THE HUMAN BODY: An Orientation

ANATOMY

• Derived from the Greek words meaning to cut

(tomy) apart (ana)

• Is the study of the structure and shape of the

body and its parts and their relationships to one
another.

• Gross anatomy or microscopic anatomy

Gross anatomy - study of large structures

Microscopic anatomy – the study of body structures

that are too small to be seen with the naked eye

PHYSIOLOGY

• Is the study of how the body and its parts work

or function

• (physio = nature; ology = the study of)

Levels of Structural Organization

1. Chemical level

• The simplest level

• Atoms (building blocks of matter) combine to

form molecules such as water, sugar, and
proteins.

2. Cellular level Maintaining Life

• Cells are made up of molecules Necessary Life Functions
3. Tissue level 1. Maintaining Boundaries
• Tissues consist of groups of similar cells that  Every living organism must be able to maintain
have a common function. its boundaries so that its “inside” remains
• Epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscle distinct from its “outside.”
tissues 2. Movement
4. Organ level  includes all the activities promoted by the
• An organ is a structure composed of two or muscular system, such as walking, swimming,
more tissue types that performs a specific etc.) and manipulating the external
function for the body. environment with our fingers

5. Organ system level  Movement also occurs when substances such as

blood, foodstuffs, and urine are propelled
• Is a group of organs that work together to through the internal organs of the
accomplish a common purpose cardiovascular, digestive, and urinary systems
respectively. 3. 3. Responsiveness
6. Organismal level
 Responsiveness, or irritability, is the ability to
• The highest level of structural organization sense changes (stimuli) in the environment and
then to react to them.
• Human organisms are made up of any organ
systems  The nervous system bears the major
responsibility for responsiveness.

4. Digestion
 Is the process of breaking down ingested food • Proteins and fats are essential for building cell
into simple molecules that can be absorbed into structures.
the blood.
• Minerals and vitamins are required for the
 The nutrient-rich blood is then distributed to all chemical reactions that go on in cells and for
body cells by the cardiovascular system, where oxygen transport in the blood.
body cells use these simple molecules for
energy and raw materials. 2. Oxygen

5. Metabolism • All the nutrients in the world are useless unless

oxygen is also available.
 Refers to all chemical reactions that occur
within the body and all of its cells. • Human cells can survive for only a few minutes
without it.
 It includes breaking down complex substances
into simpler building blocks, and using nutrients • It is made available to the blood and body cells
and oxygen to produce molecules of adenosine by the cooperative efforts of the respiratory and
triphosphate (ATP), the energy-rich molecules cardiovascular systems.
that power cellular activities.
3. Water
6. Excretion
• Water accounts for 60 to 80 percent of body
 Is the process of removing excreta, or wastes, weight, depending on the age of the individual.
from the body.
• We obtain water chiefly from ingested foods or
 Several organ systems participate in excretion. liquids, and we lose it by evaporation from the
lungs and skin and in body excretions.
7. Reproduction
4. Body temperature
 The production of offspring, can occur on the
cellular or organismal level. • If body temperature drops below 37 degrees
Celsius, metabolic reactions become slower and
 In cellular reproduction, the original cell divides, slower and finally stop.
producing two identical daughter cells that may
then be used for body growth or repair. • If body temperature is too high, chemical
reactions proceed too rapidly, and body
 In humans, when a sperm unites with an egg, a proteins begin to break down.
fertilized egg forms, which then develops into a
baby within the mother’s body. • At either extreme, death occurs.

8. Growth 5. Atmospheric pressure

 Growth can be an increase in cell size or an • The force exerted on the surface of the body by
increase in body size that is usually the weight of air is referred to as atmospheric
accomplished by an increase n the number of pressure.
cells.
• At high altitudes, where the air is thin and
 Hormones released by the endocrine system atmospheric pressure is lower, gas exchange
play a major role in directing growth. may be too slow to support cellular metabolism.

Survival Needs The Language of Anatomy

The goal of nearly all body systems is to Anatomical Position

maintain life. However, life is extraordinarily
• To avoid confusion, we always assume that the
fragile and requires that several factors be
body is in a standard position called anatomical
available. These factors, which we call survival
position.
needs, include nutrients (food), oxygen, water,
and appropriate temperature and atmospheric • In the anatomical position, the body is erect
pressure. with the feet parallel and the arms hanging at
the sides with the palms facing forward.
1. Nutrients
Directional Terms
• Contain the chemicals used for energy and cell
building. • Superior (above)
• Carbohydrates are the major energy-providing • Inferior (below)
fuel for body cells.
• Anterior (front)
• Posterior (back) • Thoracic: area between the neck and abdomen,
supported by the ribs, sternum, and costal
• Medial (close to midline) cartilages; chest
• Lateral (away from midline) • Umbilical: navel
• Proximal (close to point of attachment) Posterior Body Landmarks
• Distal (far from point of attachment) • Calcaneal: heel of foot
• Superficial (close to surface) • Cephalic: head
• Deep (toward interior of body) • Femoral: thigh
Regional Terms • Gluteal: buttock
Anterior Body Landmarks • Lumbar: area of back between ribs and hips; the
loin
• Abdominal: anterior body trunk inferior to ribs
• Occipital: posterior surface of head or base of
• Acromial: point of shoulder
skull
• Antebrachial: forearm
• Olecranal: posterior surface of elbow
• Antecubital: anterior surface of elbow
• Popliteal: posterior knee area
• Axillary: armpit
• Sacral: area between hips at base of spine
• Brachial: arm
• Scapular: shoulder blade region
• Buccal: cheek area
• Sural: the posterior surface of leg; the calf
• Carpal: wrist
• Vertebral: area of spinal column
• Cervical: neck region
Body Planes and Sections
• Coxal: hip
When preparing to look at the internal
• Crural: anterior leg; the shin structures of the body, medical students make a
section, or cut. When the section is made
• Deltoid: curve of shoulder formed by large through the body wall or through an organ, it is
deltoid muscle made along an imaginary line called a plane.

• Digital: fingers, toes

• Femoral: thigh

• Fibular: lateral part of leg Sagittal Section

• Frontal: forehead • Is a cut along the lengthwise, or longitudinal,

plane of the body, dividing the body into right
• Inguinal: area where thigh meets and left parts.
• Mental: chin

• Nasal: nose area

• Oral: mouth
Midsagittal Section
• Orbital: eye area
• If the cut is down the median plane of the body
• Patellar: anterior knee and the right and left parts are equal in size, it is
called a median (midsagittal) section.
• Pectoral: relating to, or occurring in or on, the
chest

• Pelvic: area overlying the pelvis anteriorly

• Pubic: genital region Frontal Section

• Sternal: breastbone area • Is a cut along a lengthwise plane that divides

the body (or an organ) into anterior and
• Tarsal: ankle region posterior parts.
 • It is also called a coronal (crown) section. 4. Middle Ear Cavities

HOMEOSTASIS

• Describes the body’s ability to maintain

relatively stable internal conditions even though
Transverse Section the outside world is continuously changing.
• Is a cut along a horizontal plane, dividing the • It indicates a dynamic state of equilibrium, or a
body or organ into superior and inferior parts. balance in which internal conditions change and
• It is also called a cross section. vary but always within relatively narrow limits.

Body Cavities Components of Homeostatic Control Systems

2 Sets of Internal Body Cavities 3 Components:

1. Dorsal Body Cavity 1. Receptor

• 2 Subdivisions • Is a type of sensor that monitors and responds

to changes in the environment.
a. Cranial Cavity (space inside the bony
skull) • It responds to such changes, called stimuli, by
sending information (input) to the second
b. Spinal Cavity (extends from the component, the control center.
cranial cavity to the end the spinal cord)
• Information flows from the receptor to the
2. Ventral Body Cavity control center along the afferent pathway.

• Much larger than the dorsal body cavity 2. Control Center

• Contains all the structures within the chest and • Determines the level (set point) at which a
abdomen, that is, the visceral organs to those variable is to be maintained.
regions.
• This component analyzes the information it
• Subdivided: receives and then determines the appropriate
response or course of action.
- thoracic cavity (lungs, heart, etc.)
3. Effector
- abdominal cavity (stomach, liver,
intestines) • Provides the means for the control center’s
response (output) to the stimulus.
- pelvic cavity (reproductive organs,
bladder, and rectum) • Information flows from the control center to
the effector along the efferent pathway.

• The results of the response then feedback to

influence the stimulus, either by reducing the
amount of change (negative feedback), so that
the whole control mechanism is shut off; or by
increasing the amount of change (positive
feedback), so that the reaction continues at an
even faster rate.

Other Body Cavities (smaller)

1. Oral Cavity and Digestive Cavity

2. Nasal Cavity

3. Orbital Cavities