424 D.M.

LIMA et al: Fructose Syrup, Food Technol Bioteehnol 49 (4) 424-434 (2011)

ISSN 1330-9862
review
(FTB-2388)

Fructose Syrup: A Biotechnology Asset

Danyo Maia Lima\ Pedro Fernandes^, Diego Sampaio Nascimento^,

Rita de Cassia L. Figueiredo Ribeiro^ and Sandra Aparecida de Assis^*
Laboratory of Enzymology and Fermentation Technology, Department of Health, State University of
Feira de Santana - UEFS, University Campus, Km 03, BR 116, Feira de Santana, 44031460 Bahia, Brazil
IBB, Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Centre for Biological and Chemical Engineering,
Higher Technical Institute, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
^Insfitute of Botany, PO Box 68041, CEP 04045-972 Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
Received: November 28, 2009
Accepted: April 19, 2010

Summary
In response to the growing demand for the consumption of natural, healthy and low-
-calorie food, a large number of so-called alternafive sugars has emerged since the early
80s, among them fructose. This sugar is a ketohexose, known as D-fructose or lévulose,
and is considered the sweetest sugar found in nature. Currently, fructose is mostly pro-
duced through the acid hydrolysis of sucrose, or through the multi-enzymatic hydrolysis
of starch. Processes involving specific enzymes like inulinases, acting on widely available
fructose polysaccharides such as inulin, have been studied as altemafives to the current
approaches, in order to reduce time, complexity and costs involved in this process. Fruc-
tose syrup is used worldwide, mainly because of its sweetening power and funcfional prop-
erfies. The present work aims to provide an overview of the properties of fructose and of
the present and envisaged production processes, within the scope of a biotechnological ap-
proach.

Key words: fructose, syrup, fructooligosaccharides, microorganisms

Introduction
process economics. Sugar syrups consist mostly of su-
In the last decades particular care has been given to crose syrup; of invert sugar syrup; of blends of more or
the impact of nutritional habits on public health. Concom- less complex carbohydrates, including oligosaccharide
itantly with such growing concern, developed countries syrups (and parficularly fructooligosaccharides); and of
have put considerable efforts in order to understand the fructose-rich syrup (3-5). Oligosaccharides are mostly used
links between diet and health. Policies and guidelines due to their functional properties, namely their prebiotic
have been adopted to provide suitable information to nature, rather than their sweetness, which is relafively
the consumer and also to adequately influence food low (6,7). Sweeteners produce pleasant flavour, and oc-
product composifion and technological approaches for casionally cooling sensations, enhance shelf-life proper-
food processing (1). Given the widespread presence of ties, and may simultaneously provide energy, in which
sweeteners in common diet, parficular consideration has case they are termed nutritive. If they do not provide
been given to these compounds (2). The industrial use energy, they are termed nonnutritive. Nutritive sweet-
of sugars, parficularly in the liquid form, is also of rele- eners encompass several natural sugars, such as sucrose
vance, since food manufacturers often prefer to use sugar or fructose, which are considered GRAS (Generally Rec-
in the form of syrup, mostly due to the ease and effi- ognized As Safe) by the FDA (Food and Drug Adminis-
ciency of manipulafion of liquids, and to the favoured tration, USA) (8). Among nutritive sweeteners, fructose

»Corresponding author; Phone: ++55 75 3161 8341; E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

D.M. LIMA et ai: Fructose Syrup, Food Teehnoi Bioteehnoi 49 (4) 424-434 (2011) 425

is clearly fit to be used as a sweetener in a wide number teria. Given such features, FOS have had a signiflcant
of food and drinking goods, since this non-allergenic impact on the sugar industry in relatively recent years
carbohydrate is the sweetest of all naturally occurring (36,23-26). Most commonly available commercial FOS
carbohydrates. As such, it has been established as an consist of 1-kestose, nystose and fruetofuranosyl nystose
alternative sweetener to sucrose (9,30). The sweetening (Fig. 1). In these oligosaeeharides, whieh are enzymatic-
power of fructose enables formulations to be adequately ally synthesized from sucrose on a multi-tonne scale,
sweetened with small amounts of fructose, without com- one to three fructosyl units, respectively, are bound to
promising flavour quality, hence allowing the manufac- the ß-2,1 position of sucrose. The resulting molecules
ture of dietetic products. These are thus termed since they combine one glucose and several fructose units, and are
have lower calorie values when compared to similar
products formulated with either glucose or sucrose (33).
Fructose also has functional properties that enhance
flavour, colour, and product stability, and synergizes the
sweetening power of sucrose and some nonnutritive
sweeteners (8). The currently favoured processes for the
commercial production of pure fructose rely on glucose
isomerization, where the aldohexose itself is obtained from
the multi-enzyme hydrolysis of starch; and on the hy-
drolysis of sucrose, to produce an equimolar mixture of
fructose and glucose, from which fructose is recovered.
An alternative for the production of pure fructose is the
hydrolysis of inulin using inulinases (5,32). Fructose is a
suitable raw material for the production of 2,5-dimethyl-
furan, which can be used as a chemical synthon (33). TTie
present work aims to provide an overview of fructose as
<i biotechnology product, with particular emphasis on its
characteristics, methods of production and industrial ap-
plications.

Oligosaeeharides and Fruetooligosaeeharides

Oligosaeeharides are short chain carbohydrates, usu- Fig. 1. Chemical structure of relevant fruetooligosaeeharides:
ally containing up to 20 monosaccharide units, bound a) 1-kestose (GF2), b) nystose (GF3), e) 1-ß-fruetofuranosyl nyst-
by glycosydic linkages (34). Oligosaeeharides are water- ose (GF4). Fruetosyl uruts are linked at position ß-2,1 of sucrose
-soluble and have a relatively low sweetness. They are
about 0.3 to 0.6 times as sweet as sucrose, depending on
the chain length and sugar residues, but usually sweet- referred to as GE^ (27-29). The enzymes used for the pro-
ness decreases alongside with increased chain length duction of EOS are fructosyl transferases and (i-fructo-
(35,36). Their low sweetness can be advantageously used furanosidases, which are obtained from bacterial, fungal
when food formulations containing a bulking agent, also and yeast sources (26,30-32). FOS production typically
acting as a flavour enhancer, are required. Incorporation evolves from sucrose to 1-kestose initially, then to 1-nyst-
of oligosaeeharides also changes the freezing temperature ose, and finally to 1-fruetofuranosyl nystose (26,33). FOS
of foods, prevents browning due to Maillard reactions in yields are relatively low, around 60 "/o, sinee unwanted
liigh temperature-processed foods, prevents excessive dry- hydrolytie activity is also present, leading to fructose and
ing, and contributes to the reduction of microbial contam- glucose as by-produets. Glueose, furthermore, inhibits
ination, given the low water activity (36). Oligosaeeha- enzyme activity (26,30,34). FOS can also be obtained from
rides can be used in the stabilization of active substances the controlled enzymatic hydrolysis of inulin, which re-
and can also act as soluble dietary fibres, which simulta- sults in a product containing about 75 % of fructose-
neously stimulate the growth of probiotic microorganisms -only chains, with degrees of polymerization ranging
such as Bifidobacterium spp. and Laetobaeillus spp., hence from 2 to 7, and the remaining 25 7o of the product in
having a prebiotic role (37). Probiotic microorganisms are the GF,, form (35-37). Nutraflora* (from Corn Products
relevant in the prevention of gastrointestinal infections, International, Inc., Westchester, IL, USA) and Raftilose®
and in the suppression of pathogenic bacteria by lower- (from BENEO-Orafti, Tienen, Belgium) are examples of
ing the pH in the intestine through the action of acidic commercially marketed compounds produced from su-
metabolites resulting from the metabolization of nutrients, crose or inulin, respectively (22,38).
while facilitating digestion and stimulating the immune
system (38). Fruetooligosaeeharides (FOS) emerge among
the most relevant earbohydrates within naturally occurr- Fruetose
ing functional oligosaeeharides, mostiy from plant sourees
(39,20). FOS are water-soluble, non-ealorie, non-cariogenic Fructose, a ketohexose also known as lévulose or
and indigestible sweeteners. As typical oligosaeeharides, D-fructose, was isolated for the first time in the mid 19th
FOS have sweetness of about 20 to 60 % of suerose, and century from cane juice (39). The sweetest natural sugar,
they flow through the human and animal gastrointesti- its sweetening power nevertheless changes according to
nal traet, where they are used by laetic acid and bifidobac- the formulation, a feature common to all sweeteners, but
426 D.M. LIMA et al: Fructose Syrup, Food Technol. Bioteehnol. 49 (4) 424-434 (2011)

it can be up to 1.8 times sweeter than sucrose (Table 1; diverse sweetening power (Fig. 2) {9,40,45). The sweet
3,40). Fructose is present in plenty of fruits (namely rai- taste of fructose in aqueous solution can be controlled
sins, apples and grapes), honey (where it can reach rough- by adequate manipulation of pH, temperature and con-
ly 40 % by mass) and, to a lesser extent, in vegetables, centration. In the particular case of fructose, relatively
namely raw carrots and onions. The wide availability of low temperatures and pH environment reduce the for-
fructose allows therefore for a regular intake of this car- mation of the furanose tautomers {46).
bohydrate by mammals (9,42,42). Table 2 displays data
regarding the fructose and glucose content in some vege-
tables and fruits. Fructose can also be found in nature as I CH2OH 6 CHjOH , c-H;OH
a forming unit of sucrose, raffinose, stachyose and inu-
lin. Inulin can be isolated from Jerusalem artichoke, dahl-
ia tubers, chicory roots, garlic, asparagus root and sal-
sify {43).
Tlie crystalline form of fructose, ß-D-fructopyranose, OH
undergoes rapid mutarotation in a solution, leading to a a-D-fructopyranose (a-p--C') a-D-fructofuranose (a-f)
mixture of different tautomers, again ß-D-fructopyranose
and ß-D-fructofuranose, the two most abundant in aque- 6 CHiOli
OH
ous media {44), alongside a-D-fructofuranose, a-D-fruc-
topyranose and the open-chain keto form, with lower and

Table 1. Sweetening power of fructose formulations and other

commonly used carbohydrate-based sweeteners, adapted from
Godshall (3) and White {40) ß-D-fructopyranose (ß-p-^C^) ß-D-fructofuranose (ß-0

Relative sweetening Fig. 2. Tautomeric forms of fructose in a solution

Sweetener
power/%
fructose (crystalline a-D-fructo- Besides its sweetness, fructose displays considerable
pyranose anomeric form) synergy with several high-intensity artificial sweeteners
fructose (5 to 15 % aqueous solution) 115 to 125 and bulk sweeteners. Other properties that contribute to
high-fructose corn syrup 90 to 130 the success of industrial applications of fructose are the
invert sugar syrup 105 high water solubility, roughly 4 g of fructose per gram
sucrose (crystalline) 100 of water at 25 °C; the tendency to crystallize, which mini-
mizes hardening in nutrition bars; high humectancy, con-
sucrose (10 % aqueous solution) 100 tributing to the improvement of the shelf-life of baking
glucose (crystalline) 74 to 82 and similar goods; high osmotic pressure; considerable
glucose (10 % aqueous solution) 65 flavour enhancement power; and high freezing point de-
glucose (50 7o aqueous solution) 90 to 100 pression ability, which helps to formulate ice creams suit-
xylitol (10 % aqueous solution) 100 able for consumption in winter. Incorporation of fruc-
maltose 50
tose in foods also decreases water acti\ ity, thus reducing
the risk of microbial contamination without the removal
of water, which could result in altered texture of the proc-
essed good {10,11,47,48). Fructose and fructose syrup are
Table 2. Occurrence of fructose and glucose in some foods, therefore widely used in the food and pharmaceutical
adapted from Hallfrisch {41) industries, e.g. in the production of carbonated soft drinks,
fruit beverages, yogurts, ice cream, bakery goods, pud-
Fruits iii(fructose)/% a;(glucose)/% dings, dairy products and baby food, and as excipient in
apple 7.3 2.6 pharmaceutical formulations (tablets, syrups, and solu-
banana 2.7 4.2 tions), given its flavouring and sweetening properties
{10,48,49). Despite being available to the food industry
cherries 6.2 8.1
since the 1980s, the use of crystalline fructose is still rel-
pineapple 2.1 2.9 atively restricted. On the other hand, the high solubility
grape 7.6 6.5 of fructose in aqueous media was also the major barrier
Vegetables to the production of fructose in a stable, crystalline form.
This limitation was overcome by the introduction of care-
carrots 1.0 1.0 fully controlled processes that allowed for the efficient
corn 0.3 0.5 crystallization from aqueous solutions, rather than from
onion 0.9 2.4 solvent-based systems {49). Fructose is thus usually avail-
tomato 1.4 1.1 able in blends with other sugars, namely as high-fruc-
tose com syrup (HFCS) and as invert sugar syrup {40).
beans 1.4 1.6
Production of HFCS is possibly the largest enzyme-based
lentils 0.1 0 process implemented at a commercial scale (4,50). Since
peanuts 0 0.2 its inception in the market in the late 1960s, the demand
D.M. LIMA et al: Fructose Syrup, Food Teehno!. Biotedmo!. 49 (4) 424^34 (2011) 427

for HFCS has consistently increased, establishing this intake of fructose may not adversely affect glycémie or
product as one of the most successful food ingredients. lipid response in patients with type 2 diabetes, a chronic
The well established acceptance of HFCS is closely re- condition characterized by high levels of glucose in the
lated to its easy handling as a result of the liquid form, blood caused by either the lack of suitable insulin pro-
and to the stability in food that has a slightly acidic na- duction or because the cells ignore the insulin, hence in-
ture, such as, for instance, carbonated beverages. When sulin fails to take glucose into the cell and sugar builds
sucrose is used in these goods as a sweetener, inversion up in the blood (61). However, given the concern for in-
tends to ensue, particularly when a prolonged exposure creased blood lipid levels with high intakes of fructose,
to room temperature takes place, hence leading to a sugar addition of fructose as a sweetening agent is not cur-
composition that is ultimately quite similar to HFCS (40). rently suggested by some specialists for people with dia-
Actually, HFCS designation is somehow illusive, since betes (8).
most of the syrups under this designation have a fruc- The confirmed increase in the consumption of nutri-
tose content (on a mass basis) of either 42 (HFCS 42) or tive sweeteners, particularly in snacks and beverages, has
55 % (HFCS 55), the remaining being glucose and small been related to excess energy intake and to lower qual-
amounts of oligosaccharides, roughly up to 5 %. HFCS ity diets. Still, the mechanisms underlying the interac-
42 is used in baked goods, confectioneries and in several tion between sweeteners, among them fructose, and excess
soft drinks, while HFCS 55 is the preferred form for most calorie intake are not wholly understood, tuming this
sweetened drinks. A third type of HFCS commonly mar- issue into a highly controversial matter. The sole recom-
keted is HFCS 90, which has 90 % fructose, and it is mendations advised by offlcial health stakeholders are
obtained by large scale Chromatographie processing of to limit the addition of sugars as simple calories to 10 to
HFCS 42. Using liquid chromatography, glucose and 25 % of the daily energy intake (20,59,62). In particular,
fructose are separated, and the fructose-rich fraction is the relatively recent trend to relate some of these nutri-
blended with HFCS 42, leading to HFCS 55 (40,51-54). tive sweeteners, namely fructose syrups, to obesity (63)
Most of the production and consumption of HFCS take has been strongly contested, particularly claims that
place in the USA (55). The USA is actually the main pro- sweeteners are a unique cause of such output (9,64).
ducer of fructose-rich syrups, and in the 1980s this coun-
try was accountable for a little over 70 % of the world
production of fructose. This pattem can partly be related Enzyme-based processes for fructose production
to the USA position as a corn producer (over 40 % of the Fructose production using enzymes is performed
world production). Japan is the second in the world through three different approaches, namely starch hydrol-
ranking in fructose syrup production and consumption, ysis and isomerization of the resulting glucose residues,
but unlike the USA, Japan imports both com and sugar hydrolysis of sucrose, and inulin hydrolysis. The two
(56-59). former processes are somehow indirect methods, since
the main product from the production process is HFCS
or invert sugar syrup, respectively. Still, they are the
Fructose and public health
processes currently implemented at industrial scale (5,
Since the 1970s the sweetener intake per capita has 46,65). Both HFCS and invert sugar syrup have signifi-
been increasing worldwide, more noticeably in develop- cant, roughly equimolar, amounts of glucose, thus requir-
ing countries than in the developed world, where a trend ing a specific separation step to obtain pure fructose.
of decrease in sugar consumption per capita, together Usually a Chromatographie separation is used to achieve
with an increase in the consumption of other sweeten- this goal, although other approaches have been tested,
ers, has been occasionally observed (59). The early suc- such as membrane separation, extraction with ionic liq-
cess of fructose as a sweetener was partly related to its uids or selective precipitation (46,65-74). On the other
better adequacy to the diet of obese and diabetic pa- hand, inulin hydrolysis can be specifically designed for
tients, since fructose is sweeter, more soluble, and less the production of either fructose or fructans, where one
glucogenic than sucrose or glucose (43). Fructose is actu- of these carbohydrates is the targeted product, thus mak-
ally absorbed more slowly through the intestine when ing it a promising approach (5,75,76).
compared to other common sweeteners. Besides, when
nutritive sweeteners are considered, fructose has the low-
Fructose from HFCS
est glycémie index. This parameter describes the rate at
which glucose enters the bloodstream after consumption Starch is the main reserve polysaccharide of many
of a given food, and is therefore particularly useful in higher plants, up to 75 % of the dry mass in cereal grains,
the preparation of dietetic food products and athletic bev- and up to 65 % in potato tubers. Com, in particular, con-
erages (10). Unlike glucose, which is stored as glyco- tains on average 71.1 % of starch (77). This carbohydrate
gen, fructose is converted into triglycérides by the liver. is really a mixture of amylose and amylopectin. They are
Excess fructose is likely to lead to metabolic disfunctions. both polymers of a-D-glucopyranosyl units, but amylose
As an outcome of excessive consumption of fructose (e.g. is mostly a linear polymer whereas amylopectin is highly
20 % of ingested calories), collateral effects may occur branched. Amylose is a polymer composed of 800 to 1500
such as an increase in cholesterol levels (60). Specialists glucose units which are mosfly bound by a-D-(1^4) glu-
in diabetes currently do not fully agree on the role of cosidic linkages, combined with a limited amount of
fructose in the diet of diabetic patients. Available data branching through a-D-(l->6) glucosidic linkages at the
do not suggest that under similar isocaloric amounts, the branch points. In amylopectin, which is virtually water
glycémie response to fructose and other nutritive sweet- insoluble, one in 20 to 25 glucose units is bound to an-
eners differs from that to dietary starch. Thus, high daily other chain through a a-D-(1^6) glucosidic linkage. The
428 D.M. LIMA et al: Fruetose Syrup, Food Technol. Bioteehnol. 49 (4) 424-^34 (2011)

result is a tree-like structure that contains a wide amount cesses aiming at the transformation of sucrose into in-
of glucose residues, from 5000 to 40 000. Like amylose, verted sugar syrup (90-92). Actually, invertase immo-
amylopectin contains only one reducing end, viz. an ano- bilized in bone char was used for the large-scale pro-
meric hydroxyl group. The ratio of amylose to amylo- duction of inverted sugar syrup ciuring World War 11,
pectin varies considerably with the source of the starch, given the acid shortage. Once acid became available again,
but typical values can be found within the range of 20 the enzymafic approach was discontinued (93). Virtually
to 25 % of amylose to 75 to 80 % of amylopectin (27,78, every method and support for enzyme immobilization
79). The production of HFCS usually starts with a 40 % has been tested on invertase (52,94). In typical processes,
suspension of starch, with pH adjusted to about pH=6.0, a sucrose solution is added to a packed bed/'fluidized
to which calcium ions and a thermostable a-amylase are bed/membrane reactor, where enzymatic hydrolysis is
added. Incubation at 105 °C for 5 to 8 min allows gelafi- performed at 40 to 60 °C and in a pH range from pH=4
nization, where intramolecular bonds of starch residues to pH=6 (89,95,96). The resulting invert syrup is further
are broken down. The resulting mixture is then cooled to processed in a Chromatographie step in order to separate
95 °C and incubated at this temperature for roughly 2 h. fructose and glucose. A fructose syrup can thus be
This encompasses hydrolysis of starch to dextrins, which obtained (51,92,97). Ion chromatography can also be
are later further hydrolyzed to glucose units, under in- used to remove residual intermediate products that are
cubation in the presence of glucomylase (and preferably often formed during the enzymatic hydrolysis of sucrose
also pullulanase). This process, termed saccharification, (98). High substrate concentrations tend to lead to pro-
is carried out at 55 to 60 °C, under acidic conditions duct inhibifion, but on the other hand, they stabilize in-
(pH=4.0 to pH=5.5). The resulting glucose-rich solution vertase (99).
is then processed in a Chromatographie step for colour
and calcium removal. Magnesium ions are added to the Fructose from inulin
glucose-rich effluent and glucose is isomerized to fruc-
tose, using immobilized xylose (glucose) isomerase. Glu- Inulin is a polysaccharide consisting of linear a-2,I-
cose isomerase has been immobilized in a wide array of -linked polyfructose units (43), most commonly ending
supports and using different techniques (80-82). Isomeriz- with a glucose residue through a sucrose-type linkage at
ation is performed in a packed bed reactor, under pH=7.5 the reducing end (100,101). Inulin is a reserve carbohy-
to pH=8.2, and 55 to 60 °C. The effluent of the packed drate found in roots and tubers of plants, vegetables
bed reactor contains about 42 to 45 "A> fructose. This iso- and cereals, but the main sources of inulin are dahlia,
glucose syrup is then fracfioned using moving-bed cafion- chicory and Jerusalem artichoke (Table 3; 98,102). Most
-exchange chromatography to produce a 90 % (or higher) of the inulin currently produced on industrial scale de-
fructose syrup, which is then blended with the 42 % fruc- rives from chicory (203). The degree of polymerizafion,
tose syrup to yield a 55 % fructose syrup (4,51,65,83). which defines the number of fructosyl residues, varies
This multienzyme approach is somehow limited by the
diverse operational conditions required by the different
enzymes (82). Efforts are therefore actively being made Table 3. Occurrence of inulin in plants adapted from Farine et
in order to obtain modified enzymes that: (i) can carry al. (98) and Coussement (102)
out their catalytic activity under more common opera-
Inulin source iy(inulin)/%
tional conditions, namely temperature (are more thermo-
stable) and pH (can operate in acidic environments); (/() Jerusalem artichoke 16 to 20
are more stable; and (iii) are less prone to substrate/pro- ehieory 15 to 20
duct inhibition (52,84-86). This search for modified/nov- dahlia 10 to 12
el enzymes that comply with such criteria is common to leek 3 to 16
all enzymatic approaches designed for the production of garlic 9 to 11
fructose syrups. Other suggestive improvements of the
salsify 4 to 10
enzymatic production of HFCS are at process level. The
most relevant merge liquefaction and saccharification in onion 2 to 10
a single step (87), merge saccharification and isomeriza-
fion in a single step by co-immobilizafion of glucoamy-
lase and glucose isomerase (88), or use reactive simulat- with the source, but it can range from 2 to 60, with an
ed moving bed technology to improve the fructose yield average of 12 in plant inulin (204). Plant inulin has a
up to 90 % in the isomerization step (67,89). very small degree of branching (5), but again this fea-
ture varies according to the source of the fructan. The
amount of p-(2->6) branches in inulin from chicory and
Fructose from inverted sugar syrup dahlia is 1 to 2 % and 4 to 5 %, respectively (205). The
Fructose can also be produced from inverted sugar linear chain in inulin is composed of either a-D-glucopy-
syrup obtained from the hydrolysis of sucrose, promot- ranosyl-(ß-D-fructofuranosyl)„_,-P-D-fructofuranoside or
ed by immobilized invertase. The inverted sugar syrup ß-D-fructopyranosyl-(p-D-fructofuranosyl)„_,-ß-D-fructo-
is more easily incorporated into industrial preparations furanoside (7). The solubility of inulin in water varies
and has more added value than sucrose (75). Sucrose significantly according to the source and how inulin is
hydrolysis catalyzed by immobilized invertase produces processed. At 25 °C, standard chicory inulin has a water
a high quality product with low amount of ashes and solubility of 125 g/L, whereas high performance chicory
hydroxymethylfurfural. Enzymes can thus be consid- inulin a water solubility of 25 g/L, and artichoke inulin
ered as catalysts for the design of industrial scale pro- of 5 g/L (102,106).
D.M. LIMA et al: Fructose Syrup, Food Technol Biotechnol. 49 (4) 424-434 (2011) 429

Inulinases are enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis (/) the selecfion of suitable medium compositions and
of O-glycosyl bonds, and have fructans as typical sub- operational parameters (124-129), (ii) process integration
strates. Two classes of inulinases are acfive, endoinulin- (130), (Hi) mode of operation and reactor design (132),
ases (2,1-ß-D-fructan fructanohydrolase, EC 3.2.1.7), which and (iv) downstream processing (225,232).
promote the endohydrolysis of 2,1-ß-D-fructosidic link- Most bacterial inulinases are exoenzymes, the major
ages in fructans, and exoinulinases (ß-D-fructan fructo- source of these enzymes being Aspergillus spp., Kluyvero-
hydrolase, EC 3.2.1.80), which promote the hydrolysis of myces spp. and Streptomyces spp. (5,114). It is difficult to
terminal, non-reducing 2,1- and 2,6-linked ß-D-fructofu- assess whether the two forms of inulinase coexist, and
ranose residues (107). The latter reaction is typical of in- given the similar properties of the two forms, their com-
\ ertase, hence inulinases are also active on sucrose, where- plete separation through conventional methods is diffi-
as invertase (ß-fructofuranosidase, EC 3.2.1.26) has no cult, requiring Chromatographie steps and preparafive
noticeable hydrolytic activity on inulin (108-120). Inulin- electrophoresis (133,134). Given the synergistic action of
ases can be found in plants, namely in tubers and roots, endo- and exoinulinases on inulin, this fructan is easily
filamentous fungi, bacteria and yeasts. Microorganisms hydrolyzed to fructose (235). Complete hydrolysis of
are the most favoured sources for the production of inulin with inulinase may lead to a final mass fraction
inulinases in a commercial scale, given the high yields of fructose of 95 % when performed under optimized
of enzyme and the ease of cultivation (111,112). Among conditions, making this a promising approach for fruc-
microorganisms, those that provide extracellular inulin- tose production (Fig. 3). Besides, the yield in this one-
ases are preferred, since enzyme recovery and purifica- -step enzymatic approach clearly surpasses the roughly
tion are usually easier and cheaper, when compared to 45 % fructose yield from the multi-step starch hydrolysis
processes involving the producfion of intracellular or peri- and glucose isomerizafion (5,136,137). Unlike in acid hy-
plasmic enzymes (113). The production of inulinases by drolysis, where a coloured hydrolyzate is obtained that
microorganisms has been extensively reviewed recently contains difructose anhydride, a compound nearly de-
(113-115). Within the microbial producers of inulinases, void of sweetening properties, only a vague colouring is
fungi and yeast are usually preferred, since the levels of reported in inulin enzymatic hydrolysates, which have
inulinase are higher than in bacteria. However, the abili- only slightly changed taste and aroma (238). The major
ty of many bacteria to endure high temperatures makes inulooligosaccharides resulting from inulin hydrolysis
them eligible candidates for the screening of thermally with endoinulinases are also influenced by the source of
the enzyme, substrate concentration and inulin source,
stable inulinases (114). Aspergillus spp. cells are typically
but typical products are inulobiose, inulotriose, inulote-
recognized as the most known and versatile producers
traose and inulopentose (139-146). \n the last 10 years,
of inulinase, and highly thermostable inulinases have been
dedicated research focused on inulinases and their prac-
isolated from such sources, parficularly from A. funiiga- tical applications has led to significant advances at mi-
tus (112,114,116-119). Production of inulinases on a large crobiological, molecular biology and engineering levels.
scale currently relies on A. niger, a GRAS microorgan- Efforts were successful in the isolation of new inulinase
ism. Yeasts also present some attractive features, namely producers, among them producers of heat-stable enzymes,
their unicellular nature and relatively simple require- namely those with an opfimum temperature of 60 °C
ments for growth. Cryptococcus aureus G7a (120), Pichia and above (114,116,147), and in the cloning and detailed
guilliermondii (121) and Kluyveromyces marxianus (122) characterization of genes encoding inulinases from sev-
are promising yeast sources of inulinase, particularly the eral microorganisms (148), as reviewed recently (212). On
last one, which is recognized as GRAS and is accepted the engineering side, methodologies for the production
by the FDA for food processing (123). Intensive research and purification of inulinases have been improved, as
has therefore been performed in order to improve inu- reflected by some recent work (127,128,130,131,149-153),
linase production with K. marxianus. Particular efforts and strategies for enhancing fructose production from
have been made at process level. These efforts include: inulin have been developed or improved, as also re-

inulin
fructose glucose

(bio)catalyst
H ,^t—O I,

H.O — • (n+2) ,i; ^OH

n: 2 to 60
Fig. 3. Full inulin hydrolysis
430 D.M. LIMA et ai: Fruetose Syrup, Food Teehnoi Bioteehnoi 49 (4) 424-434 (2011)

viewed recently (5). Overall improvements of inulinase Acknowledgements

produetion proeesses have focused on: (/) the selection
P. Fernandes aeknowledges Programme Ciêneia 2007
of cheap and widely available raw materials for use as
from the Foundation for Seienee and Teehnology, Portu-
substrate; (/() the overproduction of the enzyme and opti-
gal. We thank Program of Post Graduation in Biotechnol-
mization of production media and operational condi- ogy of UEFS (PPGBiotec UEES/EIOCRUZ) and FINEP,
tions, mode of operation and reactor design; and (iii) on CAPES, CNPq and FAPESB. R.C.L. Eigueiredo-Ribeiro is
suitable downstream processing, mostly involving chro- Research Fellow of the National Counsel of Technologi-
matographic and electrophoretic steps. Alongside, efforts cal and Scientific Development - CNPq, Brazil.
have been made to perform detailed process modelling
of inulinase production and purification (335). Within
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