Amadi Anthony 200277721 MASC PSE Fall2012

GEOLOGICAL EFFECTS AND PETROPHYSICAL FLOW UNIT
MODEL
FOR THE MIDDLE BAKKEN MEMBER,
SOUTH-EAST SASKATCHEWAN
A Thesis
Submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research
In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
Master of Applied Science
In
Petroleum Systems Engineering
University of Regina
By
Anthony Ugochukwu Amadi
Regina, Saskatchewan
July, 2012
Copyright 2012: A. U. Amadi

UNIVERSITY OF REGINA
FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES AND RESEARCH
SUPERVISORY AND EXAMINING COMMITTEE
Anthony Ugochukwu Amadi, candidate for the degree of Master of Applied Science in
Petroleum Systems Engineering, has presented a thesis titled, Geological Effects and
Petrophysical Flow Unit Model for the Middle Bakken Member, South-East
Saskatchewan, in an oral examination held on May 4, 2012. The following committee
members have found the thesis acceptable in form and content, and that the candidate
demonstrated satisfactory knowledge of the subject material.
External Examiner: Dr. Tsun Wai Kelvin Ng, Environmental Systems Engineering
Co-Supervisor: Dr. Gang Zhao, Petroleum Systems Engineering
Co-Supervisor: Dr. Hairuo Qing, Department of Geology
Committee Member: Dr. Hussameldin Ibrahim, Process Systems Engineering
Committee Member: Dr. Fanhua Zeng, Petroleum Systems Engineering
Chair of Defense: Dr. Paul Laforge, Electronic Systems Engineering
*Not present at defense

ABSTRACT
The Devonian-Mississippian Bakken formation is a relatively thin heterogeneous
unit that stretches across the subsurface of the Williston Basin in North Dakota, Montana,
Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. In terms of oil and gas exploration, the unit is undoubtedly
one of the most important and ranks high on the scale as compared to other oil producing
fields. It represents a single petroleum system that consists of a heterogeneous Middle
Siltstone and Sandstone Member layered between two black organic rich shale members.
The Sandstone Member represents the major potential reservoir while the black
carbonaceous shale acts as the source and the cap rock of the Bakken petroleum system.
These shale rocks have also generated an enormous volume of oil probably located some
distance above and below the unit. Although these shales are undoubtedly productive in
hydrocarbon generation, the problem remains that the Bakken formation is a tight system
with very low reservoir qualities (permeability and porosity), which makes it difficult to
allow reservoir fluid flow without introduction of a modern recovery technique to the
natural reservoir drive energy. The relatively low permeability of these petroleum
systems indicates that they might give better recovery if drilled using advanced
technology combined with accurate reservoir evaluation measures.
Oil production in the Bakken petroleum system (US and Canada) has increased
over the years, mainly from fractured reservoirs in thermally mature, overpressured areas
in the US and Middle Member Siltstone and Sandstone of Viewfield, Hummingbird,
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Roncott, and Rocanville pools, Court area and minor Torquay-Rocanville Trend in
Saskatchewan, Canada.
A cross examination of the Bakken core samples, geophysical logs/production
history from south-eastern Saskatchewan certifies the prolific nature and hydrocarbon
potential of the Bakken sand/shale members but encourages further research and better
explanation, such as the introduction of a geological/petrophysical flow unit in the
Middle Member zone. In the US, 87 wells in 35 fields currently produce at a combined
rate of 2930 BOPD and 144 BWPD.
The focus of this study is to introduce and characterize the use of a geological and
petrophysical flow unit model in the Middle Member Siltstone and Sandstone of the
Bakken formation in south-eastern Saskatchewan. The Middle Bakken is endowed with
poor primary reservoir quality and secondary intergranular porosity and permeability.
Due to the low cost effectiveness and ambiguous nature of the reservoir, production has
been limited to certain modern technologies and stimulation/completion practices,
including the use of horizontal and multilateral wells, hydraulic/multi-stage fracturing,
pre-frac acidization, water flooding, caustic flooding with water, CO2 flooding, WAG
processes, and a combination of the above processes with special treatments such as
breakdown treatment, use of swellable packers, and well spacing techniques necessary for
hydraulic fracturing. This study intends to incorporate the effect of these production
techniques in combination with the flow unit model designed for the Middle Bakken
reservoir. The ultimate goal of the research is to better characterize the Bakken reservoir
to help identify ideal approaches for improving production in tight formations.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My sincere indebtedness goes to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research of
the University of Regina for their indispensable support, both financially and otherwise,
during the course of this study.
I also wish to thank my kindhearted supervisor and co-supervisor, Dr. Gary Zhao
and Dr. Hairuo Qing, for their enormous advice and guidance throughout this very
rewarding period of study.
Finally, my regards go to all the academic and non-academic staff of the Faculty
of Engineering and Applied Science and my beloved friends for their great support during
this time.
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DEDICATION
I solely dedicate this work to the memory of my late parents, Chief Gabriel and
Regina Amadi, and brother, Paul C. Amadi.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………..……... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………..... iii
DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………. iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………. v
LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………... vii
LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………. viii
CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION…………………………………………… 1
1.1 Background.……………………………………………………………….. 1
1.2 Objective…………………………………………………………………... 3
1.3 Scope………………………………………………………………………. 4
1.4 Location and methodology………………………………………………… 5
1.4.1 Preliminary studies………………………………………………………. 6
1.4.2 Laboratory studies……………………………………………………….. 6
1.4.3 Simulation study………………………………………………………… 7
CHAPTER TWO – SEDIMENTATION AND STRATIGRAPHIC SETTING…. 8
2.1 General sedimentation setting………...…………………………………… 8
2.2 Stratigraphic setting……………………………………………………….. 9
2.3 Regional stratigraphic description………………………………………… 11
2.4 Underlying formation……………………………………………………… 13
2.5 Overlying beds…………………………………………………………….. 14
2.6 Lower Shale Member……………………………………………………… 15
2.7 Middle Sandstone………………………………………………………….. 15
2.8 Upper Shale Member……………………………………...………………. 17
2.9 Reservoir properties……………………………………………………….. 18
2.10 Bakken source rock………………………………………………………. 21
CHAPTER THREE – LOCAL WELL STRATIGRAPHIC DESCRIPTION……. 24
3.1 03-11-16-31-W1 (Triton Rocanville)….…………………………………... 25
3.2 02-11-16-31-W1 (Triton Rocanville)……………………………………… 28
3.3 12-11-16-31-W1…………………………………………………………… 29
3.4 10-11-16-31-W1…………………………………………………………… 31
3.5 Other well descriptions (randomly selected wells)………………………... 33
3.5.1 PCP Flat Lake 10-15-1-16-W2………………………………………….. 33
3.5.2 Innova Melrose k13-21-9-7-W2………………………………………… 36
3.5.3 Kincorp Hazelwood 31/2-8-12-4W2M/10………………………………. 38
3.6 Depositional environment…………………………………………………. 39
CHAPTER FOUR – A FLOW UNIT CONCEPT………………………………... 41
4.1 Procedures used in identifying flow units…………………………………. 45
4.2 Sediment composition……………………………………………………... 48
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4.3 Textural maturity and mineralogical maturity index……………………… 50
4.4 Diagenetic effects such as compaction and pressure dissolution, carbonate
and silica cementation…………………………………………………………….. 52
4.4.1 Factors affecting sediment diagenesis (sandstone)……………………… 52
4.4.2 Compaction and pressure dissolution…………………………………… 53
4.4.3 Silica cementation……………………………………………………….. 53
4.4.4 Carbonate cementation…………………………………………………... 54
4.4.5 Feldspar and clay mineral authigenesis…………………………………. 55
4.4.6 Hematite cementation and pigmentation………………………………… 56
4.5 Grain size and shape………………………………………………………. 56
4.6 Packing…………………………………………………………………….. 57
4.7 Sorting……………………………………………………………………... 58
4.8 Morphology………………………………………………………………... 59
4.9 Unconformities and faulted zones…………………………………………. 59
4.10 Clay swelling, dispersion, and migration………………………………… 60
4.11 Facies discontinuity and complexity……………………………………... 61
4.12 Wettability………………………………………………………………... 62
4.13 Reservoir oil property……………………………………………………. 63
4.14 Reservoir depth/thickness………………………………………………... 63
4.15 Relative permeability…………………………………………………….. 64
4.16 Well location and spacing………………………………………………... 64
4.17 Absence/presence of bottom water..……………………………………... 65
4.18 Organic formation damage………………………………………………. 65
4.19 Interpretation……………………………………………………………... 77
4.19.1 10-11-16-31W1………………………………………………………… 77
4.19.2 03-11-16-31W1………………………………………………………… 78
4.19.3 12-11-16-31W1………………………………………………………… 79
4.19.4 02-11-16-31W1………………………………………………………… 79
4.20 Petrography………………………………………………………………. 80
4.21 Facies description………………………………………………………… 81
4.21.1 Massive bioturbated siltstone facies (MBK4)………………………….. 81
4.21.2 Laminated sandy siltstone facies (MBK3)……………………………... 82
4.21.3 Silty sandstone facies (MBK2)…………………………………………. 84
4.21.4 Argillaceous sandstone facies (MBK1)……………………………….... 86
CHAPTER FIVE – SIMULATION MODEL……………………………………. 88
5.1 EOR methods and results………………………………………………….. 97
5.1.1 Water flooding…………………………………………………………... 97
5.1.2 Infill drilling……………………………………………………………... 99
5.1.3 Horizontal well with multi-stage fracturing……………………………... 101
CHAPTER SIX – CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS…………… 109
6.1 Recommendations………………………………………………………..... 112
BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………………… 115
APPENDIX – PETROGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MIDDLE
BAKKEN SAMPLE (THIN-SECTION ANALYSIS)…………………………… 120
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Properties used in identifying flow units………………………………... 46

Table 2. Reservoir rock properties, symbols, and units…………………………... 47
Table 3. Terms used in describing sorting values as deduced by the Folk and
Ward formula……………………………………………………..…………….… 58
Tables 4. Flow unit as identified using Winlands equation and Modified Lorenz
plot (10-11-16-31W1)…………………………………………………………….. 68
Table 5. Flow unit as identified using Winlands equation and Modified Lorenz
plot (03-11-16-31W1)…………………………………………………………….. 70
plot (01/12-11-16-31W1)…………………………………………………………. 72
plot (02-11-16-31W1)…………………………………………………………….. 74
Table 8. PVT analysis table………………………………………………………. 91
Table 9. Reservoir parameters……………………………………………………. 92
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Location of the Williston Basin in North America (US Geological

Survey, November 2007)…………………………………………………………. 5
Figure 2. Extent of Bakken formation members (USGS map)..…………………. 10
Figure 3. Isopach map of the Middle Member of the Bakken formation (Kreis L., 18
Costa A., 2005)……………………………………………………………………
Figure 4. Location map of the past and present producing areas, DST oil shows,
and oil shows in the southern Saskatchewan Bakken formation (Saskatchewan
Geological Survey)……………………………………………………………….. 23
Figure 5. Facies description showing MBK1-MBK4 in well 03-11-16-31W1……. 27
Figure 6. Facies description showing MBK1-MBK4 in well 02-11-16-31W1……. 29
Figure 7. Facies description showing MBK1-MBK4 in well 12-11-16-31W1..…... 30
Figure 8. Facies description showing MBK1-MBK4 in well 10-11-16-31W1…..... 32
Figure 9. Location map of the study area (AccuMap Software).…………………. 33
Figure 10. Cross stratified fine grained clean reservoir sandstone (10-15-1-16-
W2)………………………………………………………………………………... 34
Figure 11. Fossilized brachiopod remains in a sandy siltstone (lower PCP FLAT
LAKE)…………………………………………………………………………….. 35
Figure 12. Mud cracks in Lower Bakken Shale. Fractures are filled with white
calcite and pyrite………………………………………………………………….. 37
Figure 13. Unconformity between the Lower Bakken Shale and oil stained Top
Torquay Sanish Sand (1284.88 m)………………………………………………... 39
Figure 14. Various types of cement in sedimentary rocks (quartz and calcite)
(after S. Nelson, 2000)..…………………………………………………………... 55
Figure 15. Effect of clay swelling and dispersion (Lanfax Laboratories)………… 61
Figure 16. Flow unit as identified using Modified Lorenz plot (10-11-16-31W1).. 69
Figure 18. Flow unit as identified using Modified Lorenz plot (01/12-11-16-
31W1)……………………………………………………………………………... 73
Figure 20. Stratigraphic cross section with various flow zones…………………... 76
Figure 21. Thin-section showing bioturbated siltstone of to the MBK4 facies….. 82
Figure 22 (A-D). Thin-section showing laminated sandy siltstone of the MBK3
facies……………………………………………………………………………… 84
Figure 23 (A-C). Various rocks and reservoir properties present in the silty
sandstone facies (MBK2)…………………………………………………………. 86
Figure 24 (A-B). Dominant calcite cement and replacement of grains and fossils. 87
Figure 25. Reservoir model of Middle Bakken field……………………………... 90
Figure 26. History matching of well 01/02-11-016-31W1/0……………………... 93
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Figure 32. Oil recovery factor of the study area………………………………….. 96
Figure 33. Water flooding configuration with two injector wells..……………….. 98
Figure 34. Oil rate and recovery factor of water flooding………………………... 99
Figure 35. Infill wells configuration……………………………………………… 100
Figure 36. Oil production rate of each well………………………………………. 101
Figure 37. Total oil production rate and recovery factor…………………………. 101
Figure 38. Horizontal wells with multi-stage hydraulic fractures………………… 102
Figure 39. Oil production rate from horizontal wells with multi-stage hydraulic
fractures…………………………………………………………………………… 103
Figure 40. Locations of two horizontal infill wells……………………………….. 104
Figure 41. Production rate of infill horizontal wells……………………………… 105
Figure 42. Oil recovery factor of infill horizontal wells………………………….. 105
Figure 43. Saturation profile after about 15 years water injection………………... 106
Figure 44. Oil production rate after water injection in 1985……………………… 107
Figure 45. Oil recovery factor of continuous water injection…………………….. 107
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
This study deals with the geological factors affecting production performance in
low permeability reservoirs such as the Bakken formation in south-eastern Saskatchewan.
It also explains the extent of reservoir damage, remedial plans, and the use of
petrophysical flow units in reservoir characterization.
The Bakken formation is a sub-surface Devonian rock in the Williston Basin that
stretches across Montana, North Dakota, and Saskatchewan. It is a tight reservoir
stratigraphically comprising the Upper Shale Member, Middle Sandstone, and Lower
Shale Member.
1.1 Background
The major expectation of any producing reservoir is to be able to transmit the
reservoir fluid to the surface at the most economic recovery rate. A good understanding
of the reservoir geology is the key to unlocking the reservoir formation variables and
assuming proper engineering practices, as well as to expecting maximal economic
recovery. This includes proper analysis of the depositional environment, mineralogy,
diagenetic features, and reservoir properties characterization and evaluation.
1
Sedimentary rocks such as sandstones and carbonates (limestones, dolomites) are
common reservoir rocks of great economic importance. A good knowledge and analysis
of their properties is essential in the production of subsurface fluids. Their primary
properties of texture, composition, sedimentary structures, morphology, and depositional
environment are determined by the source materials, and knowledge of these properties
leads to better apprehension of any reservoir diagnosis.
It is very pertinent to define the geologic variables of the Middle Bakken in both a
quantitative and qualitative manner by categorizing reservoir rock properties in order to
recognize the interrelationship between them. The Middle Bakken is highly
heterogeneous and has witnessed various types of reservoir formation damage. Reservoir
formation damage can be referred to as the impairment of the permeability of petroleum-
bearing formations by various adverse processes. It can also be defined as an undesirable
operational and economic problem that emanates during oil and gas recovery from the
reservoir stemming from problems including geology issues; drilling, production, and
hydraulic fracturing; and work-over operations.
Reservoir formation damage assessment, control, and remediation are among the
most important issues to be resolved for efficient exploitation of hydrocarbon in the
Middle Bakken reservoirs. Formation damage is caused by many factors, including
physico-chemical, chemical, biological, hydrodynamic, and thermal interactions of
porous formation, particles, fluid, and mechanical deformation under stress and fluid
shear. Apart from depositional geologic processes, these damage effects are a function of
drilling activities, production, work-over, and different recovery techniques, such as
hydraulic fracturing and water flooding, etc. Examples of formation damage indicators
2
are permeability impairment, porosity reduction, skin damage, and low productivity,
which in turn reflect a decrease in well performance prone to the Bakken reservoir.
Sometimes, these damage effects might or not be reversible (Porter, 1989), while some
can be remedied through advanced technology. Therefore it is important to avoid damage
by taking into consideration all the necessary geological impacts at the onset. This can be
actualized by verifying formation damage models and carrying out adequate geological
and petro-physical analysis on the reservoir rocks, starting from the laboratory and field
production up to the tertiary recovery process. Accurate design, modelling, and
simulation approaches also rank high on understanding diagnosis, reservoir evaluation,
prevention, remediation, and total control of reservoir formation damage in implementing
secondary and tertiary recovery in oil and gas reservoirs.
The purpose of this work is to develop a petrophysical/geological flow unit model
approach necessary for stimulating the Middle Bakken reservoir and to help decision
making concerning profitability and engineering practices in exploiting tight formations.
1.2 Objective
The thesis work is divided into two major phases:
1. Geological aspect and effects, which involves identification of various lithofacies,
reservoir properties, diagenetic factors, petrography, and depositional
environment based on the rock physical properties, and
3
2. The engineering aspect that encompasses a mimic reservoir stimulation model
representative of the Middle Bakken member (Rocanville, south-eastern
Saskatchewan) and implications of various recovery practices.
To accomplish this task, a complete production profile of several wireline logs and wells
from the Middle Bakken (Rocanville pool, etc.) were collected and reviewed for
correlation purposes, reservoir quality, formation damage, and identification of various
lithofacies. This propelled the insight on strategies and the desired approach of how to
best stimulate and maximize fluid flow from the Middle Bakken, especially under
depleted conditions.
1.3 Scope
The scope of this research encompasses a geologic examination on all the pre- and
post-depositional factors affecting production from the Middle Bakken horizon in south-
eastern Saskatchewan. This includes:
1. A detailed core logging and geophysical log interpretation, petrophysical quality,
and identification of various lithofacies and analysis,
2. A detailed laboratory description of texture, mineralogy, and sedimentary
structures, and
3. A detailed reservoir stimulation analysis incorporating a petrophysical/geological
flow unit model designed for the Middle Bakken.
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1.4 Location and methodology
Figure 1. Location of the Williston Basin in North America (US Geological Survey,
November 2007).
The method used in this work was harmonized into several phases:
1. Middle Bakken core logging and interpretation from the subsurface geological
laboratory in Regina, Saskatchewan,
2. A detailed petrographic analysis designed to analyze the interior part of rock
samples, and
3. Reservoir simulation incorporating a geological/petrophysical flow unit model
within the Middle Bakken zone.
5
1.4.1 Preliminary studies
Desk study began with the collection of available information and facts within
and outside the literature based on both local and regional geologic scales. Emphasis was
laid on the lithology, facies association, extent of reservoir formation damage and causes,
reservoir properties, and general description of the Devonian–Mississippian sedimentary
formations of the Williston Basin. The intent was to develop good knowledge of the
sequence of deposition and events including that of the underlying and overlying
formations. Core samples from several wells sited at the study area were critically studied
and described based on their various physical properties (naked eye observations).
Vertical stratigraphic sections of the well were noted for correlation purposes, and
photographs representing important features from the samples were taken sequentially.
1.4.2 Laboratory studies
The collected samples were subjected to different laboratory analyses. These
included both hand specimen study at the petroleum geological subsurface lab in Regina,
Saskatchewan, and production of thin-sections by Vancouver Petrographic Lab Limited
for various lithofacies defined from the Middle Bakken member zone. The thin-sections
were made for detailed petrographic studies, and the samples were systematically
analyzed based on texture, framework grains, petrophysical quality, and diagenetic
features using a petrographic microscope.
6
1.4.3 Simulation study
This involves the use of CMG-BuilderTM and IMEXTM simulator to create a
reservoir model for the Middle Bakken member in the Rocanville area. Data acquisitions
were from numerous sources such as core analysis from the Subsurface Geological
Laboratory in Regina, AccumapTM software, GeoScoutTM, and the Saskatchewan Ministry
of Energy and Resources, etc.
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CHAPTER TWO
SEDIMENTATION AND STRATIGRAPHIC SETTING
2.1 General sedimentation setting
The Bakken formation is part of the Williston Basin of North America.
According to the literature, the centres of active deposition in the Williston Basin in
Cambrian and Ordovician times were concentrated in the general region around the town
of Williston in north-western North Dakota. Trending northwards, these depositional-
centres extended into Saskatchewan at a range of 15 west of the second meridian. It is
also believed that during the Silurian, the depositional centre stretched eastward in North
Dakota nearly midway-between the towns of Williston and Minot. The northwest arm of
the Williston Basin extended into Saskatchewan west of Regina to Last Mountain Lake as
a broad trough. This extended further into Alberta and projected over the Williston Basin
as the dominant depositional-centre that created the Elk Point Basin during the Mid-
Devonian. This condition prevailed over the Late-Mid-Devonian and witnessed the
deposition of the Manitoba group. Overtime, the Elk point group thinned out into Alberta
during the deposition time of the Saskatchewan group.
Sedimentation in the Williston Basin of south-eastern Saskatchewan and north-
western North Dakota thrived during this period but later trended northwest during the
8
Big Valley time. Both northern and southern parts of the basin were active depositional-
centres during the Middle Bakken period.
2.2 Stratigraphic setting
The literature of the study area has been reviewed by many authors in late 1950s,
early 1970s, and more recently. During the Upper Devonian, central Saskatchewan was
part of a broad and long established sea. A moderate late Devonian uplift induced
deposition of the Three Fork formation in central Saskatchewan during which the area
had been uplifted close to the sea level. Subsequently, another episode of subsidence
emanated and led to the deposition of the Big Valley formation under a stable marine
shelf condition, which evenly spread over central Saskatchewan. The Big Valley
formation was also succeeded by another cycle of uplift and erosional periods that
induced the early Mississippian subsidence, which gave rise to the deposition of the
Lower Bakken Shale with equivalent Exshaw shale. The Exshaw Shale is an open sea
accumulation that was deposited under minor turbulent conditions, low wave activity, and
no lateral current. The Bakken formation is of Upper Devonian – Early Mississippian
age, but reports of the exact chronological position of the Lower Shale Member has been
contradictory over the years. An eastward uplift was witnessed in the basin during the
Bakken time, introducing a source of sediment and transported sediments far into the sea.
The Upper Shale Member denotes a return of the initial marine condition, which took
place at the time of the Lower Shale deposition. The Bakken formation was developed by
the lowermost Mississippian transgression (Bakken transgression) and a later slow
9
regression towards the end of the Mid-Bakken time, depositing layers of the silt and very
fine sandstone.
The Bakken formation is relatively thin and is distributed throughout the
subsurface of the Williston Basin in North Dakota, Montana, Saskatchewan, and
Manitoba (LeFever J.A, 1991; Christopher, 1961). It is divided into three lithologic
members known as:
1. Upper Shale Member
2. Middle Sandstone/Siltstone Member, and
3. Lower Shale Member.
Figure 2. Extent of Bakken formation members (USGS map).
In south-eastern Saskatchewan (study area), the Bakken formation extends over a
large portion of the Williston Basin and generally ranges between 0-30 m in thickness,
10
but gets up to 70 m in areas of collapsed salt structures. Generally, in south-eastern
Saskatchewan, the Bakken formation overlies the marine, green shale of the Big Valley
formation in most cases. It also lies unconformably on the Torquay formation in places
where the Big Valley formation has been overlapped. The Torquay consists of weathered
to brecciated rock that includes dolomites, dolomitic mudstones, dolarinites, and minor
basal anhydrite (Christopher, 1961). The sandstone (Sanish Sand) represents the reservoir
rock, as recognized in some parts of the study area, and it lies unconformably beneath the
Lower Bakken Shale. The Bakken members exhibit an onlapping relationship to the
underlying strata, with each having a greater aerial extent than the predecessor and all
three thinning to zero towards the eastern, southern, and northern margins of the
Williston Basin (Smith M.G., Bustin M., 2000). The Bakken is conformably overlain by
the Lodgepole formation (Lower Mississippian) in North Dakota and Manitoba and
precisely by the fossiliferous limestone of the Souris Valley in Saskatchewan (LeFever et
al., 1991). The Lower and Upper Shale Members have been defined as the potential
source rocks in Bakken formation (Dow W.G., 1974; Williams J.A, 1974).
2.3 Regional stratigraphic description
The Bakken formation is subdivided into Upper Bakken Shale, Middle Sandstone,
and Lower Bakken Shale Members. It unconformably overlies the Upper Devonian Three
Forks formation, especially in areas like the study area where the Big Valley formation is
eroded in that section. The Torquay formation as represented primarily at 3-11-16-31-W1
consists of interbedding of highly dolomitic, brecciated, oxidized greenish, dark-grey,
11
and reddish-brown siltstone, mudstone, and sand. Although known to contain thin
anhydrite layers near the base, this layer was not present in the above-used core sample;
therefore, it must have been removed in solution. The Torquay formation, in other words,
has been termed the upper weathered part of the Lower Birdbear equivalent (Christopher
1961). The upper erratic sandy part of the Torquay formation that lies beneath the Lower
Bakken Shale is oil stained and is a prolific horizon within the unit because it has better
reservoir qualities. It is generally known as the Sanish sand.
The Three Fork group is terminated by the deposition of the Lower Bakken Shale
during the late Devonian – Early Mississippian time. The actual age of the Lower Shale
Member has been a contradictory affair and is still open to many questions, even at
present. The Lower Shale lies unconformably on the underlying Torquay formation, and
it is dark, fissile, waxy textured, organic matter-rich, bituminous, and highly
carbonaceous. It also contains pyrites, which are more visible when viewed under a
strong light in the microscope. The dark colouration is a function of high organic matter
content believed to have formed under an extreme oxygen free environment. They show
some tiny jointed fractures, which are believed to have acted as migration conduits or
pathways. The Middle Bakken Sandstone varies in grain size from sand-size to silt-size
particles. They are dominated by calcareous medium- to fine-grained, oil-stained
sandstone and fine siltstone. The grains are angular to sub-angular, and the unit is a
representative of a multifacies sequence and is evenly distributed within the study area.
They show good reservoir qualities and are mostly known to be the reservoir rocks found
in the study area. Porosity is in the range of 20% or more in areas dominated by clean
sands. This unit is mottled in some parts. They are friable and exhibit fine-scale cross
12
bedding and are parallel laminated. Capping the Bakken formation is the Upper Bakken
Shale equivalent, which lies conformably on the Middle Sandstone. It is almost
represented over the entire area. It is mainly dark-brown, bituminous, organic matter-rich,
waxy, and commonly fossiliferous. The Bakken formation is also conformably overlain
by the Lodgepole formation, which belongs to the Madison Group. It consists of
dominant muddy-limestone and oxidized reddish shale.
2.4 Underlying formation
The Bakken formation overlies the Upper Devonian Torquay formation (Three
Fork Group). Trending eastwards, as the edge of the Lower Bakken Shale thins out, the
Middle Bakken Sandstone Member laps on the Torquay formation with a regional
unconformity that stretched eastward into Manitoba (Christopher, 1961). This is evident
in the study area where the big valley horizon has probably been eroded out. The
thickness of the Torquay averages about 150 ft, and it consists of dolomite, mudstone,
shale, siltstone, and a minor proportion of anhydrite at the base. Texture exhibited by the
rocks include graded and non-graded patterns, current bedding, and weathered to
brecciated fragments of dolomite disrupted and scattered in patches in mudstone matrix.
The Torquay also shows variation in colour due to weathering and oxidation
effects on the lithologic constituents. The colour variation ranges from yellowish-grey
and greenish-grey to somewhat orange and reddish. The basal anhydrite was not
represented in the study area and is assumed to have been removed by solution. In the
study area, the Torquay formation is capped by an erratic sand zone, which lies directly
13
beneath the Lower Bakken Shale. The sand zone popularly known as the “Sanish Sand”
is oil saturated and, therefore, remains amongst the productive layers in the Torquay
formation. The Torquay was formed during the Three Fork time as an act of shift in the
depositional environment that yielding Devonian carbonates and evaporites to a
transitional clastic dominated type. This is a general act of sea regression, lengthy
exposure, and late episode of sea transgression (Christopher, 1961). The reservoir
properties can be attributed to the nature of brecciated dolostones, and the top Sanish
sand shows moderate to good porosity on various logs, indicating the presence of
hydrocarbon in wells from the area.
2.5 Overlying beds
The Bakken formation is succeeded by the Kinderhookian Souris Valley beds
(Lodgepole formation), the basal unit of the Madison Group. It lies conformably on the
Upper Bakken Shale and is lithologically dominated by limestones, interbedded with
oxidized shale. This formation is represented in 10-11-16-31-W1 cores studied thus far
from the area of interest but are missing in some wells. The Lodgepole formation was
deposited during a major marine transgression (Christopher, 1961) during the Mid-Lower
Mississippian time.
14
2.6 Lower Shale Member
The Lower Shale Member directly overlies the Big Valley formation but
unconformably laps the Torquay formation in the study area. Lithologically, it consists of
dark, fissile, waxy, homogenous, carbonaceous, organic-rich shale. It is considered to be
the source rock of the Bakken formation with an average total organic content (TOC) of
about 8-20% (Smith-Bustin, 1995). The organic components are made of mostly evenly
distributed marine algae, and the thickness ranges from 3 to 20 m at the basin depo-centre
east of the Nesson Anticline in North Dakota. In Saskatchewan, it ranges between 6-8 m
and get as high as 13 m in some areas of local thickening (e.g., Sohio-Leakville No.1 Lsd
4-11-14-26-W2) (Christopher, 1961). The Lower Shale becomes less organic and grades
into a more silty, greenish, dark type westward of the basin. According to Christopher
(1961), the Lower Bakken Shale overlies the Big Valley formation in both central and
western Saskatchewan but overlaps and laps on the Torquay formation towards the south-
eastern part (study area). Fossils such as primary spores, conodonts, gastropod,
brachiopods bivalve, and arthropod (Karma, 1991) etc., have been recorded from the
Lower Shale, although they were not identified in the Bakken cores examined.
2.7 Middle Sandstone
The middle member of the Bakken formation has been reviewed many times in
the literature. On a regional scale, the lithology of the Middle Bakken Member has been
15
sub divided into four units, A, A1, B, and C (Christopher, 1961; Smith and Bustin, 1995,
1996).
Unit A is predominated by a massive dark-grey calcareous, pyritic, fossiliferous,
and intensely bioturbated siltstone. Calcitic brachiopods are common. Unit A was
deposited during the initial transgression of the Middle Member Sea with deposition of
silt and clay in a quiet-water environment.
Unit A1 makes a gradational contact with the underlying Unit A. It is generally
light-greenish-grey to dark-greenish argillaceous siltstone, to very fine-grained,
argillaceous, silty, quartzose sandstone. This unit is characterized by moderately to highly
bioturbated, thin, laminated siltstone, flaser-bedding, and current ripples. The
sedimentary structures prone to this unit indicate deposition in a high energy
environment, probably found in a tidally influenced, near shallow shelf or near-shore
environment. The sandstones of this unit are less argillaceous than the former.
Unit B makes a sharp contact with the underlying strata (Unit AI). It consists of
high- to medium-grey, calcareous, very fine- to fine-grained, clean quartz sandstone to
oolitic calcarenite. The lower portion of this unit is massive and is cross bedded. The
upper part is composed of thinly laminated, silty, and argillaceous, very fine-grained
sandstone that grades into bedded and bioturbated rock partly belonging to Unit C.
Unit C is dominated by an interbedding of siltstone and sandstone. It is
characterized by bioturbated high-grey to tan silty, very fine-grained sandstone and
argillaceous siltstone. The total thickness of the Middle Bakken Member averages about
13 m in the Williston Basin with a maximum of 30 m (Smith-Bustin, 2000). Christopher
(1961) suggested that significant thicknesses are prominent in regions near the depo-
16
centre east of the Nesson Anticline in North Dakota, in the Waskada area of Manitoba,
“Elbow sub Basin,” then Herald Embayment, and the Torquay Embayment in the
southern Saskatchewan area (LeFever et al., 1991). A significant thinning out trend
dominates the basin margins and the broad Regina-Melville Platform of east-central
Saskatchewan (Christopher, 1961). Typical local stratigraphic subdivisions of the middle
sand and siltstone as applied to this work are fully discussed in the next chapter.
2.8 Upper Shale Member
The Upper Bakken Shale Member is a lithological equivalent of the Lower Shale.
In Saskatchewan, the TOC content of this shale is about 10% with a maximum of 35% on
the Regina-Melville Platform (Smith, M.G., M.Bustin, 2000). It is compact black, jointed
carbonaceous, fissile, bituminous, radioactive, non-calcareous shale with a thickness of
about 9 m in North Dakota, 18 m in the Waskada area of Manitoba, and about 4 m in
Saskatchewan. The layer has a huge surface area, the largest among all the Bakken
members. The Upper Shale also shows some evidence of oxidation and weathered
surfaces, possibly from the oxidation effect emanating from the upper Lodgepole
formation. Although these features are not very common with the shale, it shows some
changes in colour due to sub-areal weathering. The Upper Bakken Shale lies conformably
on the Lodgepole formation (the basal unit of the Madison Group), although a
disconformity has been observed in some core samples from a few wells (Christopher,
1951).
17
Figure 3. Isopach map of the Middle Member of the Bakken formation (Kreis L., Costa
A., 2005).
2.9 Reservoir properties
The Lower and Upper organic matter-rich Bakken Shale members act as the
potential source and seal rock in the study area. The shales are densely darkened due to
their high content of organic matter. This could be inferred from the electric logs and
high gamma peak shown by the Bakken Shale. Their anomalous high resistivity at deeper
depth shows that they are saturated with hydrocarbon (Murray, 1968).
18
Effective reservoir quality (matrix porosity and permeability) of the Bakken
formation, the associated Three Fork is very low. Matrix porosity is most probably
measurable in the upper Sanish Sand of the Torquay and the Middle Bakken Sandstone.
The sandstone members of the observed Bakken cores are the only producing layers in
the study area. Below the Bakken formation is the Sanish, which is also a probable
producing layer within the Torquay Group. Core samples from the Sanish sand (Antelope
Field) recorded an average porosity between 5 and 6% and permeability less than 0.1
milidarcy (Murray, 1968). Matrix porosity and permeability have also been identified and
recorded as very low for the Middle Bakken Sandstone. The middle sandstone and
siltstone of the Bakken formation are the major reservoir rocks within the unit, and their
overall reservoir quality ranges from fair to poor (5 to 20% in some areas). Permeability
also is in the range of 1-20 md. The mid-sandstone reservoir is also a low-resistivity pay
zone with a resistivity value of <5 ohm-m. Due to the decreased effects in the relative
permeability of these rocks, modern drilling techniques (horizontal drilling) have been
the most profitable means of producing the Bakken oil system.
Generally, exploration practise entails the target of a clean prolific oil saturated
reservoir rock. These qualities are prone to Bakken formation, but the problem is how to
achieve maximal oil recovery rate from the reservoir. The Bakken mid-member is both
calcareous and argillaceous with moderate to poor reservoir qualities. Some parts of these
members are more silty and argillaceous. All these contribute to an incessant reduction in
porosity and permeability of the reservoir. There are also cases wherein the more
argillaceous sandbody is underlain by the cleaner calcareous sand in the Bakken
petroleum system. The reservoir properties of the Bakken sandstone also vary from place
19
to place. For instance, in Sun-Phillips, Dynneson No 1, section 32, T24N, R58E Richland
CO, Montana, an average porosity of about 5.5% and permeability of 1-57 md have been
recorded in the Middle Bakken Member. It is also important to note that the permeability
value recorded in the above location represents both the matrix and the fracture types
with the matrix having the lower count. Migration pathways in Bakken petroleum
systems are basically through fractured surfaces.
Oil production in the Bakken formation is from mature fractured reservoirs (Kreis
et al., 2005, 2006). The recovery rate depends on the transmissibility created by abundant
interconnected fractures. Oil produced from the Bakken formation of Saskatchewan is
mostly from a few fields, namely Rocanville, Roncott, Viewfield, and court area, etc.
Production from Bakken of south-eastern Saskatchewan has increased from
approximately 300 m3/month since July 2003 to about 5700 m3/month in February 2005.
The Bakken petroleum system serves both as a source and reservoir rock. This has been
indicated by some researchers such as Osadetz (1991a), who states that in Canada,
Rocanville, Roncott, and the Daly field in Montana are the only fields traceable to a
Bakken formation source.
In Saskatchewan, production emanated from the middle member sandstone in
Rocanville field in 1957. According to Osinski (1970), the pool yielded very minimal
associated gas and about 0.5 bbl of water per barrel of oil. The API gravity range is about
36° or more, and it is quite similar to the Bakken oil in the United States. A major
problem in the Bakken production is the need for fluid flow enhancement, as the wells do
not flow naturally enough. Therefore, they are subject to artificial lift via pumps and a
few EOR reservoir treatments.
20
In the Rocanville field, for instance, the Bakken produces at a shallow level of
about 2200 ft (670m). This is quite a bit more shallow than the actual depth necessary for
oil generation from the lower member shale (Meissner, 1978). This suggests that the oil
migrated into the middle member rock from Bakken shale and was buried deeper in the
basin, where depth, pressure, and temperature were conducive and large enough to
generate oil. Oil migrated up to 120km from the source to the middle member. Rocanville
sandstone has been interpreted as channel sand deposited during a lowstand of sea level
(Osadetz, 1991a). Common completion practices in the Bakken formation include use of
horizontal and multilateral wells, hydraulic multi-stage fracturing, pre-frac acidization,
water flooding, caustic flooding with water, CO2 flooding, and a combination of the
above processes with special treatments such as breakdown treatment, use of swellable
packers, well spacing in hydraulic fracturing, etc. Horizontal drilling has been found
applicable for Bakken exploitation, as more pay zones are tapped to increase oil recovery
rate. All these prevalent practices in the Bakken formation aim at increasing recovery in
real time by creating more permeable pathways that would increase the fluid flow in the
reservoir. Although the above-mentioned techniques seem positive in the Bakken
reservoir, effort is still needed to find better ways to maximize yield and increase the
recoverable oil factor within the formation.
2.10 Bakken source rock
Oil and gas are generated from rocks that have a certain critical organic content
and have undergone sufficient thermal breakdown in line with time and burial
21
temperature cracking down the chemical bounds between complex primary organic
matter to release hydrocarbon. The enormous amount of organic matter in the Upper and
Lower Bakken Shale contributed to their waxy and dark appearance and is indicative of
their proliferous nature. This has been proven by a thin-section and test tube analysis
conducted on the Bakken Shale (Trask-Patrode, 1942). Murray (1968) also noted the
unique behaviour of the Bakken Shale, as indicated by the radioactive logs and resistivity
logs. The Upper and Lower Bakken Shale Members are regionally characterized by
anomalous high resistivity and high gamma peaks. This represents the fact that they were
naturally hydrocarbon saturated (oil replacing conductive pore water). Schmoker-Hester
(1990) also indicated that a resistivity value greater than 35 ohm-m coincides with the
onset of observable oil generation in Bakken Shale. Variations in the resistivity value for
both shales are prone and highest towards the north and west of the Nesson Anticline,
United States. This region is defined as having anomalous high heat flow, probably
related to basement tectonics and enhanced hydrocarbon generation (Majorowicz et al.,
1986; Osadetz-Snowdon, 1995). Both the Upper and Lower Bakken Shale are represented
in the study area. Migration pathways of the Bakken petroleum system cover a long
distance and extend up to 200 km from the source in wells located in south-eastern
Saskatchewan (Rocanville Pool). Horizontal wells were the only way possible to produce
the Bakken shale of the Williston Basin in North Dakota. In Saskatchewan, the process is
still delayed (for the shale horizon), as further considerations are to be made due to the
thickness and maturity of these members in the region. Before the advent of horizontal
drilling in the Bakken formation, vertical wells have been a common practice, but their
economic viability was overtaken by the enormous advantages of horizontal drilling.
22
From 2005 up to early 2009 more than 670 horizontal wells coupled with multi-
stage sand-frac completion have been sited in the Bakken formation in Saskatchewan.
The Bakken is a good candidate for horizontal drilling due to it nature (naturally
fractured, trap system, tight and high cost reservoir). Simple comparison between the
decline curve of vertical and horizontal/multilateral wells drilled in the Bakken (e.g., the
Fairway area, ND) signifies the success of horizontal drilling in the Bakken formation.
Horizontal drilling recoverable reserves is in the order of 400 MBO per well in the
Fairway field with a decline between 25 and 56% and a calculated drainage area ranging
between 469 and 664 acres. Vertical Bakken reserve averages 108 MBO per well from a
data set of 119 wells in the Fairway. The decline rate for mostly vertical wells is between
15 and 17% with a range of 10-20%.
Figure 4. Location map of the past and present producing areas, DST oil shows, and oil
shows in the southern Saskatchewan Bakken formation (Saskatchewan Geological
Survey).
23
CHAPTER THREE
LOCAL WELL STRATIGRAPHIC DESCRIPTION
Sandstone, siltstone, and shale are the dominant lithology covering the Middle
Bakken unit. The local stratigraphic description of this area is based on core samples and
geophysical logs obtained from drill cores from the above-mentioned area of interest.
Although numerous wells were studied, this description was cited from seven different
drill holes located and identified as members of the Middle Bakken formation in the
Williston Basin of north-eastern Saskatchewan, Canada. Various cores were studied, but
only a few were chosen due to financial constraints. Selection of these wells was done
both randomly and in a confined mode narrowing down to a particular Bakken pool
(Rocanville Pool). The randomly selected wells were noted for comparison and to
properly ascertain the extent of lithofacies distribution of the Bakken middle member in
south-eastern Saskatchewan. The random wells are represented by the drill cores and log
results from the following wells PCP FLAT LAKE (10-15-1-16-W2), INNOVA
MELROSE (k13-21-9-7-W2), and KINCORP HAZELWOOD (12-8-12-4-W2). The core
samples from the above wells were comprehensively studied and described in terms of
vertical lithologic variations and successions, clastic sizes and sorting, sedimentary
structures, deformational features, reservoir properties, and hydrocarbon potentials. All
wells, except for some randomly analyzed used for local stratigraphic description in this
report, are members of the Rocanville Pool in the Bakken formation of south-eastern
24
Saskatchewan. Well descriptions are as observed from the core samples, geophysical
logs, and under strong lighted microscope. Well profiles are fashioned into different
lithofacies as identified from the lithologic section. Facies identification is based on
dominant lithology, grain size, sorting, diagenetic features, and petrophysical qualities.
The Middle Bakken has been divided into four basic lithofacies as examined from each
well section, namely: MBK1, MBK2, MBK3, and MBK4, representing Middle Bakken 1-4
lithofacies, respectively. The idea is to accurately examine in a stepwise sense the
differences in lithology and the degree of post depositional effects and reservoir quality
damages undergone by the Middle Bakken over geologic time. With this in mind, the
extent of reservoir formation damage emanating from geological factors and areas of
fluid flow control in the reservoir can easily be identified. All core descriptions are
carried out as identified and visualized with the naked eye.
3.1 03-11-16-31-W1 (Triton Rocanville)
The sampled interval from this well ranges between 652 and 670 m, giving a total
sectional thickness of 18 m, respectively. The section consists mainly of sandstone and
siltstone representative of the Middle Bakken zone, capped and underlain by two black
shale that were further enclosed by highly fossiliferous limestone of the Lodgepole group
at the upper part and highly dolomitic silt-mudstone and dolomite of the Torquay
formation below. This sequence begins from top to bottom with a 1.25 m thick layer of
highly weathered, fossiliferous, calcareous light-pink-grey limestone belonging to the
Lodgepole formation. It is fine-grained, consisting of interval jointed fractures filled with
25
light-yellowish coloured minerals suspected to be pyrite and quartz and calcite. Minor
burrows, brachiopods, and crinoid remains were also identified. It makes a sharp contact
with the underlying organic-rich Upper Bakken shale. The shale is dark, fissile, organic-
rich, bituminous, and internally fractured. It is somewhat calcareous and has a thickness
of about 2.5 m. The upper black shale also makes a sharp contact with the underlying bed
of MBK4 facies, representing the uppermost part of the Middle Bakken. This facies is
characterized by its distinct, high bioturbation and massive nature. It is dominated by a
coarse-grained, non-calcareous, grey siltstone of about 1.2 m thick. Fossils remains
present include those of brachiopod shell trace. Generally, this facies seems well
compacted and cemented, so it, therefore, ranks low in terms of reservoir qualities.
Underlying the MBK4 facies is the MBK3 facies, which consists of a grey siltstone with
both continuous and discontinuous lamination. It contains some amount of calcite that are
scattered in patches on the rock surface. This facies is categorized and identified as
laminated, calcareous siltstone. The thickness range is about 1.4 m, and it shares a
gradational base with the underlying facies. The succeeding lithofacies is the dark-grey,
oil-stained, fine, sandy siltstone unit of MBK2 characterized by its non-calcareous nature.
Sedimentary structures include planar, parallel, continuous, and discontinuous lamination
types. Intergranular porosity is fair, and the thickness is about 2.2 m. The contact between
this layer and the underlying facies is quite gradational. The underlain facies is the basal
MBK1, characterized by its calcareous feature. It consists of light-grey, fine, laminated,
silty sandstone. Laminations include both wavy and rippled types. The facies is oil
stained, similar to the above-lying unit, except for the amount of calcite disseminated in
them. Fossils are not present, and the thickness is 3.82 m. The MBK1 makes an erosional
26
contact with the Lower Bakken shale. This possibly suggests that Unit A, as categorized
by previous literature, has been eroded or that it is pinched out at this Rocanville unit.
The basal black shale is very thin and ranges about 0.75 m. The layer is lastly succeeded
by the weathered and brecciated, highly dolomitic, greenish-grey mudstone and dolomite
of the Torquay group. The dolomites are in light-grey patches, lamina, and of cobble
sizes interpreted as the effect of late stage weathering (Christopher, 1961). Calcite
patches are prominent at the basal part and the mid-top part is dominated by light, earthy
dolomite and some intercalation of the mudstone and dolomite. The contact between the
unit and the Lower Bakken shale is eroded. This unit generally represents a fining upward
succession.
Figure 5. Facies description showing MBK1-MBK4 in well 03-11-16-31W1.
27
3.2 02-11-16-31-W1 (Triton Rocanville)
This section started with a 2.25 m thick, slightly calcareous, fossiliferous, grey
limestone with tanned light-coloured patches. It is weathered and contains some fractured
parts, which are covered by sediments. It is interpreted as the basal part of the Lodgepole
formation overlying the fissile, calcareous, and internally-fractured Upper Shale of the
Bakken formation. Contact between these layers is sharp. The shale succeeding the top of
the Middle Bakken (MBK4) facies is distinguished by its massive, highly, bioturbated and
argillaceous nature. It is grey-green and ranges about 1.61 m in thickness. Next in
sequence is the laminated, sandy siltstone of the MBK3 facies. Internal laminations are
more pronounced at the basal part. Wispy- and wavy-type laminations are also present
with thin pocket oil stains. This facies is about 1.15 m and marks a gradational base with
the underlying layer (MBK2). MBK2 is dark-grey, non-calcareous, and argillaceous, with
a few calcite bleb-like structures. The calcite dominates as spots on areas covered by the
blebs features. The basal part of this layer consists of more sandy sediments than the
upper part. Intergranular porosity is a bit fair but very hard to estimate by visual
examination. The thickness is about 3.08 m and is dominated by oil-stained, very-fine
sandy-coarse siltstone. It is underlain by the calcareous, laminated, silty sandstone
(MBK1). Laminations are dominated by wispy, continuous, and discontinuous forms. The
predominant feature of this facies is the existence of light, bleb-like structures of calcite
at the upper part of the layer and the pervasive (widespread) nature at the basal part. The
colour is grey, and the thickness is about 3.33 m with no fossils identified visually. This
facies marks an erosional surface lying directly on top of the Lower Bakken shale.
28
Underlying the lower black shale is a 5.05 m thick, highly dolomitic silt-mudstone and
dolomite belonging to the Torquay group.
3.3 12-11-16-31-W1
The well is capped by calcareous, fissile shale identified by its bituminous and
organic-rich shale that is characteristic of the study area. Underlying this bed is a
massive, highly bioturbated grey siltstone of the MBK4 facies. The thickness of the upper
shale is about 0.5 m while the lower siltstone is 1.78 m, respectively. The upper MBK4
succeeds, MBK3 with a gradational contact. The MBK3 (wavy, laminated, grey, and
calcareous siltstone) ranges about 1.98 m, consisting of some little black spots suspected
29
to be pockets of oil stains. The basal part of this facies is more calcareous than the upper
part, and it grades into the lower MBK2 and MBK1, which succeed each other
sequentially. They are oil stained and, at the middle part, less consolidated. This horizon
is noted as the upper non-calcareous very fine sandstone of MBK2. The difference
amongst them is the amount of calcite that dominates the lower part of the facies
representing the MBK1. The entire profile represents a fining upwards motif with a total
thickness of about 13 m. The MBK2 and MBK1 are 1.06 and 2.09 m thick, respectively.
They are bounded by a thin layer of about 0.15 m fissured and current rippled siltstone.
This is further underlain by the dolomite and mudstone of the Torquay unit with a
thickness of about 5.14 m.
30
3.4 10-11-16-31-W1
The section begins with a highly fossiliferous, calcareous, weathered, and
oxidized limestone. Oxidation is more intense at the mid part of the rock. Jointed
fractures, vuggy pores, and wispy current laminations are visible with minor burrows and
stylolites. The layer is about 7.97 m in thickness. The underlying Upper Shale is
calcareous and extends to about 2.3 m in thickness. It succeeds the upper massive and
highly bioturbated MBK4 lithofacies that extends over a length of about 2.65 m and is
non-calcareous, but contains minor fossils difficult to visualize. This layer grades into a
1.8 m thick calcareous siltstone with rotted pockets of oil stains marking the MBK3. The
underlying facies (MBK2 and MBK1) are somewhat similar. They are both oil stained, but
the MBK2 is less consolidated, less cemented, and more sandy than the underlying silty,
fine sandstone of the MBK1. MBK1 exhibits cross-laminations and is also more
calcareous. The only calcareous part of MBK2 is the top of the layer for about a few
centimetres. Both facies have a thickness of about 3.45 m (MBK2) and 1.25 m (MBK1).
They also have intergranular porosity.
31
Figure 8. Facies description showing MBK1-MBK4 in well 10-11-16-31-W1.
The MBK1 makes an erosional contact with the underlying weathered dolomite
and dolomitic silt-mudstone with an earthy, grey-green colour. The thickness is about 4.8
m. An interlay ring of mud and dolomites is pronounced in non-weathered zones.
Stylolites and a few vugs are also present, and Lower Bakken shale has possibly been
pinched out from this section. The figure below represents a base map of the area
showing various well locations.
32
Figure 9. Location map of the study area (AccuMap Software).
3.5 Other well descriptions (randomly selected wells)
3.5.1 PCP Flat Lake 10-15-1-16-W2
The well is located at range 16 west of the second meridian. It has an overall
thickness of about 16.70 m, and the interval ranges between 2328.6 and 2346 m. It
consists mainly of siltstone, sandstones, and shale. Sampling from top to bottom, the
section began with a 0.2 m thick massive, compact, greenish, fine, calcareous siltstone. It
33
is bioturbated and consists of minor burrows that are somewhat indistinguishable. This is
succeeded by a thin, light-greyish silt of about 2 cm, making a sharp contact with the
above, greenish layer. Average grain diameter is about 0.01 mm. It is further underlain by
a greenish-grey siltstone with tan white fragments of pebbly-size sand within the matrix.
The sample is about 2.8 m thick and shows a discontinuous, wavy type of lamination.
The pebbly-size sand patches are calcareous, and the visible petrophysical properties are
about 20%, which is rated as poor-medium on an average scale. Succeeding the above
strata is a calcareous sandy-silt to very fine-grained sandstone. The top part is dominated
by the sandy siltstone layer, while the bottom part is composed of a well sorted, fine- to
very fine-grained, oil-stained, clean sandstone. This sequence represents a fining upwards
trend.
Figure 10. Cross stratified, fine-grained, clean reservoir sandstone (10-15-1-16-W2).
34
The above-mentioned sandstone is assigned as the reservoir rock within the well
profile and is easily identifiable through a close examination of its reservoir properties.
Ripples and continuous wavy laminations are the dominant sedimentary structures
present at the top part of this layer. The basal part is parallel-laminated, cross-bedded, and
somewhat fossiliferous. Other structures include minor burrows, which are filled up by
pyrite. The next unit in succession is a 9.75 m bioturbated and laminated, sandy siltstone.
Laminations include wavy horizontal and ripple types dominating the top part. The lower
part has been bioturbated and, therefore, contains disrupted sands within the groundmass.
The rock is greenish-grey, calcareous, and contains brachiopod remains and burrows, also
filled by pyrites. The disruption of the sedimentary structures in the layer is interpreted as
an act of bioturbation and weathering processes. This horizon makes a sharp contact point
with the Lower Shale bed.
Figure 11. Fossilized brachiopod remains in a sandy siltstone (lower PCP FLAT LAKE).
35
This succession is terminated by a fissile, waxy-textured, organic-rich,
bituminous, carbonaceous, massive, black shale, possibly inferable as the Lower Bakken
source rock. It contains pyrite with tiny, internal, fractured surfaces. Grain size is almost
indistinguishable.
3.5.2 Innova Melrose k13-21-9-7-W2
Lithologic distribution in location k13-21-9-7-W2 from the top to bottom section
started with a waxy-textured, organic-rich shale. It is fine grained, fissile, massive, and
contains some pyrite. The thickness is about 2.4 m, marking a sharp contact point with
the lower mottled, greenish siltstone. Underlying the above shale is a greenish-dark
siltstone with a laminated part of fine-grained sand in a fine, silty matrix. It is somewhat
bioturbated and compactly well cemented. The above unit caps a lower 1.39 m parallel
laminated, sandy siltstone. The sandy laminations are weathered white, while the dark
part represents dark silt. The lamination is basically more concentrated on the upper part,
while the basal part is more bioturbated. This horizon grades into an oil-stained, silty
sandstone. Sedimentary structures present include ripples, and discontinuous, wavy
lamination. Also pyrite-filled burrows of almost 1 cm diameter are present. This rock is
generally calcareous and is about 8.12 m thick with average porosity of about 30%
(visual estimate). This is further succeeded by massive, greenish, bioturbated siltstone
that contains brachiopod remains that are also replaced by pyrite. The local stratification
ends with a dark, organic-rich shale. It has vein fractures that are filled with some calcite,
pyrite, and micaceous minerals.
36
Figure 12. Mud cracks in Lower Bakken Shale. Fractures are filled with white calcite and
pyrite.
37
At a depth of about 1441.48 m, a siliceous sand-size layer cuts the Lower Bakken
shale. The unit is about 4 cm thick, oil stained, with tiny fractures visible on the surface.
The section ends with a continuation of the black, organic-rich shale. The contact
between the shale and the siliceous layer is quite sharp. The whole section range is about
17.6 m.
3.5.3 Kincorp Hazelwood 31/2-8-12-4W2M/10
The section extends over a height of about 18.20 m in thickness and consists
mainly of dolomitic siltstone, mudstone, sandstone, and shale. It started with a fine-
grained mudstone with patches of sand fragments that gives the rock a mottled
appearance. The unit is bioturbated and ripple laminated. Some nodular structures are
present and are filled by dolomitic sands. This layer specifically is about 1.35 m. The
lower horizon is dominated by calcareous, oil-stained, dark-grey-green, sandy siltstone of
2.79 m that shows discontinuous, wavy, ripple lamination. The upper part is highly
bioturbated, and it makes a sharp contact with the underlying dark fissile shale (Lower
Bakken Shale). The shale lies unconformably on the lower, oil-stained sandstone. This
sand is possibly the producing layer at the top of the Torquay formation. Its porosity is
more than 55% (hand specimen), and it is calcareous, medium- to fine–grained, and has
no common bioturbation and burrow structures. Succeeding the above unit is a mid-basal
current-bedded, and somewhat brecciated layer of banded, greenish-greyish-reddish-
brown, dolomitic siltstone. The red colour is possibly caused by the process of oxidation
38
undergone by the rock. The basal part shows a graded bed pattern with some horizontal
laminations. Bioturbation is also not prevalent, and the thickness is about 11.51 m.
Figure 13. Unconformity between the Lower Bakken Shale and oil-stained Top Torquay
Sanish Sand (1284.88 m).
3.6 Depositional environment
Different origins and depositional histories have been postulated by many
scientists for the Bakken formation. True depositional conditions of the various members,
especially the Upper and Lower Shale, are still open to many questions. A likely
conclusion is that the Bakken Shale was deposited as suspension fallout on an anoxic
39
shelf below storm waves during basin-wide transgression. This interpretation is based on
the general characteristics of the rock, such as biofacies, sedimentary structures, colours,
and presence or absence of bioturbation. All these features mentioned above are in
conformity with the Bakken samples studied from the study area. The Lower Shale
mostly shows more fauna preservation than the Upper Member. This probably suggests a
fully marine condition. Thin lamination, absence of bioturbation, and dark colour reflects
an anoxic condition. Also, the brachiopod faunas found in some of the layers indicate
brief periods of increased oxygenation, while the scarcity of megafossils in the Upper
Shale reflects a prolonged anoxia (Thrasher, 1985). The Middle Bakken Member is
believed to have been deposited in a marine, oxygenate environment from offshore to
shore face (Smith-Bustin, 1999, 1996).
The Lower Bakken Shale was deposited during a relative rise in sea level
(transgressive system tract) and the mid-Bakken during a drop in sea-level (lowstand
system tract). The upper part represents a return of sea level rise. This is a cyclic-like
depositional model established by Smith et al. (1995) for the Bakken depositional history.
40
CHAPTER FOUR
A FLOW UNIT CONCEPT
After strategically identifying four major lithofacies (MBK1-MBK4) from the
Bakken Middle Member in the Rocanville pool, major flow zones and units were
identified using Modified Lorenz Plot technique and Winlands Equations Method. The
modified Lorenz plot identifies the flow unit by plotting cumulative flow capacity as a
function of depth where cumulative flow capacity is defined by the equation:
m n
Fm = cumulative flow capacity = ∑ kihi / ∑ kihi ; m = l,…, n
i=1 i=1
where:
n is the total number of reservoir layers, h is the thickness, and k is the permeability. The
layers are numbered in order from the shallowest layer i = 1 to the deepest layer i = m for
a cumulative flow capacity Fm at depth
m
Zm = Z0 + ∑ h i
i=1
41
where:
Z0 is the depth to the top of layer 1 from a specified datum. In the plot, a flow unit is
indicated by a unit of constant slope, while a difference in slope infers a change from one
flow unit to another.
The Winland method uses an equation that defines flow units by calculating the
pore throat radii at the 35% pore volume (R35).
Log R35 = 0.732 +0.588 log K – 0.864 log φ
where:
R35 = Pore radius corresponding to the 35th percentile
K (mD) = the permeability (air) and φ is the core porosity in percent (%).
This R35 categorizes intervals based on the similarity of their pore radii and at the same
time distinguishes them from those of difference pore throat sizes. Four different types of
flow units are identified by this method. They are labelled as A, B, C, and D,
representing, respectively:
• Megaport: Flow units with R35 of more than 10µm.
• Macroport: Flow units with R35 ranging between 2-10µm
• Mesoport: Flow units with R35 range between 0.5 and 2µm
• Microport Flow units of R35 less than 0.5µm
Each pore type as defined is interpreted as being capable of certain reservoir flow
performance indicative of its storage and transmissive qualities. According to Hartmann
and Coalson (1990) the R35 pore radii of a given rock body is reflective of its
42
depositional and diagenetic fabric and influences fluid flow and reservoir performance.
Although there are many reservoir flow unit models that have been proposed by past
authors, the approach used in this study combines both wireline logs, conventional core
samples, and the above-mentioned modified Lorenz Plot and Winland equation. It is also
important to note that the use of the Winland R35 method to categorize flow units works
better in integranular, interparticle, and intercrystalline pore types. Fractured and
connected vuggy reservoirs give a higher value (over estimation) for the R35 pore radius.
As defined by Ebank (1987), a flow unit is a volume of rock subdivided according
to geological and petrophysical properties that influences the flow of fluid through it. It is
that contiguous part of the reservoir sharing similar flow properties as characterized by
geological and petrophysical data. Before the advent of the choice (use of flow unit
model) for the Middle Bakken was concluded, both detailed and reconnaissance study of
the cores and logs from the Bakken formation of south-eastern Saskatchewan were
conducted based on their lithofacies variation, diagenesis, reservoir quality, and textural
parameters. Major factors affecting fluid flow in this petroleum system were also taken
into consideration and noted with reference to the amount of reservoir damage over
geologic time. Poor reservoir characterization and assessment has also affected many
engineering practices in the Middle Bakken. This has also engendered more cost, time
consumption, low oil recovery rate, and more work over design. The flow unit model was
also chosen for the Middle Bakken because:
• It identifies both production zones and underdeveloped areas in the reservoir.
• It resolves ambiguities that affect simulation results (horizontal barriers) and
identifies main flow channels within any sedimentary unit in a reservoir system.
43
• It helps predict permeability of uncored zones leading to effective reservoir
characterization and enables engineers and geologist to recommend effective
programs to optimize field operations.
• It identifies the nature and type of porosity present in Middle Bakken SE
Saskatchewan.
• The flow unit monitors well performance, saves cost and time, and is more
reliable than the use of lithostratigraphic correlation.
Many geological factors affecting field engineering practice in the Middle Bakken zone
have also been identified from the rock record. They include:
• Sediment composition
• Textural maturity
• Diagenetic effects such as:
- Compaction and pressure dissolution
- Carbonate and silica cementation
• Feldspar and clay mineral authigenesis
• Grain size distributions, grain packing and sorting, morphology, and
dolomitization.
• Clay swelling, dispersion, and migration
• Unconformities and faulted zones
• Facies discontinuity and complexity
• Wettability
• Reservoir depth/thickness
• Relative permeability of the reservoir fluids
44
• Well location and spacing
• Absence of bottom water
Detailed descriptions of these factors are given in the following sub-sections.
4.1 Procedures used in identifying flow units
Flow units were identified in this study using the following procedures:
• Establish a petrophysical relationship from core samples
• Determine the porosity and permeability
• Identify lithofacies using rock properties, degree of formation damage, and
petrophysical properties
• Identify flow units using modified Lorenz plot by plotting cumulative flow
capacity as a function of depth
• Identify flow units using Winland’s equation R 35 method and match both results
• Correlate between lithofacies, flow units, and geophysical logs
• Correlate the flow unit and the formation stratigraphy
• Build a 3D geological model incorporating the flow units
45
Table 1. Properties used in identifying flow units.
Geological: Petrophysical:
Texture Porosity
Mineralogy Permeability
Sedimentary Structure
Bedding contacts
Post depositional features
In reservoir evaluation, many natural and artificially induced factors affect
reservoir performance. As the demand for hydrocarbon increases with increasing world
population and consumption, it has become very vital and of utmost importance to attend
to all those factors impeding successful reservoir stimulation techniques and full recovery
factors from both natural and artificial production means. For the sake of analysis, it has
been very pertinent to define the geologic variables in both a quantitative and qualitative
manner by categorizing reservoir rock properties so as to recognize the interrelationship
between them. Reservoir rock properties can be grouped into primary, secondary
(dependent), and tertiary properties. Primary properties are addressed as such because
they are fundamental characteristics of the reservoir. They include definitive properties
such as mineral composition, texture, sedimentary structures, morphology, or shape and
size of a reservoir rock. It is also noted that these fundamental properties primarily
control the secondary or dependent reservoir properties, which include porosity,
permeability, fluid saturation, and bulk density.
46
Table 2. Reservoir rock properties, symbols, and units.
Primary Secondary Tertiary
(definitive) (dependent) (latent)
Composition (%) Porosity, φ (%) Resistivity, R (Ωm)
Texture Permeability, k (md) Spontaneous potential, SP (mV)
Sedimentary structures Saturation, S (%) Radioactivity, γ (counts/sec)
Morphology (descriptive) Bulk density, ρb (g/cm3) Sonic travel time, ∆t (µsec/ft)
A good illustration would be the secondary property called porosity. It is clear
that the storage or retention capacity of a reservoir rock is controlled or dependent on the
amount of mineral components, the primary cementing materials, diagenetic history, and
textural properties of grain size, sorting, grain packing, and shape. Hence, a good
understanding of the primary properties of a reservoir source is a qualitative insight
indicative of the secondary properties. The third group, called tertiary properties, are
those measured in drill holes or by geophysical logs. They include formation resistivity,
spontaneous potential, radioactivity (both natural and induced), and sonic travel time.
These properties are determined by mineral composition, porosity, permeability, and the
nature of the fluid in the rock body. These properties, as deciphered in Table 2, will pose
a great deal of difficulty in predicting the dependent variables at the subsurface without
an initial knowledge of their primary source or dependent variables. Over the years in
engineering practice, the laxity in looking back from the source to the end point has
created a huge gap in our understanding of reservoir rocks and their fluid content, which
prevents us from postulating quantitatively good amounts of stored reservoir fluids and
47
the ability to recover them. Therefore, a good understanding of all the micro and macro
geological variables in a reservoir formation such as the Bakken is the only insight to
quantitative prediction to improve recovery rate and stress-free design for any enhanced
oil recovery technique that is to be implemented in any reservoir. The Bakken formation
is one of the naturally endowed oil reservoirs severely affected by reservoir formation
damage during and after deposition. Many geological factors affecting engineering
practice in the Middle Bakken zone as identified and noted from the rock record are
discussed in detail in the following subsections.
4.2 Sediment composition
The Middle Bakken sandstone is composed of major framework grains as quartz,
feldspars, lithic fragments, and replacing calcite and dolomite within the matrix. Quartz
grains are the major components of many types of sandstone and are the most resistant to
weathering and abrasion during sediment transport. Quartz grains are divided into two
major groups, monocrystalline and polycrystalline quartz, which react in different ways
during transportation. They are the products of weathered granites, gneisses, and schist
(Blatt, 1967) and range between 0.25 to 2 mm in diameter (as found in medium-very
coarse-grained sand). Average sandstone contains about 65% quartz, but some are
practically 100% quartz. The majority of the grains are derived from plutonic granitoid
rocks, acid gneisses, and schists. Various varieties of quartz are recognized, and they
include plutonic quartz, volcanic quartz, vein quartz, and metamorphic quartz in the name
of recrystallized metamorphic quartz, schistose quartz, and stretched metamorphic quartz.
48
Also included are reworked sedimentary quartz and authigenic quartz, which occur as
overgrowths of idiomorphic crystals, nodular masses, veins, and geodes. For example,
quartz in sandstones has been found very useful in provenance evaluation. Criteria used
in this regard include extinction, crystal shape/size, vacuole/inclusions, and crystallinity
(polycrystallinity and monocrystallinity). For instance, quartz grains derived from
plutonic igneous rock are mainly monocrystalline with straight or undulose extinction,
equant shape, and inclusions of mainly igneous minerals (zircon, rutile, and mica). Quartz
grains contain fracture planes that are subject to parting during collision with other
particles. Generally monocrystalline quartz is more resistant than the polycrystalline type
because polycrystalline quartz is composed of several crystal boundaries ranging from
planar to sutured types, which are more prone to breakage during sediment transport.
Feldspars are derived from the weathering of igneous and metamorphic rocks and are the
second in abundance in a sandstone body due to their susceptibility to degradation. They
exist as the potassium rich feldspars (orthoclase and microclines) and sodium rich/
calcium feldspar (called plagioclase). The first class of feldspars are more resistant to
weathering than the plagioclase, but orthoclase also contains a cleavage plane along
which weathering occurs. Although plagioclase is more susceptible to chemical
weathering, all feldspars are subject to further chemical alteration after deposition and
during burial. In addition to quartz and feldspar, sandstone commonly contains rock
fragments. Many fine-grained rock fragments such as shale, schist, and volcanic glass,
are unstable in nature (chemically and physically). Shale and schist may be deformed
between more resistant grains during compaction and flow into adjacent pore spaces.
Volcanic glass is chemically altered to produce minerals during diagenesis with an
49
increase in bulk volume and pore space reduction. These labile grains reduce the porosity
and permeability in a sand body. Other components found in Bakken sandstone include,
matrix, accessory minerals, and cement (calcite and dolomite). Matrix is fine-grained
materials, composed mainly of clay mineral, that alter during diagenesis.
Diagenesis adds significantly to the total matrix through alteration of other
minerals. Feldspars alter into clay (kaolinite) by reacting with ground water, while some
kaolinite may form by precipitation form solution. Montmorillonite alters into illite above
a temperature of 100˚C. These degradations under diagenetic conditions are the major
source of fines, which constitute major problems for engineering practices in the Middle
Bakken. Accessory minerals are trace elements found in sandstone and are mostly in the
amount of 1% or less. They include mostly mica minerals (muscovite (K rich) and biotite
(Fe rich)) high resistant tourmaline and zircon, opaque minerals such as pyrites,
hornblend, and epidote, etc. They are generally of little significance to environmental
interpretation. A fully-detailed petrographic description of these rocks is contained in the
appendix.
4.3 Textural maturity and mineralogical maturity index
Textural maturity is defined as the degree to which sediment is free of interstitial
clay and is well sorted and well rounded (Folk, 1974). For instance, texturally immature
sandstone contains over 5% clay matrix, and the grains are generally angular and poorly
sorted. Submature sandstone contains less than 5% clay matrix, is poorly sorted, and is
not well rounded. Mature sandstone contains little or no matrix and is well sorted but not
50
well rounded, while super-mature sandstone contains no clay matrix, is well sorted, and is
well rounded. Textural maturity in sandstone is largely a reflection of the depositional
process. Where there has been minimal current activity, the sediments are generally
texturally immature, while persistent current or wind activities are reflected in more
mature sandstone. During transportation processes, sediments are progressively depleted
in unstable or labile mineral grains and chemically stable grains are concentrated.
Compositionally immature sandstone, for instance, contains many labile grains that are
unstable rock fragments and minerals, as well as much feldspar. Mature sand contains
more stable varieties of rock fragment, some feldspar and many quartz grains.
Compositional maturity basically reflects the weathering processes in the source area and
the degree and extent of reworking and transportation. Typically, compositionally
immature sediments are located close to their source area or they have been rapidly
transported and deposited with little reworking from the source area of limited physical
and chemical weathering, while compositionally super-mature sediments are the end
product of intense weathering, where all unstable grains have been removed, or they are
the result of intense abrasion and sediment reworking. From the petrographic analysis,
the Middle Bakken sands are ascertained as been mineralogical mature from the quartz,
feldspar, and lithic fragment composition.
51
4.4 Diagenetic effects such as compaction and pressure dissolution, carbonate, and silica
cementation
Diagenesis in sandstone, for example, has been divided into two broad stages,
namely:
• Early diagenesis (processes taking place from deposition and into the shallow
burial realm), and
• Late diagenesis (processes affecting the sediments at deeper levels and uplift).
4.4.1 Factors affecting sediment diagenesis (sandstone)
The principle factors or processes affecting sandstone diagenesis are compaction
and pressure dissolution, silica and calcite cementation, clay mineral and feldspar
authigenesis, and the formation of hematite coating and impregnations. Other factors that
are initial controls include the depositional environment, climate, composition and texture
of the sediments, pore-fluid migrations, and burial history. In the Bakken formation,
diagenesis has also affected the reservoir properties in the Middle Bakken. Several
references cited in the literature include the cementation and dissolution of calcite at the
western part of the Bakken, which created secondary porosity (Murry, 1980). A huge
reduction in porosity occurs around the study area (east) and that of the Middle Bakken in
the North Dakota area. According to Kent (1987), the Bakken reservoir in both
Saskatchewan and Manitoba is friable, silty sandstone with enhanced reservoir properties
due to the effect of dolomitization.
52
4.4.2 Compaction and pressure dissolution
Compaction is the reduction in bulk volume or thickness of pore spaces within a
body of sediment. Freshly deposited sand has an initial porosity of 40-45%. This value
decreases with depth of burial, and the amount and rate of compaction depends on the
porosity of the original sediment, the size and shape of particles, and time. Evidence of
compaction as seen in thin section include the presence of bent and fractured mica grains
and quartz grains, the dominance of straight, concavo-convex, and sutured types of grain
contact, and high mean contact index. Also, during burial, dissolution of grains is
observed at points of contact. This produces sutured type of grain contact between the
grains if they are of similar solubility, hardness, and concavo-convex type of grains
contact where one grain dissolves preferentially. Pressure dissolution takes place once a
rock is fully cemented to produce irregular or sutured cemented planes called stylolites.
The above diagenetic evidence is pronounced in the Bakken sandstone of the study area.
4.4.3 Silica cementation
One of the most common types of silica cement is quartz overgrowth. Quartz
overgrowth may be observed as subrounded detrital mineral cores wholly or partly
rimmed by an optically continuous jacket of secondary minerals of the same composition.
The shape of the original grain is delineated by a thin iron-oxide-clay coating between the
overgrowth and the grain (a dust line). The origin of silica for this cementation has
frequently been attributed to pressure dissolution. Pore solution becomes enriched in
53
silica, which is reprecipitated as overgrowth when supersaturation is achieved. Silica is
also present as cement in the form of microquartz, megaquartz, chalcedonic quartz, and
opaline silica. In some cases, the dust line between the grain and overgrowth cannot be
discerned with the light microscope; hence, the quartz grains appear angular and tightly
interlocking. This is mostly the case with the sample studies from the middle member.
Calcite and dolomite dominate the matrix. Cathodoluminescence is used in this case to
delineate the difference between the grain and overgrowth.
4.4.4 Carbonate cementation
Carbonate cementation includes calcite, which is one of the most common
cements in Middle Bakken sandstone. Other carbonate cements of more local importance
are dolomite and siderite. The cement may vary from an even to patchy distribution, to
local segregations and concretion. Two main types of calcite cement are:
• Poikilotopic crystals
• Drusy calcite spar
Poikilotopic crystals are large, single crystals up to several centimetres across, which
envelop many sand grains, while drusy calcite mosaics are equant crystals that fill the
pores between grains and coarses towards the centre of the original cavity. Apart from
filling pores, calcite with other carbonates may also replace grains. Calcite cement is also
common in grain supported sandstones such as quartz arenites, arkoses, and litharenites.
Calcite cement is identified by visual observation through its characteristic properties,
such as extremely high birefringence, shapeless grain, and its three cleavage traces.
54
Dolomite cement varies from pore filling microcrystalline rhombs to coarse anhydral
mosaic and large poikilotopic crystals. The most common are well-formed millimetre-
sized rhombohedra. They are commonly iron-rich, indicating precipitation in reducing
conditions. Siderite, on the other hand, occurs mostly as microcrystalline and fibroradiate
mosaic.
Figure 14. Various types of cement in sedimentary rocks (quartz and calcite) (after S.
Nelson, 2000).
4.4.5 Feldspar and clay mineral authigenesis
Authigenesis is the process by which a new mineral forms in place within an
enclosing sediment or sedimentary rock during or after deposition through replacement or
recrystallization. In many sandstones, feldspars are altered to clay minerals or replaced by
calcite. Illite and kaolinite are the most common authigenic clays in sandstone, but
montmorillonite, mixed-layer illite montmorillonite-chlorite also occur. Authigenic clay
minerals occur as pore filling cements and clay rims up to 5 mm thick around grains.
55
Kaolinite is pore filling, and it reduces the porosity of a sandstone but has little effect on
the permeability, where illite is pore-lining (forming rims), and it reduces permeability
considerably by blocking pore throats but has little effect on porosity. Kaolinite is
colourless, has low first order interference colour (shades of grey), has pore filling habits,
and has characteristic book texture, while illite has a high birefringence and normally is
pore lining.
4.4.6 Hematite cementation and pigmentation
Hematite typically occurs as a very thin coating around grains, but it also stains
red infiltrated or authigenic clay minerals and authigenic quartz and feldspar. Hematite is
amorphous or consists of micronized crystals, and these, as well, affect the amount of
porosity in sediments. Other diagenetic minerals in sandstone include sulphate and
sulphides, gypsum, and anhydrite, which occur as cements, and pyrite (accessory
diagenetic mineral), which occur as small cubes, clusters, etc. Most of these effects are
visualized properly under an electronic microscope.
4.5 Grain size and shape
Grain size is the basic descriptive element of all sedimentary rocks. Grain size
determination from drill cuttings should follow a disciplined procedure in order to obtain
an accurate estimate. The procedure includes:
• Size of individual grains
56
• Mean size of grains in individual cuttings
• Mean size of grains in all cuttings of same lithology.
Generally, fine-grained sediments have higher porosities than coarse-grained sediments.
Particle shape in sediments has been described in terms of roundness and sphericity.
Grain shape is of critical importance in cuttings evaluation, since it gives strong evidence
of the distance and mode of transport. Grain shape is an important influence upon
porosity and permeability. If the distance travelled by sediment from the provenance is
long, the particles will be more rounded and spherical and, thus, increase the pore throat
size. Sediments from the study area are dominantly medium grain and range from
subangular to subrounded grains.
4.6 Packing
The relation of grains to each other is termed an estimation of the degree of
packing. The concept of packing is very important to the understanding of the sediment
porosity. It also a good indication of the manner at which the grains are held in place by
tangent contacts with neighbouring grains. Packing is best visualized by assuming
systematic arrangement of uniform spheres (Graton and Fraser 1935). Packing can be
classified as cubic, single rhombic, orthorhombic, rhombohedral and tetragonal.
Maximum porosity is possible where grains are spherical and exhibit cubic packing given
a porosity of about 48%. On the other hand, a rhombohedral packing reduces porosity to
about 26%.
57
4.7 Sorting
The measure of the standard deviation is the spread of the grain-size distribution.
It gives an indication of the effectiveness of the depositional medium in separating grains
of different classes.
Table 3. Terms used in describing sorting values as deduced by the Folk and Ward
formula.
Less than 0.35 Very Well Sorted
0.35 - 0.5 Well Sorted
0.5 - 0.71 Moderately Well Sorted
0.71 - 1.00 Moderately Sorted
1.0 - 2.0 Poorly Sorted
Greater than 2.0 Very Poorly Sorted
Sorting in sediment is determined by several factors, which include sediment
source, grain-size, and the depositional mechanism. Poor sorting reflects variable current
velocity and turbulence during deposition, whereas good sorting reflects, smooth stable
flow. A good example of poor and good sorting is seen in storm beds and beach- or wind-
deposited sand. Poorly sorted sediments are less porous than well sorted sediment.
Variation in sorting from the Middle Bakken sandstone range from moderately-well to
poorly sorted.
58
4.8 Morphology
The size, shape, and extent of a reservoir body are referred to as its morphology.
This represents the shape of a sedimentary unit as determined by original depositional
processes. Morphology determines the reservoir volume, and, therefore, is the primary
property that most directly influences the economic potential of sandstones. This also
determines the type of water flooding patterns as well as influences the location of wells.
It is also a direct function of the number of platforms needed for an offshore reservoir.
Morphology indicates depositional origin on the degree of internal homogeneity and
suggests trends for the long axis or length for elongate bodies. It is also important to
know that morphology alone is not convincing evidence for depositional origin. The other
primary properties of the composition, texture, and sedimentary structures should be
matched to make the interpretation of morphology more certain.
4.9 Unconformities and faulted zones
This is simply defined as a significant break in geologic record or deposition.
Depending on the nature of the rock and the stratification of the reservoir (what formation
is below or above), injection into a horizon lying unconformably on another porous
formation will attract less production performance in water flooding and any enhanced oil
recovery technique because part of the injected fluid will flow beneath the target pay
zone into the underlying layer. This applies to the Bakken formation, which
unconformably overlies the Torquay formation in the study area. A fracture is a
59
deformational feature with or without a pronounced displacement. Some reservoirs
(sandstone or carbonates) might contain intraformational fractures (Bakken), which
enhance production by acting as permeability-assist components. Other cases might
involve a fault with a sealing plane, thereby reducing the connectivity flow between the
injection and the producing well. Overdimensional fractures that emanate due to
excessive pressure injection during treatment in fairly consolidated reservoirs may also
pose a problem. The fracture length extends up to the surface of the reservoir and leads to
a reduction in oil recovery on some fluid path into the overlying or underlying formation.
This causes significant damage and involves repeated cementation, plugging, perforation,
and fracturing, as well as multiple expenses on the entire operation.
4.10 Clay swelling, dispersion, and migration
In order to recover an optimal amount of oil from a hydrocarbon-bearing
reservoir, it is important to prevent as much as possible the swelling, dispersion, and
migration of clay particles. This dispersed and swollen clay can plug pore throats and
restrict fluid flow to the wellbore. Prior to drilling a wellbore, clay minerals are at
equilibrium with the formation water. Clay swelling, dispersion, and migration results
from the introduction of foreign fluids during drilling and completion, hydraulic
fracturing, acidization, production, or secondary pressure supplement. Generally, low
salinity fluid and high pH are most damaging. Migration of fine grains and plugging can
also occur if the wells are allowed to flow at unreasonable rates that cause disruptions and
migration around the wellbore in the reservoir. Clay stabilization is one of the ways in
60
which clay swelling, migration, and dispersion is stimulated. The physical and chemical
interactions of clay-rich shales with aqueous solutions, such as those contained in water-
based drilling fluids, can cause swelling and weakening of shale, creating huge practical
wellbore instability problems during drilling of wells in the reservoir. These forces acting
on shales are mechanical forces involving the pore pressure, the overburden (vertical) and
lateral (horizontal) stresses, and the cementation band stresses at the intergranular contact
point. This also includes the physico-chemical forces involving the electrostatic-born
repulsions, the Van der Wall attraction, and the hydration or swelling stress/pressure
resulting from the hydration/salvation of clay and ions contained in the clay interlayers
present in shales.
Figure 15. Effect of clay swelling and dispersion (Lanfax Laboratories).
4.11 Facies discontinuity and complexity
Inadequate geological models will pose a great problem over time as production
persists. This is seen in some field practices where some wells are responding at the
61
expected rate for the recovery techniques while others do not. Temporary response is
basically due to lack of good communication between the wells and the formation. Lack
or low lateral continuity in a formation will disrupt fluid flow and reduce recovery rate,
even though the reservoir seems highly permeable. This is prone in reservoirs having
subzones or separation from the pay zone by a continuous horizon. Another example is
the Elk Basin Madison formation where one of the zones was yielding less than expected.
Other examples of such geologic effects can be seen in some stratigraphic traps such as
discontinuous sand pinchouts and reservoirs sands encased in shale. To actualise maximal
recovery from such complex reservoirs as the Bakken formation, a good geologic
analysis is paramount, and it should also take into account the barriers triggered by non-
reservoir rocks to fluid flow. Facies changes should also be incorporated in the reservoir
assessment prior to water flooding or any other recovery technique.
4.12 Wettability
As the name implies, wettability is the ratio at which a certain fluid expresses
affinity or is attracted to a solid surface. In the reservoir, these influence fluid distribution
as well as flow properties. In water flooding practice, for instance, a reservoir with a
strong affinity for oil will pose a bad candidate because the oil will tend to hold back in
the reservoir and, therefore, reduce recovery, while a water-wet reservoir will attract
more water and tend to push more oil out of the system. Many water flooding exercises
have never reach maximum recovery in the Bakken due to this reason. Depending on the
nature/type of hydrocarbon, the wettability of reservoir rock is strongly affected by the
62
pressure or absence of molecules in the crude oil that absorb in or deposit on the mineral
surfaces in the rock.
4.13 Reservoir oil property
The nature or properties of the reservoir fluid plays a big role in the consideration
of a design for a recovery pattern. The API gravity of the oil and its viscosity are direct
functions of the fluid mobility, which in turn controls the sweep efficiency of a water
flooding program, for instance. Performance of water flood in a heavy oil reservoir will
reduce recovery due to the highly viscous nature of the oil in the reservoir. Some part of
the Bakken oil in Saskatchewan has API gravity of 17 degrees and is considered heavy.
Therefore, it would be worthwhile to consider the appropriate type of enhanced oil
recovery technique, such as using CO2 flooding rather than water flooding for such
reservoirs, although there exists a modest success rate with water flooding but likely for a
limited time.
4.14 Reservoir depth/thickness
The depth and thickness of a reservoir is also a good insight on how much fluid
(volume) it might contain when we consider the lateral extent. Thick reservoirs are better
candidates for most enhanced oil recovery procedures than thin reservoirs. Deep
reservoirs are cost effective in terms of oil lifting and induce higher injection pressure
than fairly deep reservoirs. When a reservoir is deep, it also creates more chances for
63
heterogeneity, which somewhat combats the economic cost of the entire project
(operation cost-effectiveness). The Bakken is a relatively thin reservoir in southeast
Saskatchewan; therefore, it might not be a good candidate for some recovery techniques.
4.15 Relative permeability
Oil, water, and gas are found in hydrocarbon reservoirs in ranging proportions.
During water flooding, water is injected to push out the non-wetting oil phase. The
relative permeability to oil will decrease as production continues, leaving behind only the
residual oil. However the relative permeability to water will increase as more water
comes in to fill up the pores emptied by the oil produced. Relative permeability is the
permeability measured at a specific fluid saturation expressed as a fraction of the total or
absolute permeability.
4.16 Well location and spacing
Well location and spacing in oil recovery design also influences the performance
of the exercise in a reservoir. Inappropriate well location and spacing introduces
problems affecting communication between the injection and production wells in the
field. In some reservoirs with sinkholes, the complete success of water flooding or other
recovery techniques may be hindered, as the sinkhole acts as a barrier in the water flood
scheme. Therefore, some wells located in sinkholes will be partially affected due to
64
spatial position of the surrounding sinkholes. This is a stratigraphic and structural
heterogeneity influencing reservoir permeability in the Bakken formation.
4.17 Absence/presence of bottom water
A bottom water injection program selected for water flooding design, for instance,
is meant to maintain the pressure in the reservoir. The application of this program for
water flooding depends on the changes in rock properties and the geology of the
reservoir. However, for the practice to remain successful, there must be good
communication between flows in both the vertical and horizontal direction without any
barriers, especially on the vertical side. This is not always the case within the study area.
Secondly, the reservoir must be uniform and have good natural continuity, which implies
that the volumetric sweep will be commensurate or large enough. In essence, the issue of
reservoir aquifer hydraulic connectivity can never be downplayed if maximum recovery
is to be actualized. Gravity also affects water flooding. Because the density of water is
heavier than that of the oil, water tends to flow further along the bottom of the reservoir
due to gravity segregation.
4.18 Organic formation damage
Deposition of wax is the primary source of organic deposition that might occur in
reservoir formation during petroleum production. Organic deposition occurs both at the
surface of the well tubing and formation pores, reducing the flow efficiency and
65
eventually clogging the interstices completely. The paraffins, asphaltenes, and resins
usually mix with some inorganic matter, such as clay, sand, and other debris. According
to Minssieux (1997), organic deposition begins within the upper section of the well over
which pressure drops below the asphaltenes’ flocculation pressure, with the organic
deposition zone gradually progressing towards the bottomhole and, eventually,
permeating the near wellbore formation. Formations or reservoirs rich in kaolinite clay
that normally has large specific surfaces can initially absorb and retain asphaltene and
resins rapidly. The precipitated asphaltene suspended in the oil phase also mixes and
forms larger aggregates that cannot pass through and are trapped at the pore throats. This
causes very severe damage to the formation permeability through plugging and filling of
the pore throat. Organic deposits usually seal flow constrictions because they are sticky
and deformable. Asphaltene deposition is not only limited to the near-wellbore region but
can also extend into the formation, unlike wax, which is deposited near the wellbore area
due to cooking of the oil emanating from the effect of high perforation pressure losses
and invasion during oil production. Low productivity of wells in asphaltene reservoirs is
due to decrease in effective mobility of oil caused by various factors (Amefule, et al.,
1988).
On a large scale, another problem associated with the Middle Bakken or rather
Bakken formation development in Saskatchewan is the attitude of the oil industry.
Companies are indulging in horizontal development without much understanding of the
reservoir geology. Taking more core samples through vertical wells will boost
understanding and improve a long-term production program, which is ultimately
preferable to a short, quick fix. For instance, in the study area, many facies have been
66
wrongly analysed, while some are possibly eroded from the lithologic section. Some of
these facies cannot be identified without adequate core logs and horizontal drilling only.
The design postulated in this thesis is to have two vertical core wells drilled at two
extremes and a horizontal well in the middle. This will boost the understanding of the
lithofacies and improve the engineering production plan and, in turn, yield a successful
long-term development program.
67
Table 4. Flow unit as identified using Winlands equation and Modified Lorenz plot (10-
11-16-31W1).
Facies Thick- Poro- Flow
Length ness Depth Perm sity Units
(m) H (m) Z (m) K (md) Porosity (%) KH ΣKH FM LOG R35 R35 (µ) A-D
0 0
652.17 9.17 9.17 0 0 0
0.31 9.48 0.3 0.154 15.4 0.093 0.093 0.000147 -0.5967 0.2530926 D1
0.3 9.78 0.3 0.171 17.1 0.09 0.183 0.00029 -0.6358 0.2312973 D2
0.18 9.96 1 0.172 17.2 0.18 0.363 0.000576 -0.3306 0.4671384 D3
MBK4
3 0.58 10.54 2 0.185 18.5 1.16 1.523 0.002415 -0.1808 0.6595352 C1
0.13 10.67 13 0.143 14.3 1.69 3.213 0.005095 0.39341 2.474057 B1
0.09 10.76 13 0.178 17.8 1.17 4.383 0.006951 0.31164 2.0494508 B2
0.3 11.06 0.3 0.122 12.2 0.09 4.473 0.007093 -0.5097 0.3092273 D4
0.18 11.24 0.6 0.157 15.7 0.108 4.581 0.007265 -0.4269 0.3741788 D5
0.1 11.34 92 0.199 19.9 9.2 13.781 0.021854 0.76969 5.8842836 B3
0.09 11.43 0.2 0.05 5 0.018 13.799 0.021883 -0.2801 0.5246763 C2
655.36 0.15 11.58 4.5 0.097 9.7 0.675 14.474 0.022953 0.26747 1.8512508 C3
0.12 11.7 2.1 0.032 3.2 0.252 14.726 0.023353 0.48704 3.0692761 B4
0.09 11.79 11 0.152 15.2 0.99 15.716 0.024923 0.32795 2.1279108 B6
0.16 11.95 0.2 0.047 4.7 0.032 15.748 0.024974 -0.257 0.553352 C4
MBK3
2 0.06 12.01 27 0.127 12.7 1.62 17.368 0.027543 0.62437 4.2108589 B7
0.24 12.25 75 0.145 14.5 18 35.368 0.056088 0.83576 6.8510879 B8
0.06 12.31 71 0.206 20.6 4.26 39.628 0.062843 0.69061 4.9047186 B9
0.15 12.46 51 0.095 9.5 7.65 47.278 0.074975 0.89521 7.8561355 B10
0.25 12.71 40 0.204 20.4 10 57.278 0.090833 0.54773 3.5296312 B11
0.27 12.98 35 0.174 17.4 9.45 66.728 0.105819 0.57304 3.7414475 B12
0.25 13.23 7.4 0.182 18.2 1.85 68.578 0.108753 0.15945 1.4435999 C5
657.27 0.3 13.53 311 0.241 24.1 93.3 161.88 0.25671 1.00921 10.214296 A1
0.55 14.08 474 0.355 35.5 260.7 422.58 0.670135 0.97216 9.3791025 B13
0.36 14.44 576 0.346 34.6 207.36 629.94 0.998972 1.03152 10.752835 A2
MBK2
1 1.1 15.54 629.94 0.998972 1
0.25 15.79 0.7 0.109 10.9 0.175 630.11 0.99925 -0.2513 0.5607004 C6
0.24 16.03 0.3 0.119 11.9 0.072 630.19 0.999364 -0.5004 0.3159198 D5
0.3 16.33 0.3 0.111 11.1 0.09 630.28 0.999507 -0.4744 0.335405 D6
660.57 0.31 16.64 0.2 0.109 10.9 0.062 630.34 0.999605 -0.5712 0.2684225 D7
MBK1
4 0.27 16.91 0.1 0.162 16.2 0.027 630.36 0.999648 -0.8962 0.1270039 D8
661.83 0.37 17.28 0.6 0.162 16.2 0.222 630.59 1 -0.4386 0.3642252 D9
4.08 21.36 630.59 1 - -
0.28 21.64 630.59 1 - -
10-11-16-31W1
68
Figure 16. Flow unit as identified using Modified Lorenz plot (10-11-16-31W1).
69
Table 5. Flow unit as identified using Winlands equation and Modified Lorenz plot
(03-11-16-31W1).
(m) H (m) Z (m) K (md) Porosity (%) KH ΣKH FM LOG R35 R35 (µ) A-D
655.7 3.4 3.4
0.5 3.9 0.93 0.149 14.9 0.465 0.465 0.0087894 -0.2954722 0.50644 C1
MBK4
3 0.3 4.2 0.03 0.145 14.5 0.009 0.474 0.0089595 -1.1622292 0.068829 D1
0.3 4.5 0.05 0.157 15.7 0.015 0.489 0.0092431 -1.0614793 0.0868 D2
0.3 4.8 1.5 0.152 15.2 0.45 0.939 0.017749 -0.1808438 0.659411 C2
656.9 0.15 4.95 0.82 0.181 18.1 0.123 1.062 0.0200739 -0.400281 0.39785 D3
0.2 5.15 0.02 0.149 14.9 0.004 1.066 0.0201495 -1.2759346 0.052974 D4
0.35 5.5 0.4 0.16 16 0.14 1.206 0.0227958 -0.5375319 0.290047 D5
MBK3
4 0.3 5.8 0.8 0.161 16.1 0.24 1.446 0.0273323 -0.3628533 0.433657 D6
0.3 6.1 0.22 0.153 15.3 0.066 1.512 0.0285798 -0.6734901 0.212085 D7
658.45 0.35 6.45 0.3 0.168 16.8 0.105 1.617 0.0305645 -0.6292187 0.234845 D8
0.15 6.6 17 0.184 18.4 2.55 4.167 0.0787646 0.36776064 2.332172 B1
0.25 6.85 0.5 0.172 17.2 0.125 4.292 0.0811273 -0.5075601 0.310771 D9
0.15 7 5 0.179 17.9 0.75 5.042 0.0953038 0.06554076 1.162896 C3
MBK2
2 0.2 7.2 9.8 0.201 20.1 1.96 7.002 0.1323517 0.19409232 1.56348 C4
0.25 7.45 2.5 0.186 18.6 0.625 7.627 0.1441654 -0.1257924 0.748527 C5
0.2 7.65 3.5 0.182 18.2 0.7 8.327 0.1573968 -0.0317494 0.929503 C6
0.25 7.9 0.29 0.163 16.3 0.0725 8.3995 0.1587672 -0.6265913 0.23627 D10
0.3 8.2 1.1 0.166 16.6 0.33 8.7295 0.1650049 -0.2929541 0.509385 C7
660.5 0.2 8.4 23 0.202 20.2 4.6 13.33 0.251954 0.41009379 2.570951 B2
0.3 8.7 17 0.193 19.3 5.1 18.43 0.3483541 0.34992468 2.238333 B3
0.2 8.9 10 0.194 19.4 2 20.43 0.3861581 0.21249051 1.631137 C8
0.25 9.15 15 0.193 19.3 3.75 24.18 0.4570405 0.31796237 2.079517 B4
0.2 9.35 7.8 0.166 16.6 1.56 25.74 0.4865276 0.20725867 1.611605 C9
0.15 9.5 25 0.204 20.4 3.75 29.49 0.5574101 0.42770678 2.67736 B5
0.15 9.65 5.1 0.137 13.7 0.765 30.255 0.5718701 0.17047158 1.480715 C10
0.3 9.95 12 0.147 14.7 3.6 33.855 0.6399172 0.36266566 2.304972 B6
0.1 10.05 27 0.203 20.3 2.7 36.555 0.6909526 0.4491953 2.813166 B7
MBK1
1 0.3 10.35 35 0.207 20.7 10.5 47.055 0.8894234 0.50817751 3.222386 B8
0.15 10.5 39 0.203 20.3 5.85 52.905 1 0.5430994 3.492202 B9
0.25 10.75 16 0.172 17.2 4 56.905 1.0756079 0.37746809 2.384889 B10
0.15 10.9 1.9 0.112 11.2 0.285 57.19 1.080995 -0.0064204 0.985325 C11
0.2 11.1 0.37 0.121 12.1 0.074 57.264 1.0823937 -0.4530928 0.352296 D11
0.15 11.25 0.39 0.106 10.6 0.0585 57.322 1.0834995 -0.3902171 0.407177 D12
0.2 11.45 1 0.109 10.9 0.2 57.522 1.0872799 -0.1601868 0.691533 D13
0.1 11.55 5.9 0.162 16.2 0.59 58.112 1.0984321 0.14507807 1.396619 C11
70
0.1 11.65 1.3 0.128 12.8 0.13 58.242 1.1008893 -0.1532019 0.702746 C13
664.33 0.25 11.9 1.2 0.135 13.5 0.3 58.542 1.1065599 -0.1935285 0.64043 C14
03-11-16-31W1
71
(01/12-11-16-31W1).
Facies Thick- Flow
Length ness Depth Perm Poro- Porosity Units
(m) H (m) Z (m) K (md) sity (%) KH ΣKH FM LOG R35 R35 (µ) A-D
656.2 1.78 1.78
0.06 1.84 4.8 0.155 15.5 0.288 0.288 0.0006 0.108885 1.28495 C1
0.49 2.33 8.3 0.112 11.2 4.067 4.355 0.0092 0.37009 2.34472 B1
MBK4
4 0.19 2.52 0.4 0.119 11.9 0.076 4.431 0.0094 -0.42696 0.37415 D1
0.36 2.88 1.5 0.151 15.1 0.54 4.971 0.0105 -0.17838 0.66316 D2
0.37 3.25 0.4 0.062 6.2 0.148 5.119 0.0109 -0.18345 0.65547 D3
0.15 3.4 38 0.149 14.9 5.7 10.819 0.023 0.651973 4.48717 B2
657.9 0.12 3.52 8.3 0.202 20.2 0.996 11.815 0.0251 0.149816 1.41194 C2
0.28 3.8 1.7 0.187 18.7 0.476 12.291 0.0261 -0.22628 0.59391 C3
0.12 3.92 5.1 0.208 20.8 0.612 12.903 0.0274 0.014517 1.03399 C4
0.24 4.16 1.3 0.176 17.6 0.312 13.215 0.028 -0.27214 0.53439 C5
0.21 4.37 1.4 0.17 17 0.294 13.509 0.0287 -0.24026 0.57509 C6
MBK3
3 0.16 4.53 0.6 0.139 13.9 0.096 13.605 0.0289 -0.38144 0.41549 D3
0.09 4.62 29 0.232 23.2 2.61 16.215 0.0344 0.41757 2.61559 B3
0.12 4.74 1.4 0.171 17.1 0.168 16.383 0.0348 -0.24245 0.5722 C7
0.12 4.86 0.8 0.109 10.9 0.096 16.479 0.035 -0.21717 0.6065 C8
0.09 4.95 1.6 0.157 15.7 0.144 16.623 0.0353 -0.17645 0.66611 C9
0.06 5.01 0.5 0.172 17.2 0.03 16.653 0.0353 -0.50756 0.31077 D4
659.5 0.07 5.08 25 0.161 16.1 1.75 18.403 0.039 0.516118 3.28185 B4
0.09 5.17 1.3 0.154 15.4 0.117 18.52 0.0393 -0.22227 0.59942 C10
0.18 5.35 25 0.07 7 4.5 23.02 0.0488 0.827204 6.71745 B5
0.06 5.41 0.4 0.11 11 0.024 23.044 0.0489 -0.39759 0.40033 D5
0.15 5.56 20 0.201 20.1 3 26.044 0.0553 0.376257 2.37825 B5
0.19 5.75 1.7 0.095 9.5 0.323 26.367 0.0559 0.026662 1.06331 C11
MBK2
2 0.09 5.84 6 0.122 12.2 0.54 26.907 0.0571 0.255283 1.80005 C12
0.18 6.02 3.6 0.064 6.4 0.648 27.555 0.0585 0.365791 2.32162 B6
0.24 6.26 11 0.208 20.8 2.64 30.195 0.0641 0.210804 1.62482 C13
0.19 6.45 169 0.201 20.1 32.11 62.305 0.1322 0.921249 8.34159 B7
0.09 6.54 39 0.242 24.2 3.51 65.815 0.1396 0.477465 3.00237 B8
0.15 6.69 3.9 0.158 15.8 0.585 66.4 0.1409 0.048701 1.11867 C14
0.09 6.78 - - 66.4 0.1409 - -
661.2 0.19 6.97 26 0.168 16.8 4.94 71.34 0.1514 0.510238 3.23771 B9
0.15 7.12 - - 71.34 0.1514 - -
0.15 7.27 33 0.175 17.5 4.95 76.29 0.1619 0.555873 3.59645 B10
0.12 7.39 27 0.09 9 3.24 79.53 0.1687 0.752993 5.66231 B11
MBK1
1 0.25 7.64 177 0.108 10.8 44.25 123.78 0.2626 1.165064 14.6239 A1
0.24 7.88 136 0.162 16.2 32.64 156.42 0.3319 0.946338 8.83767 B12
0.15 8.03 29 0.113 11.3 4.35 160.77 0.3411 0.686243 4.8556 B13
0.34 8.37 849 0.316 31.6 288.66 449.43 0.9535 1.164467 14.6038 A2
663.11 0.15 8.52 146 0.185 18.5 21.9 471.33 1 0.914872 8.22 B14
01/12-11-16-31W1
72
Figure 18. Flow unit as identified using Modified Lorenz plot (01/12-11-16-31W1).
73
(02-11-16-31W1).
(m) H (m) Z (m) K (md) Porosity (%) KH ΣKH FM LOG R35 R35 A-D
654.45 2.21 2.21
0.46 2.67 0.17 0.191 19.1 0.0782 0.0782 0.0003 -0.82218 0.1506 D1
0.35 3.02 0.02 0.169 16.9 0.007 0.0852 0.00032 -1.32298 0.04754 D2
MBK4
4 0.26 3.28 0.15 0.19 19 0.039 0.1242 0.00047 -0.85219 0.14054 D3
0.41 3.69 0.02 0.145 14.5 0.0082 0.1324 0.0005 -1.26577 0.05423 D4
0.17 3.86 0.41 0.185 18.5 0.0697 0.2021 0.00076 -0.58545 0.25975 D5
656.06 0.27 4.13 4.33 0.183 18.3 1.1691 1.3712 0.00519 0.02055 1.04845 C1
0.23 4.36 13.11 0.23 23 3.0153 4.3865 0.01659 0.21806 1.65221 C2
MBK3
3 0.27 4.63 17.57 0.194 19.4 4.7439 9.1304 0.03453 0.35642 2.27204 B1
0.34 4.97 9.93 0.239 23.9 3.3762 12.5066 0.0473 0.13278 1.35764 C3
657.21 0.4 5.37 72.85 0.292 29.2 29.14 41.6466 0.15752 0.56688 3.68875 B2
0.32 5.69 105.87 0.245 24.5 33.8784 75.525 0.28566 0.72788 5.34421 B3
0.33 6.02 41.24 0.243 24.3 13.6092 89.1342 0.33713 0.49019 3.09162 B4
0.27 6.29 17.76 0.205 20.5 4.7952 93.9294 0.35527 0.33856 2.18054 B5
0.39 6.68 44.67 0.239 23.9 17.4213 111.351 0.42116 0.51679 3.28691 B6
MBK2
1 0.29 6.97 24.61 0.232 23.2 7.1369 118.488 0.44815 0.37565 2.37495 B7
0.27 7.24 159.87 0.26 26 43.1649 161.653 0.61142 0.81094 6.4705 B8
0.26 7.5 40.89 0.272 27.2 10.6314 172.284 0.65163 0.4459 2.79191 B9
0.25 7.75 42.29 0.254 25.4 10.5725 182.856 0.69161 0.48007 3.02044 B10
0.27 8.02 56.02 0.217 21.7 15.1254 197.982 0.74882 0.61067 4.0801 B11
660.29 0.38 8.4 1.7 0.151 15.1 0.646 198.628 0.75127 -0.14642 0.71381 C4
0.28 8.68 21.15 0.164 16.4 5.922 204.55 0.77366 0.46652 2.92763 B12
0.17 8.85 0.03 0.046 4.6 0.0051 204.555 0.77368 -0.73342 0.18475 D6
0.2 9.05 8.83 0.214 21.4 1.766 206.321 0.78036 0.14407 1.39338 C5
MBK1
2 0.21 9.26 24.69 0.19 19 5.1849 211.506 0.79997 0.45107 2.82536 B13
0.36 9.62 33.86 0.267 26.7 12.1896 223.695 0.84608 0.40466 2.53896 B14
0.46 10.08 84.56 0.274 27.4 38.8976 262.593 0.9932 0.62871 4.25312 B15
0.34 10.42 4.96 0.164 16.4 1.6864 264.279 0.99958 0.09618 1.24789 C6
0.33 10.75 0.19 0.155 15.5 0.0627 264.342 0.99982 -0.71578 0.19241 D7
663.62 0.27 11.02 0.18 0.125 12.5 0.0486 264.391 1 -0.64924 0.22426 D8
02-11-16-31W1
74
75
Figure 20. Stratigraphic cross section with various flow zones.
76
4.19 Interpretation
The portion in the plot with the highest slope represents or corresponds with a
high permeability zone. The analysis, as shown for each well in Tables 4 – 7, represents
different wells ranging from 10-11-16-31W1, 03-11-16-31W, 12-11-16-31W1, and 02-
11-16-31W1, respectively.
4.19.1 10-11-16-31W1
MBK3 has an assorted type of pore radii. Prominent variation in fluid flow is
sensitive to the depth, as it comprises of both macro and mesoport type of flow radii at
both the upper and lower part and microport in the middle. Meanwhile, in the underlying
MBK2 the pore radii are predominantly the macroport types, suggesting a fair
permeability. The basal part of this flow zone represents the best flow unit from the well
having a megaport type pore radii with a R35 range of 10 um. This unit shows the best
permeability zone in the profile, suggesting good reservoir properties or properties that
have not been affected much since deposition. According to the Winland approach, facies
MBK4 from the table contains variable pore radii, which suggests a variable flow centre.
The pure radii range from dominant microport at the upper part to a mixture of
macroport, mesoport, and microport at the base. The depth is between 652.17 – 655.36 m.
Underlying this facies is the MBK3 facies that is dominated by macroport type of pores
radii and minor mesoport. This unit is somewhat fairer than the above lying MBK4 and
ranges from 655.36 – 657.27 m. A good flow unit zone capped the succeeding MBK2
77
facies, which is dominated at the upper part by megaport type of pore radii. The basal
part consists of microport set extending up to MBK1 in the well. Comparing this result
with the modified Lorenz plot, flow units were matched and identified with the largest
unit slope ranging from 3.5 m to 14.44 m (From the graph) . From the above profile, the
best flow unit zones are between the basal part of the MBK3 and top part of the MBK2
facies. The section begins with a low permeability zone and transcends into a fair to good
permeability area. This is followed immediately by a low permeability zone ranging
between 14.5 m to 17.5 m.
4.19.2 03-11-16-31W1
The upper part of this section (MBK4) is composed mainly of mesoport and
microport types of pore radii. It directly overlies the MBK3, which consists of a microport
system at the top and minor area of macroport and mesoport type of pore radii,
respectively. This zone is further succeeded downhole by the MBK2 facies dominated by
flow unit “adjusting” mesoport pores at the top part, “grating” into a variation of both
macro and mesoport sizes at the base. MBK1 is the basal part of the mid-Bakken unit in
the profile, and it is composed of upper macroport sizes and lower microport and a few
mesoport radii. This depicts the best range of flow unit falling within the MBK2 and the
upper MBK1 facies, respectively. From the Lorenz plot, the largest slope, which suggests
the highest permeability zone, is represented in the graph between 9.95 m and 10.75 m.
Reduction in permeability is more prominent in upper and lower part of the section, as
deciphered by the plot.
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14.19.3 12-11-16-31W1
In this section, there is a great variation in pore throat radius. From the top
lithofacies of MBK4 up to the basal part of MBK3, the flow unit types are dominated by
mesoport, microport, and intermittent macroport sizes. Although little variation is visible
at the basal part of the MBK3, mesoport and macroport dominate the upper MBK2, but
the macroport pore radii are more prominent at the base of the unit. This is succeeded by
the MBK1 unit, which is composed of both macro and megaport sizes at the bottom of the
section. The Lorenz plot is also very indicative of the flow units’ hierarchy, as it follows
the same trend. The area with the largest slope ranges between 7.27 m and 8.53 m, having
MBK1 as the best flow zone in this section.
4.19.4 02-11-16-31W1
The MBK4 marks the top of the Middle Bakken in this section. It is dominated by
microport pore radii at the upper part and minor mesoport flow units at the base. This is
underlain by the MBK3 facies that is almost representative of the macroport type. The
lower MBK2 is somewhat variable, as it consists of upper macroport and a significantly
variable base (meso, macro, and microports). The profile ends with the lowest MBK1 unit
with a top macroport system, intermittent mesoport, and a basal microport pore radii. The
Lorenz plot depicts the high flow zones (permeability zones) as ranging from 4.63 m to
10.08 m, representing the basal part of MBK3, MBK2, and upper MBK1, respectively.
The results were further matched with both wireline logs and cross sections obtained
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from core descriptions. A stratigraphic cross section of the Middle Bakken representing
the above wells and flow units is shown in Figure 20.
4.20 Petrography
The study includes a detailed description of the various lithofacies from the
Middle Bakken member in south-eastern Saskatchewan (Rocanville area). The analysis is
based on the description of about 20 cores sampled from the Bakken from four different
wells from the study area. Thin-section (rock slides) were cut and stained with alizarin
red and blue epoxy to facilitate reservoir property determination and diagenetic effects.
All analyses were carried out using petrographic microscopes. The study encompasses
the textural and compositional study of the rock samples, framework and matrix
percentage, grain contact and uniformity, roundness and sphericity, diagenetic effects,
and reservoir properties and their distribution using visual estimation. Generally, the
framework grains of the Middle Bakken rock are similar, but they differ in their reservoir
properties and level of diagenesis. Dominant lithology includes sandstone and siltstone
and some assorted variations. Sandstone ranges from very fine to fine, medium, and
coarse grained. Quartz is the dominant mineral and mainly of monocrystalline type with
variable straight to highly undulose extinction. The grains are typically subangular to
subrounded with a few rounded grains. There is no presence of overgrowth in most quartz
minerals. Monocrystallinity in quartz is indicative of the amount of maturity in the
Middle Bakken rock with respect to its source area. Other detrital minerals include
feldspar and lithic fragments. Feldspars include most orthoclase and a few plagioclases
that are somewhat altered and subrounded. Generally, feldspar averages to about 10% of
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the framework. Common lithic fragments are detrital carbonates, deformed mudclast, and
siltstone with some mica minerals existing as accessory minerals. The matrix consists
mainly of silty-clay minerals suspected to be illite, kaolinite, and chlorite. The grain
uniformity ranges from moderate to poorly sorted, and contact is mostly point and line
contact, suggesting a less severe compaction effect. Carbonate minerals represent the
main cement in the Middle Bakken. These exist both in intergranular and intragranular
forms, replacing some grains and fossils. Although both macro and micro dolomite
dominate the area, pervasive, massive, pore-filling calcite are also present. Other minerals
include iron-oxide and some pyrite.
4.21 Facies description
4.21.1 Massive bioturbated siltstone facies (MBK4)
This is a highly argillaceous, fine-grained siltstone rock. The mineral content is
suspected to include angular-subrounded quartz, some clay, micas, and chlorites, etc. A
cross-examination of this facies with through visual observation renders the grains quite
indistinguishable. It is highly matrix supported. Major cements include those of dolomite
and some calcite. The unit is poorly sorted, and the effect of cementation reduced the
reservoir quality to a porosity range less than 10%. This effect is also as a result of
numerous fine-grained materials embedded in the rock matrix. The maximum diameter is
about 1 mm, and iron oxide is also present as cement, while some dissolved grains, which
add to the porosity, are also noted. Citing the analysis with the flow unit plot, it is seen
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that the reservoir property (porosity) at a particular facies or subfacies is not dependent
wholly on the amount of porosity obtained from calculations but shows pronounced
variation in permeability, even with zones of fair to good porosity. This justifies the
effect of diagenesis that has taken place in the rocks over geologic time. Hence, MBK4 is
not considered a good reservoir zone due to the above irregularities and the fact that it is
dominated by micro and mesoport types of flow units as classified by Winland’s
equation.
10-11-16-31W1 2121.13 m 1nicol 10x of MBK4 (bioturbated siltstone facies)
Figure 21. Thin-section showing bioturbated siltstone of to the MBK4 facies.
4.21.2 Laminated sandy siltstone facies (MBK3)
This unit is a medium- to fine-grained, argillaceous grey, silty sandstone
composed of major quartz (both mono and polycrystalline types), glauconite, some rock
fragments, and clay in the groundmass. The cement constitutes a pervasive dolomite and
few calcites. Porosity range is between 5 and 10% from visual observation, and grain
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contact is dominated by point contacts, suggesting a fair compaction episode. The facies
is somewhat grain supported and is poorly sorted. Permeability also varies at intervals
with porosity from the analysis plot and vice versa but seems to be increasingly
downwards. The flow unit in this facies varies between meso and macroport types and
cannot be considered a good reservoir unit. Permeability range also increases downwards.
A 2-11-16-31W1 657.86 m 1nicol 10x
B 12-11-16-31W1 2152 m 1nicol 10x
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C 12-11-16-31W1 2154.69 m 1nicol 10x
D 10-11-16-31W1 2123.4 m 1nicol 10x
Figure 22 (A-D). Thin-section showing laminated sandy siltstone of the MBK3 facies.
4.21.3 Silty sandstone facies (MBK2)
This facies is a medium- to fine-grained, arenitic sandstone dominated by quartz,
feldspar (Pl) and mica as accessory minerals. It is grey in colour and fairly sorted with a
maximum diameter of about 1.5 to 2 mm. Quartz grains are mainly monocrystalline and
range from subangular-subrounded to rounded. This facies is cemented by dolomite, but
84
in some intervals, about 40% of this layer is dominated by calcite. Porosity range from
the microscopic study is about 10 to 12% (Visual Observation). The compaction effect is
not the same as that inferred by the type of grain contact (point contacts). From the flow
unit plot, this zone is dominated by variable flow units ranging from mesoport to
dominant macroport flow types. Hence, permeability increases downwards. In the study
area, the results drawn from the analysis also indicate that diagenetic effects and fine
effects alternate downhole, thereby fostering an increase in the reservoir permeability.
A 2-11-16-31W1 660.53 m 1nicol 10x
B 3-11-16-31W1 662.63 m 1nicol 10x
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C 10-11-16-31W1 2128.5 m 1Nicol 10x
Figure 23 (A-C). Various rocks and reservoir properties present in the silty sandstone
facies (MBK2).
4.21.4 Argillaceous sandstone facies (MBK1)
This facies consists of a medium- to coarse-grained, grey, arenitic sandstone with
major quartz, feldspar, and lithic fragments (mica) as accessories. Quartz grains are
dominantly monocrystalline and are subangular to subrounded. The facies is moderately
sorted, and cementation includes those of calcite, dolomite, and some iron oxide.
Dolomite replaces some grains, and the effect of dolomitization reduced the porosity to
10-18% (Visual observation). Lack of presence of bent micas and dominant point type of
grain contact also reveals the smaller effect of compaction. The MBK1 facies also has
variable flow units ranging from meso to macro and a few megaports. This facies seems
to be more oil stained and somewhat less argillaceous than others. Although it does not
represent a good reservoir zone in all the wells analysed, it seems to be one of the most
probable based on interval characteristics. The importance of hydraulic flow cannot be
underplayed in reservoir evaluation, especially in very tight formations like the Bakken.
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Interval performance can easily be predicted, and a general concept of the entire reservoir
volume and performance pictured.
A 2-11-16-31W1 662.7 m 1nicol 10x
B 10-11-16-31W1 2124.07 m
Figure 24 (A-B). Dominant calcite cement and replacement of grains and fossils.
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CHAPTER FIVE
SIMULATION MODEL
Based on the geological characteristics, flow zones, and pre- and post-
depositional effects ascertained from core analysis and petrographic examination from
the Middle Bakken (south-eastern Saskatchewan), a reservoir simulation model was built
to simulate the oil production and postulate ways of enhancing the oil recovery factor.
This work aims at simulating the Middle Bakken in order to achieve and define the
following:
1. Identify and study the ultimate recovery and performance using different modes
of operation (e.g., water or gas injection, natural depletion, etc.).
2. Identify the most effective and appropriate EOR method for the Bakken resource
in south-eastern Saskatchewan.
3. Note the onset of secondary recovery and type pattern to be used.
4. Evaluate the effect of well-spacing in post depositional factors in a naturally
fractured reservoir such as the Bakken formation.
5. Identify the effect of permeability in the tight Middle Bakken.
6. Evaluate the effects on production rate, recovery factor, and general field
development.
The simulation design introduced in this work is the CMG-BuilderTM. Adequate initial
reservoir data were utilized and gathered from various sources such as AccumapTM,
88
GeoScoutTM, subsurface geological labs, Vancouver Petrographic lab, and the Ministry of
Energy and Resources in Saskatchewan. This study also encompasses numerous face-to-
face discussions and interviews with many working professionals. Specifically, CMG
IMEXTM is the compositional simulator used to accurately model this single porosity
reservoir. A good representation of the reservoir structure was obtained from the contour
map, isopach map, and top maps referenced from the provincial well records and
information system. Having used a single porosity model for the Middle Bakken
simulation, a multiple of the permeability rate was introduced in order to represent
fracture porosity. A 3D grid pattern and size of 15x15x4 was also used, rounding to a
total of 900 blocks. Due to the thin nature of the Middle Bakken in the study area, the
simulation cannot be carried out based on different facies zones as identified; rather, a
wholesome thickness has been assumed for a better sensitivity conclusion. Sensitivity
tests chosen for the model were limited to the reservoir characteristics and the capacity of
the compositional simulator used. Detailed economic values were not fully considered for
the purpose of this project, but were somewhat analyzed. About six specific wells were
chosen and assessed from the Rocanville area for various EOR methods, which include:
1. Conventional water flooding,
2. Infill drilling, and
3. Horizontal well with multi-stage fracturing.
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Figure 25. Reservoir model of Middle Bakken field.
As previously emphasized, not all EOR methods can work in a tight formation as
the Middle Bakken; therefore, conducting a pre-simulation study seems pertinent prior to
field operation.
90
Table 8. PVT Analysis table.
P Rs Bo Eg viso Visg co
kPa m3/m3 m3/m3 Cp Cp 1/kPa
101.325 0.720653 1.01165 0.950977 4.00034 0.0116269 4.35E-06
150.17 0.8764 1.01191 1.41062 3.97244 0.0116312 4.35E-06
199.015 1.03702 1.01219 1.87106 3.9441 0.0116358 4.35E-06
247.86 1.202 1.01247 2.3323 3.91544 0.0116407 4.35E-06
296.705 1.37093 1.01276 2.79433 3.88656 0.0116458 4.35E-06
345.55 1.54348 1.01305 3.25716 3.85752 0.0116512 4.35E-06
394.395 1.71938 1.01335 3.72079 3.8284 0.0116568 4.35E-06
443.24 1.89839 1.01365 4.18522 3.79925 0.0116625 4.35E-06
492.085 2.08033 1.01397 4.65045 3.7701 0.0116685 4.35E-06
540.93 2.26501 1.01428 5.11648 3.74101 0.0116746 4.35E-06
589.775 2.4523 1.0146 5.58332 3.712 0.0116808 4.35E-06
638.62 2.64205 1.01493 6.05096 3.68309 0.0116872 4.35E-06
687.465 2.83414 1.01526 6.51941 3.65432 0.0116938 4.35E-06
736.31 3.02848 1.01559 6.98867 3.62571 0.0117004 4.35E-06
785.155 3.22496 1.01593 7.45873 3.59726 0.0117072 4.35E-06
834 3.4235 1.01628 7.9296 3.56901 0.0117141 4.35E-06
2067.2 8.95545 1.02602 20.0889 2.93761 0.0119215 4.35E-06
3300.4 15.1826 1.03737 32.7768 2.46387 0.0121804 4.35E-06
4533.6 21.8886 1.05001 45.9945 2.11017 0.0124849 4.35E-06
5766.8 28.9682 1.06375 59.7273 1.84074 0.0128341 4.35E-06
6000 36.3572 1.07848 73.9391 1.63063 0.0132281 3.43E-06
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Table 9. Reservoir parameters.
Reservoir temperature (TRES) 32 C

Oil density (DENSITY OIL) 842.172 kg/m3
Gas density/gravity
(DENSITY/GRAVITY GAS) 0.554
Water density
(DENSITY WATER) 1019.12 kg/m3
Oil phase viscosity pressure
dependence (CVO) 0 cp/kPa
Water formation volume factor
(BWI) 0.997951
Water compressibility (CW) 4.39116e-007 1/kPa
Ref. pressure for water
(REFPW) 14000 kPa
Water viscosity (VWI) 0.885977 cp
Pressure dependence of water
viscosity (CVW) 0 cp/kPa
Reservoir temperature (TRES) 33 C
Oil density (DENSITY OIL) 842.172 kg/m4
Gas density/gravity
(DENSITY/GRAVITY GAS) 1.554
Water density (DENSITY
WATER) 1019.12 kg/m4
Oil phase viscosity pressure
dependence (CVO) 1 cp/kPa
API gravity 36.4
Water saturation 0.3500
Net pay 6–9m
Mean depth 715 m
All Rocanville wells selected have been producing since 1965, and production data
utilized to update the numerical model via a history match. The history match obtained
for each well’s oil rate turned out as good, which implies that the numerical model built
was close to reality and could be used for further study. The plots below show the history
matching results of each Rocanville well and oil rate.
92
Figure 26. History matching of well 01/02-11-016-31W1.
93
94
Figure 31. History matching of well 01/11 – 11 – 016 – 31W1.
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Using the plot as shown by the simulator, the oil recovery factor has been
evaluated. The recovery rate is relatively very low, which is typical of normal Bakken
wells in south-eastern Saskatchewan.
Figure 32. Oil recovery factor of the study area.
The low recovery rate can be attributed to some possible factors to which the
Middle Bakken reservoir is prone, such as:
1. Inadequate geologic study prior to drilling (core analysis, pre- and post-
depositional factors),
2. Relatively thin formation thickness,
96
3. Low permeability rate characteristic of tight formations, and
4. Poor natural displacement energy in the reservoir.
5.1 EOR methods and results
From a traditional point of view, oil recovery has been apportioned into different
stages known as primary, secondary, and tertiary recovery methods. The sensitivity of
these recovery stages is based on and affected by the natural reservoir characteristics in
any formation. For instance, in the Bakken formation, primary recovery is somewhat
negligible because of the low economic rate emanating as a function of poor
permeability, low reservoir drive, and amount of oil viscosity in place. In this study,
several techniques of EOR methods are considered. However, it is important to
emphasize that not all EOR methods can work in such tight formations as the Middle
Bakken formation. For the purpose of this study, conventional water flooding, infill
drilling, and the more expensive, but efficient, horizontal wells with multi-stage
fracturing are considered.
5.1.1 Water flooding
From the simulation study done using water flooding technique in the Middle
Bakken, the results show that after many years of production, some of the wells have
shown uneconomic oil production potential. Further decision was made to transform
97
some of the wells into injection wells. Water was continuously injected into the reservoir
in order to obtain high pressure and drive of the oil towards the production wells.
Figure 33. Water flooding configuration with two injector wells.
After 30 years of water flooding, the results indicate that there was no significant
increase in the oil recovery factor, rendering water flooding ineffective as a means of
improving oil recovery in the Middle Bakken.
98
Figure 34. Oil rate and recovery factor of water flooding.
5.1.2 Infill drilling
Conventionally, it is proven that infill drilling between producer wells could
improve oil recovery from a reservoir. A trial of this sensitivity test was also considered
and analysed for the Middle Bakken field. Two infill vertical wells were used for this
analysis.
99
Figure 35. Infill wells configuration.
The result obtained depicts oil production rate for each well and all the wells
declined to a very low level of production after about 40 years. This measure increased
the recovery factor significantly and can be applied in the Middle Bakken. Although the
vertical infill wells seem effective, the economic cost, adequate well spacing, and
locations must be accurately determined to maximize the success rate.
100
Figure 36. Oil production rate of each well.
Figure 37. Total oil production rate and recovery factor.
5.1.3 Horizontal well with multi-stage fracturing
The success rate of horizontal drilling is banked on the fact that they permeate and
increase the surface area contacted in a reservoir. This technique has opened significant
101
pay zones, which contribute to a viable economic production rate in many reservoirs. A
better approach is the introduction of multi-stage fracture in horizontal wells because of
its efficiency in producing in low permeability or tight formations. In this simulation
model, permeability equivalent was applied to represent the hydraulic fractures created in
the reservoir, as shown in Figure 38.
Figure 38. Horizontal wells with multi-stage hydraulic fractures.
Certain reservoir engineering considerations are given to the overlying and
underlying formations when fracturing a horizontal well. These factors are very important
because the propagation of the hydraulic fracture is very difficult to control when created
vertically or when it permeates another formation or a water bearing area. This could be
controlled by drilling a well in a position parallel to the minimum horizontal stress. This
102
approach has also been postulated by Kendall (2008) and is believed to control the
fracture height and length created in a reservoir formation.
In the study area, some hydraulic fractures created in some Bakken fields tend to
propagate into the underlying Sanish sand, thereby increasing general operation costs and
a possible ruin in production. In south-eastern Saskatchewan, the minimum horizontal
stress, as postulated by Kendall (2008), is in the north-south direction.
For this simulation work, two horizontal wells with different lengths and twelve
multi-stage fracs were used in place of six original vertical wells. After the same time of
production, higher production rate and recovery factor were actualized using multi-stage
fracturing in the Middle Bakken.
Figure 39. Oil production rate from horizontal wells with multi-stage hydraulic fractures.
103
From the figure above, we can conclude that horizontal wells with multi-stage
fracture show a sharp increase in production at the beginning but decline very fast over a
short period.
Other scenarios run experimentally with this method include:
1. Infill drilling using horizontal wells
Two horizontal infill wells were drilled and fractured after 20 years of production,
as seen in the figure above. After 15 years of production, the results also showed that the
two wells (Well 1 and Well 4) declined very rapidly, and there was no significant impact
on production. The emphasis here is that horizontal infill wells cannot enhance oil
recovery significantly in tight and relatively small reservoirs such as the Middle Bakken.
To maximize the productivity using this technique in tight formations, the candidate
reservoir should be big enough to allow desired well distance or spacing between
horizontal wells.
Figure 40. Locations of two horizontal infill wells.
104
Figure 41. Production rate of infill horizontal wells.
Figure 42. Oil recovery factor of infill horizontal wells.
105
2. Continuous water injection
Knowing that the productivity of horizontal fractured wells decline too fast, two
vertical injection wells were drilled to inject water continuously in the system.
Figure 43. Saturation profile after about 15 years of water injection.
From the above profile, oil has been driven to the horizontal wells to a certain
extent by the water. Nevertheless, the production rate and the oil recovery factor have not
been increased by the process.
106
Figure 44. Oil production rate after water injection in 1985.
Figure 45. Oil recovery factor of continuous water injection.
107
Based on the simulation study carried out in the Middle Bakken (Rocanville,
south-eastern Saskatchewan), the following conclusions were drawn:
1. A numerical simulation model has been produced and updated by history matching
with production data from Bakken field.
2. Conventional vertical wells are not the best candidates for producing tight formations,
such as the Middle Bakken, due to their low productivity. Water flooding could not
enhance oil production rate and recovery factor in this thin and tight reservoir.
3. Vertical infill wells, with proper well spacing and locations determined, might enhance
oil recovery factor. However, it is expensive and entails more drilling activity.
4. From this study, horizontal wells with multi-stage fractures seem to be the most
efficient way of producing the Middle Bakken formation. Though their production rates
decline very fast, they usually obtain very high oil recovery factor with fewer wells in
place.
5. Water flooding does not show a significant effect on enhancing oil recovery of the
reservoir with horizontal wells. Infill horizontal wells with multi-stage fractures do not
seem promising in relatively thin reservoirs.
6. Due to the nature of the simulator used, we could not run a sensitivity test on CO2
flooding or a mixture of both multi-stage frac and CO2. However, the reservoir thickness
also poses a bigger challenge for this type of approach.
7. A sensitivity test on various Middle Bakken pools is encouraged solely based on the
lithology and the reservoir characteristics.
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CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The Devonian/Mississippian Bakken formation is a source rock capable of
generating oil at burial depths exceeding 2743 m. Three intervals are present: upper and
lower black shale and a middle siltstone and sandstone (study area). The shale intervals
were deposited under oxygen-restricted conditions where marine algae were preserved
and served as the main kerogen source. The organic matter weight percent ranges from 7-
13% for the shale rock. Characterized by extremely low matrix permeability, the Middle
Bakken and the associated Lodgepole and Three Forks formations have reservoir
potentials when in-situ fracturing develops in the rock. In the United States, 87 wells in
35 fields currently produce at a combined rate of 2930 BOPD and 144 BWPD. Oil
produced from the Bakken formation of Saskatchewan is mostly from a few fields,
namely Rocanville, Roncott, Viewfield, and the Court area. Production from Bakken in
south-eastern Saskatchewan has increased from approximately 300 m3/month since July
2003 to about 5700 m3/month in February 2005. The Bakken petroleum system serves
both as a source and reservoir rock.
In Saskatchewan, production emanated from the middle member sandstone in the
Rocanville field in 1957. The pool yielded very minimal associated gas and about 0.5 bbl
of water per barrel of oil. The API gravity range is about 36˚ or more, and it is quite
similar to the Bakken oil in the United States. The problem with the Middle Bakken
109
production is the need for fluid flow enhancement, as the wells do not flow naturally
enough without artificial lift via pumps and a few secondary /EOR reservoir treatments.
In the Rocanville field (study area), for instance, the Bakken produces at a
shallow level of about 2200 ft (671m). This is quite a bit more shallow than the actual
depth necessary for oil generation from the lower member shale (Meissner, 1978). This
suggests that the oil migrated into the middle member rock from Bakken shale buried
deeper in the basin, where depth, pressure, and temperature were conducive and
significant enough to generate oil. Common stimulation/completion practices in the
Bakken formation include use of horizontal and multilateral wells, hydraulic/multi stage
fracturing, pre-frac acidization, water flooding, caustic flooding with water, CO2
flooding, and a combination of the above processes with special treatments such as
breakdown treatment, use of swellable packers, well spacing in hydraulic fracturing, etc.
Recently, most Bakken production in Saskatchewan has been limited to the middle
member sandstone and siltstone. Additional production was also recorded from the over
and underlying shale members in North Dakota. The economic success has attracted
interest in land/lease acquisition and more exploration programs in North Dakota and the
Estevan area in southeast Saskatchewan. In any stimulation project, the most important
concern is the amount of reservoir heterogeneity that would impede desired permeability
volume in the reservoir. The reservoir properties of a rock body are centred within its
porosity and permeability. The amount of porosity and permeability in the mid-Bakken
rocks (e.g., sandstone or siltstone) vary spatially. Porosity reduction in sediments usually
occurs during or after deposition due to diagenetic processes in sediments. These effects
are defined in the form of mechanical compaction, quartz and carbonate cementation, and
110
pressure dissolution, whereas porosity enhancement reflect dissolution of framework
grains and carbonate cements.
Moreover, core permeability in sediments (sandstone) varies markedly at any
given depth in the Middle Bakken (study area). Variations in permeability likely reflect
differences in grain size, total cement volume, and amount of primary against secondary
porosity features. Coarse-grained sandstones have higher permeability than fine-grained
sandstones. Some rocks might be porous but not permeable (e.g., highly argillaceous
sandstones, shale, and unconnected vuggy rocks). According to petrographic
observations, some of the original permeability variations that emanated due to grain size
differences are preserved despite varying degree of diagenesis subsequent to deposition.
Mineralogically-mature rocks of the Middle Bakken with greater porosity and
permeability is a good candidate, not just for hydrocarbon accumulation and migration,
but also with respect to supporting and favouring further recovery techniques such as
water flooding and CO2 flooding. Heterogeneity is a significant factor impeding maximal
success rate from the Middle Bakken Member. In order to eradicate this issue, the Middle
Bakken was, firstly, subdivided into four different facies ranging from MBK1 to MBK4 in
the study area.
A flow unit concept was also concluded and used to study the Middle Bakken
flow zones. From the above study, the following conclusions/suggestions were made
about the Middle Bakken in south-eastern Saskatchewan (Rocanville area):
• Areas of variable permeability and flow zone were easily identified through a
flow unit model.
111
• Interwell performance is detected easily and more accurately without loss of time
and much cost.
• The trend of reservoir property change in each facies in the Middle Bakken varies
with the degree of diagenesis encountered since deposition. This implies that the
porosity and permeability value are inconsistent in the study area; rather,
permeability variation is dependent on the extent of geologic damage undergone
by such facies or subfacies.
• The use of a flow unit in the Bakken identified both the pay and non-pay zones in
the reservoir and gave a good insight for further engineering practice, such as a
stimulation plan.
• Diagenetic and fine sediment effects are the major problems hindering
permeability in the Middle Bakken.
• Both the over and underlying Lodgepole and Torquay formation have good oil
storage capacity and contribute to the Bakken success rate. The controversial or
rather undefined scenario is the amount of contribution from these formations.
6.1 Recommendations
The following suggestions are drawn from the study presented in this thesis:
• What makes a good well treatment is the amount and length of time it would
increase production in the reservoir. An exploration development plan with the
use of only horizontal wells hinders long-lasting recovery and, most importantly,
accurate understanding of the Middle Bakken formation rocks. A more suitable
112
solution would incorporate vertical wells from which more core samples are
taken. A core from a well is still the most accurate source of information about the
reservoir and its present condition. A more reliable plan would be to have two
vertical wells with one horizontal well in the middle.
• A detailed local stratigraphic description is encouraged on a facies to facies basis
to foster a better understanding of the Bakken. However, some lithologic
descriptions have only been narrowed to a regional scale, hindering a better
production plan and output.
• The Middle Bakken lithology in south-eastern Saskatchewan also varies from
place to place. An interfacies description, as mentioned above, is important
because, from the analysis, a facies with a good reservoir quality in a well might
turn out to be a non-reservoir in another zone, even within the same pool.
• Since the thickness of the Middle Bakken in the study area ranges between 8 and
11 m, and some facies, such as MBK3 and MBK4, exhibit some porosity and
pockets of oil stain, a stimulation plan involving the whole Middle Bakken is
suggested.
• The availability and use of accurate realtime data to build a model incorporating
the flow unit will help any engineering design for both secondary and tertiary
recovery levels is recommended for future work.
• A multistage fracturing extending into all facies is recommended for the Middle
Bakken sand and siltstone, but the effect of overpressuring in fractures and
fracture collapse should be monitored accordingly. Also, the nature of proppant
used ranked high as regards to the reservoir characteristics.
113
• Due to the enormous heterogeneity in the Middle Bakken zone, specialty wireline
logs such as MFT (compact formation tester), CXDS (compact crossed dipole
sonic) and CMI (compact micro imager), and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance are
recommended for a better understanding of the reservoir matrix, micro resistivity,
porosity, pore size measurement, permeability, and irreducible water saturation.
Although a good success rate has been achieved in some Bakken fields both in Canada
and the USA, a complete sensitivity test analysis on the various production techniques is
recommended to achieve wide and detailed research data on the Bakken formation.
114
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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2. Baig T., Droegemueller U., Gringarten A., 2005, Productivity Assessment of
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Condensate Reservoir, SPE 93136, Madrid
3. Bennion D., Thomas F., Imer D., Ma T., 2000, Low Permeability Gas Reservoirs
and Formation Damage – Tricks and Traps, SPE 59753, Calgary, Alberta
4. Bennion D., Thomas F., Ma T., 2000, Processes Reducing Productivity of Low
Permeability Gas Reservoirs Formation Damage, SPE 60325, Denver, Colorado
5. Besler M., Steele J., Egan T., Wagner J., 2007, Improving Well Productivity and
Profitability in the Bakken – A Summary of Our Experiences Drilling,
Stimulating and Operating Horizontal Wells, SPE 110679
6. Biniwale S., Behrenbruch P., 2004, The Mapping of Hydraulic Flow Zone Units
and Characterisation of Australian Geological Depositional Environments, SPE
88521, Adelaide, Australia
7. Breit V., Stright D., Dozzo J., 1992, Reservoir Characterization of the Bakken
Shale from Modeling of Horizontal Well Production Interference Data, SPE
24320
115
8. Christopher J., 1961, Transitional Devonian-Mississippian Formations of
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9. Civan F., 2007, Reservoir Formation Damage, GPP, Elsevier
10. Cox S., Cook D., Dunek K., Daniels R., Jump C., Barree B., 2008,
Unconventional Resource Play Evaluation: A Look at the Bakken Shale Play of
North Dakota, SPE 114171
11. Craft B., Hawkins M., 1991, Applied Petroleum Reservoir Engineering, Prentice
Hall PTR, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey
12. Cramer D., 1986, Reservoir Characteristics and Stimulation Techniques in the
Bakken Formation and Adjacent Beds, Billings Nose Area, Williston Basin, SPE
15166, Billings, Manitoba
13. Dow W., 1974, Application of Oil-correlation and Source Rock Data to
Exploration in Williston Basin, AAPG Bulletin, v. 58, no. 7
14. Dunn C., 1975, The Upper Devonian Duperow Formation in South-eastern
Saskatchewan
15. Fanini O., Kriegshäuser B., Mollison R., Schön J., Yu L., 2001, Enhanced, Low-
Resistivity Pay, Reservoir Exploration and Delineation with the Latest
Multicomponent Induction Technology Integrated with NMR, Nuclear, and
Borehole Image Measurements, SPE 69447, Buenos Aires
16. Francis D., 1956, Jurassic Stratigraphy of the Williston Basin Area
17. Fuller J., 1956, Mississippian Rocks and Oilfields in South-eastern Saskatchewan
18. Green D., Willhite G., 1998, Enhanced Oil Recovery, Richardson, Texas
116
19. Halabura S., Buatois L., Angulo S., Piche L., 2007, From Source to Trap: a
Review of the Bakken Petroleum System, Upper Devonian-Mississippian, South-
eastern Saskatchewan
20. Ju B., Lu G., Luan Z., Wu Z., 2001, A Study of Removal of Organic Formation
Damage by Experiments and Modeling Approaches, Jakarta
21. Karma R., 1991, Conodonts of the Bakken Formation (Devonian – Mississippian)
in Saskatchewan, Northern Williston Basin, in J.E. Christopher, F. Haidl (eds.),
Sixth International Williston Basin Symposium, Saskatchewan Geological
Society Spec. Publication 11
22. Kent D., 1968, The Geology of the Upper Devonian Saskatchewan Group and
Equivalent Rocks in Western Saskatchewan and Adjacent Areas
23. Kent D., 1974, A Stratigraphic and Sedimentologic Analysis of the Mississippian
Madison Formation
24. Kents P., 1959, Three Forks and Bakken Stratigraphy in West Central
Saskatchewan
25. Kreis L., Costa A., 2005, Hydrocarbon Potential of the Bakken and Torquay
Formations, South-eastern Saskatchewan
26. Lafage S., 2008, An Alternative to the Winland R35 Method for Determinig
Carbonate Reservoir Quality, Texas
27. Lantz T., Greene D., Eberhart M., Norrid S., Pershall R., 2007, Refracture
Treatments Proving Successful in Horizontal Bakken Wells: Richland Count,
Montana, SPE 108117
117
28. LeFever J., 1991, History of Oil Production from the Bakken Formation, North
Dakota, in W. B. Hansen (ed.), Montana Geological Society 1991 Guidebook to
Geology and Horizontal Drilling of the Bakken Formation, Billings, Montana
29. Maynard J., Potter P., Pryor W., 1980, Sedimentology of Shale. Study Guide and
Reference Source, Springer-Verlag, New York
30. Mille B., Paneitz J., Yakely S., Evans K., 2008, Unlocking Tight Oil: Selective
Multi-Stage Fracturing in the Bakken Shale, SPE 116105
31. Mille B., Paneitz J., Mullen M., Meijs R., Tunstall M., Garcia M., 2008, The
Successful Application of a Compartmental Completion Technique Used to
Isolate Multiple Hydraulic Fracture Treatments in Horizontal Bakken Shale Wells
in North Dakota, SPE 116469
32. Mohr R., Estrada C., Norrena K., 2005, 3D Geomodelling and Flow Simulation of
the Late Devonian Bakken Formation in South-central Saskatchewan – Case
Study: Smiley Buffalo Heavy Oil Waterflood, SPE/PS-CIM/CHOA 97733,
PS2005-327, Calgary, Alberta
33. Moore C., 1989, Carbonate Diagenesis and Porosity, ESP, Elsevier
34. Murray G., 1968, Quantitative Fracture Study, Sanish Pool, McKenzie County
North Dakota, AAPG Bulletin, v. 52
35. Nelson S., 2000, Petrology. Sandstones and Conglomerates
36. Nichols R., 1970, The Petrology and Economic Geology of the Upper Devonian
Birdbear Formation in South-eastern Saskatchewan
37. Porter J., Fuller J., 1959, Lower Palaeozoic Rocks of Northern Williston Basin
and Adjacent Areas, AAPG Bulletin, v. 43
118
38. Powell A., Bustos O., Kordziel W., Olsen T., Sobernheim D, Vizurraga T., 2007,
Fiber-Laden Fracturing Fluid Improves Production in the Bakken Shale
Multilateral Play, SPE 107979
39. Shenawi S., Al-Mohammadi H., Faqehy M., 2009, Development of Generalized
Porosity-Permeability Transforms by Hydraulic Units for Carbonate Oil
Reservoirs in Saudi Arabia, SPE 125380, Saudi Aramco
40. Shoaib S., Hoffman B., 2009, CO2 Flooding the Elm Coulee Field, SPE 123176
41. Smith M., Bustin R., 1997, Regional Sedimentology and Stratigraphy of the
Upper Devonian and Lower Mississippian Bakken Formation, Williston Basin
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Flooding Simulation, SPE 124628, Louisiana, New Orleans
44. Tabatabaei M., Mack D., Daniels R., 2009, Evaluating the Performance of
Hydraulically Fractured Horizontal Wells in the Bakken Shale Play, SPE 122570
45. Von Osinski W., 1970, Geology and Production History of the Bakken Formation
of the Rocanville Area, South-eastern Saskatchewan
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119
APPENDIX
PETROGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE MIDDLE BAKKEN SAMPLE
(THIN-SECTION ANALYSIS)
120
This table represents the microscopic analysis results obtained from Middle
Bakken thin-sections. Emphasis is laid on the damages to reservoir characteristics and
diagenetic properties of the Bakken sandstone.
121
SAMPLE MINERAL CEMENT SORTING GRAIN ROCK ROUNDNESS COMMENT
COMPOSITION CONTACT CLASS
10-11-16-31W1
2122.34 Q: Qm > QP Pervasive Poorly sorted Dominant Medium-fine Mostly An
F: OR dolomite and point contact grains subangular argillaceous
(accessory) some calcite argillaceous grains rock that is
RF: Gluconite sandstone somewhat
and argillites grain-
(accessory) in supported
groundmass with porosity
ranges
between 5 and
10%. The
rock reservoir
properties are
damaged by
the pervasive
dolomite
cement and
argillaceous
materials
within the
matrix.
2121.13 Qm and minor F Major Poorly sorted Point contact Very fine Subangular A very fine-
(page 106) (suspected), as dolomite and grained grained,
most mineral some calcite massive argillaceous,
grains are siltstone bioturbated,
indistinguishable. grey rock that
Argillites is well-
dominate the cemented by
groundmass. dolomite and
Other suspected calcite.
minerals include Porosity
micas, chlorite, range is about
silt, and iron 5 to 10%.
oxide. Dissolution
effect is also
noticed and
believed to
have
contributed to
porosity.
Maximum
grain
diameter is
about 1mm.
2124.07 Q: Qm >> QP Dominant Fair to Floating and Medium Subrounded Drastic
(page 113) F: PI (accessory) calcite and medium few point grained reservoir
RT: Accessory minor iron sorting contacts sandstone property
mica grains oxide/dolomite damage
through
pervasive
calcite
cement.
Calcite and
iron oxide
also replaces
some grains
and fossils.
Maximum
grain
diameter is
about 3 to 5
mm. Some
dissolved
grains are also
present, some
of which are
replaced by
iron oxide.
Porosity is
about 3%.
2128.5 Q: Qm > QP Calcite, Moderate Dominant Fine grained Subangular - Quartz grains
(page 111) F: PL dolomite and sorted point and a arenitic subrounded are prevalent
RT: mica iron oxide few line sandstone and are
contacts subrounded.
Porosity
range is about
23%. Part of
this rock has
been possibly
dolomitized,
and the
maximum
grain
diameter is
about 2 mm.
2125.63 Q: Qm > QP Dolomite with Medium Point contact Arenitic Subangular – Porosity
F: phagiochase some patches poorly sorted sandstone subrounded, a measures
and muscovite of calcite few rounded between 10
mica as and 12% with
accessory a maximum
diameter of
about 1.5 to 2
mm. About
40% of the
rock is
covered by
dolomite
cement.
2-11-16-31W1
656.38 Q: Qm > QP Dolomite, Poorly sorted Point contact Subarkosic Quartz grains A fine- to
F: Or and Pl calcite and and some arenite are mainly medium-
RF: micas and iron oxide floating subangular grained, grey,
some argillites subrounded argillaceous
suspected to be rock that is
chlorites somewhat
grain-matrix
supported.
Porosity falls
within 20 and
22%, and
some quartz
grains are
floating. This
suggests that
compaction
has not been
very severe
since
deposition.
657.86 Q: Qm >> P Dolomite Moderately Point contact Arenitic Subangular A fine- to
(page 108) F and micas are well sorted and some line sandstone subrounded medium-
suspected but contact grained rock
within the matrix with high
as accessories porosity
covering
about 60-70%
of the rock.
Maximum
diameter is
about 0.1 mm,
while
cementation
effect is less
pronounced.
660.53 Q: Qm > QP Dominant Moderately Point contact Arenitic Subrounded - Medium- to
(page 111) F: Or chase Mica calcite and sorted sandstone rounded coarse-
and iron oxide dolomite grained, grey
are embedded in sandstone
the matrix as with less than
accessories 11% porosity.
Dolomite
count replaces
grains, and
maximum
grain
diameter is
about 2-5
mm.
662.7 Q: Qm > QP Pervassive Moderately Point and line Arenitic Subrounded Fine- to
(page 113) Feldspars and dolomite and sorted types of grain sandstone quartz grains medium-
micas are also patchy contact grained
present replacing sandstone
(plagioclass) calcite composed of
subrounded
quartz,
feldspar, and
mica. Cement
has reduced
porosity to
about 10-
12%, and
garnet is
possibly
replaced by
dolomite. It is
somewhat
grain
supported,
and grain
diameter is
about 2 mm.
3-11-16-31W1
658.93 Q: Qm > QP Dominating Medium-poor Point contact Highly Subrounded Fine, grey,
F: Orthoclass dolomite a few sorting argillaceous subangular argillaceous
RT: Mica and calcite arenite or quartz rock with a
some clay sandstone matrix
minerals supported
background.
The matrix
has been
covered by
the dolomite,
reducing
porosity to
about 10-
15%, and
maximum
grain
diameter is
about 1.5 mm.
660.55 Q: Qm > QP Calcite and Moderate – Point Arenitic Subangular Fine- to
F: M + Pl minor well sorted sandstone subrounded medium-
RF: mica and dolomite grained rock,
argillites as somewhat
chlorites argillaceous
(suspected) with calcite as
the dominant
cement.
About half of
the sample is
porous, while
the lower part
is affected by
calcium
cement.
Porosity is
about 18%,
and the
maximum
grain
diameter is 2-
5 mm.
662.08 Q: Qm >> QP Dolomite, Poorly sorted Point and line Greyish Subangular Fine- to
F: M + Pl calcite and contact arenitic subrounded- medium-
RT: mica as iron oxide sandstone rounded grained,
(accessory) quartz argillaeous
sandstone;
porosity range
is about 15%.
Compaction
effect is not
very
pronounced,
since the
grain contact
is not sutured
or growing
into one
another.
662.63 Q: Qm > QP Dolomite and Moderately Point contact Arenitic Subrounded- Fine- to
(page 111) F: Accessory Pl calcite sorted Point sandstone rounded medium-
and mica present contact quartz grains grained rock
with about 9-
11% porosity.
The matrix is
covered by
dolomite, and
some grains
are rimmed
by calcite.
Maximum
grain
diameter is
2.3 mm.
12-11-16-31W1
2152 Q: Qm > QP Calcite and Moderate Point contact Arenitic Subangular Coarse-
(page 108) F: Pl (accessory) dolomite well sorted sandstone subrounded grained rock
RT: mica and with about
some clay 10-12%
minerals porosity. The
(muscovite) upper part is
covered by
calcite, while
dolomite is in
patches and
also replacing
some grains.
2154.69 Q: Qm > QP Dolomite and Moderate Dominant Arenitic Subangular Coarse-
(page 108) Accessory calcite iron- poorly sorted point contact sandstone subrounded grained,
feldspar and oxide arenitic
mica grains and a sandstone
small amount of with calcite
weathered garnet and dolomite
covering the
matrix. Iron
oxide is
slight, and the
calcite
replaces
grains.
Maximum
grain
diameter is
about 4.0 mm.
Reservoir
properties
have been
affected
significantly
at the upper
part, and the
basal part has
about 10%
porosity.

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GEOLOGICAL EFFECTS AND PETROPHYSICAL FLOW UNIT

FOR THE MIDDLE BAKKEN MEMBER,

Submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research

In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

Master of Applied Science

Petroleum Systems Engineering

Anthony Ugochukwu Amadi

Copyright 2012: A. U. Amadi

FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES AND RESEARCH

SUPERVISORY AND EXAMINING COMMITTEE

Co-Supervisor: Dr. Gang Zhao, Petroleum Systems Engineering

Co-Supervisor: Dr. Hairuo Qing, Department of Geology

Committee Member: Dr. Hussameldin Ibrahim, Process Systems Engineering

Committee Member: Dr. Fanhua Zeng, Petroleum Systems Engineering

Chair of Defense: Dr. Paul Laforge, Electronic Systems Engineering

*Not present at defense

The Devonian-Mississippian Bakken formation is a relatively thin heterogeneous

fields. It represents a single petroleum system that consists of a heterogeneous Middle

technology combined with accurate reservoir evaluation measures.

in the US and Middle Member Siltstone and Sandstone of Viewfield, Hummingbird,

A cross examination of the Bakken core samples, geophysical logs/production

explanation, such as the introduction of a geological/petrophysical flow unit in the

rate of 2930 BOPD and 144 BWPD.

Bakken formation in south-eastern Saskatchewan. The Middle Bakken is endowed with

been limited to certain modern technologies and stimulation/completion practices,

including the use of horizontal and multilateral wells, hydraulic/multi-stage fracturing,

to help identify ideal approaches for improving production in tight formations.

My sincere indebtedness goes to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research of

during the course of this study.

rewarding period of study.

Regina Amadi, and brother, Paul C. Amadi.

Table 1. Properties used in identifying flow units………………………………... 46

Figure 1. Location of the Williston Basin in North America (US Geological

low permeability reservoirs such as the Bakken formation in south-eastern Saskatchewan.

petrophysical flow units in reservoir characterization.

stretches across Montana, North Dakota, and Saskatchewan. It is a tight reservoir

The major expectation of any producing reservoir is to be able to transmit the

assuming proper engineering practices, as well as to expecting maximal economic

recovery. This includes proper analysis of the depositional environment, mineralogy,

diagenetic features, and reservoir properties characterization and evaluation.

of their properties is essential in the production of subsurface fluids. Their primary

properties of texture, composition, sedimentary structures, morphology, and depositional

leads to better apprehension of any reservoir diagnosis.

quantitative and qualitative manner by categorizing reservoir rock properties in order to

recognize the interrelationship between them. The Middle Bakken is highly

formation damage can be referred to as the impairment of the permeability of petroleum-

bearing formations by various adverse processes. It can also be defined as an undesirable

hydraulic fracturing; and work-over operations.

most important issues to be resolved for efficient exploitation of hydrocarbon in the

Middle Bakken reservoirs. Formation damage is caused by many factors, including

physico-chemical, chemical, biological, hydrodynamic, and thermal interactions of

drilling activities, production, work-over, and different recovery techniques, such as

can be remedied through advanced technology. Therefore it is important to avoid damage

production up to the tertiary recovery process. Accurate design, modelling, and

simulation approaches also rank high on understanding diagnosis, reservoir evaluation,

prevention, remediation, and total control of reservoir formation damage in implementing

secondary and tertiary recovery in oil and gas reservoirs.