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Sufism and Suzuki Shozan's Japanese Zen Teachings

Article · October 2016

DOI: 10.12816/0035215

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 ARTICLES

SUFISM AND SUZUKI SHŌSAN'S JAPANESE

ZEN TEACHINGS

Yasushi Suzuki*

Abstract: This paper aims to compare the ways toward true enlightenment
taught by Islam’s Sufi tradition and the Japanese Zen teacher, Suzuki Shōsan.
Despite differences in fundamental motivation and ultimate goal, the paper
will identify a degree of compatibility between both traditions, particularly in
terms of their emphasis on: (1) becoming moral and conveying ethical ideals,
(2) devoting oneself to oneʼs daily work in the proper spirit, and (3) making
services for society in order to overcome the obstacles which human beings
frequently encounter. Although the peaceful and non-violent Sufi intellectual
tradition has been denigrated by recent militant jihad movements and radical
Islamism, this paper aims to shed an analytical light on the universal values and
ethics Sufism shares with an Eastern religious teaching in order to contribute
towards the promotion of an atmosphere of moderation in society.
Keywords: Buddhism, Jihad, Nio-Zen, Sufism, Suzuki Shōsan, Zen Philosophy.

Introduction
Jihad-ism is more of a political phenomenon than a religious one. The widespread
hostility some Muslims feel towards Western aggression and domination has
sometimes led even religiously indifferent but politically irritated Muslims to
sympathise with jihadists – and even though Muslim scholars have unambiguously
opposed jihad-ism’s penchant for intentionally killing non-combatants (Kamali,
2013). Moreover, and as pointed out by Mohammad Hashim Kamali, the root
causes of many present-day conflicts have very little to do with religion, even if
they may appear to have some religious implications.1 Despite this, however, our
globalising society, which includes Muslims and non-Muslims alike, is forced
to face an intensifying threat from Islamic exclusivism, including the misuse of
jihad and takfir (the excommunication of other Muslims) by violent extremists.
How should we respond to this threat?

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Sufism – or Islam’s mystical tradition – is a powerful non-violent competitor

to Islamic fundamentalism. Sufi ideology, which is the inner or esoteric dimension
of Islam, and while beginning with the Shariʼah as the basis of religious life,
seeks to take a step further, towards the inner Truth (Haqiqah) of religion (Nasr,
2007). The ultimate aim of Sufism is an elaboration of the teachings of the Qurʼan
and of the Prophet through the ‘greater’ jihad, or the daily fight each individual
experiences against his or her temptations. According to Sufism, ‘battles’ are to
be conducted at all levels, not only against the ego-personality, but also against
(and for instance) material life, economic crises, poverty, new diseases and so on.
This Sufi ‘ethos’, as Max Weber termed it (see Weber, 2002), is, in my view,
compatibility with the Japanese Zen teachings of Suzuki Shōsan (1579-1655). In
the early Edo period, Shōsan taught that true enlightenment comes during oneʼs
daily tasks: “Whether one is tilling fields, or selling wares, or even confronting
an enemy in the heat of battle, direct enlightenment will occur at key momentʼs
of oneʼs day to day life” (Suzuki S., 2015: 45). Some scholars, including the
prominent Japanese philosopher of comparative religion, Hajime Nakamura
(1912-1999), and the well-known Japanese writer, Shichihei Yamamoto (1921-
1991), insist that the characteristic Japanese ethos of endeavouring to work
(i.e. of respecting the virtue of diligence and industriousness) is attributable to
the penetration of the teachings of Suzuki Shōsan throughout Japanese society
(Nakamura, 1996; Yamamoto, 1997; 2006).2
The Prophet of Islam said, “Whoever knows his self, knows his Lord,”
meaning that self-knowledge leads to knowledge of the Divine. Sufism takes this
saying (hadith) very seriously and endeavours to put it into practice (Nasr, 2007).
In fact, and as we discuss later, several scholars point out that Sufism’s emphasis
on this potential for personal contact with the Divine through self-knowledge
creates a universality with other ideologies and religions (Nakamura, 1971;
1989; 2007; Nicholson, 1996). This paper aims to introduce the Zen teachings of
Suzuki Shōsan as a means of furthering discussions on this potential universality
of Islamic mysticism.
The sanctity and dignity of human life, which together constitute the most
cherished values of human civilisation, are rooted in spirituality and ethics not
war: “Senseless wars, border clashes, military occupation, the arms race and
suicide bombings have not only failed to resolve any conflict, they have added
to the size of the challenge” (Kamali, 2013: 183). Although the wisdom of both
Sufism and Eastern philosophy may not immediately stop violent extremists, I
believe that wisdom is nonetheless worthy of attention because, in the long run,
it can contribute to the denial of various levels of exclusivism.
This paper will begin by looking directly at the universality of Sufism. This
first section will also introduce the interpretation of the ‘greater’ jihad offered

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SUFISM AND SUZUKI SHŌSAN'S JAPANESE ZEN TEACHINGS 445

by Cheikh Khaled Bentounes, an important Sufi Shaykh. After this first section,
the paper will look at Shōsanʼs history and the essence of his teachings, before
moving on to compare, contrast and analyse the peaceful and non-violent aspects
of both traditions. Finally, the paper will conclude with the hope that it can
contribute towards an atmosphere of moderation in society.

Sufi Perspectives and Their Universality

It is reported that during the early formation of Islam, after the Muslims returned
from a huge battle with the enemy, the Prophet of Islam, peace and blessing be
upon him, said: “You have returned from a smaller jihad (battle), and now it is
incumbent upon you to perform your greater jihad.” When the astonished people
asked him what could be greater than the jihad they had just returned from, the
Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, said: “The battle with ones nafs (ego-
personality)” (Bonnin, n.a.; Bentounes, 2007: 48-9). This hadith emphasises two
fundamentally important issues. First, it points to the difficult task of our internal
jihad. Second, it establishes the necessity of the battle we must wage against our
nafs (our ego-personality). The Prophet is letting us know that victory in the outer
jihad is not enough for mankind to live in peace and harmony. Rather, it only
provides the necessary space to do our most important work, which is the jihad
against our nafs (Bonnin, n.a.; Napoleoni, 2014). The Sufi tradition in particular
pays close attention to an elaboration of the Qurʼanic and Prophetic teachings
on this ‘greater’ jihad, the daily fight each individual wages against his or her
temptations.
Quite often, one finds that historically-orientated scholarly writings describe
Sufism as the mystical aspect of Islam. This kind of description suggests that
Sufism involves a personal contact with the Divine brought about through an
exploration of the inner meaning of Islamic religious practice. Nicholson (2002)
points out that Muhammad, who had something of the mystic in him, felt God as
both far and near, transcendent and immanent. In the latter regard, he saw Allah
as the light of the heavens and the earth, as a Being who works in the world and
in the soul of man:
“If My servants ask thee about Me, lo, I am near” (Q 2: 186); “We
(God) are nearer to him than his own neck-vein” (Q 50: 16); “And in
the earth are signs to those of real faith, and in yourselves, What! do ye
not see?” (Q 51: 20-21).
Nevertheless, Ernst (1997) points out that as a term, ‘mysticism’ is subject to
debate and confusion, leading some scholars to reject it altogether as a suitable
descriptive term for Sufism. In contrast, non-academic sources, including

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some published by Sufis themselves, describe Sufism as the universal spirit of

mysticism – that is, as the spirit at the heart of all religions (Ernst, 1997: xvii).
We should pay more attention to this universality of Sufism.
Nicholson (2002) points out that Sufism cannot be traced back to a single
definite origin. He illustrates, for example, how the tradition’s ascetic and
quietistic tendencies are in harmony with Christian theology. Indeed, many of
the oldest Sufi biographies cite Gospel texts and the apocryphal sayings of Jesus.
Moreover, the Christian anchorite (rahib) often appears in Sufi texts as a teacher
capable of giving instruction and advice to wandering Muslim ascetics. But in
addition to these influences, Nicholson also points out the conspicuous place of
gnosis in early Sufi speculation, suggesting contact with Christian Gnosticism.
He refers, for instance, to the following version of the doctrine of the seventy
thousand veils which, and as explained by a modern Rifa’i dervish, shows clear
traces of Gnosticism:
Seventy Thousand Veils separate Allah, the One Reality, from the world
of matter and of sense. And every soul passes before his birth through
these seventy thousand. The inner half of these are veils of light: the
outer half, veils of darkness. For every one of the veils of light passes
through, in this journey towards birth, the soul puts off a divine quality:
and for every one of the dark veils, it puts on an earthly quality. Thus
the child is born weeping, for the soul knows its separation from Allah,
the One Reality, And when the child cries in its sleep, it is because the
soul remembers something of what it has lost. Otherwise, the passage
through the veils has brought with it forgetfulness (nisyan): and for this
reason man is called insan. He is now, as it were, in prison in his body,
separated by these thick curtains from Allah.

But the whole purpose of Sufism, the Way of the dervish, is to give him
an escape from this prison, and apocalypse of the Seventy Thousand
Veils, a recovery of the original unity with The One, while still in this
body. The body is not to be put off; it is to be refined and made spiritual
— a help and not a hindrance to the spirit. It is like a metal that has to be
refined by fire and transmuted. And the sheikh tells the aspirant that he
has the secret of this transmutation. We shall throw you into the fire of
Spiritual Passion’, he says, ‘and you will emerge refined.ʼ (Nicholson,
1996: 29-30).
Nicholson (1996; 2002) further points out how, before the Mohammedan
conquest of India in the eleventh century, the teachings of Buddha exerted
considerable influence in Eastern Persia and Transoxania. He concludes that

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SUFISM AND SUZUKI SHŌSAN'S JAPANESE ZEN TEACHINGS 447

Sufism, so far as it is an ethical self- culture, ascetic meditation, and intellectual

abstraction, owes a good deal to the Buddhist influences which earlier permeated
these regions. By contrast, the Sufi conception of the passing-away (fana) of the
individual self into the Universal Being is certainly of Indian origin.
What can we draw from the wisdom of Sufism today? While Orientalists have
been interested in Sufism as a descriptive term for a body of religious beliefs
and practices, Muslim mystics have traditionally used it in a prescriptive way, to
convey certain ethical and spiritual ideals (Ernst, 1997: xvi-xvii). Today, it is to
these ideals that we should pay particular attention to: Tonaga (2013) refers to the
‘tripolar’ structure of Sufism (see figure 1), combining mysticism (represented
by the x-axis), ethics and morality (y-axis), and folk religious beliefs (z-axis). In
particular, the y-axis (ethics) represents the core virtues embodied in the values
of Islam and could, potentially, resurrect Islam in the modern period. Indeed, in
Central Asian countries, there has been a resurgence of Islamic practice directed
by Sufism and its ethical values. Since the y-axis (ethics) is so important for the
resurrection of Islam, we may say that there is no substantial difference between
the phrases “to become a good Muslim” and “to become a good Sufi”.

Figure 1: Illustration of the tripolar structure of Sufism, created upon Tonaga (2013: 47)

As mentioned earlier, this paper is concerned with an elaboration of the

Qurʼanic and Prophetic teachings on the ‘greater’ jihad, or the daily fight each
individual wages against his or her temptations. According to Bentounes (2007),
who is a leading Sufi Shaykh, the ‘greater’ jihad is the jihad for souls and can be
traced back to the very origin of humanity. After we, as human beings, were given
intellect and knowledge by God, we came to know our ignorance as well as our
responsibility to the universe surrounding us. At the same time, we realized that
we should have the ability to choose our own destiny, to choose between good and
evil. According to Bentounes, this is the background to making jihad important
and meaningful in our daily lives (Bentounes, 2007: 48-9). According to him,
‘battlesʼ are to be conducted on every level, not just against the ego- personality,
but also against (and for instance) material life, economic crises, poverty, new

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448 YASUSHI SUZUKI

diseases and so on. The concept of (the greater) jihad should really play out in our
daily lives, not just in physical battles with weapons: “We should not be satisfied
only with the battle against ego-personality. As a witness of knowing the Truth,
we should make contributions and services to human beings. The contributions
should be made in each professional field; if you are an educator, medical doctor,
politician, you have to endeavour to work using your full capacity and knowledge.
Your enlightenment would come in making services. All the professional works
have the element of making services” (Bentounes, 2007: 50).
This Sufi-based insight into the greater jihad is, in my view, compatible with
the Zen teachings of Suzuki Shōsan. Let us therefore now look to this figure.3

The Essence of the Teachings of Suzuki Shōsan

Suzuki Shōsan (鈴木正三) was a Japanese samurai who served under the Shogun
Tokugawa Ieyasu, the unifier of Japan whose clan, the Tokugawas, would rule
the country for the next 250 years (the Edo period). Born into a warrior family
in the province of Mikawa (present-day Aichi Prefecture) in 1579, Shōsan was
raised during one of Japanese historyʼs bloodiest periods. In 1621, however, and
after participating in several battles, including the Battle of Sekigahara and the
Battle of Osaka, he renounced life as a warrior and became a Zen Buddhist monk.
Shōsan subsequently travelled throughout Japan, seeking out Zen masters and
training in several hermitages and temples, most notably at Myōshin-ji in Kyoto,
where he was a student of Gudō Toshoku (1577–1661). In 1642, Shōsan, along
with his brother, built 32 Buddhist temples throughout Japan. He then went on to
write several treatises before his death in 1655, age 76.
Suzuki Shōsan developed his own style of Zen, called Niō Zen, or Guardian
King Zen. In Buddhism, the Niō are two guardian deities who stand on either
side of a temple gateway. Each carries a thunderbolt-like weapon (kongosho)
that, according to esoteric Buddhist teachings, symbolises the diamond-
hard wisdom of the enlightened mind. Suzuki Shōsan, former warrior turned
monk, seized upon the vital energy symbolized by these two ferocious-looking
deities; he emphasized the importance of this energy to his students, while also
demonstrating the need to cultivate it in all activities (Braverman, 1994: 3).
Sometimes, he even asked learners to physically emulate the postures of the
Niō (as well as other warrior deities, like Fudo and Bishamonten) in order to aid
them in their concentration.
Several aspects of Shōsanʼs teachings stand out as particularly relevant to
the modern world: his insistence that Buddhism be meaningful to people in all
walks of life; his assertion that it can be practiced during oneʼs daily tasks; his
use of ‘death awarenessʼ as a means of arousing vital energy; and his injunction

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that all religious practice, whether zazen, nembutsu, or mantra, be performed

with the valorous spirit of the Niō (Braverman, 1994: 14; see also Suzuki D.,
2000: 313-4).
To each of the four social classes in feudal Japan, Shōsan demonstrated
that, if their daily work was performed in the proper spirit, they were doing
Buddhaʼs work. To farmers, he said: “Farming is itself a Buddhist activity.
There is no need to seek practice elsewhere. Your body is the Buddha-body,
your mind the Buddha-mind, and your work the work of the Buddha. ... If you
cultivate the land, reciting Namu Amida Butsu with every movement of the
hoe, you will surely reach Buddhahood. Just leave everything to Providence,
be honest, and do not arouse personal desires...” (Braverman, 1994: 14-15).
The value of their work, Shōsan told farmers, was demonstrated by the fact
that heaven had entrusted them with the responsibility of nourishing the world.
When they persevered in their work, painfully hard as it might be, their minds
were consequently clear and unvexed – meaning that, in essence, they were
doing Buddhaʼs work.
To artisans, Shōsan taught that all trades are in line with Buddhist practices,
that Buddhahood can therefore be attained through sincere work as craftsmen.
Shōsan claimed that, although everyone possesses Buddha-nature, people
unaware of that fact may stray from the Buddhist path and become deluded
ordinary beings. To prevent this, people needed do nothing other than perform
their trade with a firm faith in their own Buddha- nature.
Concerning merchants, a group who were traditionally regarded with
suspicion in feudal Japan as the occupants of the lowest rung of the social ladder,
and even when the need for their services (and hence their actual importance)
grew rapidly, Shōsan formulated a Buddhist ethic that gave them the spiritual
guidance needed for their profession. Shōsan did not discourage merchants from
making a profit; in fact, he tells them that, as a reward from heaven, their profits
will be high if they trade without greed or clinging. But, he adds, if they despise
wealth, great faith will arise within them, with enlightenment emerging through
a constant and unshakable meditation derived from that faith.
In essence, Shōsan sought to demonstrate that the distinction between the
sacred recluse and the worldly commoner was artificial. This led him to declare
that Buddhist teachings and the teachings of the World were one: “The World
Dharma is the same of the Buddha Dharma. If you do not have faith that you
can attain enlightenment through the World Dharma, you know nothing of the
true essence of Buddhism...” (see Braverman, 1994: 16). Shōsanʼs dedication to
bringing Buddhism to people from all segments of society intensified as he grew
older. He believed that the virtue of Buddhism depended on its usefulness to
oneʼs country and to the people around you (Braverman, 1994).

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Analysis
The ground-breaking study by Nakamura (1971), entitled “Structural Analysis
of Dhikr and Nembutsu,” examined some of the similarities between Sufism and
Buddhism – namely, how each tradition denies the value of this transient world,
instead choosing to reject it as worthless. According to Nakamura, both traditions
require humans to reorient their lives by shifting their ultimate concern from
this world to the Hereafter – that is, to the meeting with God in Paradise for
Sufism and to a rebirth in the Pure Land for Buddhism. Moreover, both traditions
have similar means for achieving this: Sufism practices dhikr (or the repeated
utterance of the Creatorʼs name) while some forms of Buddhism (such as Honen
Buddhism) favour nembutsu (the repeated utterance of Amida Buddhaʼs name).4
In this paper, however, we are specifically interested in the similarity between
Sufi practices and the teachings of Suzuki Shōsan. In essence, and as the
above overview demonstrates, both insist that true enlightenment comes from
performing oneʼs daily tasks. This is illustrated by table 1, which summarises
the fundamental motivations and ways to enlightenment described by Sufism (in
particular, Cheikh Khaled Bentounesʼ perspective of it) and Niō-Zen.
Sufism Nio-Zen (Shōsan's)
philosophy
Fundamental Seeking a personal relationship with Seeking salvation from
motivation the Divine. suffering and difficulty.

Ways towards - Become moral through knowing and - Recognise ‘death

enlightenment loving the Divine. awareness’ as a means of
- Convey ethical ideals arousing vital energy.
- Perform work with full capacity and - Devote oneself to
knowledge. one's daily work with a
- Battle (greater jihad) against ego- proper and sincere spirit,
personality, as well as against the abandoning personal
various obstacles human beings desires.
frequently encounter. - Nourish the world.

Goals True enlightenment: the Sufi True enlightenment:

conception of the ‘passing-away’ transcend the sufferings of
(fana) of the individual self into the the ‘wheel of life’.
Universal Being.

Table 1: Comparison between Sufi and Nio-Zen teachings on the way

toward enlightenment, as taught mainly to lay followers.

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SUFISM AND SUZUKI SHŌSAN'S JAPANESE ZEN TEACHINGS 451

From this table, it becomes clear that differences exist between the traditions
as to fundamental motivations and ultimate goals. For instance, the motivation
to seek enlightenment in Sufism is rather ‘extravertedʼ, characterised by a wish
to know and love the Absolute Existence. Niō-Zen, however, is rather more
‘introvertedʼ by comparison, seeking to develop self-control in the face of daily
sufferings and difficulties. Likewise, the goals sought in each tradition appear
to be different, too. For Sufis, the ultimate objective is personal contact with the
Divine through the ‘passing-away’ of the individual self into the Universal Being.
By contrast, for Buddhists the ultimate objective is to transcend the sufferings
stemming from the wheel of life (a cycle of rebirth).6
But in spite of these differences, we do find some similarities concerning the
ways towards enlightenment taught (mainly to lay followers) by both traditions.
In particular, we see compatibility in: (1) becoming moral and conveying ethical
ideals; (2) devoting oneself to oneʼs daily work in the proper spirit; and (3)
making services to help society overcome the obstacles human beings frequently
encounter.
Suzuki Shōsan taught his lay followers, “Whether one is tilling fields,
or selling wares, or even confronting an enemy in the heat of battle, direct
enlightenment will occur at key momentʼs of oneʼs day to day life” (see Suzuki,
S. 2015). In the context of Buddhism, Shōsan therefore saw true enlightenment in
an untraditional way; he discarded the belief that enlightenment can only occur in
seclusion, when renouncing the world, and instead argued that true Buddhism has
nothing to do with “gentle piety or theory, even though most monks were taught to
practice in this manner” (Suzuki S. 2015). Shōsanʼs untraditional way of seeking
true enlightenment made him something of an ‘extremist’ within orthodox
Buddhism. But nevertheless, his teachings were widely embraced by his lay
followers. As mentioned earlier, some scholars even insist that the characteristic
Japanese ethos of endeavouring to work is attributable to the penetration of
Shōsanʼs teachings throughout Japanese society (Nakamura, 1996; Yamamoto,
1997; 2006). In particular, Yamamoto (2006) points out that Shōsanʼs Niō-zen
teachings influenced a subsequent moral education movement called Shin-gaku
(‘Heart Learningʼ). This originated during the Edo period with Ishida Baigan
(1685-1744) and sought to popularise ethics among the common people.
Nevertheless, Shōsanʼs view is certainly compatible with Sufism’s perspective
of the greater jihad: by utilising the interpretation of this term offered by
Bentounes (presented above), we observe that the jihad for souls is traceable
to the origins of humanity and is nothing more or less than being aware of both
humanity’s ignorance and its responsibility to the universe around it. According
to Bentounes, therefore, Sufis are required to make contributions and services
to humanity in order to know Truth. They are encouraged to endeavour to work

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using their full capacity and knowledge, because only by doing so will they attain
true enlightenment.
In addition, it is worth noting that in both traditions lay followers are
encouraged to practice these teachings in their daily lives. In the context of
Niō-zen, this point is fully discussed above, while for Sufism it is manifested in
the tariqa (school or order) system, with the murshid (Sufi guide) at its heart.
According to Nakamura (1989), Sufism as an ‘individualʼ practice reserved for a
limited number of elites evolved during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries into
this tariqa system, where Muslim ‘lay-followersʼ were organised by a murshid
and able to implement the latter’s teachings in their daily lives.
In sum, for the Sufi ‘battlesʼ are made against the ego-personality. Sufism
therefore constitutes a peaceful and non-violent aspect of Islam – one which
is clearly compatible with Suzuki Shōsanʼs teachings about the path to true
enlightenment. As Nicholson (1996; 2002) points out, however, the Buddhist
moralises himself while the Sufi becomes moral only through knowing and loving
God. However, in the famous ‘Ten Ox-herding Picturesʼ, a series of drawings
that, accompanied by prose and verse, depict the Zen path to enlightenment,
the ox has been interpreted as representing the human mind, in the sense of the
original ‘Mind’, or humanity’s original nature. The pictures and words therefore
attempt to represent the levels of understanding this original Mind passes through
on its route to enlightenment. The ox herder, on the other hand, represents the
practitioner of Buddhism as he tries to grasp his original nature. Over the course
of the pictures, the ox and the ox herd, originally two separate entities, gradually
merge (Braverman, 1994: 83). This merging reminds us of the Sufi concept of
fana. Moreover, the final picture, entitled ‘Entering the Marketplace with Giving
Handsʼ, depicts a selfless person offering outstretched hands to the people. This
picture affirms Shōsanʼs conviction that Zen must come to the people – or, in
his words, “The World Dharma and the Buddha Dharma are one” (Braverman,
1994: 83). Both of the traditions therefore suggest the importance of abandoning
ego-personality and making services for society.

Concluding Comments: Promote an Atmosphere of Moderation in

Society
On 28 April 2016, the S. Rajarathnam School of International Studies (RSIS),
Singapore, conducted a conference entitled ‘Islam in the Contemporary
Worldʼ. This conference aimed to examine and address the current challenges
facing Muslim societies worldwide, in order to evaluate the future of Islam
as a creative, open and vibrant civilisation capable of co-existing confidently
with modernity and plurality (RSIS Conference on “Islam in the Contemporary

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SUFISM AND SUZUKI SHŌSAN'S JAPANESE ZEN TEACHINGS 453

World”, Executive Summary, Event Report, 28 April 2016). Ahmad Fauzi Abdul
Hamid, one of the panellists invited to the Conference, pointed out that, as radical
Islamists violate Islam’s peaceful tendencies, there is a need for Muslims to more
actively observe moderation, as reflected by the Qur’anic description of them
as Ummatan Wasatan (the moderate community) (Hamid, 2016). According to
Hamid, this concept not only refers to the moderate community, but also to the
just community. Therefore, the presence of adl (justice) in practice is central to
the Muslim ability to regain the centre ground. However, Hamid points out that
the concept of justice is frequently manipulated by those Islamists groups who
claim to fight for Islam.
During our discussion, we observed the universality of the ethos and ethics
of Sufism, particularly with regards to Shōsanʼs teachings. But, it appears that
Sufism’s peaceful and non-violent intellectual tradition has been denigrated,
especially by recent militant jihadi movements and radical Islamism. This again
highlights the importance of Hamid’s emphasis on ‘being moderateʼ, or of
striking a balance between th e liberal and the conservative. He also proposes
that Muslim intellectuals play an integral role in disowning those scholars who
promulgate rigid interpretations of Islam. In particular, he argues that the concept
of takfir requires rethinking, if not outright rejection, in order to promote an
atmosphere of moderation. As a traditional source of authority in Islam, Sufism
could constitute a strong rival to Islamic fundamentalism (Tonaga, 2013: 264). I
believe that studies of the universal values and ethics present within Sufism (and
other religious philosophies) could help create an atmosphere of moderation in
society.
Ali Unsal, another panellist invited to the above-mentioned conference, pointed
out that historically speaking the Islamic intellectual tradition has been willing
to interact with secular trends. For example, as Islamic civilisation expanded
geographically and culturally, it encountered other civilisations, including the
Greeks, Byzantines, Persians and so on. As it did so, Muslim scholars learnt
from those other cultures (Unsal, 2016). Unsal is concerned, however, that
this tradition of engagement has been undermined. If Islam is to progress, he
argued that it must resurrect this spirit as part of a ‘second renaissanceʼ, where
intellectuals can “be open-minded; combine Islamic sciences, modern sciences,
and the spiritual life; have love for truth; have love of research and knowledge;
be brave and serious when they represent what they believe; believe in tolerance
and dialogue with others; be responsible intellectuals; have understanding
of civilisational perspectives; be aware of mindsets in [the] modern and post-
modern age; have consciousness of problems in the world; revivify tradition by
developing various methods for knowledge; consider originality and quality in
their work; give importance to institutionalisation of research; accept differences

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in methods of intellectual and research methods while avoiding dissociation; and

lastly be involved in dialogue with and synthesis of different perspectives from
other intellectual traditions” (Unsal, 2016).
The wisdom of Sufism and Eastern philosophy combined may not immediately
stop violent extremists. However, I believe their wisdom is still to be sought
because in the long term it can contribute towards the denial of various levels
of exclusivism. This may also contribute to the ‘second renaissanceʼ of Islamic
intellectualism.

Acknowledgement
I would like to thank Professor Dr. Mohammad Hashim Kamali, Founding CEO
of the International Institute of Advanced Islamic Studies (IAIS) Malaysia, for his
invaluable and insightful comments on an earlier version of this paper. Also, I would
like to thank Dr. Mohammed Azam Mohamed Adil, Siti Marʼiyah Chu Abdullah,
Alinda Aziz, and all the other researchers and members of staff at IAIS Malaysia.
Their contributions were in various ways invaluable.

Notes
* Yasushi Suzuki, PhD (Economics), LLM (International Economic Law) is a
Professor at Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University, Japan. He was engaged
as a visiting fellow at the International Institute of Advanced Islamic Studies
(IAIS) Malaysia in the Fall of 2016. He has an undergraduate degree from
Waseda University, Tokyo, and a doctorate from the University of London. His
main research interests are the institutional political economy of financial and
economic development, and the philosophy of economics. He can be reached at:
[email protected].

1. Kamali (2013) raises several examples: the Israeli-Palestinian conflict is

about land, dispossession and the right to self-determination; the conflict in
Kashmir is also about the right to self-determination; the Mindanao conflict
in the Phillippines is about land, historical rights, unemployment and poverty;
the Maluku conflict (in Indonesia) arose from socio-political and economic
circumstances, not religious ones (Kamali, 2013: 183).
2. There are very few studies concerning the origins of the Japanese spirit of
diligence and industriousness. Of those which do exist, however, arguably the
most important is by Yasuo Yuasa (1925-2005), a Japanese philosopher who
pioneered the comparison of Western and Japanese business ethics. He first
identified the moral education movement known as Shin-gaku (see the main
body of the text) as the key factor in the development of the Japanese spirit of
hardwork. This founder of this movement, Ishida Baigan, was the son of a farmer
and began studying ethical doctrines when apprenticed to a merchant house.

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SUFISM AND SUZUKI SHŌSAN'S JAPANESE ZEN TEACHINGS 455

His later teachings were based on this experience as a merchant; he argued that
the content of honesty derives from complying with contract agreements and
respecting mutual property rights (Yuasa, 1967: 52).
3. Arthur Braverman has produced a prominent translation of Shōsanʼs work
(Braverman, 1994). During the following section, I utilise his translation to
describe Shōsanʼs teachings, but while also referring to the original text.
4. T. Suzuki Daisetz (1870-1966), the well-known Japanese Zen philosopher who
helped spread interest in Zen Buddhism to the West, was also interested in the
apparent similarity between dhikr and nembutsu (see Suzuki D., 2000).
5. According to Braverman (1994), Shōsan was not simply concerned with
overcoming a fear of death. Rather, it was from a consciousness of that fear that
his practices evolved. For him, the awareness of death constituted real living; he
felt that the promise of enlightenment kept many practitioners from living in the
here and now (Braverman, 1994: 17).
6. In Buddhism, rebirth (or reincarnation) refers to a belief that the actions of a
person during his lifetime will lead to a new existence after death, in an endless
cycle. According to the teachings of Buddhism, this cycle is unsatisfactory and
painful; it only stops when liberation is achieved by extinguishing desire.

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