true.
3.3 Python Data Types

Factors can hold estimations of various data types. Python is a progressively
composed language, therefore, we need not characterize the kind of variable
while pronouncing it. The interpreter ties the incentive with its sort.
Python enables us to check the sort of variable utilized in the program. Python
provides us the type () work which returns the kind of the variable passed.
Consider the accompanying guide to characterize the estimations of various data
types and checking its sort.
Example:
a=15
b="Hi Python"
c = 15.5
print(type(a));
print(type(b));
print(type(c));
Output:
<type 'int'>
<type 'str'>
<type 'float'>
Standard data types

Variable can withstand various kinds of qualities. For instance, an individual's
name must be put away as a string, while its id must be put away as a whole
number.
Python gives different standard data types that characterize the capacity
technique on every one of them. The data types characterized in Python are
given below.
• Numbers
• String
• List
• Tuple
• Dictionary
Now we will explain each data type with examples.
Numbers
Number stores numeric values. Python generated number objects whenever a
number is given to a variable. For example:
1. a = 3 , b = 5 #a and b are number objects
Four different types of numeric data are supported by Python.
int (signed integers like 12, 22, 39, etc.)
long (long integers used for a relatively higher range of values like 908800L,
-0x19292L, etc.)
float (float is used to store floating-point like 1.7, 9.1902, 151.2, etc.)
Complex (complex numbers like 12.14j, 2.0 + 12.3j, etc.)
Python allows to use a lower-case L to be used with long integers. But we must
ensure that always an upper-case L is used for clarity.
A complex number consists of an ordered pair, i.e., a + ib, where a and b denote
the real and imaginary parts respectively).
String
String can be described as the sequence of characters that are represented in the
quotation marks. Also, single, double, or triple quotes can be used to define a
string.
String handling is a simple, and clear task, since there are many in-built
functions and operators provided in Python.
For string handling, the operator + is used to concatenate two strings as the
operation "hello"+" Mr. Davir" returns "hello Mr. David".
The operator * is known as a repetition operator as the operation "Python" *2
returns "Python Python ".
String handling in Python is illustrated in following example
Example:
string1 = 'hello Mr. David'
string2 = ' how are you'
print (string1[0:2]) #printing first two character using slice operator
print (string1[4]) #printing 4th character of the string
print (string1*2) #printing the string twice
print (string1 + str2) #printing the concatenation of string1 and string2
Output:
he
o
hello Mr. David hello Mr. David
hello Mr. David how are you
String Operators
+
Operator ‘Addition’ is used to join the strings in a program.
*
Operator with symbol ‘Multiplication’ is for the generation of multiple copies of
the same string to perform a function.
[]
Slice Operator makes available the sub-strings of a specified string.
[:]
This range slice operator performs function of getting characters.
In
This membership operator returns value against the presence of specific sub-
string in the main string.
%
It is employed to perform string formatting.
Lists
Lists are identical to arrays in C. But the list can contain data of various types.
The stored items in the list are separated with a comma (,) and enclosed within
square brackets [].
Slice [:] operators can be employed for accessing the list's. The concatenation
operator (+) and repetition operator (*) work with the list in a similar way as
they were working with the strings.
Example:
l = [1.5, "Hi", "Python", 2]
print (l[3:]);
print (l[0:2]);
print (l);
print (l + l);
print (l * 3);
Output:
[2]
[1.5, 'Hi']
[1.5, 'Hi', 'Python', 2]
[1.5, 'Hi', 'Python', 2, 1.5, 'Hi', 'Python', 2]
[1.5, 'Hi', 'Python', 2, 1.5, 'Hi', 'Python', 2, 1.5, 'Hi', 'Python', 2]
Python List Built-in Functions Description

Built-in function Description
len(list): length of the list.

max(list): maximum element of the list.
min(list): minimum element of the list.
cmp(list1, list2): comparing the elements of both the

lists.
list(seq): sequence to the list.
Tuple
It is identical to the list in a lot of ways. Similar to lists, tuples also possess the
collection of the items of various data types. The items of the tuple are
segregated with a comma (,) and enclosed in parentheses ().
A tuple can't modify the size and value of the items of a tuple.
Example:
t = ("Hi", "Python world", 4)
print (t[1:]);
print (t[0:1]);
print (t);
print (t + t);
print (t * 3);
print (type(t))
t[2] = "hi";
Output:
('Python world', 4)
('Hi',)
('Hi', 'Python world', 4)
('Hi', 'Python world', 4, 'Hi', 'Python world', 2)
('hi', 'Python world', 4, 'Hi', 'Python world', 4, 'Hi', 'Python world', 4)
<type 'tuple'>
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "main.py", line 8, in <module>
t[2] = "Hello";
TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support assignment
Chapter 4: Python Regular Expressions, Statements,
Loops
Python regular expressions, statements and loops are the totality of Python
programming. All of these functions, methods, statements and loops play a vital
role in building an effective program for data analysis in Python. There are
number of reasons behind the addition of these operation runners in the libraries
of Python. Let’s discuss the importance and functionalities of these programs.
4.1 Python Regular Expressions
The regular expression (regex) works to analyze the pattern in a string. There are
a number of regex functionalities that can be imported to bring into use. For
importing these functions, we can use the command: import re.
Here is a list of Regex Functions

Split: To split the string.
Sub: To replace the matches.
Match: Evaluates the regex pattern and returns True or False.
Findall: To restore all the matches in string
Search: To find the match in string.
4.2 Python Statements
The assignment statement is (token '=', the equals sign). This works differently
than in conventional basic programming dialects, and this basic system
(counting the idea of Python's form of factors) enlightens numerous different
highlights of the language. So, the task in C, e.g., x = 2, means "composed
variable name x gets a duplicate of numeric worth 2". The (right-hand) esteem is
replicated into an assigned stockpiling area for which the (left-hand) variable
name is the emblematic location. The memory apportioned to the variable is big
enough (conceivably enormous) for the pronounced sort. In the most
straightforward instance of Python task, utilizing a similar model, x = 2, means "
(nonexclusive) name x gets a reference to a different, progressively assigned
object of numeric (int) kind of significant worth 2."
• The (if) statement, which restrictively executes a square of code, alongside
else and elif (a compression of else-if).
• The (for) statement emphasizes an iterable article, catching every
component to a nearby factor for use by the connected square.
• The while statement executes a square of code as long as its condition is
valid.
• The try statement permits special cases raised in its connected code square
to be gotten and taken care of with the exception of provisos. Likewise, it
guarantees that tidy up code in a long last square will consistently be run,
paying little mind to how the square exits.
• The raise statement employes to raise a specified exemption or re-raise a
special case.
• The class statement executes a square of code and appends its nearby
namespace to a class for use in the item arranged programming.
• The def statement describes a capacity or technique.
• The pass statement fills in as a NOP. It is linguistically expected to make a
vacant code square.
• The assert statement is utilized during troubleshooting to check for
conditions that should apply.
• The yield statement restores an incentive from a generator work. From
Python 2.5, yield is additionally an administrator. This form is utilized to
actualize co-routines.
• The import statement is utilized to import modules whose capacities or
factors can be utilized in the present program. There are three different ways
of utilizing Import: import <module name> [as <alias>].
• The print statement was changed to the print () work in Python.
Explanation of some of the most mostly employed statements are as follows.
Python If-else statements

Decision making is a primary part of almost all the programming languages. As
the name implies, decision making permits to execute a specified block of code
for a specific decision. However, on validation of the particular condition, the
decisions are made. Condition checking acts as the backbone of decision
making. It is performed by the following statements in Python.
Statement Description
If Statement
The If statement is employed to test a specific condition. For Example, if this
condition(code) is valid, the function proceeds.
If - else Statement
The if-else statement is identical to if statement except for the fact that it also
gives insights and check the validity of code; either it is false or not. That's the
reason, the else statement will be executed if the condition given in the if
statement is false.
Nested if Statement
Nested if statements enable us to use if- else statement inside an outer if
statement.
Indentation in Python
For the simplicity of programming and to accomplish straightforwardness,
Python doesn't permit the utilization of enclosures for the square level code. In
Python, indentation is utilized to pronounce a square. On the off chance that two
statements are at a similar indentation level, at that point they are the piece of a
similar square.
By and large, four spaces are given to indent the statements, which are a
common measure of indentation in Python.
Indentation is the most utilized piece of the Python language, since it proclaims
the square of code. Every one of the statements of one square is proposed at a
similar level indentation. We will learn how genuine indentation happens in
basic leadership and other stuff in Python.
The if statement
The (if) statement is utilized to test a specific condition and if the condition is
valid, it executes a code known as if block. The condition (if) statement can be
any substantial coherent articulation that can be either assessed to genuine or
false.
Syntax is as follows
if expression:
statement
Example:
num = int(input("enter the number?"))
if num%2 == 0:
print("Number is even")
Output:
enter the number?10
Number is even
Example 2
a = int(input("Enter a? "));
b = int(input("Enter b? "));
c = int(input("Enter c? "));
if a>b and a>c:
print("a is largest");
if b>a and b>c:
print("b is largest");
if c>a and c>b:
print("c is largest");
Output:
Enter a? 100
Enter b? 120
Enter c? 130
c is largest
The if-else statement
The if-else statement provides an else block joined with the if statement that is
executed in the false case of the condition. When the condition is true, then the
if-block is executed. Otherwise, the else-block is executed.
if condition:
#block of statements
else:
#another block of statements (else-block)
Example:
age = int (input("Enter the age? "))
if age>=18:
print("You are eligible to vote !!");
else:
print("Sorry! you have to wait !!");
Output:
Enter your age? 90
You are eligible to vote !!
Example 2:
num = int(input("enter the number?"))
if num%2 == 0:
print("Number is even...")
else:
print("Number is odd...")
Output:
Enter the number?10
Number is even
The elif statement
This statement helps to run multiple level of conditions. It must have if-an-if
ladder to perform the program. It works only by taking up series of ‘True’
conditions.
if expression 1:
# block of statements
elif expression 2:
elif expression 3:
else:
Python break statement
The break statement has a unique importance in Python loop programming. It
shifts the execution pattern on the next lines by breaking up the loop from the
previous codes. With simple syntax, it gives back control to the required loops in
the same large program.
Syntax is break
Python continue Statement
This statement brings control of programing to the start of loop. It skips the rest
of codes, and execution comes back to the beginning. It has an important role in
skipping and executing specific conditions.
#loop statements
continue;
#the code to be skipped
Example 1:
i = 0;
while i!=10:
print("%d"%i);
continue;
i=i+1;
Output:
infinite loop
Example 2:
x=1; #initializing a local variable
#starting a loop from 10 to 20
for x in range(1,10):
if x==15:
continue;
print("%d"%i);
Output:
10
11
12
13
14
16
17
18
19
20
Python Pass Statement
This statement is a non-executable part of the program. It appears to justify
syntax, but provides only null operation. It is sometimes used when the code is
not a part of program, but written somewhere outside the program.
Syntax is as follow: Pass
Example:
For a in [1,2,3,4,5]:
if a==4:
pass
print "pass when value is",a
print a,
Output:
>>>
1 2 3 Pass when value is 4
4 5
>>>
The import statement in Python
This is the most valuable statement in Python programming language. It makes
possible the access of one module’s functionality to another. Without the import
statement, Python can’t perform up to the mark level.
Syntax of ‘import statement’
import module
Example:
import doc;
first name = input("input the first name?")
doc.displayMsg(first name)
Output:
Input the first name? John
Hi John
4.3 Loops in Python
Programming is all about flow of commands and functions over and again. Most
of the time, the same code has to be repeated several times to get results, which
is common practice in the general programming world. To make this easy for
data scientists and programmers, there are many loops that are used by
professionals to save time and keep the syntax easy to understand. These loops
repeat the required code multiple times with only a small block of code. In
Python, these loops are necessary to build up predictive models and data
analysis.
Why use loops in Python?
They are very helpful to reduce the complexity of code. Syntax of loops are very
easy to understand and maintain the flow of the program. It avoids repetition of
the same code and through simple loop, one can easily repeat the same code a
number of times.
Here are some important loops in Python.
1. for loop
2. while loop
3. do-while loop
4. Python ‘for' loop
for iterating_var in sequence:
statement(s)
Example:
i=1;
num = int(input("Enter a number:"));
for i in range(1,11):
print("%d X %d = %d"%(num,i,num*i));
Output:
Enter a number:10
10 X 1 = 10
10 X 2 = 20
10 X 3 = 30
10 X 4 = 40
10 X 5 = 50
10 X 6 = 60
10 X 7 = 70
10 X 8 = 80
10 X 9 = 90
10 X 10 = 100
Nested for loop in Python
It is about nesting a ‘for loop’ inside a ‘for loop’ to execute it multiple times.
for iterating_var1 in sequence:
for iterating_var2 in sequence:
#block of statements
#Other statements
Example:
n = int(input("enter number of rows"))
i,j=0,0
for i in range(0,n):
print()
for j in range(0,i+1):
print("*",end="")
Output:
Enter the number of rows? 6
*
**
***
****
*****
******
Using else statement with for loop in Python

The else statement is a fundamental part of many conditional statements. It is
also used in multiple languages for the satisfaction of condition. In Python, the
else statement can be executed inside a ‘for loop’.
Example:
print(i)
else:print("Excluding break statement therefore for loop completely
exhausted.");
Output:
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Since there is no break, for loop completely exhausted
Example:
print(i)
break;
else:print("for loop is exhausted");
print("break statement is used therefore loop gets broken")
#The break statement is stopping the execution of the else statement.
Output:
0
Because break statement is employed loop is broken
Python while loop
In general, a while loop enables a part of the code to be executed as long as the
given condition is true. It is usually employed in the case where the iterations'
quantity is not known in advance.
The syntax is given below.
while expression:
statements
Statement expressions must be any valid Python expression concluding into true
or false. The true is any non-zero value.
Example:
i=1;
while i<=12:
print(i);
i=i+1;
Output:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Example:
i=1
number=0
b=9
number = int(input("Enter the number?"))
while i<=10:
print("%d X %d = %d \n"%(number,i,number*i));
i = i+1;
Output:
Enter the number? 20
20 X 1 = 20
20 X 2 = 40
20 X 3 = 60
20 X 4 = 80
20 X 5 = 100
20 X 6 = 120
20 X 7 = 140
20 X 8 = 160
20 X 9 = 180
20 X 10 = 200
Infinite while loop in Python
If the condition provided in the while loop doesn't become false, the while loop
will never end, and the result will be an infinite while loop. To have a True
Condition, we use a non-zero value in while loop, and zero value to indicate a
False Condition.
Example:
while (1):
print("Hi! we are inside the infinite while loop");
Output:
Hi! we are inside the infinite while loop
(infinite times)
Example:
var = 1
while var != 2:
i = int(input("Enter the number?"))
print ("Entered value is %d"%(i))
Output:
Entered value is 102
(infinite loop)
Else with Python while loop
Python empowers the client to use the while loop with the while loop too. It
executes the else square when the condition given in the while articulation turns
out to be false. Like for loop, on the off chance that the while loop is broken
utilizing break explanation, at that point the else square won't be executed, and it
will execute the announcement present after else square.
Example:
i=1;
while i<=4:
print(i)
i=i+1;
else:print("The while loop exhausted");
Output:
1
2
3
4
The while loop exhausted
Example:
i=1;
while i<=5:
print(i)
i=i+1;
if(i==3):
break;
else:print("The while loop exhausted");
Output:
1
2
Chapter 5: Python OOPs Concepts
5.1 Python OOPs Concepts
Python object-oriented programming concepts play a vital role in the software
industry. It has all the concepts of object-oriented programming. There are many
other languages of the same core programming family, but Python is based on
OOP concepts from the very beginning. Here, a software expert has the liberty to
call functions, objects, and classes to perform any programming task. This
language is highly recommended for data science concepts.
Let’s discuss some important parts of OOPs Python:
• Object framework- Quality and methods in Python
• Class- Collection of Objects
• Method- Capacity of an object
• Inheritance- Inherits the qualities of parent object
• Polymorphism- Multiple structures
• Data Abstraction- Central quality of a program
• Encapsulation- Code and data wrapping together
Object framework
This framework has a similar concept in programming as in real world. Any
existing substance with some quality is an object. In Python, there is an
everywhere object-oriented approach, and all these objects have some specific
qualities and functions. Having some defined capacity, objects contain all the
important information that is being used to make a comprehensive result-
oriented information out of it.
Class- Group of Objects
Class is about the group of objects. These classes have elements with specific
attributes. Like in real life, we define classes in programming world as well. For
example, we can have a class of students, workers, officers, etc. All classes have
some kind of similar traits within the class.
Syntax for Class
class Name of Class:
<statement-1>
<statement-2>
<statement-N>
Method- Capacity of an Object
Method is about the capacity of an object defined in a program. It is based on
how many methods an object can have. It is frequently used in Python
programming.
Inheritance- Inheriting the quality of parent Object
It is an integral part of Python programming language. In OOP, it is similar to
the traditional inheritance system in human biological existence. The younger
object has all the traits and methods. Through this framework, we can develop
classes to use the properties of one another. It helps in getting results by using
single code for every class. It also saves time and can simplify the syntax.
Polymorphism- Multiple structures
This framework is an amazing feature of object-oriented programming. It has
similar meaning to its name: multiple structures. It means one assignment is
completed in many different methods.
Data Abstraction- Central quality of a program
This framework has excellent features through which it gets precise information
to use to execute the functionality. There is no need to run a whole program to
achieve results. It takes internal commands and run functionalities. We can tag
functions with some names and can call them to get the functionality.
Encapsulation- Code and data wrapping together
Encapsulated code and data are an essential part of programming. It restricts the
approach and code within specified users. It is done intentionally for using it in
combination and keeping it secure.
Object-oriented versus Procedure-oriented Programming languages
Object-oriented Procedural Programming

Object-oriented programming is the Procedural programming utilizes a
critical thinking approach and utilized rundown of instructions to do
where calculation is finished by using calculation bit by bit.
objects.
It makes the improvement and In procedural programming, It isn't
maintenance easier. difficult to maintain the codes when
the undertaking ends up extensive.
It mimics this present reality element. It doesn't reenact this present reality. It
So true issues can be effectively chips away at bit by bit; instructions
settled through oops. separated into little parts called
capacities.
It gives data hiding. So, it is more Procedural language doesn't give any
secure than procedural dialects. You legitimate method to data binding, so it
can't access to private data from is less secure.
anywhere.
Example of object-oriented Example of procedural dialects are: C,
programming dialects is C++, Java, Fortran, Pascal, VB, and so on.
.Net, Python, C#, etc.
5.2 Python Class and Objects

A class is basically an assumed element that contains number of objects. It is
virtual and gives meaning to us when we look at it with reference to objects and
their properties. For example, assume a hospital building. It has rooms, beds,
medical equipment, and so on. The hospital building is a class, and all the parts
of the building are its objects.
In this area of the instructional exercise, we will talk about creating classes and
objects in Python. We will also discuss how to get to a characteristic by using
the class object.
Creating classes in Python
Python has a very simple syntax for crating classes. A non-technical individual
can make a class by just typing simple commands.
Syntax
class ClassName:
#statement_suite
Consider the following guide to make a class Employee, which contains two
fields as Employee id, and name.
The class likewise contains a capacity show() which is utilized to show the
information of the Employee.
Example
class Employee:
id = 10;
name = "ayush"
def display (self):
print(self.id,self.name)
Here, self is utilized as a source of a perspective variable which alludes to the
present class object. It is consistently the main argument in the capacity
definition. Be that as it may, using self is discretionary in the capacity call.
Creating an instance of the class
A class should be instantiated on the off chance that we need to utilize the class
characteristics in another class. It can be instantiated by calling the class using
the class name.
Example:
id number = 10;
name = "John"
print("ID number: %d \nName: %s"%(self.id,self.name))
emp = Employee()
emp.display()
Output:
ID number: 10
Name: John
5.3 Python Constructor
It is a special type of method (function) that is used to initialize the specified
members in a class.
There are two types of Constructors:
• Parameterized Constructor
• Non-parameterized Constructor
Its definition is executed when we create the object of this class. Constructors
verify that there are measurable resources for the object to perform a task for
start-up.
Creating the constructor in Python
In Python, the method __init __ generated the constructor of the class. This
method is used when the class is instantiated. We can pass a number of
arguments at the time of making the class object, using __init __ definition.
Every class should have a constructor, even if it is simply the default
constructor.
Example:
class Student:
count = 0
def __init__(self):
Student.count = Student.count + 1
s1=Student()
s2=Student()
s3=Student()
print("The number of students:",Student.count)
Output:
The number of students: 3
Python Non-Parameterized Constructor Example:
class Student:
def __init__(my):
print("It is non parametrized constructor")
def show(my,name):
print("Hello",name)
y = Student()
y.show("Jack")
Output:
It is non parametrized constructor
Hello Jack
Parameterized Constructor Example:
def __init__(my, firstname):
print(" parametrized constructor")
my.firstname = name
def show(my):
print("Hello",my.firstname)
s = Student("Jack")
s.show()
Output:
parametrized constructor
Hello Jack
Python In-built class functions
Python has multiple in-built class functions. Let's try to understand its
functionality through an example.
Example:
class Workers:
def __init__(my,name,age):
my.name = name;
my.age = age
W = worker("Jack",115,22)
print(getattr(W,'name'))
setattr(W,"age",24)
print(getattr(s,'age'))
delattr(s,'age')
print(s.age)
Output:
Jack
24
True
AttributeError:There is no attribute 'age' in Student' object .
Built-in class attributes
A class in Python also contains class attributes (built-in) which give information
about the class.
Here is the list of built-in class attributes:
Attribute Description
__dict__
It is for providing the dictionary containing the information about the class
namespace.
__doc__
It is to contain a string that has the class documentation.
__name__
It accesses the class name.
__module__
It accesses the module in which, this class is defined.
__bases__
It is to have a tuple.
Example:
def __init__(my,name,roll number,age):
my.name = name;
my.rollbumber = roll number;
m.age = age
def display_details(my):
print("Name:%s, Roll Number:%d, age:%d"%(my.name,my.roll number))
Y = Student("Jack",10,17)
print(y.__doc__)
print(y.__dict__)
print(y.__module_)
Output:
None
{'name': 'Jack', 'Roll number': 10, 'age': 17}
__main__
5.4 Python Inheritance
Python inheritance is a very unique feature of the programming language. It
improves the usability of the program and development. In this framework, a
child class can access the qualities and functionalities of parent class.
Syntax
class derived-class(base class):
<class-suite>
Consider the following syntax.
Syntax
class derive-class(<base class 1>, <base class 2>, ..... <base class n>):
<class - suite>
Example:
class Animal:
def speak(self):
print("Animal Speaking")
#child class Dog inherits the base class Animal
class Dog(Animal):
def bark(self):
print("barking dog")
d = Dog()
d.bark()
d.speak()
Output:
barking dog
Animal Speaking
Python Multi-Level inheritance
This inheritance has multiple levels in Python. Similarly, it has in other
programming languages. This object-oriented feature is very useful to derive
data from one class and to us it in another.
The syntax of multi-level inheritance:
Syntax:
class class1:
<class-suite>
class class2(class1):
<class suite>
class class3(class2):
<class suite >
Example:
class Animal:
def speak(self):
print("Speaking Animal")
#The child class Dog inherits the base class Animal
class Dog(Animal):
def bark(self):
print("barking dog")
#The child class Dogchild inherits another child class Dog
class DogChild(Dog):
def eat(self):
print("Bread eating...")
d = DogChild()
d.bark()
d.speak()
d.eat()
Output:
barking dog
Speaking Animal
Bread eating...
Python Multiple inheritance
Python gives the possibility to inherit multiple base classes in the child class.
Syntax
class Base1:
<class-suite>
class Base2:
<class-suite>
class BaseN:
<class-suite>
Example:
class Calculate1:
def Summation(self,a,b):
return a+b;
class Calculate2:
def Multiplication(self,a,b):
return a*b;
class Derive(Calculate1,Calculate2):
def Divide(self,a,b):
return a/b;
d = Derive()
print(isinstance(d,Derive))
Output:
True
Method Overriding
We can give specific implementation of the parent class method in our child
class. Using or defining parent class method on a child class is called method
over-riding.
Example:
class Bank:
def getroi(self):
return 10;
class SBI(Bank):
def getroi(self):
return 7;
class ICICI(Bank):
def getroi(self):
return 8;
a1 = Bank()
a2 = SBI()
a3 = ICICI()
print("Bank interest:",a1.getroi());
print("SBI interest:",a2.getroi());
print("ICICI interest:",a3.getroi());
Output:
Bank interest: 10
SBI interest: 7
ICICI interest: 8
Data abstraction in Python
Abstraction is a significant part of object-oriented programming. In Python, we
can likewise perform data hiding by adding the twofold underscore (___) as a
prefix to the credit that is to be covered up. After this, the property won't be
noticeable outside of the class through the object.
Example:
class Employee:
count = 0;
def __init__(self):
Employee.__count = Employee.__count+1
def display(self):
print("The number of employees",Employee.__count)
emp = Employee()
emp2 = Employee()
try:
print(emp.__count)
finally:
1emp.display()
Output:
The number of employees 2
AttributeError: 'Employee' object has no attribute '__count'
Python magic method

Python magic method is defined as the uncommon method that includes "magic"
to a class. It starts and finishes with twofold underscores, for instance, _init_ or
_str_.
The built-in classes define numerous magic methods. The dir() capacity can be
utilized to see the quantity of magic methods inherited by a class. It has two
prefixes, and addition underscores in the method name.
It is mostly used to define the over-burden practices of predefined
administrators.
__init__
The _init_ method is called after the making of the class; however, before it
came back to the guest. It is invoked with no call, when an instance of the class
is made like constructors in other programming dialects. For example, C++,
Java, C#, PHP, and so forth. These methods are otherwise called initialize and
are called after _new_. Its where you ought to initialize the instance factors.
__str __
This capacity processes "informal" or a pleasantly printable string portrayal of an
object and should restore a string object.
__repr__
This capacity is called by the repr() built-in capacity to figure the "official"
string portrayal of an object and returns a machine-discernible portrayal of a
kind. The objective of the _repr_ is to be unambiguous.
__len__
This capacity should restore the object's length.
__call__
An object is made callable by adding the _call_ magic method, and it is another
method that isn't required as frequently is _call_.
Whenever defined in a class, at that point that class can be called. In any case, in
the event that it was a capacity instance itself instead of modifying.
__del__
Similarly, _init_ is a constructor method, _del_ and resembles a destructor. In
the event that you have opened a document in _init _, at that point _del_ can
close it.
__bytes__
It offers to figure a byte-string portrayal of an object and should restore a string
object.
__ge__
This method gets invoked when >= administrator is utilized and returns True or
False.
__neg__
This capacity gets required the unary administrator.
__ipow__
This capacity gets approached the types with arguments. For example, a**=b.
__le__
This capacity gets approached correlation using <= administrator.
_nonzero_
5.5 Python Stack and Queue
Python stacks and queue are the most basic functions. They are used to access
the data to and to alter it for some purpose. These data structures are famous in
computer software world. Queues have a rule FIFO (First In First Out) for
sorting data, while stack follows LIFO (Last In First Out) method.
Stack Attributes:
push - It adds a component to the highest point of the stack.
pop - It expels a component from the highest point of the stack.
Tasks on Stack:
Addition – It increases the size of stack.
Cancellation – It is used to decrease the size of stack.
Traversing - It involves visiting every component of the stack.
Qualities:
• Insertion request of the stack is saved.
• Helpful for parsing the activities.
• Duplicacy is permitted.
Code
# Code to demonstrate Implementation of
# stack using list
y= ["Python-language", "Csharp", "Androidnew"]
y.push("Javaflash")
y.push("C++lang")
print(y)
print(y.pop())
print(y)
print(y.pop())
print(y)
Output:
['Python-language', 'Csharp', 'Androidnew', 'Javaflash', 'C++lang']
C++lang
['Python-language', 'Csharp', 'Androidnew', 'Javaflash']
Javaflash
['Python-language', 'Csharp', 'Androidnew']
Queue Attributes
First-in-First-Out (FIFO) principle allows queue to have elements from both
ends. It is open to get in and let go of components.
Basic functionalities in queue:
enqueue – For adding elements.
dequeue – For removing elements from queue.
Qualities
• Insertion request of the queue is protected.
• Duplicacy is permitted.
• Valuable for parsing CPU task activities.
Code
import queue
# Queue is created as an object 'L'
L = queue.Queue(maxsize=10)
# Data is inserted in 'L' at the end using put()
L.put(9)
L.put(6)
L.put(7)
L.put(4)
# get() takes data from
# from the head
# of the Queue
print(L.get())
print(L.get())
print(L.get())
print(L.get())
Output:
9
6
7
4
Command line arguments in Python
Python focuses to provide command lines for input parameters that are passed to
elements in order to execute functions.
By using getopt module, this operation is executed.
The getopt module of Python
It is very similar to other programming languages. It is used to pass inputs
through command lines to get options from the user. It allows a user to input
options.
Python Assert Keyword
These keywords inform the programmer about the realities of running the
program. It works with conditional commands. When the condition doesn’t get
fulfilled, it declines with the display of an assertive message on the screen e.g.
“no data is available”. AssertionErrors are used to define the program properly.
Why Assertion?
It is a highly recommended debugging tool. It keeps the user aware about codes
on each step. If some lines of codes have errors or mistakes, it alerts the user
with message.
Syntax
assert condition, error_message(optional)
Example:
def avg(scores):
assert len(scores) != 0,"The List is empty."
return sum(scores)/len(scores)
scoresb = [67,59,86,75,92]
print("The Average of scoresb:",avg(scoresb))
scores1 = []
print("The Average of scoresa:",avg(scoresa))
Output:
The Average of scores2: 75.8
AssertionError: The List is empty.
Chapter 6: Python Modules, Exceptions and Arrays
Python modules, exceptions and arrays are an integral part of object-oriented
Python programming language. In data science, we use them from time to time
to have a better understanding with the usage of code in a logical way. These
programming methods are also used in other programming languages, and are a
popular framework because of their usage to transform the complexities of
programming into simple coding. Let’s discuss them one by one.
6.1 Python Modules
Python modules are programs that have programming codes in Python. They
contain all variables, classes and functions of this unique language. They enable
the programmer to organize codes in a proper format that is logically valid. They
can be imported to use the functionality of one module for another.
Example:
Now here a module named as file.py will be generated which contains a function
func that has a code to print some message on the console.
So let’s generate it file.py.
#displayMsg prints a message to the name.
def displayMsg(name)
print("Hi "+name);
Now it is required to add this module into the main module to call the method
displayMsg() defined in the module named file.
Loading the module in our Python code
In order to utilize the functionality of Python code, the module is loaded. Python
provides two types of statements as defined below.
1. The import statement
2. The from-import statement
Python Standard Library- Built-in Modules
There is an unlimited pool of Python Built-in Modules. We will discuss some of
the most important modules. These are:
• random
• statistics
• math
• datetime
• csv
To import any of them, use this syntax:
To import any of them, use this syntax:
Import[module_name]
eg. Import random
Random module in Python
This module is used to generate numbers. By using the command random(), we
can generate float numbers. The range of these float numbers lies between 0.0
and 1.0.
Here are some important random functions used in random module:
The Function random.randint()
It is for random integers.
The Function random.randrange()
It is for randomly selected elements.
The Function random.choice()
It is for randomly selected elements from non-empty.
The Statistics module of Python
It is a very useful module of Python. It provides numerical data after performing
statistics functions.
Here is a list of some very commonly used functions of this module:
The mean() function
It performs arithmetic mean of the list.
For Example:
import statistics
datalist = [5, 2, 7, 4, 2, 6, 8]
a= statistics.mean(datalist)
print("The Mean will be:", a)
Output:
The Mean will be: 4.857142857142857
The median() function
It gives middle value of the list.
Example:
import statistics
dataset = [4, -5, 6, 6, 9, 4, 5, -2]
print("Median of data-set is : % s "
% (statistics.median(dataset)))
Output:
Median of data-set is: 4.5
The mode() function
It provides common data from the list.
Example:
import statistics
datasets =[2, 4, 7, 7, 2, 2, 3, 6, 6, 8]
print("Calculated Mode % s" % (statistics.mode(datasets)))
Output:
Calculated Mode 2
The stdev() function
It calculates the standard deviation.
Example:
import statistics
sample = [7, 8, 9, 10, 11]
print("Standard Deviations of sample data is % s "
% (statistics.stdev(sample)))
Output:
Standard Deviation of sample data is 1.5811388300841898
The median_low()
The median_low function is used to return the low median of numeric data in the
list.
Example:
import statistics
# simple list of a set of integers
set1 = [4, 6, 2, 5, 7, 7]
# Print low median of the data-set
print ("data-set Low median is % s "
% (statistics.median_low(set1)))
Output:
Low median of the data-set is 5
median_high()
The median_high () function is employed to calculate the high median of
numeric data in the list.
numeric data in the list.
Example:
import statistics
# list of set of the integers
dataset = [2, 1, 7, 6, 1, 9]
print("High median of data-set is %s "
% (statistics.median_high(dataset)))
Output:
High median of the data-set is 6
The math module of Python
This module contains the mathematical functions to perform every mathematical
calculation.
Here are two constants as well:
Pie (n): A well-known mathematical constant and is defined as the ratio of
circumstance to the diameter of a circle. Its value is 3.141592653589793.
Euler's number (e): It is the base of the natural logarithmic, and its value is
2.718281828459045.
A few math modules which are given below:
The math.log10() function
It calculates base1 0 logarithm of the number.
Example:
im port math
x=13 # small value of of x
print('log10(x) is :', math.log10(x))
Output:
log10(x) is : 1.1139433523068367
The math.sqrt() function
It calculates the root of the number.
Example:
import math
x = 20
y = 14
z = 17.8995
print('sqrt of 20 is ', math.sqrt(x))
print('sqrt of 14 is ', math.sqrt(y))
print('sqrt of 17.8995 is ', math.sqrt(z))
Output:
sqrt of 20 is 4.47213595499958
sqrt of 14 is 3.7416573867739413
sqrt of 17.8995 is 4.230780069916185
The math.expm1() function
This method calculates e raised to the power of any number minus 1. e is the
base of natural logarithm.
The math.cos() function
It calculates cosine of any number in radians.
Example:
import math
angleInDegree = 60
angleInRadian = math.radians(angleInDegree)
print('Given angle :', angleInRadian)
print('cos(x) is :', math.cos(angleInRadian))
Output:
Given angle : 1.0471975511965976
cos(x) is : 0.5000000000000001
The math.sin() function
It calculates the sine of any number, in radians.
Example:
import math
angleInDegree = 60
print('sin(x) is :', math.sin(angleInRadian))
Output:
Given angle: 1.0471975511965976
sin(x) is: 0.8660254037844386
The math.tan() function
It returns the tangent of any number, in radians.
Example:
import math
angleInDegree = 60
print('tan(x) is :', math.tan(angleInRadian))
Output:
Given angle : 1.0471975511965976
tan(x) is : 1.7320508075688767
The sys module of Python
This module provides access to system-specific functions. It changes the Python
Runtime Environment to enable the user to get variables and parameters.
Need to import sys function
First, there is a need to import the sys module in the program before starting the
use of functions.
The sys.modules’ function
These functions perform some really important tasks on system in Python
programming.
• Function of sys.argv: For arguments
• Function of sys.base_prefix: For startup
• Function of sys.byteorder : To get byterorder.
• Function of sys.maxsize : To get large integer.
• Function of sys.path : To set path.
• Function of sys.stdin : To restore files.
• Function of sys.getrefcount : To get reference count of an object.
• Fun tion of sys.exit : To exit from Python command prompt.
• Function of sys executable : Locate the Python in system.
• sys.platform: To identify Platform.
The Collection Module of Python
This module plays an important role, as it collects major data formats or data
structures, such as list, dictionary, set, and tuple. It improves the functionality of
the current version of Python. It is defined as a container that is employed to
conserve collections of data, for example, list.
The function of namedtuple() in Collection Module
It produces a tuple object without causing an issue with indexing.
Examples:
John = ('John', 25, 'Male')
print (John)
Output:
Output:
('John', 25, 'Male')
OrderedDict() function
It generates dictionary object with key that can overwrite data inside.
Example:
import collections
d1=collections.OrderedDict()
d1['A']=15
d1['C']=20
d1['B']=25
d1['D']=30
for k,v in d1.items():
print (k,v)
Output:
A 15
C 20
B 25
D 30
Functin defaultdict()
It produces an object similar to dictionary.
Example:
from collections import defaultdict
number = defaultdict(int)
number['one'] = 1
number['two'] = 2
print(number['three'])
Output:
0
Counter() function
It counts the hasbale objects after reviewing the elements of list.
Example:
A = Counter()
Xlist = [1,2,3,4,5,7,8,5,9,6,10]
Counter(Xlist)
Counter({1:5,2:4})
Ylist = [1,2,4,7,5,1,6,7,6,9,1]
c = Counter(Ylist)
print(A[1])
Result:
3
The function deque()
It facilitates addition and removal of elements from both ends.
For Example:
from collections import deque
list = ["x","y","z"]
deq = deque(list)
print(deq)
Output:
deque(['x', 'y', 'z'])
Python OS Module
Python OS module provides functions utilized for interacting with the operating
system and also obtains related data about it. The OS comes under Python's
standard utility modulesPython OS module which allows you to work with the
files, documents and directories. Some of OS module functions are as follows:
os.name
It provides the name of the operating system module it imports.
It can register 'posix', 'nt', 'os2', 'ce', 'java' and 'riscos'.
Example:
import os
print(os.name)
Output:
posix
os.getcwd()
It restores the Current Working Directory (CWD) of the file.
Example:
import os
print(os.getcwd())
Output:
C:\Users\Python\Desktop\ModuleOS
os.error
os.error
The functions in this module define the OS level errors in case of invalid file
names and path.
Example:
import os
filename1 = 'PythonData.txt'
f = open(filename1, 'rU')
text = f.read()
f.close()
print('Difficult read: ' + filename1)
Output:
Difficult read: PythonData.txt
os.popen()
It opens a file, and it gives back a fileobject that contains connection with pipe.
The datetime Module
It is an imported module that allows you to create date and time objects. It works
to conduct many functions related to date and time.
Let’s understand it through an example:
Example:
import datetime;
#returns the current datetime object
print(datetime.datetime.now())
Output:
2018-12-18 16:16:45.462778
Python read csv file
The Comma Separated values (CSV) File
It is a simple file format that arranges tabular data. It is used to store data in
tabular form ora spreadsheet that can be exchanged when needed. It is in a
Microsoft excel supported data form.
The CSV Module Functions in Python
This module helps in reading/writing CSV files. It takes the data from columns
and stores it to use in the future.
• The function csv.field_size_limit - To maximize field size.
• The function csv.reader – To read information or data from a csv file.
• The function csv.writer – To write the information or data to a csv file
These functions have a major role in CSV module.
6.2 The Exceptions in Python
Exceptions are actually interruptions that stops the running program. They are
mistakes or errors in the code. In Python, these are handled differently.
The Common Exceptions in Python
Here are some common exceptions that may occur in Python. Every Python
programmer is very familiar with these errors or exceptions.
• The exception of ZeroDivisionError: when a number is divided by zero.
• The exception of NameError: when a name is not found.
• The exception of IndentationError: when incorrect indentation is given.
• The exception of IOError: when Input Output operation fails.
• The exception of EOFError: when the end of the file is reached, and still
operations are being performed.
Unhandled Exceptions
Example:
x= int(input("Enter a:"))
y = int(input("Enter b:"))
z= a/b;
print("x/y = %d"%c)
print("Hello I am a teacher")
Output:
Enter a:10
Enter b:0
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "exception-test.py", line 3, in <module>
c = a/b;
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
The finally block
It is used to run a code before the try statement.
Syntax
try:
# block of code
# this may throw an exception
finally:
# block of code
# this will always be executed
Example:
try:
fileptr = open("file.txt","r")
try:
fileptr.write("Hi I am good")
finally:
fileptr.close()
print("file closed")
except:
print("Error")
Output:
file closed
Error
The Exception Raising in Python
The raise clause in Python is used to raise an exception.
Syntax
Raise exception_class,<value>
The Custom Exception in Python
It enables programmers to generate exceptions that have already been launched
with the program.
Example:
class ErrorInCode(Exception):
def __init__(self, data):
self.data = data
def __str__(self):
return repr(self.data)
try:
raise ErrorInCode(2000)
except ErrorInCode as ae:
print("Received error:", ae.data)
Output:
Received error: 2000
6.3 Python Arrays
Array is a set of elements that are used to work on specific data values. It is
advanced level programming that allows users multiple functionality over data
advanced level programming that allows users multiple functionality over data
structures. Through arrays, code can be simplified, therefore saving a lot of time.
Array Element - Data element stored in array.
Array Index - Position of an element.
Array Representation:
The declaration of array can be done in many different ways.
• Array Index starts with 0.
• Element can be located with the help of its index number.
• The length of the array defines the storage capacity of the elements.
Array operations in Python:
Some of the basic operations in an array are given below:
• Traverse – To print all the elements one by one.
• Insertion – Addition of element in Index.
• Deletion – Deletion of element at index.
• Search – To search the element.
• Update - To update an element at the given index.
Array Generation
array import *
MyarrayName = array(typecode, [initializers])
Accessing array elements
The array elements accessibility can be ensured by using the respective indices
of those elements.
import array as arr
a = arr.array('i', [1, 3, 5, 87])
print("First element:", a[0])
print("Second element:", a[1])
print("Second last element:", a[-1])
Output:
First element: 1
Second element: 3
Second last element: 8
Arrays are changeable, and elements can be changed in similar to lists.
A combination of arrays makes the process speedy and saves time. The array can
reduce the code's size.
reduce the code's size.
Deletion can be done by using the del statement in Python.
The length of an array can be described as the number of elements in an array. It
returns an integer value that is equal to the total number of the elements present
in that array.
Syntax
len(array_name)
Example:
a=arr.array('d',[1.2 , 2.2 ,3.2,3,6,7.8])
b=arr.array('d',[4.5,8.6])
c=arr.array('d')
c=a+b
print("Array c = ",c)
Output:
Array c= array('d', [1.2, 2.2, 3.2, 3.6, 7.8, 4.5, 8.6])
Example:
import array as arr
x = arr.array('i', [5, 10, 15, 20])
print("First element:", x[0])
print("Second element:", x[1])
print("Second last element:", x[-1])
Output:
First element: 5
Second element: 10
Second last element: 15
Chapter 7: Python Data Science Libraries and
General Libraries
In the previous chapters, we discussed the important concepts of Python, such as
data structures, built-in functions, variable, exceptions, methods, for loops and if
statements. Now, we will study the modules and packages of Python that is
important for any project.
Python programming and data science are integral to one another. Python is an
unbelievable language for data science and the individuals who need to begin in
the field of data science. It bolsters countless cluster libraries and systems to give
a decision for working with data science in a spotless and productive manner.
The different systems and libraries accompany a particular reason for use, and
should be picked by your prerequisite.
7.1 Python Data Science Libraries
A Python library is a gathering of capacities and techniques that aid in finishing
explicit assignments. There are highly advanced libraries employed by
developers for various tasks. In the beginning, Data Science and Python was
considered unsuitable for each other, and now Python is very much connected
with statistics, machine learning, and predictive analytics, as well as simple data
analytics tasks. It is getting more accessible and useful day-by-day, as it is an
open-source language. There are millions of data scientists who are enriching the
language with tools through advanced coding. Now, there are highly advanced
packages and libraries that data scientists are using for multiple data analysis
tasks.
A brief description of some of the best Python libraries is given below
Numpy
NumPy is a very crucial Python library implied for logical registering. It
accompanies support for an amazing N-dimensional exhibit item and
broadcasting capacities.
Additionally, NumPy offers Fourier changes, arbitrary number capacities, and
devices for coordinating C/C++ and Fortran code. Having a working
understanding of NumPy is obligatory for full stack developers associated with
AI ventures utilizing Python.
Numpy is the most fundamental, and a fantastic bundle, for working with
information in Python. On the off chance that you are getting down to business
on information investigation or Machine learning ventures, at that point, having
a strong comprehension of numpy is required.
Different bundles for information investigation (like pandas) is based on numpy
and the scikit-learn package that is utilized to assemble AI applications.
What does numpy provide?
At the center, numpy gives the phenomenal ndarray objects; short for n-
dimensional clusters. In a 'ndarray' object, otherwise known as 'exhibit', you can
store numerous things of similar information. It is the offices around the exhibit
object that makes numpy advantageous for performing math and information
controls.
Salient Features
· It is a very interactive library and it’s easy to use.
· Mathematical problems are solved with ease.
Pandas
In Python, we use two-dimensional tables to analyze data, like in SQL or Excel.
Initially, Python didn't have this feature. But that's why Pandas is so famous.
Without a doubt, Pandas is the "SQL of Python. " In short, Pandas is the library
that will help us to handle two-dimensional data tables in Python. In many ways,
it's similar to SQL, though.
The Pandas' library is not exclusively a focal segment of the information science
toolbox, yet it is utilized for different libraries in that accumulation.
Pandas is based on the NumPy bundle, which means a great deal of the structure
of NumPy is utilized or duplicated in Pandas. Information in pandas is
frequently used to bolster factual examination in SciPy, plotting capacities from
Matplotlib, and machine learning calculations in Scikit-learn.
Jupyter Notebooks offer a decent situation for utilizing pandas to do information
investigation and demonstrating, yet pandas can likewise be used in content
tools.
Jupyter Notebooks enable us to execute code in a specific cell instead of running
the whole record. This spares a lot of time when working with enormous datasets
and complex changes. Scratchpad, likewise, gives a simple method to imagine
pandas' DataFrames and plots.
Pandas is prominently known for giving information outlines in Python. This is a
fantastic library for information examination, contrasted with other explicit
dialects like R. By utilizing Pandas, it's simpler to deal with missing information,
bolsters working with contrastingly filed information assembled from numerous
various assets, and supports programmed information arrangement. It also
various assets, and supports programmed information arrangement. It also
provides devices information examination and information structures, like
consolidating, molding or cutting datasets, and it is additionally exceptionally
viable in working with information identified with time arrangement. The
function works by giving hearty apparatuses to stacking information from Excel,
level documents, databases, and a quick HDF5 group.
Utilizing the Pandas library makes it simpler and instinctive for developers to
work with named or social data. It offers expressive, quick, and adaptable data
structures. Pandas fills in as the essential elevated level structure for doing
genuine data examination utilizing Python.
One of the most prominent and dominant features of Pandas is to interpret
complex data activities utilizing negligible directions. Also, the AI library has no
shortage of worked in techniques for consolidating, separating, and gathering
data. It additionally
highlights time-arrangement usefulness.
Salient Features:
• Operations of custom type can be completed easily.
• Data manipulation becomes simpler and easier.
• When employed with other Python libraries and tools ,it gives
excellent results.
The Matplotlib
Matplotlib is a two-dimensional plotting library with extraordinary
representation modules for the Python programming language. It is equipped for
delivering top-notch figures in various printed version organizations and
intelligent cross-stage conditions. Besides being utilized in Python shell, Python
contents, and IPython shell, Matplotlib can likewise be utilized in:
· Jupyter Notebook
· Web application servers
· GUI toolboxes; GTK+, Tkinter, Qt, and wxPython
As indicated by the official site of Matplotlib, the Python library attempts to
"make simple things simple and hard things conceivable." The 2D plotting
Python library permits producing bar graphs, mistake diagrams, histograms,
plots, scatterplots, etc. with fewer lines of code.
Probably the best advantage is that it permits visual access to enormous
measures of information in effectively absorbable visuals. Matplotlib comprises
of a few plots, like line, bar, disperse, and histograms.
Matplotlib represents a Mathematical Plotting Library in Python. It is a library
that is for the most part utilized for information representation, including 3D
plots, histograms, picture plots, scatterplots, bar graphs, and power spectra. It
includes bright highlights for zooming and searching for gold in various printed
copy designs. It bolsters practically all systems, for example, Windows, Mac,
and Linux. This library also fills in as an augmentation for the NumPy library.
Matplotlib has a module pyplot that is utilized in representations, which is
frequently contrasted with MATLAB.
These libraries are the best for amateurs to begin information science utilizing
the Python programming language. There are numerous other Python libraries
accessible. For example, NLTK for standard language preparing, Pattern for web
mining, Theano for profound learning. IPython and Scrapy for web scratching.
Also, Mlpy and Statsmodels; the sky is the limit from there. Be that as it may,
for novices beginning wihh information science in Python, it is an absolute
necessity to be knowledgeable about the top libraries.
Salient Features
· It has handy properties, font properties, line styles, etc. through an object-
oriented interface.
· Scatter's Legend
· MATLAB interface for simple plotting of data.
· It has secondary x/y axis support to represent 2-dimmensions.
· It is supports many operating systems.
Scikit-Learn
Scikit-learn gives a scope of administered and solo learning calculations by
means of a predictable interface in Python. It is authorized under a lenient
rearranged BSD permit and is dispersed under numerous Linux disseminations,
empowering scholastic and business use. The library is based upon the SciPy
(Scientific Python) that must be introduced before you can utilize scikit-learn.
There are a few Python libraries that give a strong execution to the scope of
machine learning calculations. Outstanding amongst others is Scikit-Learn, a
bundle that gives proficient adaptations of countless basic calculations. Scikit-
Learn is described as a perfect, uniform, and streamlined API, is extremely
helpful and has complete online documentation. One advantage is the
consistency. Once you comprehend the fundamental use and language structure
of Scikit-Learn for one model, changing to another model or calculation is very
direct.
Undoubtedly, the fanciest things in Python are Machine Learning and Prescient
Undoubtedly, the fanciest things in Python are Machine Learning and Prescient
Investigation. Also, the best library for that is Scikit-Learn, which essentially
characterizes itself as "Machine Learning in Python." Scikit-Learn has a few
techniques, fundamentally covering all that you may require in the initial couple
of long periods of your information profession: relapse strategies,
characterization strategies, and bunching, model approval and model
determination.
This prevalent library is utilized for AI in information science with different
order, relapse and grouping calculations. It offers help with vector machines,
innocent Bayes, angle boosting, and sensible relapse. SciKit is intended to
interoperate with SciPy and NumPy.
Salient Features
· Capability to extract features from images and text
· Can be utilized again in several contexts
Scipy
There is scipy library and scipy stack. The vast majority of the libraries and
bundles are a piece of the Scipy stack (for logical processing in Python). One of
these parts is the Scipy library, which gives proficient answers for numerical
schedules (the math stuff behind AI models). These include incorporation,
introduction, improvement, and so forth. Scipy gives scientific strategies to do
the unpredictable AI forms in Scikit-learn.
It is an open-source library utilized for registering different modules, for
example, picture preparing, joining, insertion, unique capacities, enhancements,
straight variable based math, Fourier Transform, grouping, and numerous
different undertakings. This library is utilized with NumPy to perform proficient
numerical calculations.
Salient Features
· Comfortably handles mathematical operations.
· Provides effective and efficient numerical routines, such as numerical
integration and optimization, using sub-modules.
· Supports signal processing.
TensorFlow
Anyone engaged with AI machine learning tasks utilizing Python must have
knowledge of TensorFlow. Created by Google, it is an open-source
representative math library for numerical calculations utilizing information
stream diagrams. The scientific activities in a normal TensorFlow information
stream diagram are spoken to by the chart hubs. The chart edges speak to the
multidimensional information exhibits, a.k.a. tensors, that stream between the
diagram hubs.
TensorFlow parades an adaptable design. It enables Python engineers to convey
calculations to one or numerous CPUs or GPUs in a work area, cell phone, or
server, without the need for revising code. All libraries made in TensorFlow are
written in C and C++. Broadly utilized Google items, like Google Photos and
Google Voice Search, are constructed utilizing TensorFlow. The library has a
convoluted front-end for Python. The Python code will get accumulated and
after that executed on TensorFlow.
Salient Features
· Allows preparing various neural systems and numerous GPUs, making models
exceptionally productive for enormous scale frameworks.
· Easily trainable on CPU and GPU for disseminated figuring.
· Flexibility in its operability, which means TensorFlow offers the choice of
taking out the parts that you need and leaving what you don't.
· Great level of network and designer support.
· Unlike other information science Python libraries, TensorFlow improves the
way toward imagining every single piece of the diagram.
Keras
It is recognized as one of the coolest AI (Algorithm) Python libraries. Keras
offers a simpler instrument for communicating neural systems. It also features
extraordinary utilities for accumulating models, preparing datasets, imagining
charts, and significantly more. Written in Python, Keras can keep running over
CNTK, TensorFlow, and Theano. The Python AI library is created with an
essential spotlight on permitting quick experimentation. All Keras models are
compact.
Contrasted with other Python AI libraries, Keras is moderate. This is because of
the way that it makes a computational diagram utilizing the backend framework
first, and after that uses the equivalent to perform activities. Keras is extremely
expressive and adaptable for doing creative research.
Salient Features
· Being totally Python-based makes it simple to troubleshoot and investigate.
· Modular in nature.
· Neural system models can be joined for growing increasingly complex models.
· Runs easily on both CPU and GPU.
· Supports practically all models of a neural system, including convolutional,
· Supports practically all models of a neural system, including convolutional,
inserting, completely associated, pooling, and repetitive.
Seaborn
Fundamentally an information perception library for Python, Seaborn is based
over the Matplotlib library. Additionally, it is firmly incorporated with Pandas
information structures. The Python information perception library offers an
abnormal state interface for drawing appealing factual charts.
The primary point of Seaborn is to make representation an imperative piece of
investigating and getting information. Its dataset-arranged plotting capacities
work on exhibits and information edges containing entire datasets. The library is
perfect for inspecting connections among numerous factors. Seaborn makes all
the significant semantic mapping and measurable collections for creating
educational plots. The Python information representation library also has devices
for picking shading palettes that guide you in uncovering designs in a dataset.
Salient Features
· Automatic estimation; the plotting of direct relapse models.
· Comfortable perspectives on the general structure of complex datasets.
· Eases building complex representations, utilizing abnormal state deliberations
for organizing multi-plot matrices.
· Options for picturing bivariate or univariate disseminations.
· Specialized support for utilizing clear cut factors.
Natural Language Toolkit (NLTK)
Valuable for common language preparing and design acknowledgment
undertakings. It can be utilized to create intellectual models, tokenization,
labeling, thinking and different assignments helpful to AI applications
Salient Features
• Comes with a linguistic structure tagger.
• Supports lexical assessment.
7.2 Python General Libraries
Python is named as a "batteries-included programming language." This
essentially implies it accompanies various pre-packaged libraries. In any case,
there are an abundance of different libraries accessible for the translated,
abnormal state, universally useful programming language.
Among different elements adding to the prevalence of Python, having a
humongous gathering of libraries is a noteworthy one. The more libraries and
bundles a programming language has available to it, the more assorted use-cases
bundles a programming language has available to it, the more assorted use-cases
it can have.
Requests
One of the most prominent general Python libraries is Requests that make HTTP
demand less difficult and increasingly human-accommodating. Authorized under
the Apache2 permit and written in Python, Requests is the true standard utilized
by engineers for making HTTP demands in Python.
Notwithstanding utilizing the Requests library for sending HTTP solicitations to
a server, it also permits including structure information, content, header, multi-
part documents, and so forth with them. With the library, designers need not to
add a question to the URL or structure encode the POST information physically.
The Requests library abstracts the various complexities of making HTTP
demands in a basic API so designers can concentrate more on communicating
with administrations. The library offers authority support for Python 2.7, 3.4 or
more and works incredibly well on PyPy, as well.
Salient Features:
· Allows multipart record transfers and spilling downloads.
· Automatic substance disentangling and programmed decompression.
· Browser-style SSL confirmation.
· Features can be modified and improved according to prerequisites.
· Keep-Alive and Connection Pooling Supports international domains and URLs.
Pillow
Python Imaging Library or PIL is a free Python library that adds a picture
preparing capacity to the Python interpreter. In basic terms, PIL permits
controlling and opening, and different picture records organized in Python. Made
by Alex Clark and Contributors, Pillow is a fork of the PIL library.
Notwithstanding offering incredible picture handling abilities, Pillow offers
powerful inward portrayal and broad record organization support. The center
Python library is intended to offer quick access to information.
Salient Features:
• Effective investigating bolster utilizing the show() strategy.
• Ideal for group handling applications.
• Identifies and peruses a huge scope of picture document designs.
• Offers BitmapImage, PhotoImage, and Window DIB interfaces.
• Supports discretionary relative changes, shading space
transformations, separating with a lot of implicit convolution parts,
picture resizing and turning, and point activities.
• The histogram technique permits hauling a few measurements out
of a picture, and can be utilized for programmed upgrade and
worldwide factual investigation.
Scrapy
Scrapy is a free and open-source Python structure that is broadly utilized for web
scratching and various different assignments, including mechanized testing and
information mining. At first, Scrapy was created for web scratching but has
advanced to satisfy different purposes. The library offers a quick and abnormal
state strategy for creeping sites and separating organized information from
website pages.
Written in Python, Scrapy is works around bugs that are essentially independent
crawlers, which are given a lot of guidelines. Complying with the DRY standard,
Scrapy makes it simpler to assemble and scale undeniable web slithering
undertakings.
Salient Features:
• Easy to compose a bug to slither a site and concentrate information.
• Follows the DRY rule.
• Offers a web-slithering shell that enables engineers to test a site's conduct.
• Supports sending out scratched information utilizing the direction line.
Tkinte
When utilized with Tkinter, Python offers a simple and quick path for making
GUI applications. It is considered the standard GUI library for the Python
programming language. It offers an amazing item situated interface for the Tk
GUI toolbox. Making a GUI application utilizing Tkinter is simple. You can
simply pursue these basic advances:
· Import Tkinter
· Create the primary window for the GUI application; a work in progress
· Add at least one Tkinter Widget
· Enter the headliner circle for making a move for every client activated
occasion.
Tkinter is Graphical User Interface (GUI) library that has powerful modules to
create a user interface.
Salient Features:
Salient Features:
• Comes with a scope of gadgets that help geometry the executive’s
strategies.
• Eases creating GUI applications.
• Supports a powerful object-situated interface.
Six
Owing to the fact that it’s the simplest Python library, Six is an amazing Python
library that is intended to smooth out the contrasts between different Python 2
and Python 3. Six is used for supporting codebases that can work on both Python
2 and Python 3 without the need for adjustments.
The Six libraries is super-simple to utilize on account of it being offered as a
solitary Python document. Consequently, it is absurdly simple to duplicate the
library into a Python venture. The name Six reflects (Python) 2 x (Python) 3.
Salient Features:
· Simple utility capacities for making Python code perfect with Python 2 and
Python 3.
· Supports each adaptation since Python 2.6.
· Easy to use because its contained in a solitary Python document.
Pygame
Pygame is a free and open-source Python library that is intended for achieving
sight and sound application improvements in Python, particularly two-
dimensional gaming ventures. Thus, it is generally utilized by both beginner and
expert Python game engineers. Pygame utilizes the SDL (Simple DirectMedia
Layer) library. Like the SDL library, Pygame library is profoundly convenient
and subsequently offers help for a wide number of stages and working
frameworks.
It is conceivable to port applications created utilizing Pygame on Android-fueled
gadgets, as well as cell phones and tablets. For this very reason, pgs4a (Pygame
subset for Android) should be utilized.
Salient Features:
· Doesn't request OpenGL.
· Simple for utilizing multi-center CPUs.
· No GUI required for utilizing every single accessible capacity.
· Provides support for a wide scope of stages and working frameworks.
· Simple to utilize.
· Uses Assembly code and advanced C code for actualizing center capacities.
Bokeh
An instinctive portrayal library for the Python programming language, Bokeh
grants imagining data in a stunning and critical course inside contemporary web
programs. The data portrayal library encourages the creation of dashboards, data
applications, and keen plots.
Despite offering brief and lovely improvement of versatile plans, the Bokeh
library extends its capacity with tip top knowledge over spilling or tremendous
datasets.
Salient Features:
• Authentic plots with clear headings can be built easily without
complexity.
• Bokeh portrayals can be successfully introduced into two of the
most standard Python frameworks: Django and Flask.
• Capable of making dazzling and natural data recognitions Multiple
language ties (Julia, Lua, Python, and R).
Asyncio
This library is used for composing simultaneous code utilizing the
async/anticipates grammar by the developers. In larger part, the asyncio library
is perfect for IO-bound and elevated level organized system code.
Asyncio has been utilized for different Python nonconcurrent frameworks that
offer database association libraries, circulated undertaking lines, elite system and
web servers, and significantly more. The library accompanies various elevated
level and low-level APIs.
Salient Features
• Implementation of protocols by employing transport.
• Codes are simple and easy.
• Helps in generation of various loops.
7.3 Python Data Science Frameworks
Python frameworks provide a great utility to developers because they are
considered a necessary time saving tools. They allow software engineers to
deliver products quicker by providing a ready-made structure for application
development, and by reducing the number of code.
Frameworks enable developers to be quick and responsive for the development
of applications. They also allow the software engineers to reduce the number of
codes employed.
Types of Python Frameworks
Full-Stack Framework
Full stack framework gives developers the utility of a one stop solution. These
are as follows:
• Django
• Pyramid
• Turbo gears
• Web2py
• Cubicweb
• Giotto
• Pylon
Django
Django is one of the most exceptional and adaptable Python frameworks used.
This full-stack, open-source framework focuses on decreasing the improvement
of web application time. It achieves this through an open source system. The
system is continually releasing new modules and code to unravel the
methodology.
Django has multiple modules with an arrangement to access outside libraries’
functions. It is very popular framework because of its large quantity of functions.
Programmers prefer to use this framework in their programs as it is really
supportive. They wish to promote it among the programmers specialists to
improve its open-source libraries innovation and access.
Salient Features
• Large amount of readily available libraries.
• Web servers get support and assistance with it.
• Allows mandatory URL routing.
TurboGears
This framework is also open source and expects to make web application
progression a much smoother and faster process.
The framework relies upon Ruby on the Rails and was built using the model-see
controller plan. It empowers creators to re-reason business basics across stages
and abatement the proportion of made code.
Creators would like to release a "negligible mode" later on, which will fill in as a
smaller scale framework. This stripped-down variation will enable experts to
build direct programming quickly, and save time and cash.
Salient Features:
• Function decorators: All features are implemented.
• Has command-line.
• Integration with MochiKit JavaScript library.
• Supports Multi-databases.
• Architecture MVC-style.
Pyrami d
Pyramid is an ultra-versatile, lightweight Python framework. Developers as a
rule use Pyramid to get basic web applications completely operational as quickly
as possible.
The marketing behind Pyramid implies the framework is "the starting close to
nothing, complete gigantic, stay finished framework." It functions as shown by
the standard of control, which makes it a mind blowing elective for experienced
specialists.
Salient Features:
• Versatility in authorization.
• Gives decorators for functions.
• Built in renderers available.
CubicWeb
Designed and generated by Logilab, CubicWeb is an allowed to-utilize,
semantic, open-source, Python-based web system. In view of the information
model, CubicWeb requires the equivalent characterized so as to build up a useful
application.
Not at all like other famous Python structures that utilization separate
perspectives and models; has CubicWeb utilized block. Various 3D shapes are
then consolidated for making an occasion with the assistance of a database, a
web server, and some design documents.
Salient features:
• Support OWL (Web Ontology Language) and RDF (Resource
Description Framework).
• Components are reusable.
• Security work processes.
• Simplifies information related questions with RQL (Relational
Query Language).
• Support for numerous databases.
Giotto
In light of the Model View Controller design, Giotto is an application system for
Python. So as to permit website specialists, web engineers, and framework
administrator’s to work autonomously, Giotto isolates Model, View, and
Controller components.
Giotto incorporates controller modules that empower clients to make
applications over the web, IRC (Internet Relay Chat), and order line.
Salient Feature s :
• Automatic URL steering.
• Database steadiness with SQLAlchemy.
• Extremely concise code.
• Functional CRUD designs.
• Generic models and perspectives.
• Inbuilt reserve with help for Memcache and Redis (Available API
for expanding support for different motors).
• Jinja2 for HTML layouts (API accessible for supporting other
format motors).
Arch
Pythons Framework is an open-source Python-put together structure that
concentrations with respect to the quick improvement of utilizations. The
structure is planned by joining probably the best components and properties of
dialects including Perl, Python, and Ruby.
It is accessible although in support mode. A few designers still utilize the Pylons
system because of its capacity to offer an exceptionally adaptable structure for
web improvement. To advance reusability, the full-stack structure utilizes WSGI
(Web Server Gateway Interface).
Salient features:
• HTML form validation and generation.
• Routes.
• Text-based templating.
• URL dispatch.
• URL mapping dependent on Routes setup by means of
WebHelpers.
Micro frameworks
Miniaturized scale frameworks don’t give extra functionalities and highlights.
For example, database deliberation layer, structure approval, and explicit
apparatuses and libraries. Developers utilizing a miniaturized scale framework
apparatuses and libraries. Developers utilizing a miniaturized scale framework
includes many codes, and extra necessities, such as:
• Flask
• Bottle
• Cherrypy
• Dash
• Falcon
• Hug
• Morepath
• Pycnic
Flask
It allows the developers to make a secure web application establishment from
where it turns into a potential to utilize any expansions required. The
miniaturized scale framework is perfect with Google App Engine. Tried by the
Sinatra Ruby framework, the miniaturized scale framework requires Jinja2
layout and Werkzeug WSGI toolbox. Flask is versatile for clients given its
lightweight and measured structure.
Notable Features:
• Built-in quick debugger.
• Inbuilt advancement server.
• Jinja2 templating.
• Support for connecting any ORM.
Bottle
Bottle creates a source record for each application utilizing it. Aside from the
Python Standard Library, Bottle doesn't demonstrate conditions required for
making little web applications.
Out of the numerous preferences of utilizing Bottle, the real one is that it enables
developers to work near the equipment. Notwithstanding building short-sighted
individual use applications, Bottle is an adept fit for learning the association of
web frameworks and prototyping.
Salient Features:
• Adapter support for outsider format motors and WSGI/HTTP
servers
• Plugin support for various databases
• Gives demand dispatching courses having URL-parameter support
CherryPy
CherryPy
CherryPy is a remarkable open-source, object-oriented Python framework. Any
CherryPy-controlled web application is a free Python application with its very
own embedded multi-hung web server and continues running on any OS with
assistance for Python.
There is no prerequisite for an Apache server for running applications made
using CherryPy. The little scale framework allows the developer(s) to use any
advancement for data and templating.
Salient features
• A number of out-of-the-case instruments for affirmation, saving,
encoding, sessions, static substance, and significantly more
• A versatile understood module framework
• Consideration, profiling, and testing is done with the help of in-
built support.
• Offers straightforwardness for running different HTTP servers
simultaneously
• It has a robust structure framework
Dash
Run is an open-source Python-based structure for structure insightful
applications based on the web. This framework is ideal for data analysts that
aren't into the mechanics of web improvement.
Salient Features:
• No standard code for starting
• Customization is of high level
• It contains support of plugins.
• it hase a simple interface for tying UI controls, including
dropdowns, outlines, and sliders
• URL coordinating (Dash Deployment Server)
Falcon
Falcon is a widely used Python structure across the world. It is micro-framework
that enables HTTP and REST models for licensed Python programmers.
As indicated by the benchmark test-driven by Sanic, Falcon can manage more
requests than all other micro-frameworks. The Python framework intends to
have 100% code incorporation. Bird of prey is used by tremendous players like
LinkedIn, OpenStack, and RackSpace.
Salient Features:
Salient Features:
▪ An extensible, incredibly streamlined code base.
▪ DRY requesting planning through middleware sections
and catches.
▪ Extra speed help with Cython support.
▪ Unit testing by means of WSGI assistants and ridicules
Hug
The Hug is intended to enable Python engineers to build up an API. The Python
structure streamlines API improvement through multiple methods for offering
various interfaces. It is marked as the quickest web structure for Python 3.
Whether you are doing neighborhood advancement or over HTTP or using the
CLI, Hug gives you a chance to finish application improvements rapidly and
effectively. To take execution to the next level, Hug devours assets just when
required and uses Cython for arrangement.
MorePath
It is marked as the "Too Powered Python Web Framework,". MorePath
guarantees insignificant arrangement impression. It is planned explicitly for
getting the vast majority of the run of the mill go through cases and running
ASAP, including the regular Python data structures being initiated into RESTful
Web Services.
The micro framework, MorePath, is a genuinely adaptable model-driven web
system.
Salient features:
• All perspectives are conventional.
• Comes with all the essential apparatuses to create restful web
administrations
• Creating conventional UIs is as basic as subclassing
• Extensible with a straightforward, lucid, and general expansion and
abrogate instrument
• Flexible, straightforward, and amazing authorizations
Pycnic
Pycnic is an object orriented micro framework accepted to be the quickest for
structure JSON-based APIs. The little, independent, and streamlined for JSON-
based APIs system can hold its ground well among enormous players. Since
Pycnic makes only the Web APIs, it has a negligible impression and in this
manner, it is quick.
Salient features:
Salient features:
• Built-in blunder dealing with
• Capable of taking care of JSON-based solicitations
• Handles routing
3. Asynchronous Framework
An asynchronous framework is a microframework that permits for handling a
broad set of concurrent connections. Usually, an asynchronous framework made
for Python utilizes the programming language’s asyncio library.
• Sanic
• Tornado
• Growler
Tornado
The Tornado is an open-source Python system and a non-concurrent organizing
library. It has multiple features that focus on authentication and authorization
processes. While settling the C10k issue (which intends to deal with 10k
associations at some random time), the unique structure utilizes a non-blocking
system I/O.
The Python system was initially made for an organization called FriendFeed,
which was procured by Facebook in 2009. The Tornado is considered as a
perfect device for structure applications requesting superior and a few thousand
simultaneous clients.
Salient Features
• Permits the implementation of 3rd-party authentication and authorization
schemes
• Provides high-quality output
• Real-time services
• Supports translation and localization
• User authentication support
• It has Web Templating
Growler
Aspired by the NodeJS and the Express/Connect systems, Growler is a small-
scale web structure composed on the Python's asyncio library. In contrast to
other ordinary Python systems, demands in Growler aren't taken care of in the
structure.
A top decision among Python systems for effectively and rapidly actualizing
A top decision among Python systems for effectively and rapidly actualizing
complex applications, Growler was initially created to figure out how to utilize
asyncio library at its most reduced levels.
Salient Features
• Easy to use to montor the flow of program
• Supportive to open source packages
• Syntax of code is clean as it uses decorators
AIOHTTP
It is a dominant Python framework that has unique features: async and awaits. It
uses asyncio library, that’s why it is known as an asynchronous framework. It is
both a server and client framework.
Salient Features
• Allows effectively building the views
• Middle-wares support
• Pluggable routing
• Best Signals
CHAPTER 8: Python Interpreters, Compilers, IDEs
and Text Editor
Python interpreters, compilers, IDEs and Text Editor play a mandatory role in
Python programming. It has multiple applications to execute major complex
calculations in a very simplified method.
8.1 Python Interpreters
In Python, many interpreters work to align, manipulate and refine the
programming codes. Python is employed and executed in different ways. Python
programming is carried out with the help of a large quantity of interpreters. This
high-level programming language is very easy to understand and execute.
It is depicted as a program that executes the guidelines written as codes.
Execution is done directly so it can be said there is no need for the guidelines to
be put into any programming software.
The following is a list of best interpreters used in Python programming
language:
Interpreter- CPython:
It supports up to 3.7 Version of Python. CPython is the commonly available
interpreter of Python language. It provides an outside capacity for many
software.
CPython can be named a compiler.
It is very supportive to all platforms and provides a smooth experience to all
users. This interpreter is famous because of the high demands of the software
engineers, professionals, and computer language experts.
Interpreter- IronPython
IronPython is one of the most utilized interpreter of the Python language. It was
generated by Jim Hugunin and was responsible for its upgrading to Version 1.0
that got released in 2006. After Version 1.0, it has been maintained by
Microsoft. IronPython has numerous features, with the most prominent one is
that it is completely written in C language. Most of the codes are automatically
generated with the help of a code generator that is written in Python.
IronPython interpreter has affiliation with two libraries: Python and .NET
framework. It possesses tools that directly attach it with visual studio. This
feature of IronPython is quite a unique one, and due to this, it is highly
demanded by program developers as it gives them the utility of visual studio as
well. The console of Python is also very interactive. Moreover, it allows
well. The console of Python is also very interactive. Moreover, it allows
dynamic ways to interpret other languages
Interpreter- Jython
Jython is an interpreter that was formerly called JPython. Jython is implemented
on the platform of Java. Jython was developed in late 1990's to change C with
Java for enhanced performance. Jython contains excellent specifications and
features. It has the function of dynamic and static compiling that allows software
engineers to perform multiple tasks. Program in Jython utilizes Java scripts and
modules rather than using the modules of Python.
Another salient feature of Jython is that it links the Python database with Java
Virtual Machine.
Jython permits the users to import any Java class, like Python module.
Developers can write codes first in Java and then transform it to Python. Due to
this ability, it is considered as one of the top choices of developers throughout
the world.
Interpreter-PyPy
Pypy is very quick and is used as an alternative for Python language. It was
created in 2002. Its primary feature is that its closely related to CPython in
context to execution and display. Python latest version is speedier than CPython.
One primary reason for that is CPython acts only as an interpreter, and PyPy can
also be utilized as a compiler. It is more flexible, versatile, and efficient than
CPython, and supports many codes for Python language as well as other
languages. Pypy also gives support to dynamic languages. That's why It is
favorite to all programmers.
Interpreter- Stackless Python
Stackless Python is another efficient type of interpreter. It was released in 1998.
It supports up to Python Version 3.7. It avoids using C stack. Stackless Python
has a predominant feature of micro-threads. The feature allows avoiding the
burden of the overhead associated with the standard operating system threads.
Stackless Python assists with communication channels and routine tasks
scheduling. Stackless Python is used in the programming of games. Various
Python libraries also utilize it. Most of the Stackless Python features have
resemblance with Pypy, as well.
8.2 Compilers in Python

A compiler is a code translator software that transforms the code from one
programming language to another. There are many compilers in Python that
have a specified language conversion system. They are used to make the
have a specified language conversion system. They are used to make the
program executable through formatting, aligning, and correction of code.
CPython compiler is one of the best compilers that is acknowledged by
programmers and officials in IT industry.
Some other good Python Compilers
The Brython Compiler
Python has multiple code compilers, but Brython is one of the best compilers
which converts code written in Python into JavaScript language. This
extraordinary compiler has unique capability to transform the code and work as
editor to achieve results speedily.
Furthermore, it offers assistance for a couple of module,s having a spot with the
CPython. It is very supportive of many other languages and their new versions.
It is used for customer-side web programming. Brython is a compression for
Browser Python. It flaunts an extensive usefulness, from making straightforward
record components and moving to 3D route. The Python compiler prefers to be
run in Firefox over Google Chrome. Brython offers help for every single
present-day program, and is versatile for all internet browsers.
As indicated by the official blog of Pierre Quentel, Brython's maker and lead
designer, Brython is a lot quicker than Pypy.js and Skulpt. In specific cases, the
Python compiler is considerably speedier than the Python reference usage. For
example, CPython.
Brython bolsters the more significant part of the sentence structure of Python 3,
such as perceptions, generators, and imports. Additionally, it offers help for a
few modules having a place with the CPython dissemination and accompanies
libraries to cooperate with DOM components and occasions.
The Nuitka Compiler

Nuitka is another compiler of Python that takes code written in Python language
as input and transforms it into C language to execute it. The Nuitka compiler is
accessible for many operating systems and platforms. It is an updated compiler
that is very friendly to windows, mac and other operating systems.
It is conceivable to utilize Nuitka for creating independent projects,
notwithstanding when you are not running Python on your machine.
Composed totally in Python, Nuitka permits utilizing different Python libraries
and expansion modules. Nuitka is additionally accessible with Anaconda for
those leaning toward it for creating tasks including information science and AI.
those leaning toward it for creating tasks including information science and AI.
The PyJS Compiler
PyJS Compiler is a different kind of Python compiler. The professionals in the
programming field mostly use it. It changes the code written in Python into
javascript. It is especially used to run code in web programs.
PyJS provides runtime support, which is why it is recommended for web-based
programs. For those hoping to compose Python code and execute it in internet
browsers, PyJS is one of the go-to alternatives. The PyJS compiler interprets
Python code into a proportionate JavaScript code with the goal that it can
execute inside an internet browser.
A significant part of PyJS is that it accompanies an AJAX system that fills the
holes left among JS and DOM bolster accessible for various internet browsers.
It is conceivable to run a Python web application source code as an independent
work area application (that keeps running under Python) utilizing the PyJS
Desktop module. Interestingly, Several Unix frameworks highlight preinstalled
PyJS and PyJS Desktop variants.
Regardless of the contrasts among Python and JavaScript, a large portion of the
information types are indistinguishable among the two prevalent programming
dialects. While utilizing PyJS, a part of the Python information types are
changed over to custom articles, for example, records.
PyJS is a lightweight application. Additionally, it tends to be utilized
legitimately from the internet browser and permits executing programs from an
internet browser. The PyJS compiler offers runtime support for runtime
blunders. As it is conceivable to insert Python code in the JS code. JS engineers
can plan and create applications in an unadulterated article arranged worldview
utilizing PyJS.
The Shed Skin Compiler

It transforms a statically created code of Python into a proportionate,
unadulterated C++ program. Shed Skin doesn't offer assistance for some regular
highlights, using settled limits and describing limits that recognize variable
arguments. Very few libraries are used with this compiler.
Shed Skin is used to disentangle statically formed code in Python into revised
code of C/C++ language with a couple of repressions. Using Shed Skin is
beneficial because it is about essential display support. It is essentially a direct
result of the way that the Python compiler has re-actualized the worked in data
types into one of a kind plan of classes, executed in compelling C++ code.
types into one of a kind plan of classes, executed in compelling C++ code.
The Skulpt Compiler
Skulpt has in-program use of Python and modules. This compiler runs the
written code directly in the web-browser, making code more executable in
runtime. This Skulpt compiler is introduced into a present blog or site page also.
SKULPT code is also used in HTML. Written in JavaScript and accessible under
the MIT permit, Skulpt offers a real situation where the gathered code is
executed in the JS structure.
Since Skulpt is an in-program usage of Python, there is no requirement for extra
preparing, modules, or server-side help required for running Python in an
internet browser. Any Python code written in Skulpt is straightforwardly
executed in the internet browser.
Skulpt is a decent choice for engineers hoping to make a web application that
enables clients to run Python programs inside an internet browser while keeping
the foundation servers secure. The well-known Python compiler can be
effectively implanted into a current blog or website page as well.
For custom coordination, Skulpt code can be added to the HTML. You can
likewise instruct Skulpt how to import your one of a kind custom modules for
having more control. Although Skulpt makes an interpretation of Python code
into JS code, it doesn't encourage running this.
The WinPython Compiler
WinPython is made for the Windows working framework. Its previous version
has many bugs, and they were not well-planned compilers for the windows
operating system. WinPython was brought forth as a response to the issue.
Despite the way that the present emphasis of CPython is significantly enduring
on the Windows working framework, it has a couple of select highlights. It is
free transport for Python; you need download and empty it to start. It comes pre-
packaged with likely the most well-known Machine Learning and Data science
Python libraries.
8.3 Python IDEs

An IDEs (Integrated Development Environment) is for the development of
programming, and incorporates a few instruments explicitly intended for
programming development. These apparatuses typically include:
• An editorial manager designed to deal with code (with, for instance,
linguistic structure featuring, and auto-culmination)
• Manufacture, execution, and troubleshooting apparatuses
• Some source control
Most IDEs bolster a wide range of programming dialects and contain a lot more
highlights. They can, in this manner, be huge and set aside some effort to
download and introduce. You may likewise need propelled information to utilize
them appropriately.
Conversely, a committed code manager can be as primary as a content tool with
linguistic structure featuring and code designing abilities. Most great code
editors can execute code and control a debugger. The absolute best ones
cooperate with source control frameworks also. Contrasted with an IDE, a great
devoted code supervisor is usually smaller and faster.
Incorporated Development Environment shortened IDE is characterized as a
coding apparatus that helps to mechanize the marvel of altering, assembling,
testing, and so forth in an SDLC, and it gives a straightforwardness to the
engineer to run, compose and investigate the code.
Some Python IDEs include:
• PyCharm
• Spyder
• PyDev
• Atom
• Wing
• Jupyter Notebook
• Thonny
• Microsoft Visual Studio
• Eric Python
The PyCharm IDEs
A cross-stage PyCharm IDE- Integrated Development Environment
extraordinarily intended for Python. It is utilized worldwide and accessible in
both paid form and free open-source.
PyCharm is a complete IDE with unique features, like auto code fruition, brisk
venture route, quick mistake checking and remedy, remote advancement support,
and database availability.
Salient Features:
• Provides efficient code route
• Highlights errors significantly
• Effective debugging.
The Spyder IDEs
The Spyder IDEs
It is best for data scientist, as it is an open-source IDE. The complete name of
Spyder is Scientific Python Development Environment. It is supported by Linux,
Windows, and macOS X. Spyder comes included with the Anaconda bundle
director dispersion, so depending upon your arrangement, you may already have
it on your machine.
What's fascinating about Spyder is that it's intended interest group is information
researchers utilizing Python. For instance, Spyder coordinates well with standard
Python information science libraries like SciPy, NumPy, and Matplotlib.
Spyder includes the vast majority of the "basic IDE functions" you may expect.
For example, a code manager with strong language structure featuring Python
code fulfillment, and even an incorporated documentation program.
A different element that I haven't seen in other Python altering conditions is
Spyder's "variable voyager" that enables you to show information utilizing a
table-based design directly inside your IDE. By and by, I more often than not
don't require this; however, it looks flawless. On the off chance that you
routinely do information science work utilizing Python, you may become
hopelessly enamored with this remarkable element. The IPython/Jupyter
combination is also decent.
By and large, I'd state that Spyder feels more essential than different IDEs. I like
to see it more as a specific reason device as opposed to something I use as my
critical altering condition each day. What is decent about this Python IDE is that
it is accessible on Windows, macOS, and Linux and that it is an entirely open-
source program.
Salient Features:
• Proper quality Syntax
• IPython Integrated
The PyDev IDE
It is the most demanded Python IDE. For Python developers, it is an undeniable
IDE. Pydev has a component which incorporates Django combination,
programmed code fruition, shrewd indents, and square indents.
Accessible for Linux, Windows, and OS X, Eclipse is the accepted open-source
IDE for Java advancement. It has a vibrant commercial center of expansions and
additional items, which makes Eclipse helpful for a broad scope of advanced
exercises.
One such expansion is PyDev, which empowers Python investigating, code
finish, and intuitive Python support. Introducing PyDev into Eclipse is simple:
from Eclipse, select Help, Eclipse Marketplace, at that point scan for PyDev.
Click Install and restart Eclipse.
Cons: If you're beginning with Python, or with programming improvement, all in
all, Eclipse can be a great deal.
Salient Features:
• Code inspection and verification.
• Contain PyLint combination, remote debugger, Unit test joining.
The Atom IDE
It is the most popular IDE made by GitHub. It is an open-source and cross-
platform. First, the package of IDE is downloaded. When you have arranged the
software on your machine, you can begin working on coding to initiate the
project. The instructional exercise briefs you about all the functions, step-by-
step. A coordinated advancement enables you to begin highly integrated work
between the software. The instructional exercise, likewise, acquaints you with
Python's mainframe software. Be that as it may, Jupyter Notebook isn't the best
alternative for true ventures. A code supervisor would it be advisable for you to
utilize.
Atom is highly recommended for multiple platform code management and
effectively editing of code during the live programs.
Its designers consider it a less secure tool. Particle empowers clients to introduce
outsider bundles and topics to alter the highlights. In any case, Atom is
incredible for information science, enabling you to work with high-level
programming languages.
Salient Features:
• It shows the results in runtime windows.
• It has a module "Markdown Preview Plus"
The Wing IDE
This version is free. The star rendition accompanies a 30-day preliminary trial
for developers. It has a few functions that incorporate auto-fulfillment, sentence
structure features, indents, etc.
It assesses information within stacked software data systems, or by drifting over
images in the editorial manager. It investigates the document, thoroughly
generating results.
generating results.
Restrictive Breakpoints
Restrictive and overlook included breakpoints are utilized in the program and are
frequently re-used in the same program to confine and settle errors influencing a
specific software. It likewise stops consequently, while some uncertain
circumstances appear.
Moreover, it is a vital debugger that works fast. With regards to the current
troubleshoot stack outline, it has multi-purpose modules.
Salient Features:
• Customizable and can have expansions.
• It supports remote advancement, test-driven improvement alongside the unit
test.
Jupyter Notebook IDE
Jupyter was created on the server-customer structure and enables you to make
and control note pad reports. Jupyter Notebook was conceived out of IPython in
2014. It is a web application dependent on the server-customer structure, and it
enables you to make and control note pad archives - or just "scratchpad".
You should give it a shot because Jupyter Notebook furnishes you with a simple
to utilize, intuitive information science condition crosswise over many
programming dialects that doesn't just fill in as an IDE. It's ideal for individuals
who are merely beginning with information science!
Highlights The Jupyter Notebook allows you to add HTML segments from
pictures to recordings. On account of Jupyter, you can without much of a stretch
see and alter your code to make convincing introductions. For example, you can
utilize information perception libraries, like Matplotlib and Seaborn, and
demonstrate your charts in a similar archive where your code is. In addition, you
can send out your last work to PDF and HTML records, or you can trade it as a
.py document. Likewise, you can also make online journals and introductions
from your scratchpad.
Jupyter Notebook ought to be a fundamental piece of any Python information
researcher's tool compartment. It's extraordinary for prototyping and imparting
scratchpad to representations.
Salient Features:
• Jupyter notebooks has a feature of supporting markdowns
• Codes can be generated and changed easily
• Best for beginners in the data science field
Thonny IDE
If you want to learn and instruct programming languages, then this IDE is
another way of doing it. Thonny is mostly used by the beginners and considered
as easy to understand IDE. It is a prevalent development environment in the
Python data science community.
Salient Features:
• Debugging is easy and straightforward.
• It contains features of auto code finish along with featuring blunders.
Microsoft Visual Studio IDE
It is best suited for improving and investigating web activities. It is an open-
source code generator accessible to all the programmers across the world.
Salient Features:
• It allows Python coding in visual studio, which is a unique feature of this
IDE.
• It is available in paid form as well as free.
Why IDEs and Code Editors?
Why do you need an IDE or a code editorial manager? You can generally push
directions on a command-line terminal and execute your projects, regardless of
whether R or Python. Notwithstanding, doing this for enormous programming
tasks can be quite disappointing - mainly if you aren't used to the direction line
translator applications. Using an IDE or a decent code editorial manager can
make coding simpler and fun. They are coding devices that enable you to
compose, test, and troubleshoot your code. IDEs and code editors are the best
approach for speedy work. They can deal with code charitably and include code
auto-finishing, sentence structure featuring, and troubleshooting devices.
8.4 Python Text Editor

Sublime Text
Sublime text editor is full of functionalities. It is an editing program software
written in C++ language, and also used for Python. Its updated version and
supports multiple languages. Jon Skinner created it, and it was added to the
market in 2007. To make this item, he followed three rules:
• Discreet, remote interface: we ought to have the alternative to prioritize
content and avoid multiple tools.
• The content isn't concealed by the windows.
• Use all available space that could sensibly be normal: through full-screen
usage, it makes for easy editing.
This Text editor, as part of Python IDE, has all essential functions of anytothe
universal editor software. It gives easy access to formatting tools and making an
automatic attempt to restructure the text for allowing the process to complete
smoothly.
Salient Features
• Quick and small amount of bugs
• Opens gigantic records
• Supports many programming dialects
Vim Text Editor
Vim text editor is a popular editing tool for Python. It was developed in 1991 by
Bram Moolenaar. This editor is used to restructure and redesign text files. Vim
contrasts other content editors in its secluded strategy for action. It has multiple
modes to manipulate the text. It is a free, high demand programming software,
and is customizable by including extensions or changing its plan record. In other
words, it infers one can use it without a lot of modification. Vim has three
primary modes: implant mode, commonplace or request mode, and course line
mode.
Salient Features:
• Software is rich in features and gives excellent client involvement with
network connectivity.
• Transformation of document positions in operating systems can be done
quickly through Vim text editor.
GNU/Emacs Text Editor
It is a highly recommended GNU/Emacs Text Editor that was developed by
Richard Stallman. It remained prevalent among the programming professionals
for almost 20 years. The owner of the program made it free for every user.
Editing MACros- Emacs is an exclusive member of the text editors' family. This
software helps Python programming in gaining high-tech features. GNU Emacs
uses unique customization contents for progression in a couple of programming
languages.
The Elpy extension of this editor has many attractive features, including
sentence structure to separate record segments, and spaces between text to have
solid orchestrating in an archive.
solid orchestrating in an archive.
Salient Features:
• Free and movable programming
• Automatic expansion of segments needed for record structure.
• Multiple operating systems with 24-bit color support.
CHAPTER 9: Comparison of Python with Other
Languages
Python can be compared with other high-level programming languages. In
comparison to other languages, Python surpasses based on functionalities,
methods, libraries, and user-friendliness. This language has professional
modules, frameworks and translators that are increasing its popularity among the
software industry and IT professionals. These correlations focus on the
credibility of programming code and other significant factors. Let's discuss the
detailed comparison of Python with other programming languages.
9.1 Python versus Java comparison

Java programs are faster than Python programs. Python is vastly improved as a
"high-level" language, while Java is better described as a low-level execution
language. Indeed, the two together make a superb mixture. Various Segments
can be generated in Java and joined to shape usage in Python. Python can be
utilized to model parts until their structure can be "solidified" in a Java usage. A
Python program written in Java is considered half-developed, which permits
calling Python code from Java and the other way around. In this execution,
Python source code is meant Java bytecode (with assistance from a runtime
library to help Python's dynamic semantics).
Java is a carefully embodied language, which means the variable names must be
unequivocally proclaimed. Interestingly, we have a progressively composed
Python, where no affirmation is required. There are numerous questions about
powerful and measurement producing in programming languages.
Notwithstanding, one idea ought to be noted: Python is an adaptable language
with straightforward sentence structure, which makes it a superb answer for
composing contents and rapidly creating applications for different fields.
Java enables you to make cross-platform applications, while Python is good with
practically all cutting edge working frameworks. Regarding start, Java is
unreasonably convoluted for tenderfoots contrasted with Python. Furthermore,
the simplicity of perusing code is better with Python. When you require your
code to be executed from anyplace, at that point, pick Java. The other bit of
leeway of Java is that it gives you a chance to make organized based
applications, while Python can't.
Java is considerably more convoluted than Python. When you don't have any
specialized foundation learning, Java won't be simple. Then again, Java is
utilized to program for various conditions and runtime executions of the
utilized to program for various conditions and runtime executions of the
program.
9.2 Python versus C#
Regarding effortlessness, Python was initially made to look like English
discourse. Such vast numbers of articulations in it are anything but difficult to
peruse, mainly if you utilize appropriate variable names. Moreover, because of
basic grammar, there are no entangled developments, for example, syntactic
sections, countless word-modifiers, different C-like developments, and various
approaches to introduce factors. Everything makes the code written in Python
simple for comprehension and learning.
Simultaneously, C#, because of the language heredity, has loads of things from
C++ and Java, which is at first communicated in C-like sentence structure. Also,
C# language structure makes it essential to adhere to specific standards when
composing your techniques or acquiring classes, which is joined by another
surge of word-modifiers. One shouldn't likewise disregard squares of code,
which ought to be 'enclosed' in props. Python doesn't have everything; it uses
shifts which additionally make the code look perfect.
Concerning the code programming composition, it's likely worth referencing that
projects which Python calls code are codes, they are merely recording with code
that can be effectively executed by the mediator. One can open them in any
manager, work with them, and after that, quickly run once more. Also, with
Python it's a lot simpler to compose cross-platform contents which don't should
be recompiled.
In Python programming language, we can design the required function to
translate the code by machine and can shift this code to other platforms or
systems to get executed. This cross-platform feature of this programming
language is unique. Subsequently, it will build the size of the content from a few
kilobytes to twelve megabytes. Not helpful for one-time use.
Thus, C # requires IDE for typical programming. As an or more of C#, it has a
reliable help for different segments of the Windows framework when you are
composing content for Windows. For instance, there are worked in devices for
working with the library, WMI, the system, etc. Also, C# enables you to utilize
WinForms, which makes it extremely simple to create a graphical interface if it
is all of a sudden, required all things considered.
There is no right answer what language Python or C# is better. Python is simpler
to learn; it has a lot increasingly open-source libraries contrasted with C#.
to learn; it has a lot increasingly open-source libraries contrasted with C#.
However, the standard library of C# is superior to Python's, C# has more
functions, its presentation is higher, and it advances truly quick.
9.3 Python versus Javascript
Python's "object-based" subset is commonly corresponding to JavaScript. Like
JavaScript (and not at all like Java), Python reinforces a programming style that
uses fundamental limits and factors without participating in class definitions.
Regardless, for JavaScript, there is always a need for class participation. Python,
on the other hand, supports making much higher ventures and better code reuse
through a genuine article orchestrated programming style, where classes and
heritage expect a critical activity.
9.4 Python versus Perl
Python and Perl start from a near establishment (Unix scripting, which both have
long outgrown), and sport various equivalent features, anyway, have a substitute
perspective. Perl stresses support for typical application- assignments, for
example, by having worked in common explanations, investigating records, and
report creating features. Python underlines support for essential programming
strategies, for instance, data structure plan and thing organized programming and
urges programming architects to create understandable (and along these lines
reasonable) code by giving a rich anyway not unreasonably cloud
documentation. Subsequently, Python approaches Perl yet on occasion beats it in
its one of a kind application territory; in any case, Python has a genuine nature
well past Perl's claim to fame.
9.5 Python versus Tcl
Tcl likewise to Python is used as an application development language, similarly
as a free programming language. In any case, Tcl, which for the most part, stores
all data as strings, is frail on data structures, and executes conventional code
significantly more delayed than Python. Tcl in like manner needs features
required for creating vast activities, for instance, estimated namespaces. Along
these lines, while a "regular" immense application using Tcl, as a rule, contains
Tcl enlargements written in C or C++ that are express to that application, a
related Python application can much of the time be written in "Complete Python
Code." Tcl's one of the redeeming qualities is the Tk tool compartments,
whereas Python has gotten an interface to Tk as its standard GUI portion library.
9.6 Python versus Smalltalk
Possibly the best differentiation among Python and Smalltalk is Python's
progressively "standard" language structure, which allows software experts an
progressively "standard" language structure, which allows software experts an
ease in working. Like Smalltalk, Python has dynamic forming, which is
increasing the usage and functionalities of this programming language.
Nevertheless, Python perceives worked in object types data from customer
described classes. However; Smalltalk's standard library data types is
dynamically refined.
Python's library has more workplaces for overseeing Internet and WWW
substances, for instance, email, HTML, and FTP.
Python can store both standard modules and customer modules in individual
records, which can be improved or coursed outside the framework. There is
more than one decision for affixing a Graphical User Interface (GUI) to a Python
program, whereas Smalltalk lacks this attribute.
9.7 Python versus C++
Python and C++ are the programming languages used for the development of
high-level projects. Both Python and C++ languages vary from one another from
numerous points of view. C++ is begun from C language with various ideal
models and gives multiple in-built components for creating programs, whereas
Pyhton is similar to English language with highly simple syntax.
Python is a universally useful and one of the high-level programming languages.
A variable can be utilized straightforwardly without its presentation while
composing code in Python.
In C++, a separate program needs to get ordered on each working framework on
which the code is to be executed, while Python has frameworks that allow users
to run a program in small sections
Python gives the capacity to 'compose, and run on any platform' that empowers
it to keep running on all the working frameworks.
C++ is inclined to memory spill as it doesn't give separate execution option and
uses pointers to a vast degree.
Python has inbuilt trash accumulation and dynamic memory portion process that
empowers proficient use of memory.
C++, nowadays, is commonly utilized for planning equipment. It is first
portrayed in C++ pursued by its examination, structurally compelled, and wanted
to build up a register-move level equipment depiction language.
Python is utilized as a scripting language, and now It is also used for the non-
scripting reason. Likewise, Python has an independent executable application
with the assistance of some built-in functions.
9.8 Python versus Common Lisp and Scheme
Common Lisp and Scheme are close to Python in their dynamic semantics.
Python has logical limits like those of Lisp. Their programs can have unlimited
consistent conditions to perform a particular task of extended length. Common
Lisp and Scheme have some complex variations in their coding schemes only
understandable by programmers. In contrast, Python has simple, easy to
understand, and straightforward coding to manage every line of code.
9.9 Python vs. Golang
Golang is quite an adaptable language, just like Python. Both the languages do
not require excessive instructional exercise and are easy to understand and
executable. Golang is also called Go language, and Google developed it in 2009.
Python underpins numerous programming ideal models and has a vast standard
library; ideal models included are object-oriented, basic, practical, and
procedural.
Go underpins multi-worldview like procedural, practical, and simultaneous. Its
sentence structure is customarily originating from C; however, it has a smooth
syntax structure, which requires less effort.
It is observed that Python and 'Go' have too many differences. Take for example
Golang doesn't use the feature of try-except , rather it allows functions to
show problems together with a conclusion. Therefore, before using a function, it
is required to check that error will not return. Python is mostly utilized in web
applications, whereas Golang prime focus is to become a system language.
However, go is also utilized in some web applications. Python has no memory
management, but Golang provides efficient memory management. Python does
not have a concurrency mechanism, whereas Golang, on the other hand, has a
built-in concurrency mechanism.
In terms of safety, Python is a strongly typed language which is compiled, so it
adds an extra layer of security whereas Go is not too bad since each factor must
have a sort related with it. It implies a designer can't let away the subtleties,
which will further prompt bugs.
Python has a greater number of libraries than Golang. Python is more concise
than Golang. Python is the best option for basic programming, as it gets difficult
to write complicated functions with it. However, Golang is much better in
complex programming than Python
complex programming than Python
Not only this, there is also one significant dissimilarity exists. Python is a
language that can be typed dynamically, whereas Go is not dynamic.
The main reason behind the fact is that Python developers can easily understand
Golang without any problem.
1. Python focuses on simple and clear syntax, and spotless grammar of Go drives
correctly to high clarity.
2. The static composting of Go lines up with the standard of "express is superior
to understood" in Python.
So it can be said that Python is the best option for software engineers and
developers all around the globe. But because Python is dynamically typed
language, its performance is lesser than Golang due to its uniqueness of
statically typed. Therefore it is better to use both languages simultaneously. For
coding, give priority to Golang and use Python otherwise.
Python versus Node.js
It's critical to recollect that Node.js isn't a programming language like Python,
yet instead a runtime domain for JavaScript.
Hence, writing in Node.js means you're utilizing a similar language on the
frontend and the backend.
Favorable circumstances of Python over Node.js
At a further advanced level, JavaScript can be hard to comprehend for
developers with less Node.js experience. They may commit some genuinely
basic errors, hindering progress simultaneously.
It isn't the situation with Python, since it's simpler to use for less experienced
developers. The slip-ups made by them will have, to a lesser extent, a negative
effect on improvement.
Lower section point
Frameworks, for example, Django is supportive, increment the nature of your
code, and accelerate the way toward composing.
More applications
Node.js is, for the most part, utilized for the web, while the uses of Python are
far more noteworthy.
The all-inclusiveness and flexibility of Python are among the top reasons why
the language is an excellent fit for slanting advancements, for example, data
science.
Better usage
Better usage
JavaScript runtime conditions and frameworks all unexpectedly actualize the
language; Node.js is no exemption. In all honesty, the ecosystem of JavaScript is
somewhat of a wreck—however, not even close as terrible as it used to be.
Python doesn't have that issue, which is the reason it's more straightforward and
simpler to utilize. It additionally makes the language quicker to write in,
although Node.js is not slow.
It's crucial to know JavaScript if you wish to utilize Node.js since you're
managing a similar language on the frontend and the backend.
Less obstinate ecosystem
Node.js has unique features that it pushes developers through indicators about
"what they need to use and when they need to use" when they are working
through this programming language.
It has a lot of built-in packages that developers need to understand. That's why,
with the improvement of programming libraries, the developers will have to
develop their skills to that level.
Coding everything in JavaScript
The javascript is used for frontend and backend programming with the assistance
of Node.js to achieve the best results. It saves a lot of time and makes the work
easy for users. Nowadays, IT experts use this language as much as possible to
perform web-based programming tasks.
Quick development and huge network
Since 2012, Python has been reliably lauded for its incredible network and
support—and which is all well and good. With its large number of libraries and
frameworks, it has quick development procedures by calling the required library
or function.
Nowadays, JavaScript is similarly also upheld. It continues developing without
any indications of halting and stays particularly ahead of the pack of the most
powerfully growing languages in the business.
Advancement history of Python and JavaScript
JavaScript has seen a lot of developing agonies. Its code was rejected many
times when it was created, and its old adaptations are as yet making similar
issues today.
Overall, Python has the high ground here. The documentation and inclusion of
Python are both better than Node.js. With regards to unwavering quality, Python
has consistently been in front of JavaScript.
Inclining advances
The tumultuous ecosystem of JavaScript additionally makes Node.js excessively
precarious and erratic to depend on for drifting innovations.
As a result of the critical issues of JavaScript patterns, JavaScript innovations
become obsolete significantly more rapidly. It is the reason Node.js is an unsafe
decision for rising innovative trends.
Python doesn't represent that hazard, since it presents significant changes
gradually. The language is an ideal fit for slanting innovations, for example,
machine learning or data science, with its first-class specialists and library
support.
Execution and speed
Node.js may battle with executing a great deal of assignments immediately. The
code isn't composed well overall; your program will perform ineffectively and
work gradually.
It may occur with Python, but Python frameworks, for example, Django,
provides instant support to assist your program to run smoothly.
It's one more case of Python making life easier for developers.
Your program quality is everything—it’s the main factor to think about when
choosing the programming language for your final product shape.
Python works better for certain undertakings and Node.js works better for other
people. Your decision ought to depend completely on whether you have great
Python or JavaScript developers in your group.
This contention is invalid on the off chance that you happen to have full-stack
developers with the two programming languages; nonetheless, those are difficult
to find, so you need to decide your programming strategy before you start.
9.10 Python versus PHP
From the improvement perspective, PHP is a web-situated language. A PHP
application is increasingly similar to a lot of exclusive content, possibly with a
separate semantic section point.
Python is an adaptable language that can be additionally applied for web
improvement. A web application dependent on Python is an undeniable
improvement. A web application dependent on Python is an undeniable
application stacked into memory with its inside state, spared from the inquiry to
the solicitation. Picking between Python or PHP for web applications focus on
the following qualities:
Python versus PHP for web improvement correlation
Patterns and prevalence of a programming language are critical these days. A
few clients and program proprietors need to utilize the most famous and
advertised advancements for their undertakings. As PHP has command over
web-application programming and widely used among the developer's
community, it is considered the best option to achieve high-speed applications.
Whereas Pythos also works for web-applications, the main agenda of this
programming language is Data Science.
Frameworks
Python has a lot of functional libraries that are famous across the world, for
example, Pandas, Numpy, and more. Similarly, there are highly efficient open-
source code mechanisms. PHP has a different approach towards code quality and
system of innovative addition in this programming source.
There are popular frameworks in Python, but the most useful are Django and
Flask. Globally, developers are using these frameworks to enhance the speed of
their work. PHP language doesn't use frameworks. Instead, it focuses on calling
libraries built by other PHP communities.
It is an established reality that Python's framework will change soon because of
the developing network of Python.
Chapter 10: Future of Python
10.1 Increasing Popularity of Python
Python is ruling the world of modern technology and due to its uniqueness it has
left other languages like C++, Java, etc. far behind. Python, with its great utility,
has a promising and bright future. Python has gone though 25 years of
continuous amendments with improved and better-updated versions so that it can
serve as the fastest and most reliable programming language. Python provides
the best quality, which is why it catches the eye of every developer. Over
126,000 websites have utilized Python. A plethora of decision-making systems
for predictive analysis have developed applications using Python. It is the
language of today and the future, as well.
Profiles of Python developers

Python developers are as assorted as the language and its applications. Python
clients vary broadly in age, yet most of its users are in their 20s, and a quarter
are in their 30s. Strikingly, nearly one-fifth of Python clients are under the age of
20. It can be clarified, by the way, that numerous under-studies use Python in
schools and colleges, and it's a common first language for many computer
programmers.
According to the recent survey, almost 65% of software engineers are moving
towards Python language as a career. As Python is a simple and easy to learn
language, many newcomers are adopting this high-level language to make their
fortune from this new field of Data Science. It is a widespread practice
nowadays and every software engineer is looking to learn the libraries, methods,
and use of Python to become a data scientist. 30% of engineers that have under
two years of expert experience have started using Python as their primary
programming language.
General Python utilization
Right around four out of five Python designers state it's their primary language.
Different research demonstrates the quantity of Python engineers, which are
using it as primary language. In Stack Overflow's review, Python fame has
expanded from 32% in mid-2017 to 38.8% by the end of that year.
Python utility with Other Languages:
Python is being used by all developers now who were only focusing on other
high-level languages just a year ago. This trend is changing because of the
evolution of Data Science.
According to a survey, JavaScript is utilized by 79% of web engineers, yet just
39% of those are engaged with Data investigation or Artificial Intelligence.
Some important companies that use Python as Data Science:
Google
Google is considered the biggest IT giant and has supported Python from its
start. Google utilizes Python in their web crawler.
Facebook
Facebook is keen in utilizing Python in their Production Engineering
Department.
Instagram
Instagram’s engineering team revealed in 2016 that the world's most massive
deployment of the Django web framework driven by them is completely written
in Python.
Netflix
Netflix utilizes Python in a very similar manner to Spotify, depending on the
language to power its data analysis on the server-side.
Dropbox
This cloud-based storage system employs Python in its desktop client.
10.2 Factors behind the Python growth in Modern World

Growth of Python is becoming prominent and is improving day by day. Software
engineers and developers prefer this language due to its versatility and ease of
use. Various other factors that are behind its growth are as follows:
1. Good support and community
Programming languages often face support issues. They lack complete
documentation to help programmers when problems arise. Python has no such
issues and is well supported. A plethora of tutorials and documentation is
available to assist the programmers in the best possible ways. It has a good and
active community whose function is to support developers. Experienced
programmers help the beginners and a supportive atmosphere has been created.
2. Easy to Code and Write
2. Easy to Code and Write
If we compare Python to other programming languages like Java, C or C++,
Python possesses a readable and straightforward code. Coding is expressed in a
relatively easy manner to allow beginners to understand it quickly.
To learn the advanced level of python programming, a lot of time and effort is
required, but for beginners, it is an easy task. Users can quickly identify the
purpose of code, even after a quick glance.
3. Python is the Language of Education
Python is an easy language to use. It possesses functions, expressions, variables,
and all other elements that students can easily understand and practice. It is the
standard programming language for the Raspberry Pi, a PC structured training.
Colleges teach Python in PC sciences, as well as to arithmetic understudies.
Also, Matplotlib (a prominent Python library) is utilized in subjects at all levels
to express complex data. Python is one of the quickest developing languages on
Codecademy, as well, and thus is anything but difficult to learn remotely.
4. Simple to Code and Write
Python has an elementary coding and syntax structure. In comparison to other
high-level programming languages like Java, C, or C++, Python has a
straightforward and discernible code. The code is communicated in a simple
way, which can be mostly deciphered even by a novice software engineer.
5. Python Is Perfect For Building Prototypes.
Python not only allows the users to write less code, it also provides the utility to
build prototypes and ideas very quickly. Brainstorming or ideation is an essential
aspect of web development, which is mostly overlooked. The capability to think
about prototypes that can function faster becomes much more pivotal.
4. Integration and execution is quick
Python is considered as high-class language. It is the quickest language when it
comes to execution and integration and saves quite a lot of time for
programmers. With projects like PyPy and Numba, the speed is enhanced even
more, making it the fastest language with each passing day.
5. Python has a Standard Library
Python contains libraries that eliminate the burden of composing a code by the
programmer. These libraries possess a large quantity of built-in functions and
already available codes. Therefore, code can easily be generated instead of
having to be created.
6. Cross-Platform Language
One of the most prominent features of Python Programming Language is that it
is accessible to cross-platforms. It supports highly efficient operating systems
such as Linux, Windows, Ubuntu, and more.
Thus, one can undoubtedly keep running a product without agonizing over
framework support. It very well may be translated in the language with the
assistance of a convenient component that makes it easy to utilize. To sum things
up - compose code on the Mac and run it smoothly on Windows.
7. Provides a plethora of tools
It contains a vast standard library collection, which reduce the effort for writing
codes or functions. Libraries in Python always have pre-written codes in them.
Some of the tools are as follows: Tkinter (a GUI development), file format,
built-in function, custom Python interpreter, internet protocols and support,
module, etc. This extensive collection increases the usefulness of Python as a
programming tool for data science.
8. Python is Free
Python is an open-source language and its free to use. Guido van Rossum has
run Python since its creation. It is Open Source and GPL excellent. The creator
of this language had a vision to keep it free for all the programmers of the world.
However, open-source programming has officially changed the world. Python
has no hidden cost or sale-able modules, and this makes it an ideal device for all
to utilize.
10.3 Career Opportunities Associated With Python
In this powerful present-day world where everything changes at a quick rate, the
prevalence of Python never seems to stop. Today, Python Certification is very
popular. It has a lot of libraries that help data investigation, control, and
representation. In this manner, it has advanced as the most favored language and
viewed as the "Following Big Thing" and an "Absolute necessity" for
Professionals.
With a wide range of programming languages, Python has outperformed
different languages. Vocation openings related to Python have additionally
developed fundamentally as its fame has expanded. Numerous IT organizations
are searching for more applicants with experience and aptitudes in Python
programming languages. Python has shown to be the best vocation for software
engineers and now is the time - sooner rather than later.
Conclusion
Python is a famous object-oriented language that is highly compatible with data
science. In today's world, many companies are making their data management
systems more advance with the ability to predict future outcomes through the use
of the Python programming language. Python contains the best features,
including a broad set of functions, libraries, expressions, arrays modules,
statements, etc. Python usage is not limited to a particular field, such as web
programming. Therefore, it is known as a multipurpos e programming
language. Hundreds of data scientists, top companies, software engineers, and
accountancy firms are giving preference to Python over all other programming
languages. This high-level programming language is being used in every kind of
application, including web application and game application. The data
management field is growing rapidly, making it possible to design predictive
models for mega enterprises . Understanding Python is one of the significant
abilities required for a data science profession. This high-level programming
language has evolved as a data analysis tool over. Here's a brief history:
• In 2016, it surpassed R on Kaggle, the chief stage for data science rivalries.
• In 2017, it surpassed R on KDNuggets' yearly survey of data scientists' most
utilized devices.
• In 2018, 66% of data scientists revealed using Python day by day, making it the
central apparatus for data scientists .
The experts predicted a 35% increase in demand for data scientists by the year
2021. It is the right time to develop your skill in this highly demanded
programming language for data science, as it will raise your career to a new
level. Every business is requiring efficient data analysis systems that get data,
arrange it, and convert it into useful information. The data scientist who can
build up a professional predictive system by using Python programming can
make a difference in every business. In this big data era, data professionals will
become the most essential individuals for all businesses across the world.
References:
1- Basics of Python Data Science, 2019, “Programming language’s uses”
retrieved from https://www.javatpoint.com/
2- Best practices of programming and data analysis, 2017, “Python as data
analysis tool” retrieved from https://hackr.io/blog
3- Syntax and role of coding, 2018, “Easy to learn coding”, retrieved
from https://hackernoon.com/
4- Importance of Machine learning, 2019, “Future of Data Science” retrieved
from https://www.newgenapps.com/#1
5- Python Libraries and methods, 2018, “Data mechanisms under Python
commands”, retrieved from https://www.probytes.net/blog/Python-future/
6- How to write a Python functions, 2019, “Python functions and their use”
retrieved from https://www.datacamp.com/
7- Mastering over Python Main data library,2019, “Pandas as main library”,

retrieved from https://towardsdatascience.com/
8- Comparison of Python with other high-level languages, 2018, “Python as
advance data science language, retrieved from
https://worthwhile.com/insights/2016/07/19/django-Python-advantages/

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What are some of the key features of Python mentioned?

What are some of the key features of Python mentioned?

Python

Python 1.5 December 31, 1997

Python 1.6 September 5, 2000

Python 2.0 October 16, 2000

Python 2.2 December 21, 2001

Python 2.3 July 29, 2003

Python 2.4 November 30, 2004

Python 2.5 September 19, 2006

Python 2.7 July 3, 2010

Python 3.2 February 20,2011

Python 3.3 September 29, 2012

Python 3.6 December 23, 2016

1.7 How to Install Python

The abs() Function in Python

The bin() Function in Python

The bool() Function in Python

The bytes() Function in Python

The callable() Function

The compile() Function in Python

The exec() Function in Python

The sum() Function in Python

The any() Function in Python

The ascii() Function in Python

The bytearray() Function in Python

The eval() Function in Python

The format() Function of Python

The frozenset() Funcion of Python

These results are defining ‘how function’ works.

The getattr() Function of Python

The globals() Function of Python

The hasattr() Function of Python

The iter() Function of Python

The len() Function of Python

The list() Function of Python

The locals() Function of Python

The map() Function of Python

# converting map object to set

The delattr() Function in Python

The divmod() Function in Python

The enumerate() Function of Python

The dict() Function of Python

The filter() Function of Python

The hash() Function of Python

The help() Function of Python

The set() Function of Python

The id() Function of Python

The setattr() Function of Python

The slice() Function of Python

The sorted() Function of Python

The next() Function of Python

The input() Function of Python

The int() Function of Python

The pow() Function of Python

# Positive a, Negative b (x**-y)

The print() Function of Python