Basic Concepts of Crystalline Structure
Basic Concepts of Crystalline Structure
Basic Concepts of Crystalline Structure
Introduction
The lengths of the principal axes, or edges, of the unit cell and the
angles between them are the lattice constants, also called lattice
Content
Unit Cell
The symmetries of a pattern determine the shape of the unit cell. For
example, mirror symmetry requires a rectangular (in 2D) or tetragonal (in
3D) unit cell. There is an infinite number of possible unit cells for any pattern.
By custom, the unit cell is chosen to be the smallest one that reveals the
special geometry characteristic of the symmetry. Thus, although an oblique
parallelogram can be used for a pattern with 4-fold symmetry in 2D, a
square is preferred.
Not all lattice points need coincide with unit cell vertices. Primitive unit
cells use every lattice point as a unit cell vertex. Non-primitive unit cells,
however, contain extra lattice points not at the corners.
A primitive unit cell contains exactly one lattice point. In 2D, a non-
primitive unit cell has one additional lattice point exactly centered within it
and is called a body-centered non-primitive unit cell.
Similarly, the inter-facial angles of the unit cell are defined to be:
P : primitive
B : end-centered on B-face (convention for Monoclinic systems)
C : end-centered on C-face (convention for Orthorhombic systems)
I : body-centered
F : face-centered
R : rhombohedral primitive
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There are several types of crystal structures. The simplest one is the simple
cubic lattice (sc). Two other cubic lattices are the body-centered (bcc)
and the face-centered (fcc) cubic lattice.
Reciprocal Lattice
The vectors a1, a2, a3 are primitive translation vectors or primitive basis for
the real space lattice, while b1, b2, b3 are primitive translation vectors or
primitive basis for the reciprocal lattice. G is called a reciprocal lattice
vector. All reciprocal lattice vectors can be expressed as a linear
combination ofb1, b2, b3 using integer coefficients. Examples of reciprocal
lattice vectors:
Atomic coordination
Close packing
...ABABABAB...
If, however, all three planes are staggered relative to each other and
it is not until the fourth layer is positioned directly over plane A that the
sequence is repeated, then the following sequence arises:
...ABCABCABC...
This type of structural arrangement is known as cubic close packing (ccp).
1. Cubic or Isometric: These are not always cube-shaped. You'll also find
octahedrons (eight faces) and dodecahedrons (10 faces)
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2. Tetragonal: Similar to cubic crystals, but longer along one axis than the
other, these crystals forming double pyramids and prisms.
3. Orthorhombic: Like tetragonal crystals except not square in cross-
section (when viewing the crystal on end), these crystals form rhombic
prisms or dipyramids (two pyramids stuck together).
4. Hexagonal: When you look at the crystal on end, the cross-section is a
six-sided prism or hexagon.
5. Trigonal: These crystals possess a single 3-fold axis of rotation instead of
the 6-fold axis of the hexagonal division.
6. Triclinic: These crystals are not usually symmetrical from one side to the
other, which can lead to some fairly strange shapes.
7. Monoclinic: Like skewed tetragonal crystals, these crystals often form
prisms and double pyramids.
Combining the 7 crystal systems with the 2 lattice types yields the 14 Bravais
Lattices.
As with the lattice classification system, this system isn't completely cut-
and-dried. Sometimes it's hard to categorize crystals as belonging to one
class as opposed to another. However, these broad groupings will provide
you with some understanding of structures.
Application
METALS
Introduction
Content
Metals are one of the most important types of the materials. They
have relatively high values of elastic constants and can be made strong by
alloying and proper heat treatment. What is particularly important they
combine stiffness and high strength with considerable ductility. As a result,
most metals yield before they fracture and this makes them the most widely
used engineering material.
1. What are the elements in the internal structure of a given material that
distinguish it from other materials of that kind (of say similar chemical
composition?
In the present text the focus is placed on the two last questions. Size
and shape are the attributes of 1-, 2- and 3-dimensional elements of the
microstructure. The size of microstructural elements can be quantitatively
described by:
Stereology
Application
POLYMERS
Introduction
Polymer Synthesis
Content
All of us are well aware that polymers display unique physical properties
for non-metals. Some are tough undergoing large permanent deformations
without breaking, some are stiff and strong, some are soft and flexible, and
others can withstand considerable impact without breaking. All of these
“mechanical properties” are peculiar to the polymer and are not
characteristic of the monomer from which it was prepared. A polymer’s
unusual physical behavior is due to the tremendous amount of interactions
between its chains. These interactions consist of various types of
intermolecular bonds and physical entanglements. The magnitude of these
interactions is dependent upon the nature of the intermolecular bonding
forces, the molecular weight, the manner in which the chains are packed
together, and the flexibility of the polymer chain. Thus, the amount of
interaction is different in different polymers and quite often different in
different samples of the same polymer.
Characteristics of Polymers
crystalline structures in table salt and gemstones, but they can occur in
plastics. Just as quenching can produce amorphous arrangements,
processing can control the degree of crystallinity for those polymers that
are able to crystallize. Some polymers are designed to never be able to
crystallize. Others are designed to be able to be crystallized. The higher the
degree of crystallinity, generally, the less light can pass through the
polymer. Therefore, the degree of translucence or opaqueness of the
polymer can be directly affected by its crystallinity. Crystallinity creates
benefits in strength, stiffness, chemical resistance, and stability.
Application
The following are the most useful polymers in our daily life:
ENGINEERED NANOMATERIALS
Introduction
Content
Classification of Nanomaterials
Fig2
Examples of Nanomaterials
Types of Nanomaterials
Application
Medicine
One application of nanotechnology in medicine currently being
developed involves employing nanoparticles to deliver drugs, heat, light or
other substances to specific types of cells, such as cancer cells. Particles
are engineered so that they are attracted to diseased cells, which allow
direct treatment of those cells. This technique reduces damage to healthy
cells in the body and allows for earlier detection of disease. For example,
nanoparticles that deliver chemotherapy drugs directly to cancer cells are
under development.
Electronics
Nanoelectronics holds some answers on expanding the capabilities of
electronics devices can be expanded while reducing their weight and
power consumption. These include improving display screens on
electronics devices and increasing the density of memory chips.
Nanotechnology can also reduce the size of transistors used in integrated
circuits. One researcher believes it may be possible to put the power of all
of today’s present computers in the palm of your hand.
Environment
Consumer Products
Sporting Goods
If you’re a tennis or golf fan, you’ll be glad to hear that even sporting goods
have been improved by nanotechnology. Current nanotechnology
applications in the sports arena include:
Introduction
Content
The atmosphere is having 78.08% nitrogen (N2), 20.95% oxygen (O2) and
about 1% other gases.
• Structure of Atmosphere
1. Troposphere. It is closest layer to the earth’s surface. So, the layer in which
we live is troposphere. It is about 18 km above the sea level at the
equator and 7 km at poles.75% of the atmospheric gases are present in
this layer and almost all of the dust particles and water vapors. All
weather phenomenon like cloud formation, winds, rainfall, snowfall takes
place in this layer. The air below this layer is warmer than any other layer
because it is heated from the earth’s surface below. The layer of air
which is warm tends to rise up, and a pocket of cold air flows to cover
the space, giving rise to wind movement. The temperature will decrease
at a rate of about 6.5 °C per km as the altitude increases. The average
temperature near the surface is 15°C while it is -57° C at the top. Pressure,
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moisture content and density of air also decrease with height thinning of
air. That is why people experience breathlessness at high altitudes in
mountains. The troposphere ends when there is variation in temperature
with height. This area, which is the top of troposphere and bottom of
stratosphere, is known as tropopause. The inversion of temperature
beyond tropopause prevents further convection of air thereby confining
most of the weather phenomenon in troposphere.
2. Stratosphere. It is the second layer of earth’s atmosphere. It starts at the
top of tropopause and is 50 km above the sea level. The term
stratosphere is derived from a Greek word “strata” which means
arrangement in horizontal layers. Approximately 99% of the atmosphere
is located up to this height which includes almost all the gases. Weather
balloons and jet aircrafts fly in this region as the air present in this layer is
very thin. This increases the fuel efficiency of the aircrafts. The
stratosphere also contains the ozone layer; at a height of about 30 km.
The density or thickness of ozone layer above the surface of earth is
measured in Dobson Units (DU). The ozone layer is thinnest near the
equator (~260 DU) and its thickness increases towards the poles, though
there are seasonal fluctuations. Ozone – which is a mainly formed
photochemical smog – is considered to be dangerous for health if
reached the ground level or near the surface of earth. However, in the
stratosphere, the high energy UV radiation is absorbed by the ozone
layer and heats up the stratosphere. This also prevent skin cancer and
damage to vegetation. The ozone layer is created in the stratosphere
when the oxygen molecules (O2) absorb UV radiations (240 nm) and
dissociate to give atomic oxygen (O) which immediately react with
another O2 molecule and results in the formation of an ozone (O3)
molecule:
shuttles. Some scientific studies have been made using sounding rockets
that are not required to go into orbit. It is found that meteors generally
burn up in the mesosphere. Thus, this layer protects the surface of earth
from being pockmarked with craters.
The temperature of this layer also decreases with increase in altitude. The
temperature of upper layer of mesosphere is even less than -100°C. At
these low temperatures, freezing of water vapour will take place and
polar-mesospheric clouds are formed. They are known to be the highest
water-based aerosols and ends at mesopause. It marks the minimum
temperature of mesosphere (making it the coldest part of earth also) and
is the bottom of the next layer – the thermosphere − of the atmosphere.
4. Thermosphere. It is the fourth and widest among all layers of the
atmosphere. It is at 90 km or starts from the top of mesopause to between
500 and 1,000 km, varying with solar activity. When more high energy
radiations are emitted by the sun, the thermosphere expands under heat
and thus, its height at top varies. The air is so thin in this layer, that it is
generally considered to be part of outer space. The Kármán Line at
about 100 km is called as boundary of the atmosphere also lies in this
region. Layer is consist of many satellites and space shuttles orbit.
Temperature inversion takes place in thermosphere and temperature
increases as one goes up. The temperatures can range from 500 °C to
2,000 °C or higher, depending upon the position and activity of the sun.
However, the air feels cold because the molecules are so far apart that
a molecule may travel up to 1 km before collision with another molecule.
Most of the X-rays and UV radiations emitted by the sun are absorbed in
the thermosphere. In this layer dissociation of the molecules into atoms,
ions and free electrons is done by high energy radiation. The ionization
process increases with increase in sun’s activity. The ions create an
electrical layer, known as the ionosphere, which can reflect radio waves
back to the earth making radio communication possible. In the
thermosphere theatoms and molecules get excited to higher energy
states after collisions with charged particles from space. Transfer of
thermal energy takes place during the collisions. The excess energy of
atoms and molecules are lost as radiations in the visible region of
spectrum. The top of thermosphere is called thermopause. It is also called
as exobase, because it is the bottom of the exosphere.
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Application
Introduction
Content
Chemistry of Water
Water has a high specific heat index. This means that water can
absorb a lot of heat before it begins to get hot. This is why water is valuable
to industries and in your car's radiator as a coolant. The high specific heat
index of water also helps regulate the rate at which air changes
temperature, which is why the temperature change between seasons is
gradual rather than sudden, especially near the oceans.
Water has a very high surface tension. In other words, water is sticky
and elastic, and tends to clump together in drops rather than spread out in
a thin film. Surface tension is responsible for capillary action, which allows
water (and its dissolved substances) to move through the roots of plants
and through the tiny blood vessels in our bodies.
Both the specific heat and latent heat for water are fairly high
compared with most substances, and this is an important consideration
when water is used as a medium of heat transfer. It takes considerable
energy to heat water, and that energy is then available to be transferred
to the food. Foods heated in water are slow to heat. Water also must take
up considerable heat to evaporate. It takes heat from its surroundings, thus,
it is a good cooling agent. When ice is subjected to vacuum and then
heated, it is converted into vapor without going through the liquid phase.
This phenomenon is known as sublimation, and is the basis for the food
processing method known as freeze drying. Coffee is an example of a food
product that is freeze-dried. The process is expensive and is only used for
foods that can be sold at a high price, such as coffee. The coffee beans
are frozen and then subjected to a high vacuum, after which radiant heat
is applied until almost all of water is removed by sublimation. Freezer burn is
also the result of sublimation.
Vapor Pressure
If a puddle of water is left on the ground for a day or two, it will dry
up because the liquid evaporates. The water does not boil, yet individual
water molecules gain enough energy to escape from the liquid as vapor.
Over a period, an open, small pool of water will dry up in this way. If the
liquid is in a closed container, at equilibrium, some molecules are always
evaporating and vapor molecules are condensing, so there is no overall
change in the system. The vapor(gaseous) molecules that have escaped
from the liquid state exert a pressure on the surface of the liquid known as
the vapor pressure. When the vapor pressure is high, the liquid evaporates
(is vaporized) easily and many molecules exist in the vapor state; the boiling
point is low. Conversely, a low vapor pressure indicates that the liquid does
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not vaporize easily and that there are few molecules existing in the vapor
state. The boiling point for these liquids is higher. The liquid boils when the
vapor pressure reaches the external pressure. The vapor pressure increases
with increasing temperature. At higher temperatures, the molecules have
more energy and it is easier for them to overcome the forces holding them
within the liquid and to vaporize, and so there are more molecules in the
vapor state. The vapor pressure decreases with addition of solutes, such as
salt or sugars. In effect, the solutes dilute the water; therefore, there are less
water molecules (in the same volume) available for vaporization and, thus,
there will be fewer molecules in the vapor state, and the vapor pres- sure
will be lower. Attraction to the solute also limits evaporation.
Boiling Point
Anything that lowers the vapor pressure (pres- sure by gas above the
liquid) increases the boiling point. This is due to the fact that as the vapor
pressure is lowered at a particular temper- ature, more energy must be put
in; in other words, the temperature must be raised to increase the vapor
pressure again. The external pressure does not change if salts or sugars are
added, although it becomes harder for the molecules to vaporize and so
the temperature at which the vapor pressure is the same as the external
pres- sure (boiling point) will be higher. One mole of sucrose elevates the
boiling point by 0.52 C, and 1 mol of salt elevates the boiling point by 1.04
C. Salt has double the effect of sucrose because it is ionized, and for every
mole of salt, there is 1 mol of sodium ions and 1 mol of chloride ions. Salts
and sugars depress the freez- ing point of water in a similar fashion. If the
external pressure is increased by heating in a pressure cooker or retort
(commercial pres- sure cooker), the boiling point increases and a shorter
time than normal is required to cook a particular food (the basis of
preserving foods by canning). For example, food may be heated in cans in
retorts, and the steam pressure is increased to give a boiling point in the
range 239–250 F (115–121 C). Conversely, if the external pressure is
decreased, for example, at high altitude, water boils at a lower
temperature and so food may require a longer time to cook
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Acid release H+
Bases accept H+
Application
Everyday Living. The most common use of water is through drinking. People
drink water almost every day and would not be able to survive without
doing so. Water is also used in everyday life for cooking, cleaning, washing
and playing. These activities use on average 90 gallons of water per day
for the average American. Except when asleep, it is rare to go more than
a couple of hours without some interaction with water.
SOIL CHEMISTRY
Introduction
Content
pH
6.0. Most garden vegetables, shrubs, trees and lawns grow best when the
soil pH is over 6.0 or 6.5. The range between 5.5 and 7.5 is favorable for two
reasons. It allows sufficient microorganisms to break down organic matter.
It is also the best range for nutrient availability. Organic matter and nutrients
will be discussed later. Areas that were formerly covered by trees, such as
Prince Edward Island, develop acidic soils. This helps explain how Prince
Edward Island farmers can grow the best potatoes in the world.
Ion exchange
The total amount of positive charges that the soil can absorb is called
the cation exchange capacity (CEC). CEC impacts how quickly nutrients
move through the profile. A soil with a low CEC is much less fertile because
it cannot hold on to many nutrients, and they usually contain less clays. If
your soil has a low CEC, it is important to apply fertilizer small doses so it does
not infiltrate into the groundwater. A soil with a low CEC is less able to hold
spilt chemicals.
Soil chemists also study soil organic matter (OM), which are materials
derived from the decay of plants and animals. They contain many
hydrogen and carbon compounds. The arrangement and formation of
these compounds influence a soils ability to handle spilt chemicals and
other pollutants.
Soils that alternate between wet and dry go from having a lot of
oxygen to not a lot of oxygen. The presence or absence of oxygen
determines how soils chemically react. Oxidation is the loss of electrons,
and reduction is the gaining of electrons at the soil surface. These type of
reactions occur every day, and are responsible for creating things like rust.
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Soils, because they contain a lot of iron, can also rust, or if they contain a
lot of water, can turn a light gray color. This is partially responsible for all of
the different colors that are found, and creates the speckles usually found
deeper in the soil.
Liming
When farmers originally cleared the lands on the Island, the soil
quality was adequate for growing potatoes. However, potatoes were not
the only crop at that time. Therefore, farmers needed a way to increase
the pH of the soil to make it suitable for other crops. The pH of soil can be
increased by liming. This is why people sometimes spread white powder on
their lawns or gardens. This white powder is lime. Calcitic limestone
(CaCO3) provides a good source of Calcium (Ca) and helps neutralize soil
acidity. Dolomitic limestone functions similarly but also adds Magnesium
(Mg). The best limestone will have the greatest calcium and magnesium
content and will be ground into very tiny particles. The smaller particles
allow the limestone to correct soil acidity more rapidly. The chemistry to
liming is quite simple. Hydrogen ions (H) are attracted to soil and organic
material which have a negative + charge. When lime is applied, these
hydrogen ions are exchanged for calcium or magnesium (Ca or Mg ) ions
which have a greater positive charge. This helps to neutralize the acidity 2+
2+ of the soil. The free hydrogen ions are taken out of solution. This also helps
to increase the pH. This reaction demonstrates the process of liming.
Nutrients
45
Each year the soil undergoes a series of cycles in which materials are
added and then taken away. Organic matter and nutrients, in various
forms, are constantly being added to the soil. Nutrients are the minerals
required by plants to survive. It is very important that plants receive all the
required nutrients. There are a total of sixteen elements required for plant
growth. Each is required in different amounts. The most important nutrients
are called macronutrients. Nutrients which are essential, but only needed
in small quantities are called micronutrients. Carbon, Hydrogen, and
Oxygen are the big three macronutrients. These are obtained in almost
unlimited amounts from the atmosphere and from the water around the
plant. The other macronutrients are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium
(K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S). These nutrients should be
available for plant uptake from the soil. Micronutrients are obtained from
the soil. They are boron (B), copper (Cu), chlorine (Cl), iron (Fe), manganese
(Mn), molybdenum (Mo), and zinc (Zn). They are all essential because the
absence of any one of these will cause the plant to grow poorly or develop
disease.
Organic Matter
Many pleasant drives in the country have been affected when the
passengers of a car are hit with an unpleasant, but familiar odor. Many
people complain about the smell without questioning why it exists. There is
actually a very good reason for this practice. Although they are often given
more unpleasant names, these animal wastes are known as organic
fertilizers. These fertilizers have a very high content of organic matter.
Organic matter is simply dead decaying matter that originated from a living
source. It prevents nutrients from being lost from the soil by binding these
nutrients. Therefore, the best soil for crop production will have a very high
organic content. Most organic fertilizer originates from livestock such as
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cows, pigs, and poultry. Compost is also an organic fertilizer. Compost can
be made up of grass clippings, table scraps, ashes, seaweed, and many
other types of food products. Organic fertilizers contain high levels of
Nitrogen and moderate levels of Phosphorus and Potassium. The nutrient
content of organic fertilizer can vary according to the animal that
produced it (agri-science text). The process of spreading organic fertilizers
gives farmers the opportunity to rid themselves of accumulated livestock
waste. It also provides farmers with a free source of fertilizer which is
sometimes sufficient to meet the needs of the desired crop. Organic
fertilizers are also less harmful to the environment. This may be one of the
first recycling practices that ever developed.
Application
The ground beneath our feet—that is, the topmost layer, the A
horizon—is full of living things. In fact, there are more creatures below Earth's
surface than there are above it. The term creatures in this context includes
microorganisms, of which there might be several billion in a sample as small
as an acorn. These include decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi,
which feed on organic matter, turning fresh leaves and other material into
humus. In addition, both bacteria and algae convert nitrogen into forms
usable by plants in the surrounding environment.
Worms
We cannot see bacteria, of course, but almost anyone who has ever
dug in the dirt has discovered another type of organism: worms. These slimy
creatures might at first seem disgusting, but without them our world could
not exist as it does. As they burrow through soils, earthworms mix organic
and mineral material, which they make available to plants around them.
They also may draw leaves deep into their middens, or burrows, thus
furnishing the soil with nutrients from the surface. In addition, earthworms
provide the extraordinarily valuable service of aerating the soil, or supplying
it with air: by churning up the soil continuously, they expose it to oxygen
from the surface and allow air to make its way down below as well.
Nor are these visible, relatively large worms the only ones at work in
the soil. Colorless worms called nematodes, which are only slightly larger
47
than microorganisms, also live in the soil, performing the vital function of
processing organic material by feeding on dead plants. Some, however,
are parasites that live off the roots of such crops as corn or cotton.
Likewise there are "bad" and "good" ants. The former build giant, teeming
mounds and hills that rise up like sores on the surface of the ground, and
some species have the capacity to sting, causing welts on human victims.
But a great number of ant species perform a positive function for the
environment: like earthworms, they aerate soil and help bring oxygen and
organic material from the surface while circulating soils from below.
In some areas, much larger creatures call the soil home. Among these
creatures are moles, who live off earthworms and other morsels to be found
beneath the surface, including grubs (insect larvae) and the roots of plants.
As with ants and earthworms, by burrowing under the ground, they help
loosen the soil, making it more porous and thus receptive both to moisture
and air. Other large burrowing creatures include mice, ground squirrels,
and prairie dogs. They typically live in dry areas, where they perform the
valuable function of aerating sandy, gravelly soil.
Depth is just one of the ways that the soil may vary from one place
to another. Earlier we mentioned five factors that affect the character of
the soil: parent material, climate, living organisms, topography, and time.
These factors determine all sorts of things about the soil—most of all, its
ability to support varied life-forms. Collectively, these five factors constitute
the environment in which a soil sample exists.
Poor Soils
On the other hand, the soil in rainforests suffers from just the opposite
condition: it has gone beyond maturity and reached old age, when plant
growth and water percolation have removed most of its nutrients.
Whether in the desert or in the rainforest, soils near the equator tend
to be the "oldest," and this helps explain why few equatorial regions are
noted for their agricultural productivity, even though they enjoy otherwise
favorable weather for growing crops. Soils there have been leached of
nutrients and contain high levels of iron oxides that give them a reddish
color. Moreover, red soil is never good for growing crops: the ancient
Egyptians referred to the deserts beyond their realm as "the red land," while
their own fertile Nile valley was "the black land."
Rainforests
This also explains why the clearing of tropical rainforests, an issue that
environmentalists called to the world's attention in the 1990s, is a serious
problem. When the heavy jungle canopy of tall trees is removed, the heat
of the sun and the pounding intensity of monsoon rains fall directly on
ground that the canopy would normally protect. With the clearing of trees
and other vegetation, the animal life that these plants support also
disappears, thus removing organisms whose waste products and bodies
would have decayed eventually and enriched the soil. Pounded by heat
and water and without vegetation to resupply it, the soil in an exposed
rainforest becomes hard and dry.
Deserts
worse, but even the best that deserts have to offer is not very good for
sustaining abundant plant life.
Rich Soils
In striking contrast to the barren soil of the deserts and the potentially
barren soil of the rainforest is the rich earth that lies beneath some of the
world's most fertile crop-producing regions. On the plains of the midwestern
United States, Canada, and Russia, the soil is black—always a good sign for
growth. Below this rich topsoil is a thick subsoil that helps hold in moisture
and nutrients.
CHEMICAL SAFETY
Introduction
In most cases you will be able to manage your chemical safety in-
house. You will be familiar with the types of chemicals involved and the
type of work activities in which these chemicals are used. In addition, your
employees will have experience and knowledge that you can use when
deciding on the precautions you are going to take. You will probably
already have precautions in place. You are now checking if these are
sufficient and if you need to take further steps to protect people. Small or
low-risk businesses will find it straightforward to identify their chemical
hazards and put in place appropriate control measures. Larger businesses,
and particularly those working in high-risk sectors, may need more
resources and competency to manage their chemical safety.
Content
Chemical Substance
Corrosives
Oxidisers
Flammables
Toxic chemicals
There must be a fixed storage place for each chemical and the same
must be returned to that location after each use. Storage of
chemicals
Toxic or odoriferous chemicals must be stored in a ventilated cabinet.
Chemicals must not be exposed to heat or direct sunlight.
Heat and sunlight can degrade chemicals, deteriorate storage
containers and labels. Storage of chemicals
Chemicals must not be stored at locations where they can be
knocked over. Storage of chemicals
Rim guards must be fixed on the edge of shelves to prevent bottles
from falling.
Flammable chemicals must not be stored on bench tops.
After use they must be immediately removed to a safety cabinet.
Flammable solvents must not be left open in containers or beakers.
Same must be stored and handled away from sources of ignition and
oxidisers. Storage of chemicals
Flammable chemicals must not be stored in domestic refrigerators.
Vapours can leak out from the bottles and form a flammable vapour
air mixture.
The bulb or thermostat can be a source of ignition.
Flammable chemicals must be stored only in intrinsically safe lab
purpose refrigerators.
Safety precautions
Do not work alone in the laboratories particularly when performing
hazardous procedures.
Do not perform unauthorised experiments.
Plan appropriate procedures and the positioning of all equipment
before beginning any experiment.
Wear appropriate personal protective equipment, a laboratory
apron or coat, safety glasses and toe covered footwear at all
times in the laboratory.
Wear suitable gloves when handling chemicals. Inspect all gloves
for defects before usage. Safety precautions Safety precautions
Know the location of emergency equipment.
Be aware of the hazards posed by the work of others in the
laboratory.
54
Health Hazards – These are properties of a chemical that have the potential
to cause adverse health effects. Exposure usually occurs through
55
Emergency measures
Eyes must be immediately flushed with copious amount of water
for at least 15 minutes.
In case of contact with hydrofluoric acid, apply 2.5% calcium
gluconate gel on the skin after flushing the affected part with
water. Refer safety data sheets for more information.
Disposal of chemicals
Laboratories must maintain labelled carboys/cans for collecting
spent chemicals.
Care must be taken to prevent mixing of incompatible chemicals
while transferring spent chemicals.
There should be at least 2 inch head space above the liquid
surface in the chemical container.
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Application
APPENDICES
Nilsson, H.E. “Self study material in Solid State Electronics using Multimedia”
http://www.rsc.org/events/detail/24508/methods-and-applications-of-
METALS:
https://www.thomasnet.com/articles/metals-metal-products/metal-
POLYMERS:
ENGINEERED NANOMATERIALS:
publication/259118068_Chapter_-_INTRODUCTION_TO_
2018)
2018)
https://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/pdf/1997/pdf/6901x0001.pdf.
59
http://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/
chemistry/04.environmental_chemistry/01.atmosphere/et/
http://www.biology.arizona.edu/biochemistry/tutorials/ chemistry/
cda_downloaddocument/9781461491378-c1.pdf?SGWID=0-0-45-
SOIL CHEMISTRY:
http://www.scienceclarified.com/everyday/Real-Life-Earth-Science-
CHEMICAL SAFETY:
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/chemical-safety-introduction-udeme-
Publications/Chemical_and_Hazardous_Substances/Chemical
Cable, J. (October 2006)” Home Chemical Safety Tips from the American