UNIT8
UNIT8
UNIT8
com
UNIT 8
(a) Interfacing resistive transducers to electronic circuits. Introduction to data
acquisition systems. 2 Hours
(b) Display Devices and Signal Generators: X-Y recorders. Nixie tubes. LCD
and LED display. Signal generators and function generators. 4 Hours
UNIT 8a:
Interfacing resistive transducers to electronic circuits.
Introduction to data acquisition systems.
The major problem with resistive transducers, which includes strain gages,
www.allsyllabus.com
temperature transducers is that the resistance change is very small. As an
example, consider measuring the current through a resistance transducer such as
an RTD. A simple panel meter is used as an Indicator to provide a remote reading
of temperature. The change in the meter Indication is very small for small
temperature changes. As an example, the change in resistance of a platinum
resistance thermometer is 0.385 per cent per degree Celsius. In this case, a 1-
degree change in temperature will produce a 0.385 Per cent change in the
indicating meter, which will be hardly visible.
A solution to this Problem is to connect the resistance transducer in a bridge
circuit as shown in Fig.1
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
First, the zero output voltage Point can be set for a convenient point such as 0
degrees Celsius or 0 degrees Fahrenheit instead of an absolute zero, which would
be the situation if only the transducer current were measured. The setting of the
zero output point can be achieved by adjusting the values of R1, R2 , and R3
to provide bridge balance at the desired temperature. The change of output
voltage in Fig 1. is
www.allsyllabus.com
Eqn.1
The output voltage is not a linear function of the change in resistance because
of the ∆R term in the denominator of Eqn. 1.
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
There is an improvement in the linearity of the output voltage as a function of the
change in resistance, as the ∆R term in the denominator is divided by a factor of
4R rather than 2R and thus the effects of the ∆R term in the denominator are
reduced (as compared to Eqn. 1)
If the change in resistance is small, which is often the case with a resistance
thermal device, the error due to the lack of linearity is small. Absolute linearity
can be achieved by using two transducers as shown in Fig. 3
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
This technique requires the use of two matched transducers in the environment to
be measured. Most resistive transducers are not expensive items, and providing
two matched transducers on a common header is not a difficult task.
The output voltages and currents from many transducers are very small signals.
In addition to the low levels, it is often necessary to transmit the transducer output
some distance to the data collection or control equipment.
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Regardless of the source of noise, low-level signals must be transmitted from place to
place with care. One effective method of combating noise is to increase the strength of
low level signals before transmission through wires. This is often done with an
amplifier called an instrumentation amplifier. There are several characteristics of an
instrumentation amplifier that set them apart from operational amplifiers. The features
of a Three Op-Amp Differential topology of an instrumentation amplifier are:
Combination of inverting and non-inverting topologies;
The output signal is an amplified version of the difference between the two input
signals;
AVD = R2/R1;
V0 = AVD(V2 – V1);
www.allsyllabus.com
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Data acquisition systems are used to measure and record signals obtained in
basically two ways:
In general, analog data systems are used when wide bandwidth is required or
when lower accuracy can be tolerated.
Digital systems are used when the physical process being monitored is slowly
varying (narrow bandwidth) and when high accuracy and low per-channel cost is
required.
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Digital data acquisition systems are in general more complex than analog systems,
both in terms of the instrumentation involved and the volume and complexity of
input data they can handle. Digital systems require converters to change analog
voltages into discrete digital quantities or numbers. Conversely, digital
information may have to be converted back into analog form, such as a voltage or
a current, which can then be used as a feedback quantity controlling an industrial
process.
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
A digital data acquisition system may include some or all of the elements
shown in Fig. 4
2. Signal conditioner
Generally includes the supporting circuitry for the transducer. This circuitry may
provide excitation power, balancing circuits and calibration elements. An example
of a signal conditioner is a strain-gage bridge balance and power supply unit.
3. Scanner, or multiplexer.
Accepts multiple analog inputs and sequentially connects them to one measuring
instrument
4. Signal converter.
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Converts the analog voltage to its equivalent digital form. The output of the
converter may be displayed visually and is also available as voltage outputs in
discrete steps for further processing or recording on a digital recorder.
6. Auxiliary equipment
This section contains instruments for system programming functions and digital
data processing. Typical auxiliary functions include linearizing and limit
comparison. These functions may be performed by individual instruments or by a
digital computer.
7. Digital recorder
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Display Devices and Signal Generators: X-Y recorders. Nixie tubes. LCD and
LED display. Signal generators and function generators.
www.allsyllabus.com
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
CRTs
LEDs
• Bright, efficient,
•
www.allsyllabus.com
small size
LCDs
• Good contrast in bright ambient light, low power, compatible with ICs
NIXIEs
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
ELs
• Many colors
www.allsyllabus.com
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
X-Y recorders
A strip chart recorder records the variations of a quantity with respect to time
while a X-Y Recorder is an instrument which gives a graphic record of the
relationship between two variables. In strip chart recorders, usually self-balancing
potentiometers are used. These self-balancing potentiometers plot the emf as a
function of time.
Hence a X-Y Recorder consists of a pair of servo systems, driving a recording pen
www.allsyllabus.com
in two axes through a proper sliding pen and moving arm arrangement as shown
in Fig. 5.
There are many variations of X-Y recorders. The emf used for operation of X-Y
recorders, may not necessarily measure only voltages. The measured emf may be
the output of a transducer that measure displacement force, pressure, light
intensity or any other physical quantity.
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Fig.5
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Nixie Tube
www.allsyllabus.com
Fig.6
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Fig.7
In summary the Nixie Tube is a cold cathode glow discharge tube, popularly
known as Nixie which is the trade mark of M/s Burrough' s Corporation U.S.A.
Working: The display works on the principle that when a gas breaks down, a
glow discharge is produced. A gauze electrode with a positive voltage supply
functions as an anode, and there are 10 separate wire cathodes, each in the shape
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
of a numeral from 0 to 9 (see Fig. 7). The electrodes are enclosed in a glass filled
envelope with connecting pins at the bottom. Neon gas is usually employed and it
gives an orange-red glow when activated. However, other colours are available
when different gases are used.
There is one anode and 10 cathodes. After a negative voltage is applied to the
selected cathode, a simple gas discharge diode is formed which lights the selected
digit. A transistor gate is usually employed at each cathode so that the desired
numeral can be switched on.
The circuitry driving the nixie tubes is simpler than that for seven segment
displays. However, high voltages (150 - 220 V) are required to produce glow
discharge.The current required is of the order of 1- 5 mA. The Nixie tubes are
bulkier in size than the seven segmental displays.
www.allsyllabus.com
cathodes constituting 15 segments that be used to produce numeric as well as
alphanumeric characters.
Fig.8
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
In digital instruments, the output devices indicate the value of measured quantity
in decimal digits. This is done by using a Digital display device. A digital display
device may receive digital information in any form but it converts that information
to decimal form.
The basic element in a digital display device is the display for a single digit
because a multiple digit display is nothing but a group of single digit displays. A
single digit display is capable of indicating the numbers from 0 to 9. There is also
usually provision for a decimal point between each of the numerals. Generally
Seven & Fourteen Segmental Display or Dot matrices 3 x5 & 27 dots, 5 x 7
methods are used to display the character. LEDs (Light emitting diodes) and
LCDs (Liquid crystal diodes) are used widely for segmental displays and dot
matrix displays.
www.allsyllabus.com
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Liquid crystal cell displays (LCDs) are used in similar applications where
LEDs are used. These applications are display of numeric and alphanumeric
characters in dot matrix and segmental displays.
The LCDs are of two types : Dynamic scattering type and Field effect type.
www.allsyllabus.com
Fig. 9
The liquid crystal material may be one of the several organic compounds which
exhibit optical properties of a crystal though they remain In liquid form. Liquid
crystal is layered between glass sheets with transparent electrodes deposited on the
inside faces. When a potential is applied across the cell, charge carriers
flowing through the liquid disrupt the molecular arrangement and produce
turbulence. When the liquid is not activated, it is transparent. When the liquid is
activated the molecular turbulence causes light to be scattered in all directions and
the cell appears to be bright. The phenomenon is called dynamic scattering.
The construction of a field effect liquid crystal display is similar to that of the
dynamic scattering type, with the exception that two thin polarizing optical filters
are placed at the inside of each glass sheet. The liquid crystal material in the field
effect cell is also of different type from that employed in the dynamic scattering
cell. The material used is twisted nematic type and actually twists the light passing
through the cell when the latter is not energized. This allows the light to pass
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
through the optical filters and the cell appears bright. When the cell is energized,
no twisting of light takes place and the cell appears dull
Liquid crystal cells are of two types. (i) Transmittive type and (ii) Reflective type.
In the Transmittive type cell, both glass sheets are transparent, so that light from a
rear source is scattered in the forward direction when the cell is activated. The
reflective type cell has a reflecting surface on one side of glass sheets. The
incident light on the front surface of the cell is dynamically scattered by an
activated cell.
Both types of cells appear quite bright when activated even under ambient light
conditions.
The liquid crystals are light reflectors or transmitters and therefore they consume
small amounts of energy (unlike light generators).
Unlike LEDs which can work on d.c. the LCDs require a.c. voltage supply. A
typical voltage supply to dynamic scattering LCD is 30 V peak to peak with 50
Hz.
www.allsyllabus.com
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
LED
1. LEDs are very small devices, and can be considered as point sources of light.
They can therefore be stacked in a high-density matrix to serve as a numeric
and alphanumeric display. (have a character density of several thousand per
square metre).
2. The light output from an LED is function of the current flowing through it. An
LED can therefore, be smoothly controlled by varying the current.
www.allsyllabus.com
This is particularly useful for operating LED displays under different ambient
lighting conditions.
4. LEDs with light output of different colours, i.e. red. amber, green and yellow
are commonly available.
5. LEDs are very fast devices, having a turn ON-OFF time of less than 1 us.
6. The low supply voltage and current requirements of LEDs make them
compatible with DTL and TTL, ICs.
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Signal Generators
When we say that the oscillator generates a signal, it is important to note that no
energy is created; it is simply converted from a DC source into AC energy at some
specific frequency.
There are various types of signal generator but several requirements are
www.allsyllabus.com
common to all types.
The above mentioned requirements vary for special generators, such as function
generators, pulse, and sweep generators.
Various kinds of signals, at both audio and radio frequencies, are required at
various times in an instrumentation system. In most cases a particular signal
required by the instrument is internally generated by a self-contained oscillator.
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
The oscillator circuit commonly appears in a fixed frequency form. (e.g. when it
provides a 1000 Hz excitation source for an ac bridge). In other cases, such as in a
Q-meter, oscillators in the form of a variable frequency arrangement for covering
Q-measurements over a wide range of frequencies, from a few
100 kHz to the MHz range, are used.
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Variable AF Oscillator
www.allsyllabus.com
Variable AF Oscillators used for general lab purpose should cover at least full
audio range i.e., from 20 Hz to 20kHz and have a constant pure sine wave output.
They are of RC feedback oscillator type or Beat Frequency Oscillator type (BFO)
The sine wave generator represents the largest single category of signal
generator. This instrument covers a frequency range from a few Hertz to many
Giga-Hertz. The sine wave generator in its simplest form is given in Fig. 10
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
The simple sine wave generator consists of two basic blocks, an oscillator and an
attenuator. The accuracy of the frequency, stability, and freedom from
distortion depend on the design of the oscillator, while the amplitude depends
on the design of the attenuator.
www.allsyllabus.com
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
In a modern signal generator (see Fig. 12) to improve freq stability, a single
master oscillator is used with freq dividers for lower ranges. The master oscillator
is insensitive to temperature variations, design of succeeding stages, etc. The other
components are B1 –Untuned buffer amplifier; B2, B3 additional buffers for
isolation of master oscillator from power amplifier to avoid loading effects. The
master oscillator is fine tuned by a motor driven variable capacitor –
programmable automatic frequency control circuits.
www.allsyllabus.com
Fig. 12
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
A wien bridge oscillator (suitable for AF range) is used in this generator (refer
Fig. 13). The frequency of the oscillations can be changed by varying the
capacitance in the oscillator or in steps by switching in resistors of different
values.
The output of the oscillator goes to a function switch which directs the
oscillator output to either sine wave amplifier or to the square wave shaper. The
attenuator varies the amplitude of the output which is taken through a push-pull
amplifier.
www.allsyllabus.com
Fig. 13
Frequency selector :It selects the frequency in different ranges and varies it
continuously in a ratio of 1 : 10. The scale is non-linear.
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
Symmetry control It varies the symmetry of the square wave from 30% to 70%.
Sync This terminal is used to provide synchronization of the internal signal with
an external signal.
On-Off Switch
www.allsyllabus.com
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
FUNCTION GENERATOR
www.allsyllabus.com Fig. 14
vtu.allsyllabus.com
www.allsyllabus.com
The comparator output delivers a square wave voltage of the same frequency. The
resistance diode network alters the slope of the triangular wave as its
amplitude changes and produces a sine wave with less than 1% distortion.
These generators are used as measuring devices in combination with a CRO. They
provide both quantitative and qualitative information of the system under test.
They are made use of in transient response testing of amplifiers. The fundamental
difference between a pulse generator and a square wave generator is in the duty
cycle.
www.allsyllabus.com
vtu.allsyllabus.com