Real-life Application

Modern day Electronics

due knowledge of quantum mechanics
Nano Technology exists to our

Electron Microscopy

4. QUANTUM THEORY OF RADIATION

4.1. Introduction
Newton's corpuscular theory of light fails to explain phenomena like interference, diffractio
polarisation, etc. To explain these phenomena, a new theory was proposed by Huygen in 167 tion,
namely the wave theory of light. According to Huygen's wave theory, light can travel in the form
waves. Based on this theory, the above phenomerna are successtully explained. Later, the
electromagnetic theory was introduced by Maxwell.
However, new phenomena like the Compton effect, photoelectric effect, Zeeman efet
emission of light, absorption of light, etc. cannot be explained by the above theories. Th
failure of these theories to explain the new phenomena led to the discovery of a new theory,
namely, the quantumtheoryof radiation of light.
In order to explain the distribution of energy in black radiation, Planck introduced the
body
quantum theory in 1900. Let us first consider the black body radiation and the distribution of
energy spectrum.
4.1.2 Black Body Radiation
A perfect black body is one which absorbs radiation of all wavelengths incident upon it.
Further, such a body cannot transmit or reflect any radiation and therefore, it appears black.
A black body radiate
can
energy in all possible wavelengths when it is heated to a suitable
temperature. This radiation is called black body radiation or total radiation.
4.1.3Characteristics of Black Body Radiation
Black body radiations are characterised
by Kirchhoff's law, Stefan's law and Wein's law.
According to these laws, black body radiations are stated as follows:
Kirchhoff's Law The ratio of emissive power (e) to the coefficient of
wavelength is the same for all bodies at a given temperature and itabsorption (4,) ofa given
is equal to the emis*
power (E) of a perfect black body at that
temperature.
(4.1)

Stefan's Law The radiation energy (Q) emitted

per unit time per unit area ot a perreee
body is directly proportional to the fourth
power of its absolute temperature T.
 Quantum Physics 4.3

QaT
Or Q =o T (4.2)
where oi s
is the proportionality constant known as Stefan's constant and its value is
X 10-S Wm
?K-4
5.78
ins Law Wein's law states that the wavelength corresponding to maximum energy 1s
Weir
corresponding
inversely proportional to absolute temperature (T).
i.e. AT= constant (4.3)
The wavelength ot the energy radiated from the body is shifted from maximum to
minimum value during the increase in temperature of the black body. The value of this

constant is 2.982 X 10-3 mK.

4.1.4 Energy Distribution in Black Body

20 0 K Series of attempts have been made to explain the

E
1750 K distribution of energy among different wavelengths in
black body radiation. Stefan's fourth power law fails to
explain how the energy is distributed among different
150 K wavelengths.
1250 K The energy, distribution from

explained by Lummer and

a
Pringsheim,
black body was
as shown in
Fig. 4.1.
From the above graph, the following observations are
Fig. 4.1 Energy spectrum-black body
radiation
made:

i) The distribution of the energy is not uniform.

increases up to a particular
(ii)For a particular temperature, the intensity of radiation
with increase in wavelength.
wavelength and then it is found to decrease
shifts towards shorter wavelengths.
(11) As temperature increases, the peak energy
In 1893, Wein made the first attempt to explain the observed results. He derived the energy
and 7 + dias
density in the wavelength range 1
E da = k2-5 e-alAT da (4.4)
of the black body. This formula holds
Where and k are constants and T is the temperature
a

for short wavelengths and fails at higher wavelengths and temperatures.

g0od only was explained by Rayleigh and, Jean
Later, the distribution in the spectrum
energy
in 1900, i.e.

E da = BA-4 TeralAT da (4.5)

good holds only for longer wavelengths.
nere Bisa constant. This law and Rayleigh explanations,
the energy spectrum of black
the application of Wein
based on
considering the utility of the above two laws,
Oy radiation can be explained partly. By failed to
i.e., continuous emission of radiations,
dschen concluded that the classical theory,
explain the above phenomenon.
4.4 Engineering Physics
in the shet

for the
distribution
of energy
lanck, the
to Planck, the
trum of
suitable
explanation
in 1900. According
give a hypothesis byv COn
n
a black
order to

body, Planck suggested

discrete energy
a new

of oscillating
electrons

With s o m e
and not
assumptions
continuous
due to the radiation law
spectrum is only derived the
necessary

electrons. Therefore, he
Law
and Radiation of the radiation law
4.1.5 Planck's Hypothesis derivation

made by Planck for the

of oscillating partisl
rticles
The tollowing are the hypothesis is made up
of a number

the black body l h e frequency

of radiation fro
trom
i) Planck assumed that frequencies.
vibrate in all possible
particles can
The as that of
vibrating particles. radiate enero.
the body is the s a m e continuously. Ihey will
unit called quanta or nho
cannot emit energy
(1) The oscillatory particles of i.e., a small
a discrete packet
energy, from one state to
only in the form of can radiate energy
when the oscillators move
discrete in nature. The valo
(11i) The vibrating particles not continuous, but es
is
radiation of energy hv.
The n
0, hv, 2hv, 3hv, 4hv*
another.
oscillators are like
of the energy of the as
No N, Na, Na*N According
number of vibrating particlesin
thebody 0, 2e, 3e,
Let consider
us the above particles can be written as ne,
8,
to Planck's hypothesis,
the energy of the
Therefore, the total number of vibrating particles
+ Ng +** + N, (4.6)
N= N% + N+N2
Similarly
the total energy of body
E =
0+ 8 + 2e + 3s + + ns (4.7)

Therefore,
the average energy of the particle

(4.8)
nth oscillatory
According to Maxwell's distribution formula, the number of the particles in the
system can be written as,

N=Noe-ne/kT (4.9)
is the average energy per oscillator, k the boltzmann constant and T the absolute
where e

temperature.
Extending Maxwell's distribution function to the present system, the total number o

particles N can be written as,

N = No + N,e"elkT + Noe-2e/kT +Ng e-3e/kT + (4.10)

(4.11)
or N No [1+ e-elkr+e-2e/kT +e-3e/kT ...
Since Eq. (4.11) is similar to the well known mathematical expression
1
1+X+x++=-
(1-x)
 Quantum Physics 4.5

Therefore, Eq. (4.11) can be written as,

N= No
(1-ElkT (4.12)

imilarly, the total enerEy of the body can be written as,

E =0+ &
Nge-s/kT + 2e Noe-2:/kT + (4.13)
or
E =
Ng se-e/kT [1 +2e-e/kT + 3e-2/kT + (4.14)
Since Eq. (4.14) is similar to the well known mathematical
expression
1+2x+3x*+4x3 .+nx-1=_
(1-x)
Therefore Eq. (4.14) can be written as,

= E e E / k T

E= (4.15)
11-eE/kT?
By substituting the total number of oscillatory particles and energy, respectively, from
Eqs. (4.12) and (4.15) in Eq. (4.8), we get,

( N E eEl(1-ee/kT)-2
E=
(4.16)
Na[1-eIkT1
After rearranging Eq. (4.16), we get,
e eEIkT (1-et/kT
(1-eelkT)2
¬e e/kT

(1-eE/kT)

E (4.17)
(eelkT -1)

bubstitutingthe values of e (= hv) in Eq. (4.17), we get,

ho
(4.18)
(ho/kT 1)
of the oscillation and it is different from classical
Oscill equation gives the average energy
oscillation.
4.6 Engineering Physics

Ifv and v + do is the frequency range, the number of oscillations can be written as

8T v
N= du
(4.19)
the total energy per unit volume for a particular frequency can be obtains
Therefore,
multiplying Eqs. (4.19) and (4.18) as,

E , d o 8 T v 2 hv
dv
3 kT-1

E, du=
87th 1
du
3ehelkT-1 (4.20)
Equation (4.20) is known as Planck's equation for radiation law. It can also be written in terms
ns
of wavelength as,

8th c3 1 C
E da 23hcl AkT -1 2 da (4.21)

where

and

Equation (4.21) can also be written as,

87t hc 1
E d= a5 heikTAda (4.22)

With the help of Eq (4.22) radiation law, Wein's

are modified.
displacement law and
Using the above results, the observed results in the energy Rayleigh Jeans la
spectrum of black
body radiations are explained successfully.
4.1.6 Planck's Quantum Theory
The classical theory fails to
explain the energy spectrum of a black body radiation. Accora
to the classical theory, an
oscillating particle can have
continuous energy. In order to overcome the failure of the any value of frequency
and e
classical theory, Planck proposea
quantum theory. According to Planck's theory, matter is atory
composed of a number of oseir
particles. These particles can vibrate at different frequencies. latory
particles are quantised and it has the value. The energy (E) of the osCula

E = n hv (4.23)
 Quantum Physics 4.7

ho,, hh is
where &h o
= aa constant known as
Planck's
constant and its value is 6.625 X
second, n and v are,
respectively, an integer and the
ccording to the quantum theory, the
Accore frequ
quency of the radiation.
10s4 Joule
aut a continuous radiation of particles in the matter vibrate and, hence,
they cannot
at is discrete, in bundles ot packets knownOnasthe other hand, the radiation is discontinuous,
energy.
The radiation
of
energy quanta or
from any photon.
of oscillatory particle is only in terms of quanta or
af
nd
energy
it can
magniruae
radiate
no.
ne vibrating particle in its quantised state cannot radiate photon
and energy only when the oscillator energy
ns take the change in
number as one, that is An
moves from one state to another state. Let
=
1.
Therefore, the energy radiated
by an oscillating particle
E = n hv

E = hv
(4.24)
Thus, the present theory concludes that the exchange of energy between light and matter is
only in small packets or bundles or
quanta of energy. The photons can travel with the speed
of light.

4.2 COMPTON EFFECT

Like ordinary light waves. X-rays are scattered by matter in two different ways, namely:
i) Thompson scattering (Coherent scattering), and
(ii) Compton scattering (Incoherent scattering).
4.2.1 Thompson Scattering
electrons without any change in their
InThompson scattering, X-rays are scattered by on the basis of classical
wavelength. This type of scattering was explained by Thompson
electromagnetic theory.
4.2.2 Compton Scattering
components, one having
X-rays consist of twoother
n Compton scattering, the scattered incident X-rays and the
has a slightly longer
the same wavelength as that of the
wavelength. This phenomenon is known as
Compton scattering
Compton Effect When a monochromatic beam
Scattered 2 is allowed to fall on
photon, h ' of X-rays of wavelength
the scattered then
a block of paraftin or carbon,
of two components, one
Incident photon beam consists of X-rays
with equal to the incident wave
wavelength
hv O Recoil electron a
other with a higher wavelength
length and the
as shown
in Fig. 4.2. This is known as Compton
effect.
Fig. 4.2 Compton effect
 Engineering Physics
4.8
the basis of the
quantun

explained
this effect on
is h heon
Theory of
Compton Effect
Compton consist of photons
whose energy
where his
this theory X-rays r a d i a t i o n .
radiation. According to of electron in thePS c
of constant and v
is the frequency
elastically
with a free
the Planck's collide transfering
of energy hv collision, the
incident photon
consider a photon
of its
Letenergy to the free electron S. Due
u s to this energy transter, the electron acquiresergy
this elastic meht
substance as shown
in Fig. 4.3. During
comes out with reduced ener
v. The scattered photon
recoils with a velocity
energy and
or increased wavelength. collision.
before and after
Let us calculate the total energy

Scatphoton
tercd
.
E=hv'
Incident
photon S

X
E =hv

Recoil electron

Fig. 4.3 Compton scattering

Before Collision
The energy of the incident photon = hv
The rest energy of the electron (the initial momentum of the electron is zero) = me*

Total energy before collision = hu + mgC2 (4.25)

After Collision
The final energy of the scattered photon = ho
The final energy of the recoiling electron = mc2
where m is the mass of the recoiling electron.

Total energY =
hv' + mc2 (4.26)
the
The energy of the electron and photon before and after collisions are equal according to the
law of conservation of energy.
Therefore, from Eqs. (4.25) and (4.26)

hv +mgc2 = ho' + mc2 (4.27)

 Quantum Physics 4.9

The X and Y components of the momentum before and after collision can be calculated as,

Before Collision

X-component

Momentum of the photon -hv

C

Momentum of the electron = 0

Total momentum along the X-axis = (4.28)

Y-component
Initial momentum of the photon = 0

Initial momentum of the electron = 0

Total momentum along the Y-axis = 0 (4.29)

After Collision

X-component

Momentum of the photon hv'cos

=

Momentum of the electron

=
mv cos 6

hu'cos b +mu cos6 (4.30)

Total Momentum along the X-axis
=

Y-component
Momentum of the photon =
hv'sin
C

-mv sin 6
of the electron
=

Momentum

hv'sin
mvsin G6 (4.31)
the Y-axiss
lotal momentum along
and (4.31),
Eqs. (4.28), (4.29), (4.30)
we
momentum, from
conservation of
APplying the law of
get,
hu hv cos + mv cos6 (4.32)
C

0=
hv'sin - mv sin6 (4.33)
C
4.10 Engineering Physics

and (4.33),
we get,
Rearranging Eqs. (4.32)
h (v-v'
cos P)
mvc cos 0 =

hv' sin f
mvc sin 0
=

4.35
and (4.35), we get,
Squaring and adding Eqs. (4.34)
+vcosD) + h2v'2sin? p
12(v2 2vv'cos
-

m2v2c2

=
IF(v2
-

2vv'cos D +v?) 4.36

From Eq. (4.27),
hv' + mgc2 =
h(v
-

v') + m,c2 (4.37

mc2=hv
-

Squaring Eq. (4.37), we get,

m2ct=h2 (v2 + v'2- 2 vv') +mc4 + 2h (v -

v') moc2 (4.38

Subtracting Eq. (4.38) from Eq. (4.36), we get,

mc(c2- 2) = -2h2vv'(1 - cos ) +2h(v - v ' ) npc2+mo2c4 (4.39

According to the theory of relativity,

m=
mo (4.4
V1-)/2

Squaring Eq. (4.40), we get,

m m =
mc2
(1-/c) (2 -*)/ (-v)
Therefore, m2(c2 v2) = m?c2

or mc(2- v) = m?cd (4

Substituting m-c2(C- v) value in Eq. (4.39), we get,

 Quantum Physics 4.11

md=-2hvv' (1- cos ) +

2h( v')m,e2 +
2h( v')mge mofC*
=
2h2vv' (1 -

cos )
- 1-cos)
1-1 c o s D)

C-C=(1-cos D)
mc

or
a'-=-(1-cos
m,c
) (4.42)
Therefore, the change in wavelength

d=-(1-cos
mC
) (4.43)
This relation shows that dà is independent of the
well as the nature of the scattering substance. From
wavelength of the incident radiation as
of scatterin8
Eq. (4.43), dà depends only on the angle

Case i: When =
0, cos =
1 and hence the change in wavelength da 0p =

Case ii: When d = 90°, cos = 0

h 6.626 x 10-34
Therefore, the change in wavelength, di
moC 9.1x10x3x10
dl 0.02427 Å (4.44)
This is known as Compton wavelength.
Case iii: When =
180, cos =
-1|
Therefo the change in wavelength dà= =0.0485 A
m,c

Therefore, dAhas the maximum value at o =

180. (4.45)
 4.12 Engineering Physics

ot wavelength is 2 all.
ot X-rays 4.4, Aowed to
beam
monochromatic
wn in
C as shown in
Fig. 4.4. A
Verification A
Experimental
scattering
fall on a
material like a small
block of carbon
swing in an arc about
the scatterer is used. The
The Braggs
wavelength
which freely values of scattering angle.
Spectrometer B,
can
measured for different
of the scattered X-rays is

S S2

X-ray tube

Scattered X-rays

Fig. 4.4 Verification of Compton effect

The distribution of
intensity versuswavelength for various scattering angles obtained
by Compton is shown in Fig. 4.5.Figure 4.5 shows only one peak at = 0
to unmodified radiation.
correspondin
radiation. The differenceObviously,
the two peaks in the curve
between these two represent the modiied
Compton shift. peaks on
wavelength axis gives tne
The Compton shift d2. is found
to vary with the
angle according to the relation,
h
dl=-(1-cos) (4.46)

At
= 90° di =
0.024 À.
From the graph at
Thus, the Compton effect90°,is dà
=
=
0.024 A, which is
in
experimentally verified. agreement with the Compton rmula.
 Quantum Physics 4.13

Primary X-rays =0° ()

A
= 45° (1)
O

90° (i)
A
O
M

= 135° (iv)
A

Wavelength
Fig. 4.5 Intensity versus wavelength

4.3 de BROGLIE HYPOTHESIS

the large-scale experiments. On

Classical mechanics which is based on Newton's laws, explain which take
other hand, the Newtonian mechanics
fails to explain the ditferent phenomena
ne Quantum theory w a s able to explain the light
waves in terms
at
Place microscopicor atomic scale. Some of the phenomena like interference,
bundles known as photons or quanta.
of packets or
based on the wave nature of light. However, the
etc., are explained
aiffractiorn, polarization, based
effect, Compton effect, Zeeman etfect, etc., are explained
Phenomena like photoelectric radiation or light behaves like a wave as
well as
on the particle nature of light. Therefore, the
as dual nature of light.
property of light radiation is known
Particle. Thus, the wave-particle the idea of matters waves are namely (i)
the
which prompted de Broglie to propose
ne concept matter, and (i)
nature is symmetrical everywhere.
v e r s e is made up of radiation and

. de Broglie Wave [Matter Waves] the particle can

Acc behave some time as particle and conversely
Ording to de Broglie, waves
like electron, proton, neutron,
Therefore, the particles
C
Wave-like characteristic properties.
 4.14 Engineering Physics

atom or molecule will have an associated wave with them known as matter w
or de waves. A variable quantity
Broglie known as wave function is used toS or pil
waves
the de Broglie waves. The wave function is denoted by the symbol y (psi).
haractenise
4.3.2 Broglie Wavelength
de

Let us consider a photon with frequency v is traveling in the velocity of light c.

Then, the velocity of light
where A is the wave length of light.
According to Einstein, the momentum of each photon

C (448
where E is the energy of the photon.
Substitutingc = vh and E = hv in Eq. (4.47) and Eq. (4.48) and combining the

P
_ ho
(4.49

or
(4.50)
From the above equation, it is clear that the
light photon with wavelength A and momentum
p =h/awill have an associated wavelength 2 and also a wave-like character. In
1924, de Broglie
suggested that the matter particles will have associated waves known as de Broglie wave
(or) matter wave. The value of the wave function associated with a moving
xy, z) and time t determines the probability of finding the particle at any point
point and time. particle with that corresponding
Consider a particle of mass m is moving with a velocity v. Then, the wave length associatea
with the particle is

mv
(4.51)

where p =
mv is the momentum of the
particle.
Equation (4.51) is known as the de Broglie wavelength of matter waves.
de Broglie Wavelength Interms of KE Consider a particle of mass m is moving with a velocity t.
Then, the kinetic energy (K.E) of the particle is
E =
(1/2)m v2

m2=P
1
2m 2m
 Quantum Physics 4.15

We known that
P mv,

The momentum
p= 2mE
(4.52)
Substituting the p value in Eq. (4.51), we get,

The wavelength h

2mE 2mE (4.53)

Equation (4.53) represents the de Broglie wavelength interms of kinetic energy.

de Broglie Wavelength of Electrons Consider an electron of mass m and
chargee
accelerated through a potential difference V volts. Then, the K.E of the electron that is
is equal to the
loss in potential energy
i.e 1
mv = eV
(4.54)
of
m2u2 = 2me V

The momentum of the electron

p mv= 2m eV (4.55)
Substituting the value of mv in Eq. (4.51), we get,

h
de Broglie wavelength of electron = (4.56)
2meV
Substituting the value of h, e and m in Eq. (4.56), we get,

6.626 x 10-34
Wavelength of electron A- (4.57)
2x 9.1x 103 x 1.6x 10-1" x V

12.28 x 10-10

12.28 A
of an electron
Equation (4.57), gives the de Broglie wavelength
4.16 Engineering Physics

4.4 PROPERTIES OF MATTER WAVES

waves:
properties of
matter
the dominant
The following are
it is a w a v e probability.
Matter not physical
w a v e s a r eassociated
phenomena, but
(11)
( The wavelength with matter waves decreases with increases in thomass of

the particles.
h
1.e.,
2meV (4.58)
kind of waves and are not electromagrnetic in nature.
(111) Matter w a v e s are a new
or to guide the matter particlac
(v) Matter waves are mainly used as a wave to pilot schematic
known as pilot wave or guide wave.
The representation of piloto
hence, it is
guide shown is Fig. 4.6.
wave
on the velocity of the material particle.
(v) The velocity of the matter waves depend to its wavelength.
(vi) The phase velocity of matter waves is inversely proportional

Fig. 4.6 Pilot or guide wave

(vii) Matter waves are not constant as that of electromagnetic waves and moves faster than
the velocity of lightt
i.e. u = c2/v (4.59)

4.5 MATTER WAVES-EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION

The de Broglie hypothesis clearly states that the particles like electron will have associateu
wave-like characteristics and obey the properties of ordinary light like refraction, retlectiol
diffraction, etc. One can prove the wave nature of the particles through simple experime
namely Davission-Germer and Thomsons experiments. In both the experiments, the electT
have been selected to prove the wave nature mainly due to its well-known characterist
properties, and for the easy generation and detection.

4.5.1 Davission-Germer Experiment

In 1927, Davission and Germer made attempt to prove the wave nature of atomic pa ticlese
an
The schematic representation of the experimental set-up used to demonstrate the dual natu
of matter is shown in Fig. 4.7.
The electronsare produced by a hot filament Fby applying the necessary potentiaitthroughl.
D, in
The electrons are allowed to pass through the two thin
aluminum diaphragms Dia
4.20 Engineering Physics

4.6 SCHRÖDINGER WAVE EQUATION

In 1926, Schrödinger developed mathematical
equations
to explain both
microscopic
macroscopic particles by predicting the
function
wave at any particular point. Schródi ar
equation is one of the basic equations in
quantum mechanics like Newton's law of mo
Schrödinger derived two forms of wave
equation,
namely time independent wave equation and
time dependent wave
equation to explain the dual nature of matter waves.
de Broglie made two
assumptions to derive the equation for the wave. In his frei
assumption, the de Broglie wavelength
concept was applied to any matter waves under an
field of force. When such an external force
and kinetic energy, 1.e.
is applied,
the particles will have both
potential
E P.E. + K.E

E =
V+ (1/2)mv2
The total energy E=V+P

Rearranging the Eq. (4.64), we get, 2m (4.64)

p [2m (E - V)]1/2

According to de Broglie wavelength, we know that, (4.65)

or

The de Brogile wavelength =- h

2m(E-V)12 (4.66)
According to de Broglie second assumption, the
with the particle is one-dimensional wavefunction associatea

eiot (4.67)
where o is the amplitude of the wave
frequency of radiation. function at the point (x, z) and
y, w =
2o where 7 is tne

4.6.1 Time Independent Wave Equation

Consider a system of stationary wave
associated with a moving particle.
of the particle along x, y and z co-ordinate axes at any time t. Based on the Cartesian co-ordindtion
yis the wave funct
one can write the differential wave equation of a progressive wave with wave velocity u ax ates

as,

d'y d'v^ d'y.

dx dy dz d
(4.68)
 Quantum Physics 4.21

The solution for Eq. (4.68) is Eq. (4.67)

Thevalue of can be obtained by
dt2 differentiating Eq. (4.67) w.r.t. t twice
dy
dt
ieio==-iwY

or dy
2 ow (4.69)
d2
Substituting the value of d- y/dE in Eq. (4.68), we get,
d dy.dy-_o 4.70)
d2
dy dz
(27v)
We know that, w = 2rv.

d'y dy.dy_4T (4.71)

dx dy dz
Substituting the value of u (= v 1) in Eq. (4.71), we get

dydy.d'v4r (4.72)
d2 dy dz 22
Substituting the value of wavelength from Eq. (4.66) in Eq (4.72), we get,

dy,dy,y-x2E-Vw
dr2dy2 dz2 h
(4.73)
We know that V2 is the Laplacian operator and is equal to
2
(4.74)
dy
Laplacian operator is an operator operates on the wave function and reproduces the
corresponding wave function and it energy.
Equation (4.73) can be written as,
y -m(E- Vv (4.75)
h2
2 (E-V)

where
2
 Engineering Physics
4.22

V y + E - VW =0
(476
Therefore, Eq. (4.75) or (4.76) basad
can be taken
either from on the
time independent
eguation
Schrödinger
requirements.
Wave Equation
Time Dependent free particl
since for a
ticle,
4.6.2
one cannot
use the Eq. (4.76), Thera.e
for a free particle is required.
On the other hand,
V 0. Hence, a
=
m o r e general
time dependent equation
refore,
potential energy
written as by taking V=0,
Eq.(4.76) can be
+ E v =0 (4.77)
be differentiated w.r.t. t, we oat
get,
second assumption, Eq. (4.67) can
According to Schrödinger's
ay-iwy =-i2TUy (4.78)
dt

where E = hv, we get,

dt h
h dy
Eyi dt
Ey=inay (4.79)
or dt

equation,
According to Schrödinger time independent
2m1
Vy+E-V=0
2
Substituting the value of Ey, we get,

(4.80)

Multiplying Eq. (4.80) by h2/ 2m, we get,

+indy-vy
2m dt
=0
(4.81)

or
2m
y +Vy =ih dt
 Quantum Physics 4.23

Histhe.Hamiltonian operator and is equal to

H--2+v
2m (4.82)
value of H in
bstituting the Eq. (4.81), we get,
H y= E
V (4.83)
where Ey i h x i s an energy operator.

Schrödinger time dependent wave equation can be either in the form of Eq.
depending on the application. (4.81) or (4.83)
46.3 Physical Significance of Wave Function
The following are the significance of wave functions:
tgives a statistical relationship between the
(i) It is a complex quantity and hence, one cannot particle and wave nature.
measure it.
(ii) It is a function of wave and time co-ordinate. Hence, it cannot locate the
particle. position of
(iv) A new term known as position probability density P(r, t) is introduced to
the function. It is explain
wave equal to the product of the wave function y and its complex
conjugate as,
Pr. t)= l(r, t)12 (4.84)
(v) The probability of finding a particle within a volume dv is
P= Sly12dv (4.85)
where du =
dxdydz.
(vi) When a particle is definitely exist in a value do, then its probability density is one,

ie. P= vfdo=1 (4.86)

(vit) Wave function does not have any physical meaning while the probability density has
physical meaning.

APPLICATION OF SCHRÖDINGER EQUATION TO A

4.7
PARTICLE IN A BOX
Cons
Eier a one-dimensional box with width x =0 to x =L and infinite height as shown in
fig
insid
4.11. Let
LetE th total energy of the particle with a mass m is moving freely in the r-direction
Ebe the
inside the potent box. The particle is moving inside the box with limitations x 0 and x L = =

and hopotential
ICe, its motion is restricted by the walls. Therefore, the particle will be inside the box