EDUC 202

(Foundations of Special and Inclusive Education)

Module 3

Title: Making Schools Inclusive

Overview: This chapter shall provide insights and practical tips on cultivating inclusive habits and implementing such
practices in the classroom effectively. It is entirely based on the Booth and Ainscow (2002) framework to help schools
determine their next steps in shifting to a more inclusive setting.

Objectives:
A. Respond effectively to educational needs of students with additional needs;
B. Identify inclusive practices as dynamic and collaborative;
C. Enhanced understanding of the role of teachers in achieving a safe, inclusive, and culturally responsive learning
environments for students with additional needs.

DISCUSSION
A UNIFYING FRAMEWORK
In 2002, Booth and Ainscow came up with an Index for Inclusion, which aims to direct educational institutions
toward developing their own next steps and action plans if they want to restructure into becoming more inclusive. “It
takes on the social model of disability as its starting point, builds on good practice, and then organizes the index work
around cycle of activities which guide schools through stages of preparation, investigation, development, and review”
(UNESCO 2005:30). A three-dimensional framework was created (see Figure 3.1)

Figure 3.1. The dimensions of the Index (Booth and Ainscow 2002:7)

Booth and Ainscow (2002) explained that these dimensions – creating inclusive cultures, evolving inclusive
practices, and producing inclusive policies – are interconnected and “chosen to direct thinking about school change”
(2002:7). Considered the backbone of the framework is the laying down and establishing of an inclusive culture. Without
this at the foundation, it will be quite difficult to get people to shift policies and practices.
A non-supportive culture would most likely result in resistance from the school’s direct stakeholders. They explain that
these three dimensions also branch out into sections to further guide schools into implementing more direct steps
toward this paradigm shift.

The Dimensions and Sections in the Index

DIMENSION A – Creating inclusive cultures
Section A.1 Building community
Section A.2 Establishing inclusive values
 This dimension creates a secure, accepting, collaborating, and stimulating community, in which everyone is
valued as the foundation for the highest achievements of all.
 Develops shared inclusive values that are conveyed to all new staff, students, governors, and parent/carers.
 Its principles and values guide decisions about policies and moment to moment practice in classrooms, so that
school development becomes a continuous process.
DIMENSION B – Producing inclusive policies
Section B.1 Developing the school for all
Section B.2 Organizing support for diversity
 This dimension makes sure that inclusion permeates all school plans.
 Policies encourage the participation of students and staff from the moment they join the school, reach out to all
 students in the locality, and minimize exclusionary pressures.
 All policies involve clear strategies for change.
 Support is considered to be all activities which increase the capacity of a school to respond to student diversity.
DIMENSION C – Evolving inclusive practices
Section C.1 Orchestrating learning
Section C.2 Mobilizing resources
 This dimension develops school practices which reflect the inclusive culture and policies of the school.
 Lessons are made responsive to student diversity.
 Students are encouraged to be actively involved in all aspects of their education, which draws on their
knowledge and experience outside school.
 Staff identity material resources and resources within each other, students, parents/carers, and local
communities which can be mobilized to support learning and participation.
(Source: The Dimensions and Sections in the Index of Inclusion. Adapted from Booth & Ainscow, 2002:8)

I. CREATING INCLUSIVE CULTURES

In this chapter, we shall learn that inclusive education is an ongoing collaborative process that needs to be
dynamically revisited. For it to truly work, its essence has to resonate to all stakeholders of education.

Stakeholders in educational reform are those who are “invested in the welfare and success of a school and its
students” (www.edglossary.org).
 They are the teachers, administrators, school staff, officials, and other workers, the aprents and their
families, the community, and the government.
 They may also be collaborative entities like local businesses, advocacy groups, the media, sociocultural
institutions, and other organizations that may be directly and indirectly involved in education.
 They are important because they play a major role in “connecting what is being taught in a school to its
surrounding community” (www.edglossary.org)

In 2017, UNESCO reported that there has been significant global improvement in accessing education for the last 15
years however, its 2016 Global Education Monitoring Report Reveals that there are still an estimated 263 million
children and youth aged 6 to 17al around the world who are still not in school at this time. The report also confirmed the
continuous plight of women against gender discrimination, among others. With increasing globalization and
international migration, the problem pertaining to inclusive education and how it affects PWD’S could not be more real.
1. What Stakeholders Can Do
The rights-based approach to educational programming “insists that no right can exist without a corresponding
governmental obligation” (Van den Brule-Balescut & Sandkull 2005). Thus governments and communities
started to provide legally defining terms and formalizing a system for setting up inclusive schools in areas where
there are none to begin with ensures uniformity, universality, consistency of implementation, and eventual
success of inclusion in the country. The following are some steps stakeholders can take to create inclusive
cultures:
 Set parameters for inclusion – The government has identified key people and professions, and
highlighted important factors leading to the success of inclusive education- i.e., placement process,
committees staffing and responsibilities, teacher training and compensation, incentives for private
sector participation, and collaboration of the Department of Education with other branches of
government.
These clearly show not just an attempt to centralize inclusive practices, but an initiative to make the
welfare and development of children with additional needs the responsibility of all.
 Build key people – The government recognizes the need for teacher training. Both in special needs
education and general education levels.
-Calls are made for continuing research and forming policies to be initiated by agencies such as
Department of Education to further refine the inclusive process and have it tailored to fit to the needs of
children with additional needs. This is an important factor as the needs of students across continents,
though similar, would have nuances depending on where they reside.
 Identify and eradicate barriers – UNESCO’s Guide for Inclusion (2005) advocates for the identification
and removal of obstacles that have to do with transforming prevailing attitudes and values on a
systematic level. The Philippine government has existing legislative policies that ground the undeniable
importance of inclusion and continuously reorganizing structures in education and implementing
programs that highlight the need for primary stakeholders like the parents, the school, and other policy
makers, to acquire capacity-building to manage an inclusive environment.
 COMMON BARRIERS TO INCLUSION
 Attitudes, values systems, misconceptions, and societal norms- can lead to prejudices and/or actual
resistance to implement inclusive practices (UNESCO 2005).
 Physical barriers- lack of building, facility, transportation, or road accessibility
 Curriculum- “one size fits all” type of curriculum that does not allow room for individual differences
 Lack of teacher training and low teacher efficacy- includes lack of training on teaching strategies, using
curriculum frameworks, or behaviour and classroom management.
 Poor language and communication- implications on how well inclusive practices are implemented.
 Lack of funding – lack of funds can be limiting and debilitating to schools.
 Lack of policies- lack of it can become a convenient justification for inaction.
 Organization of educational systems- centralized systems may have some type of detachment in terms
of implementing policies and how such policies are affecting learners and other stakeholders.
 Too much focus on performance-based standards- schools have reportedly refused inclusion because of
fear that the presence of learners with additional needs will pull down their rankings in standardized
tests.
Figure 3.3 Barriers to inclusion
2. Special Education vs. Mainstreaming vs. inclusive Education
Part of what needs to occur when creating cultures is to also determine distinctions among frameworks and
practices. Most important in this scenario is to understand how different special education, mainstreaming, and
inclusive education are from each other.

Table 3.1 Comparing special education, inclusion, and mainstreaming

Special Education Inclusion Mainstreaming
Learners Students who are not part of All same-aged Selected learners are
the classroom norm peers/learners are in one included in a general
class regardless of ability. education class based on
their readiness instead of
their age.
Curriculum Strengths-based and needs- General education Learner may have access to
based individualized curriculum both general education
curriculum curriculum and a more
individualized curriculum.
Assessment and Mostly strengths-based but Norm-referenced Both norm-referenced and
Evaluation is sometimes is also strengths-based
standards-based
Learning Placement and All services happen inside All services happen inside Receives services in both the
Delivery of Services the special education the general education general education classroom
classroom but other services classroom. and outside through the use
such as therapeutic of resource rooms and
interventions may be therapeutic programs.
integrated into this setting or
delivered separately.
Philosophy Learner-centered: Some Rights-based: All learners Preparatory and Integrative :
learners have very specific have a right to access Learners are given access to
needs that may not be quality education that is general education but will
appropriately addressed in a available to others. need to catch up on skills
general education first.
classroom.

II. PRODUCING INCLUSIVE POLICIES

Inclusion starts with an acceptance and embracing of diversity on which it must be rooted on a culture that assumes the
right perspectives and values. For simultaneous paradigm shifts to happen among its education stakeholders, schools
must first create a new culture.

UNESCO (2005) realistically acknowledges that a societal change in attitude need not be initially present in a community
before inclusion can be fully practiced. Rather, it must be viewed as a perspective or an ideal to work toward. Just very
recently, the pre-service education curriculum was restructured so that special needs education units are not only given
to special needs education majors but to other education major as well.

The following is a list of other possible steps that educators can take to facilitate the much-needed societal shift and
inform policy:
 Involve other sectors of society – For an inclusive set-up to truly be successful, active involvement of the entire
community must be ensured not just only limit on training and campaign on home, school, and departments for
 social welfare and health. For instance, those in the business, commercial, security, and religious sectors must also
be given representation in trainings. In recent years, students in the tertiary level from various programs have been
showing growing interest in the PWD community. For instance, students belonging to architectural and interior
design programs have been working on these theses and capstone projects where their main clients have additional
needs. The idea is for everyone- regardless of their training or exposure – to become more sensitive and aware of
the PWD population.
 Collaborate- Collaboration is crucial in creating a program or creating a new legislative bill for PWD community
especially that each members in inclusive educational team have their strengths and weaknesses.
Del Corro-Tiangco (2014) states that general education teachers are trained in the general curriculum but
would not know how to teach and manage children with additional needs; while a special needs education
teacher would be equipped to handle atypical behaviors but would not know much about the general education
curriculum. True collaboration would guarantee an inclusive program that would cover as many areas as
possible.
 Include transitions in planning – An abrupt systematic change that is not well-planned or that disregards practices-
whether existing or implied- may hinder the shift to inclusion and cause resentment from all stakeholders. Instead,
current practise have to be respected and honored so as to facilitate a gradual shift to inclusive education.

Booth and Ainscow (2002) recommend that schools reflect in their current policies and practices to
check their readiness for an inclusive set-up. They even devised a questionnaire that would help administrators,
faculty, and other stakeholders comprehensively gather baseline data in examining different aspects of schools
and delivery of its services. Specifically, schools may look at the following:
o Student admissions
o Accessibility to utilities and facilities
o Supports available to students, parents, and school personnel
o Learner accommodations
o Exclusionary or discriminatory incidents
o Number of bullying cases
o Faculty and staff promotions

III. EVOLVING INCLUSIVE PRACTICES

In the third dimension of Booth and Ainscow’s framework for schools (2002), it is emphasize that administrators
must first try to create an inclusive culture among stakeholders, then build better, more all-encompassing
policies. Once this happens, we can start focusing on raising the participation and success rates of learners with
additional needs inside our classrooms.

Moreover, the term “evolving” suggests advancement and positive growth, which means we can look at these
existing strategies and just adjust these according to the needs of our students along the way. The two effective
evidence-based inclusive practices that can be used in the classroom are Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
and Differentiated Instruction.
1. Universal Design for Learning
UDL refers to the design of instructional materials and activities to make the content information accessible to
all children (Rose & Meyer 2006 as cited in Turnbull et al. 2013). It best used in a general education classroom
where learners are different. UDL also ensures that all students learn ‘genuinely through allowing students to
construct learning in more than one way.

There are three elements to UDL:

1. Multiple means of representation
2. Multiple means of action and expression
3. Multiple means of engagement
The concept of multiple means of representation is meant to ensure that all students are able to access and
understand learning material. After this, teachers allow students to express they learned in various ways, and finally,
the teacher uses different techniques to reinforce learning at the students’ optimal level. The principles of UDL,
which sometimes overlap, are presented below with examples (see Table 3.2).
Table 3.2 UDL principles adapted from Salend (2011: 17-18)
UDL Principles UDL Principles and Inclusive Examples of UDL Implementation
Practices and Inclusive Practices
Principle 1: Equitable Use Inclusive practices are designed to be  Use UDL principles equitably
useful, appealing, and safe for all  Use culturally responsive
students, families, and professionals teaching strategies and materials
to use. Individual differences and MTBMLE (mother tongue-based
various contexts are respected. education)
Principle 2: Flexible Use Inclusive practices are designed to
accommodate the individual
 preferences, abilities, and needs of
all students, families, and
professionals. Flexibility in providing
choices for methods and pacing are
exercised.
Principles 3: Simple and Intuitive Use Inclusive practices are designed to be  Establish classroom rules and
easy for all to use and understand. routines
 Use graphic organizers for
synthesizing material
 Develop scoring rubrics with the
students
Principles 4: Perceptible Information Inclusive practices are designed so  Use technological and assistive
that they communicate valuable devices to support learning,
information to all through various communicate with parents, or
formats. share information
Principles 5: Tolerance for Error Inclusive practices are designed to  Teach study and learning
minimize errors and unintended strategies
consequences by providing  Teach self-regulatory techniques
safeguards and warnings to assist all  Encourage students and foster
in using them safely. their intrinsic motivation
 Offer grading alternatives that
are valid and appropriate
Principle 6: Low Physical Effort Inclusive practices are designed to be  Chunk activities and give more
used comfortably and efficiently breaks
without much effort from all.  Teach mindfulness
 Provide additional support as
needed
Principle 7: Size and Space for Inclusive practices are designed for  Take advantage of seat
Approach and Use use by all, regardless of their arrangement and classroom
mobility, physicality, or way of furniture (e.g., specialized chairs,
communication. stability balls, use of ambient
music, and appropriate
lightning.)
 Provide opportunities for
outdoor work
 Allow technology as needed
Principle 8: Community of Learners Inclusive practices are designed to  Make students aware of and
promote social interaction and comfortable with diversity
communication for all.  Emphasize social roles in the
classroom; (e.g, that we students
are there to teach each other
and learn from each other.)
 Allow bonding activities
 Do team-building exercises
regularly and integrate lessons in
such activities
2. Differentiated Instruction
According to Tomlinson (2010), differentiated (or differentiating) instruction is a teacher’s response to
students’ varying needs, interests, and learning styles. When teachers differentiate instruction, they use a variety of
teaching and learning strategies that are necessary to meet the diverse needs of students in any class (Friend & Bursuck
2009).

Why Differentiate Instruction?

Differentiating Instruction (DI) helps ensure that learners are engaged in respectful tasks and provide diverse means of
learning that reflect their strengths and address their needs simultaneously.

How Is Instruction Differentiated?

Bender in 2002 (as cited by Gentry et al. 2013) identified elements of the curriculum that can be differentiated: (1)
content, (2) process, (3) product, and (4) learning environment in response to the students’ characteristics: interests,
readiness, and learning profile. As an overview, differentiation is achieved by providing materials and tasks:
a. at varied levels of difficulty;
b. with varying levels of instructional support;
c. by using multiple grouping arrangement;
 d. that involve student choice; and
e. use varied evaluation strategies.
As teachers, you must know your curriculum by revisiting or identifying which are non-negotiable and negotiable
learning objectives and tasks. You are also expected to know your students and may create a class profile to provide an
overview of the class’s characteristics and needs. Next, you have to identify and plan what and how to differentiate your
material. Table 3.3 provides a guide on how to effectively differentiate in the classroom.

Table 3.3. Differentiation strategies

CONTENT PROCESS PRODUCT LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
What is taught? How is it taught? How is it assessed? How is the classroom
What is learned? How is it learned? How is learning arranged?
demonstrated?
 Provide additional  Choices of reading  Homework options  Flexible grouping:
materials/skills materials  Student choice on whole class, small
 Reduce materials  Varied presentation product (oral groups, one-on-one,
 Skills Explorations by styles: Say it, Show it, presentations, written peer teaching, pairs,
interest and Model it report, role plays, partner learning,
 Use media (video, audio, simulations, etc.) independent learning,
computer, TV, and  Varied journal prompts and cooperative
manipulatives)  Choice boards learning.
 Varied pacing  Think-Tac-Toe  Flexible seating
 Reading buddies:  Tiered activities (by  Preferential seating
-Read/summarize,- readiness and interests)  Pull-out from class (for
Read/Question/Answer,-  More items (advanced learners with special
Visual learners) needs)
organizer/summarizer  Less items( with special
 Think-Pair-Share by needs)
interests, readiness, and  Learning contracts
learning profile  RAFT( Role, Audience,
 Learning Format, Topic)
centers/stations
 Small-group instruction
 Jigsaw (expert groups)
 Cooperative learning
activities
 Teams, Games, and
Activities
 Cubing
 Learning contracts
How is the Classroom Managed During Differentiated Learning?
1. Explain to the students the reason for differentiation.
2. Use “anchor activities” which students can automatically work on. Examples are: reading a chosen book (e.g, for
book report), journal writing based on prompt, skills practice (spelling,math), etc.
3. Assign roles during small-group activities/instruction to ensure accountability and positive learning environment.
Learners should have opportunity to assume each of the roles.
a. Facilitator
b. Recorder
c. Summarizer/Timekeeper
d. Presenter
e. Errand monitor
4. Implement routines for collaborative work.
a. Establish working groups (by interests, by readiness, etc.)
b. Have a plan for “quick finishers”
c. Have a plan for when to ask for help (role of the errand monitor)
Anchor Activity Options
(for secondary students) (for upper elementary /middle school students)
 Lab work  Work on your book report
 Learning packets  Complete one of the three journal prompts
 Journals or learning logs provided
 WebQuests or telecollaborative projects  Select a Learning Interest packet from the anchor
 Independent studies option file box
 Computer skills  Work on Orbital or Independent Project
 Relate course readings with questions or extension
 activities
EDUC 202
Module 3
Activity Sheet

Name: Date of Submission:

Instructor:

Instruction: Making sure to follow the UDL framework, create one detailed lesson plan (good for a day of that particular
week) for a subject and topic of your choice in the:
1. Elementary level – for BEED
2. Junior High School level – for BSED

 For English majors- Literature/Grammar

 For BEED- general subjects
 For Math majors- Math subject
 For Filipino major – Filipino subject

Note: For Junior High School level, your topic will be based according to your specialization (major).

Basic Format of Lesson Plan

I. Learning Objectives
II. Subject Matter
Topic:
Reference:
Author:
Page/s:
Materials:
III. Teaching Strategies/Procedure
A. Drill
B. Review
C. New Lesson
C.1. Motivation
C.2 Presentation
C.3 Generalization
C.4 Application
C.5 Values Integration
C.6 Evaluation
IV. Assignment/Agreement

Note: Contact your respective instructors for their preferred format of lesson plan and they will also provide samples
for you to be guided.
 EDUC 202
(Foundations of Special and Inclusive Education)
Module 4

Title: Components of Special and Inclusive Education

Overview: In this chapter, the aim is to describe the components and processes involved in identifying children through
assessment and providing varied means of support.

Objectives:
A. Enumerate the processes involved in Child Find through the pre-referral process;
B. Identify the assessment tools, methods, and principles in working with children with additional needs;
C. Identify the different placement within a continuum;
D. Compare accommodations and curriculum modifications;
E. Identify ways how to involve parents as part of the home-school collaboration.

DISCUSSION
I. CHILD FIND THROUGH A PRE-REFERRAL PROCESS
Referral for evaluation and special education services begins by identifying students who have additional needs
and who may be at risk for developmental disabilities.
I. Pre-referral process
A team of professionals, known as a pre-referral team, is comprised of special education teachers, counselors,
administrators, and psychologists who collaborate to determine reasons for the observed challenges (Hallahan
et al. 2014)

Taylor (2009) provided an assessment model that begins with a pre-referral process. Children with noted
developmental delays and difficulties are identified through observations and use of norm- and criterion-
referenced tests. In his assessment model, Taylor (2009) explained that the initial step to determine teaching
areas where a learner will benefit from additional support through a variety of means.
Very young students who are at risk or suspected to have additional needs may also be identified through
community –based screening. Child development and social workers use developmental screening tools such as
the Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD) Checklist that covers items expected for a child’s typical
development.

Once a program of pre-referral intervention has been designed, implementation and evaluation follow to
determine how effective it is.
II. Pre-referral Strategies
 Designed to provide immediate instructional and/or behavior management support to a child.
 Helps to lessen the number of cases referred to special education and makes efficient use of time and
financial resources to spend.
 Lessen the tendency of over-referrals to special education
Examples of pre-referral strategies:
a. Observation of the child’s behaviour
b. Including interactions with parents, teachers, and peers
c. Interview of parents and teachers to gather information of the child
d. Review of school records
e. Analysis of the child’s academic output through error analysis, portfolio assessment, and criterion-referenced
and curriculum-based assessment. (Taylor 2009)

Recognition of potential problems

Initial Identification Parent or Teacher observation
Review of school records, classroom observations

small group instruction

Determination of teaching areas and strategies
direct instruction

Additional in-class or after-school support

Implementation of teaching programs Modification of classroom environment and behavior
Modification of instruction to address potential needs

Deterime effectiveness of programs on learning and

Evaluation of teaching program
behavior
 Figure 4.1 Pre-referral process
If despite provision of additional support, struggles, and difficulties persist, then the child is referred for
assessment either within the school.

II. ASSESSMENT
 process of collecting information about a child’s strengths and needs
 uses problem-solving process that involves a systematic collection as well as interpretation of data gathered
(Salvia et al. 2013).
 Teachers and administrations make instructional decisions based on the assessment results.
 Assessment Purposes
Assessment begins with initial identification in Child Find and pre-referral process. The results of the assessment
are sued to decide on a child’s educational placement and to plan instructional programs for a child identified to
have additional needs.

There are a variety of assessment methods that regular and special education teachers can use. This section
covers the following: (1) interviews, (2) observations, (3) checklists or rating scales, and (4) tests.
 Methods of Assessment
TEST
Norm-referenced tests
 Standardized assessments that compare a child’s performance with a representative sample of students of
the same chronological age.
 Rigorously made by a team
 Results are reported s percentile ranks and age and grade equivalent scores, which makes it easier for
professionals to determine class and individual performance.
 Easier to compare children’s test performance but has limitations in terms of use in instructional planning.
 Examples: Intelligence Tests (e.g., Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Students and Stanford-Binet Intelligence
Scale) and Achievement Tests (Wide Range Achievement Tests and Kaufman Test of Educational
Achievement)
Criterion-referenced tests
 Compare a child’s performance based on established standards and competencies and can be used to
describe student performance (Jennings et al. 2006 as cited in Spinelli 2012).
 Scores are reported as numerical scores, percentage of correct responses, letter grades, or graphic score
reports.
 Assessment data are more useful and relevant as these provide specific skills a child has mastered and those
that need additional instruction (Gargiulo 2012).
Informal Assessment
 Also called as non-standardized assessments
 Considered more authentic and thus can be used primarily to describe performance and inform instruction.
 Can be curriculum-based or performance-based such as teacher-made instruments used in classrooms and
portfolio assessments.
 Example:
The use of reading inventories where a teacher listens to a child read while counting for accuracy and speed.
Authentic Assessment
 Provide students the opportunity to apply knowledge and skills in meaningful, real-world settings (e.g.,
classroom, playground, etc.) rather than artificial and contrived setting (Dennis et al. 2013).
 real-life assessment tasks
 Examples:
1. Observation of young students as they interact with family members, peers, and objects in naturally occurring
activities across settings (e.g., home, school, playground, etc.), and routines. To observe the occurrence of
behaviors, teachers and specialists can use running records. Clay (2000 as cited in Denise et al. 2013) identified
essential information to be included in a running record:
 Date and time of the observation
 Names of children involved
 Location of the incident
 Verbatim recording of what the children said
 Actual events that occurred

Anecdotal records contain shorter descriptions of incidents that teachers and specialists can use to analyze student’s
behaviour and plan strategies for specific child or group of children.
2. Play-based assessment
3. Portfolio assessment

C. Assessment Principles
 Assessment practices should be anchored on principles as provided by the Division for Early Childhood of the Council
for Exceptional Student (DEC) (2014). Child- and family-centered practices, a team-based approach, application of
individualized and appropriate process, and use of genuine and meaningful communication that adhere to ethical
and legal practices are the recommendations provided by the DEC.

III. PLACEMENT
 Assessment results are used to decide a child’s appropriate education placement within a continuum from the
least to the most restrictive settings. Educational placement of the students will be based by the teams to their
observations, assessment results, and other factors.
 A general education classroom is the least restrictive environment for a child with additional needs. Access to
the same learning experiences and opportunities is provided as to typically developing students. Thus it is
considered as the “most normalized or typical setting” (Gargiulo, 2012).
 Another option for placement is to be in a general education class but the child receives supplementary
instruction and services such as speech, physical, and occupational therapy or counselling services during the
school day.
 Students who may be part of a general education may be part of a general education class are pulled-out of
their class to receive instruction from a specialist teacher in a resource room in order to target more their
learning needs.
 Depending on the program goals, students may be given the opportunity to interact with typically developing
peers through school community-building activities.
 Moving up in the placement continuum, some students who need more intensive instruction and support are
educated in a special education class in a special education school.
 On the other end of the continuum is the most restrictive or isolated setting, such as residential facility where
students live and receive their educational support twenty-four hours a day.

Educational Placement Options

 Home/ Hospital program
 Residential facility
 Special education class in a special education
 Self-contained special education class in a general education
 General education class with resource center instruction
 General education class (inclusion or co-taught with a special education teacher)
 General education class with modifications
IV. ACCOMMODATIONS AND CURRICULUM MODIFICATIONS
A. Accommodations
 Supports provided to students to help gain full access to class content and instruction, without altering the
curriculum standards and competencies expected and to demonstrate accurately what they know.
 Barriers are removed from accessing education in general education classroom for children with disabilities.
 Examples:
1. Altering instruments, toys or materials
2. Changing the room during specific activities
3. Providing time extensions for tasks and tests
4. Changing response formats in worksheets
 May be provided both during assessment and instruction, depending on the learning profile and needs of a
child and may vary in terms of presentation, response, and scheduling (Beech 2010).
1. Presentation Accommodations
Children with disabilities may need specialized presentation formats especially those with sensory
impairments so they can learn the same content alongside typically developing peers.
Accommodations in presentation
Learning Needs Examples of Accommodations
Visual Support - Minimize visual distraction
- Visual cues (e.g., use color-coded text, highlighting)
- Use of larger print materials (font size, illustration)
- Use of sign language
- Videos with closed captioning
Auditory and comprehension support - Read aloud by peer
- Audio books
- Digital text that reads aloud or give definition of words
- Text-to-speech software
- Advance organizer or story guide
- Highlighting or color coding
 Listening and focusing - Advance organizer
- Explicit verbal or visual cues; physical prompts
- Repeat/clarify directions and important information
- Note-taking support
- Copy of directions
2. Response Accommodations
 Allow students with disabilities and additional needs a variety of ways to complete assignments, written
tests, performance tasks, and other activities.
Learning Needs Examples of Accommodations
Writing difficulty (eg., errors in spacing, visual- - Different size/diameter of pencil, marker, crayon pencil
perceptual or spatial-orientation, illegible or pen grip (triangular, pear-shaped)
handwriting) - Scribe to record dictated responses
- Finger spacer
- Handwriting template/guide on the student’s desk
- Visual cues on paper
- Different types and sizes of paper
Written expression difficulty - Electronic dictionary with spell check
- Online dictionary
- Word processor with spelling and grammar check
- Writing cue cards
- List of sight words
- Writing templates, outlines, and graphic organizers
Math difficulty - Calculator
- Concrete models and manipulatives
- Visual representations
- Problem-solving guides
- Graphic organizers
- Special paper-graphing paper for computation
3. Setting Accommodations
Accommodation in a setting may allow a child who gets easily distracted to work in a quiet corner of the
classroom in his own study carrel so that he will not be sidetracked by environmental stimuli. Or a child who
is still unable to read fluently may be allowed to take silent reading comprehension test in another room
with supervising adult just so she could hear herself read aloud which helps her better understand the story.
4. Scheduling Accommodations
Changing time allotment, schedule of tasks and assessments, and management of time are some types of
scheduling accommodations.
Examples:
 Extending time for assignments and assessments
 Providing breaks in between tasks
 Providing a visual schedule or a checklist of individual responsibilities
 Providing predictable routines and procedures
 Providing an electronic device with alarms and cues
B. Modifications
 Provided for students with significant or severe disabilities where content expectations are altered, and
the performance outcomes are changed in relation to what re expected of typically developing students of
the same age (DEC 2007).
 When instruction and assessment is modified, student with disability is still given the right to access the
same learning opportunities same learning opportunities in general education class, but the tasks are more
respectful and appropriate to the student’s abilities and needs.
 Include changes in instructional level, content and performance criteria, as well as the breadth and depth
of content being learned by students.
 Students with disabilities or additional needs may be given more, less, or different content and resource
materials altogether and also may assessed using different standards more appropriate to the student,
being provided with fewer objectives, shorter lessons and smaller number of vocabulary to learn.
 Educational teams responsible for instructional planning may indicate curricular modifications in the
student’s Individual Educational Plan (IEP).
V. PARENT INVOLVEMENT
 Essential as parents are the primary caregivers and have direct influence on their children.
 This is anchored on Bronfenbrenner’s Human Ecological Theory, which states that there are environmental
systems that comprise a child’s social context.
 Focus is given to the microsystem, where the child and is/her family belong, along with peers, school, and
the immediate community (i.e., neighbourhood)
  Within these microsystem, where the child has direct interactions with parents, peers, and others; while
mesosystem refers to the linkages or relationships between microsystems such as the connections
between family experiences and school experiences and between family and peers (Santrock 2011).

Ecological Systems
Theory
 The Division of Early Childhood of the Council of Exceptional Children (DEC) espoused the use of family-
centered practices in the assessment and instruction of young children.
 Turnbull and Turnbull (2002 cited in Kirk et al. 2015) provided the principles of a family-centered model:
1. Honors the family choice by changing the power relationship between professional and families
2. Abandons a pathology orientation and adopts a strengths orientation; and
3. Where the entire family becomes the unit support and not just the child with a disability and the child’s
mother
 In this way, the whole family is provided support, capitalizing on the child and family member’s strengths and
resources, not on their deficits and needs.
 Programs for children with disabilities become more effective and successful when children and families are
involved (Newman 2004 cited in Heward 2013).
A. Home-School Communication
Having established the critical role of parents in a student’s developmental and academic progress and
achievement, it is essential that there is a close home and school collaboration and communication.
Communicating with parents may be done in several ways.
1. Parent-Teacher Conferences
 Face-to-face meetings held between parents and teachers.
 Necessary so parents of students with disabilities and additional needs will be able to share about
their child’s background, strengths and abilities, history of difficulties, and practices they have been
implementing at home as well as interventions done with other specialists.
 Schools differ when it to comes to the frequency of parent teacher conferences.
 One best practice is told meeting with parents at the beginning of a school year as part of the goal
setting for the students with disability.
 Also be held after every grading period (e.g., every quarter, trimester, and semester) so that results
can be discussed with parents and agree on necessary action plans.
2. Written Communication
 Home-school communication may also be conducted through written messages, such as the use of a
home-school communication notebook, where teachers and parents write homework assignments,
the student’s behaviour in the classroom, as well as progress on program goals.
 Time consuming but some parents prefer this form as the messages are documented and they can
provide a copy to a developmental specialist when needed.
3. Digital communication
 A study found that parents and teachers perceive technology as an effective tool to promote parent
involvement and thus value its use for communication (Olmstead 2013).
 Instant and real-time that is why parents and teachers are immediately able to receive messages
and updates about the student.
 Necessary that parties agree on certain boundaries in order to be respectful of everyone’s time and
personal space.
 4. Home-School Contracts
 Contains an agreement between teachers and parents regarding behavioural and/or academic goals
for a student with disability.
 This is a written agreement between teachers, parents, and students (when appropriate) on specific
objectives and corresponding reinforcements or rewards when they are met.
 Example: Daily Report Card – an individualized intervention used in schools that is anchored on the
behavioural principles of operant conditioning. The card indicates specific behaviours targeted for a
child with disability that are framed as positive statements and targets for improvement.
 Found to be beneficial in helping a child with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in school and
in promoting daily collaboration between teachers and parents (Moore et al. 2012).
B. Other Ways to Involve Parents
Parents become advocates of their own child. To maximize their involvement, schools provide other
opportunities such as parent education training, workshops, and parent support groups.
a. Parent education – providing seminars and workshops to parents to equip them with better
understanding of their child’s disability as well as specific techniques and strategies that they can
practice at home.
 Training sessions can be for a few hours done on a quarterly basis or for a regular period, such as
every Saturday, depending on the needs of the parents and the training capacity of the school.
 Parents became educated in evidence-based approaches so that there will be continuity in the
practices implemented between the home and school.
b. Parent support groups – helpful as parents are able to ask other parents about tips and techniques to
work with their children.
 Through such groups, parents can draw support from one another during meetings as they share
techniques and strategies, even frustrations and successes about their children.

In summary, this chapter has presented the different components of inclusive and special
education, which include the following: pre-referral, assessment, placement, accommodations, curricular modifications,
and parent involvement. Across these components, a team approach is highly recommended where each member- the
child, parents, general education teacher, special education teacher, therapists, and other specialists- coordinate and
collaborate in planning and making decisions for the child with disabilities.
 EDUC 202
Module 4
Activity Sheet
Name: Date of Submission:
Instructor:

Instruction: Read carefully the argument given and provide a clear and precise explanation with a maximum of five (5)
sentences. Write it on the space provided below.

Schools that abide by highly traditional views of teaching and learning oftentimes view accommodations, such as time
extensions in tests and exams or providing an alternative output to supplement a lengthy written report, as being
“unfair” to typically developing children. It is argued that expectations and provision of whatever support should be the
same for all children. Knowing the different components as well as the views on inclusive education, do you agree?
Explain your answer.

Criteria:
Insight into Subject - 10 pts.
Clarity - 10 pts.
Total - 20 pts.