Ammeter

An ammeter is a device used to measure the electric current flowing in a circuit

. It is typically connected in series with the circuit, allowing it to measure the flow of current
through the circuit. The block diagram of an ammeter consists of the following components:

1. Current Sensing Element: This is the part of the ammeter that actually senses the
current flowing through the circuit. It can be a shunt resistor or a Hall effect sensor,
depending on the type of ammeter.
2. Signal Conditioning Circuitry: The signal from the current sensing element is
usually very small and needs to be amplified and conditioned before it can be
displayed or used for further processing. This is done by the signal conditioning
circuitry, which may include amplifiers, filters, and other components.
3. Display: The display is used to indicate the current reading. It can be a simple analog
meter with a needle or a digital display, depending on the type of ammeter.
4. Power Supply: Some ammeters require an external power supply to operate, while
others can operate using the current flowing through the circuit being measured.
5. Calibration Circuitry: To ensure accurate measurements, the ammeter may have
calibration circuitry that allows it to be adjusted or calibrated against a known
standard.
6. Protection Circuitry: Ammeters often include protection circuitry to prevent damage
from excessive currents or voltage spikes.

In summary, an ammeter is a device used to measure electric current in a circuit. It typically

consists of a current sensing element, signal conditioning circuitry, a display, power supply,
calibration circuitry, and protection circuitry.
 • In Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) meter, there is a coil suspended in the
magnetic field of permanent magnet to the shape of a horse shoe.
• The coil is suspended so that it can rotate freely in the magnetic field. When a d.c.
current flows in the coil, electromagnetic torque (EM) is developed and the coil is
deflected.
• The EM torque is counter balanced by the mechanical torque of the control springs
attached to it so that the angular position of the movable coil is indicated by a pointer
against a fixed reference called a scale.
• The equation for the developed torque is T = B.A.I.N
Where T = torque, newton-meter (N-m)
B = flux density in the air gap, Webers/square meter (Tesla)
A = effective coil area, square meters (m2)
I = current in the movable coil, amperes (A)
N = turns of wire of the coil

D.C. ammeter:

• The ammeter is constructed using the basic movement.

• The basic movement can carry only small current for full scale deflection because the
coil winding is small and light.
• When large currents are to be measured, it is necessary to bypass the excess current
through a resistance called “shunt” so that the current through the coil of the basic
movement is not exceeding its maximum limit.
• The resistance of the shunt can be calculated by applying conventional circuit analysis.
Since the shunt resistance is in parallel with the meter movement, the voltage drop
across the shunt and movement must be same.
V shunt = V movement
Therefore,

Is Rs = Im Rm and

Since
 Digital voltmeter

A digital voltmeter is an electronic instrument used to measure voltage levels in electrical

circuits. Unlike analog voltmeters, which use a needle to indicate the voltage, digital
voltmeters display the voltage as a numerical value on a digital screen. They are commonly
used in various fields, including electronics, automotive, and electrical maintenance, due to
their accuracy and ease of reading.

• Digital voltmeter (DVM) is a voltage indicating device.

• The main use of DVM is to measure voltage between two points.
• It displays d.c. or a.c. voltage as discrete numerals.
• It is an useful laboratory instrument for several applications.
• It is also an useful building block of digital instrumentation systems.
• The utility of a DVM can be easily extended for multiple fuctions, such as in a Digital
Multimeter (DMM) by the addition of simple auxiliary hardware.
• The DVM is often used in data processing system.
• An ideal voltmeter has an infinitely high input resistance so that it does not draw any
current from the circuit.
• Consider a meter which has a low input resistance of 1000 Ω.
• It cannot give an accurate value of the voltage across a resistance of the same magnitude
because the meter shunts the resistance.
• Therefore, it is important to measure the loading effect of a voltmeter in terms of ohms
per volt.
• The block diagram of a digital voltmeter is shown in figure.
• It has three stages:
1. Signal preparation
2. Analog to Digital conversion and
3. Display unit.

• The signal preparation stage or input circuit modifies the signal amplitude according to
the requirement and it also protects the source from loading.
• Here, resistive attenuator is used to decrease the large incoming signal and amplifier is
used to amplify the small incoming signal to the measurable range.
• In the next two stages, the analog input signals are typically converted into digital
signals in the form of binary or Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) data and suitably
displayed unit.

Merits of DVM:
1. Greater speed
 2. Higher accuracy and resolution
3. No parallax error
4. Reduced human error
5. Compatibility with other digital equipment for further processing and recording
Digital Multimeter
❖ An instrument used to measure voltage, current and resistance is known as Multimeter.
❖ There are two types of multimeter, analog and digital.
❖ Digital Multimeter is commonly used in laboratory and workshop because of its high
input resistance, greater accuracy, better resolution and easy readability.
❖ The DMM combines in one case the instruments for the measurements of voltage,
current and resistance.
❖ The block diagram of digital multimeter is shown in figure.

Measurement of Voltage:
The principle of digital voltmeter is used in DMM for the measurement of voltage.

Measurement of current:
• A series of sensing resistors are used to measure either d.c. or a.c. current.
• The current to be measured is passed through one of the sensing resistors and the DMM
digitizes the voltage developed across the resistor.
• For example, referring to figure, the output voltage of a current to voltage converter is
given by

• The output voltage V0 which is proportional to the unknown current Is is applied to

DVM section of DMM and the value of current Is is displayed.
•
Measurement of resistance:
• The DMM measures the resistance by applying a known current from an internal
current source to the unknown resistance and then digitizing the resulting voltage
developed.
• For example, referring to figure, the output voltage of a scale changer is given by

• The output voltage is proportional to the unknown resistance rf is applied to DVM

section of DMM and the value of unknown resistance Rf is displayed.
• Most DMMs have protection from input overload by using circuit breakers, fuses, auto
ranging and diode clipper circuit. The display can be either LCD or LED display.
•

Applications:
• A DMM is used for measurement of voltage, current and resistance.
• It is also used to test whether the diode, transistor or SCR is good or faulty and to check
circuit continuity.
For example, to check a diode, the resistance is measured in one direction and then in other
direction.
In the forward-biased direction, a low resistance is indicated and in the reverse-biased
direction, a high resistance is indicated.
 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
The cathode ray oscilloscope is probably the most versatile tool for the development of
electronic circuit and systems and has been one of the most important tools in the
development of modern electronics.

The cathode ray oscilloscope is a device that allows the amplitude of the electrical
signal whether they may be voltage, current, power, etc., to be displayed primarily as a
function of time. The oscilloscope depends on the movement of an electron beam, which
is then made visible by allowing the beam to impinge on a phosphor surface, which
produces a visible spot.

If the electron beam is deflected in either of the two orthogonal axes, such as familiar
X and Y axes used in conventional graph construction, the luminous spot can be used to
create two-dimensional displays.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF OSCILLOSCOPE:
 • It is used for voltage, frequency and phase angle measurement and also for examining
the waveforms, from d.c. or very low frequency to very high frequencies.

• It comprises the main sections of

(i) Horizontal and vertical voltage amplifiers,

(ii) Power supply circuits

(iii) Cathode Ray Tube (CRT).

(i) Horizontal and vertical voltage amplifiers

• These amplifiers are connected between the input terminals and the deflection plates.

• The function of the amplifiers is to increase the deflection sensitivity for weak input
voltages.

• The input signal is fed through a calibrated attenuator and a wide band high gain
vertical amplifier to the vertical deflection plates of the CRT.

• The horizontal amplifier which is connected to the horizontal plates of the CRT is fed
from an internally generated time base, usually a sawtooth waveform generator, or
alternatively the horizontal amplifier can be fed from an externally connected X input.

• The horizontal sweep (sawtooth) signal is triggered by a portion of the input signal
applied to the vertical plates.

• A finite amount of time )in the range of sec.) is eleapsed before the sawtooth
waveform is apllied to the horizontal plates.

• So, to observe the starting edge of the input signal fully, it should be delayed by the
same amount of time in the delay line.

(ii) Power supply circuits

• The power supply unit provides high voltages required by the CRT to generate and to
accelerate the electron beam in addition to supplying the required operating voltage
for the other circuits of the oscilloscope.
 • The CRT requires high voltages, of the order of a few KVs, for acceleration and a low
voltage for the heater of the electron gun which emits electrons.

• The CRO has various control switches on the panel.

• The intensity of the spot and focusing can be adjusted by the respective control knobs.

(iii) Cathode Ray Tube (CRT):

• The CRT is a heart of the oscilloscope.

• It is a vacuum tube of special geometrical shape and converts an electrical signal into
visual one.

• A heated cathode emits electrons which are accelerated to high velocity and are
brough to focus on a fluorescent screen.

• When the electron beam on its journey, is deflected in response to the electrical signal
under study.

• As a result, the waveform of the electrical signal is displayed.

After leaving the electron gun, the electron beam passes through two pairs of
"electrostatic deflection plates". Voltages applied to these plates deflect the beam.Voltages
applied to one pair of plates move the beam vertically up and down and the voltages
applied to the other pair of plates move the beam horizontally from one side to another.
Focusing anode is used to focus the beam on the screen, and the accelerating anode makes
the electron beam to move with high velocity.
 Spectrum Analyser
❖ A spectrum analyser is an instrument designed to graphically present amplitude as a
function of frequency in a portion of the spectrum.

❖ These devices generate an x-y oscilloscope display, with y-axis representing signal
strength (usually logarithmic, i.e. in decibels), but with x representing frequency as
shown in figure.

❖ Spectrum analysis may be defined as the study of energy distribution across the
frequency spectrum for a given electrical signal.

❖ The Fourier decomposition of the input waveform or the response of the broad range
high performance receiver through its frequency range can be visualized.

❖ This ability can be very handy when analysing modulated signals, looking for
intermodulation products or distortion, analysing noise and drift, trying to make
accurate frequency measurements on weak signals in the presence of stronger signals,
and making a host of other measurements.

❖ Spectrum analysewrs come in two basic verieties: Swept tuned and Real time swept
tuned are the most common methods.
 Energy Meter
An energy meter, also known as an electricity meter or watt-hour meter, is a device that
measures the amount of electrical energy consumed by a residence, business, or electrically
powered device over time.
❖ Energy is the total power delivered or consumed over a time interval by an electrical
system.
❖ Energy = power x time
❖ Electrical energy is expressed as

❖ V is expressed in volts, I is expressed in amperes, and t is in seconds.

❖ Unit for Energy is Joules or Watt second.
❖ If the unit of time is taken as hour, energy is then expressed in Watt hours. For larger
units, energy may be expressed in kW-hours.
Motor meters
❖ In d.c. and a.c. circuits, for the measurement of energy, motor meters are used. In motor
meters, a moving system revolves continuously.
❖ The speed of rotation is proportional to power consumed or delivered. Thus, the total
number of revolutions made by the moving system in a given interval of time is
proportional to the energy supplied or consumed.
❖ In this connection, motor constant is defined as the number of revolutions made per
kilo Watt hour (kWh). The value of meter constant is always marked on the meter.
❖ Energy meter for a.c. circuits
❖ Induction type of energy meters are usually used for measurement of energy in domestic
and industrial a.c. circuits.
❖ This type of meters are inexpensive and accurate, and retain the accuracy over a wide
range of loads and temperature conditions.
Driving System
❖ The driving system of a meter consists of two electromagnets. The core of these
electromagnets is made up of silicon steel laminations.
❖ The coil of one of the electromagnets is excited by the load current. This coil is called
as the current coil.
❖ The coil of second electromagnet is connected across the supply and, therefore, carries
a current proportional to the supply voltage. The coil is called as the pressure coil.
❖ The two electromagnets are known as series and shunt magnets, respectively.
❖ Copper shading bands are provided on the central limb. The position of these bands is
adjustable.
 ❖ The function of these bands is to bring the flux produced by the shunt magnet exactly
in quadrature with the applied voltage.
Moving system
❖ This consists of an aluminium disc mounted on a light alloy shaft. This disc is
positioned in the air gap between series and shunt magnets.
❖ The upper bearing of the rotor (moving system) is a steel pin located in a hole in the
bearing gap fixed to the top of the shaft.
❖ The rotor runs on a hardened steel pivot, screwed to the foot of the shaft. The pivot is
supported by a jewel bearing.
❖ A pinion engages the shaft with the counting or registering mechanism.
❖ A unique design for the suspension of the disc is used in the floating-shaft energy meter.
Here the rotating shaft has a small magnet at each end. Where the upper magnet of the
shaft is attracted to a magnet in the upper bearing and the lower magnet of the shaft is
attracted to a magnet in the lower bearing.
❖ The moving system thus floats without touching either bearing surface, and the only
contact with the movement is that of the gear connecting the shaft with the gear fo the
train, thus the friction is drastically reduced.
Braking system
❖ A permanent magnet positioned near the edge of the aluminium disc forms the breaking
system.
❖ The aluminium disc moves in the field of this magnet and provides a breaking torque.
❖ The position of the permanent magnet is adjustable and therefore breaking torque can
be adjusted by shifting the radial position of the permanent magnet.
Registering (counting) mechanism
❖ The function of a registering or counting mechanism is to record continuously a number
which is proportional to the revolutions made by the moving system.
❖ By a suitable system, a train of reduction gears the pinion on the rotor shaft drives a
series of five or six pointers.
These rotate on round dials which are marked with ten equal divisions.
 Power Meter

A power meter, also known as a wattmeter, is a device used to measure the electrical power
consumed by a device or circuit. It measures the real power (in watts) being used, which is the
rate at which energy is consumed. Power meters can be used for both AC (alternating current)
and DC (direct current) circuits.

Power in d.c. circuits

• Power taken by a load from a d.c. supply is given as P = V.I W, where V is in volts
and I is in amperes.
• An ammeter and a voltmeter are needed to measure current through the load and voltage
drop across the load, respectively. The two possible connections are shown in figure.
•

• Referring to Fig.(a), Va is the voltage drop across the ammeter. Let Ra be the infernal
resistance of ammeter. Ammeter read the current through load. VL = V – Va ;
Va = IL Ra
Power consumed by the load = IL VL
Power indicated by instruments – Power loss in ammeter.
• In figure (b), voltmeter is connected across load and indicates the voltage drop across
the load but also the current through the voltmeter.
• Current through the voltmeter = IV = V/RV, where RV = resistance of voltmeter.

• Power consumed by the load ,

= power indicated by instrument – power loss in voltmeter
• Thus in both cases the power indicated by the instrument is equal to the power
consumed by the load and the power consumed by the instrument nearest the load
terminals.
• In order to obtain the true power, corrections must be applied for power loss in
instruments.
• Under normal conditions, power loss in instruments is quite small as compared with the
load power and therefore, the error introduced on this account is small.
• For a permanently wired installation where power measurements are required, it is
advantageous to install a watt meter instead of a voltmeter and an ammeter.
 Distortion meter

A distortion meter is a device used to measure the distortion in an electrical signal, typically an
audio signal. Distortion is any unwanted change in the waveform of a signal compared to the
original input signal.
❖ An electronic system comprises many nonlinear devices such as A/D and D/A
converters, pulse modulators/demodulators and active devices. They are considered to
be linear within a small region of operation.
❖ But in practice, due to non-linearities, the output signal of the system is no longer
proportional to the input signal.
❖ They result in the change of signal waveform or nonlinear amplification of the signals,
leading to waveform distortion. The output of waveform now consists of fundamental
and higher harmonics.
❖ A measure fo the distortion represented by a particular harmonic is the ratio of the
amplitude of the harmonic to that of fundamental.

❖ The Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) or distortion factor is defined as the ratio of the
rms value of all the harmonics to the rms value of the fundamental.

❖ But in practical measurements, the working equation expressed THD as the ratio of the
rms value of all the harmonics to the rms value of the total signal which includes
fundamental and harmonics.

Where
❖ Figure shows the block diagram of a practical distortion meter. When the selector
switch is put to position 1, the tunable band pass filter allows the total signal Et. The
meter M shows the rms value of the total signal consisting of fundamental and
harmonics. The amplifier circuit is adjusted so that the meter reads the maximum, i.e.
100%
 ❖ Then the selector switch is changed to position 2.
❖ Now the signal passes through a tunable rejection filter which is highly selective notch
filter circuit designed to reject the fundamental frequency.
❖ Therefore, the attenuation at fundamental frequency component is infinite.
❖ As the output of the amplifier now contains only the higher harmonics, meter M
indicates the percentage of distortion directly.

The distortion meter is useful in analyzing the waveform distortion that occurs due to the
presence of harmonics and hence, this is generally referred to as harmonic distortion analyzer
or simply distortion analyser.