DM Unit-V PPT To PDF
DM Unit-V PPT To PDF
DM Unit-V PPT To PDF
ALGEBRA
• Partial Ordering.
• Posets.
• Lattices as Posets.
• Properties of Lattices.
• Lattices as Algebraic Systems.
• Sub Lattices.
• Direct product and homomorphism.
• Some special Lattices.
• Boolean Algebra.
Partial Ordering
Example :
(i.e) ≥ is reflexive.
𝒃 𝒂 ≥ 𝒃 and 𝒃 ≥ 𝒂 ⟹ 𝒂 = 𝒃
𝒄 𝒂 ≥ 𝒃 and 𝒃 ≥ 𝒄 ⟹ 𝒂 ≥ 𝒄
(i.e) ≥ is transitive.
Hence, 𝒁 , ≥ is a poset.
1. Show that 𝑵 ,≤ is a partially ordered set
where 𝑵 is set of all positive integers and ≤ is
defined by 𝒎 ≤ 𝒏 iff 𝒏 − 𝒎 is a non-negative
integer.
Solution :
To prove 𝑵 , ≤ is a partially ordered set, we have
to prove the relation ≤ is reflexive, anti
symmetric and transitive.
(i) As 𝒂 − 𝒂 = 𝟎 which is a non-negative integer,
𝒂 ≤𝒂
Therefore, ≤ is a reflexive.
(ii) Assume 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃 and 𝒃 ≤ 𝒂
𝒃 − 𝒂 ≥ 𝟎 and 𝒂 − 𝒃 ≥ 𝟎
Therefore, 𝒂 = 𝒃
(iii) Assume 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃 , 𝒃 ≤ 𝒄
𝒃 − 𝒂 ≥ 𝟎 and 𝒄 − 𝒃 ≥ 𝟎
𝒄 −𝒃+𝒃 −𝒂 ≥𝟎
𝒄 −𝒂 ≥𝟎
𝒂 ≤𝒄
(i.e) 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃 , 𝒃 ≤ 𝒄 ⟹ 𝒂 ≤ 𝒄
Therefore, ≤ is transitive.
Solution :
(i) As 𝒂 = 𝒂𝟏
𝒂 ,𝒂 ∈ 𝑹
Therefore, 𝑹 is reflexive.
(ii) Assume 𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑹 and 𝒃 , 𝒂 ∈ 𝑹
𝒂 = 𝒂𝒎 𝒏
𝒂 = 𝒂𝒎𝒏
𝒎𝒏=𝟏
(i.e) 𝒎 = 𝟏 and 𝒏 = 𝟏
Therefore, 𝒂 = 𝒃
𝒄 = 𝒂𝒎𝒏
𝒄 = 𝒂𝒌 where 𝒌 is a positive integer.
⟹ 𝒂 ,𝒄 ∈ 𝑹
Therefore, 𝑹 is transitive.
As 𝑹 is reflexive, anti symmetric and transitive, 𝑹
is a partial order relation.
3. Let 𝑹 be a relation on a set 𝑨. Then define
𝑹−𝟏 = 𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑨 × 𝑨/ 𝒃 , 𝒂 ∈ 𝑹 . Prove that if
𝑨 , 𝑹 is poset then 𝑨 , 𝑹−𝟏 is also a poset.
Solution :
(i) 𝑹 is reflexive ⟹ 𝒂 , 𝒂 ∈ 𝑹
⟹ 𝑹−𝟏 is reflexive.
12
2 3
2. Draw the Hasse diagram for 𝑷 = 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟒 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟐
and ≤ is a relation such that 𝒙 ≤ 𝒚 if and only if
𝒙|𝒚 .
Solution :
4 6
2 3
1
3. Draw the Hasse diagram of 𝑺𝟐𝟒 , | where 𝑺𝟐𝟒
denotes the set of positive divisors of 𝟐𝟒 and |
denotes the relation “division”.
Solution :
𝑺𝟐𝟒 = 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟒 , 𝟔 , 𝟖 , 𝟏𝟐 , 𝟐𝟒
8 12
4 6
2 3
1
4. Obtain the Hasse diagram of 𝑷 𝑨𝟑 , ⊆ where
𝑨𝟑 = 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 .
Solution :
Given 𝑨𝟑 = 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑
𝑷 𝑨𝟑
= ∅ , 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟏 ,𝟐 , 𝟏 ,𝟑 , 𝟐 ,𝟑 , 𝟏 ,𝟐,𝟑
{φ}
Greatest Member :
Least Member :
Minimal Member :
Solution :
Given 𝑺 = 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄
𝑷 𝑺
= ∅ , 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 , 𝒂 ,𝒃 , 𝒂 ,𝒄 , 𝒃 ,𝒄 , 𝒂 ,𝒃 ,𝒄
The Hasse diagram is given by
{a,b,c}
{φ}
1. The element 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 does not precede
any element of the poset and hence it is
the only maximal element of the poset.
Given 𝑫𝟑𝟎 = 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟓 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏𝟓 , 𝟑𝟎
6 10 15
2 3 5
1
(i) All the lower bounds of 𝟏𝟎 and 𝟏𝟓 are 𝟏
and 𝟓.
c d
a
Solution :
The poset represented by the Hasse
diagram is a lattice, since every pair of
elements of this poset have both least
upper bound and greatest lower bound.
Lattice as Algebraic System
(i) 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒄
(ii) 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄
Absorption Law :
(i) 𝒂 ∨ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 = 𝒂
(ii) 𝒂 ∧ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 = 𝒂
If 𝒂 , 𝒃 are not related (non comparable)
avb
a b
a^b
𝒂 ∧𝒃 ≤𝒂 𝒂 ≤𝒂∨𝒃
𝒂 ∧𝒃 ≤𝒃 𝒃 ≤𝒂 ∨𝒃
Also 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ≤ 𝒂 ≤ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃
𝒂 ∧𝒃 ≤𝒃 ≤𝒂 ∨𝒃
If 𝒂 , 𝒃 are related (comparable)
b
Solution :
Given for any 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑳,
𝒂 ≤𝒃 ⟺𝒂∗𝒃=𝒂⟺𝒂 𝒃=𝒃
In otherwords,
1. 𝐚 𝒃 = 𝒃 iff 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃
2. 𝐚 ∗ 𝐛 = 𝐚 iff 𝐚 ≤ 𝐛
3. 𝐚 ∗ 𝐛 = 𝒂 iff 𝒂 𝒃=𝒃
(1) Let 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃
𝒃 ≤ 𝒃 (By refexive)
𝒂 𝒃=𝒃
Conversely,
𝒂 ≤𝒂 𝒃
𝒂 ≤𝒃 [By (3)]
(2) Let 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃
𝐚 ≤ 𝒂 (By refexive)
𝒂 ∗𝒃=𝒂
Conversely,
If 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂 ------- (6)
𝒂 ∗𝒃 ≤𝒃
𝒂 ≤𝒃 [By (6)]
(3) Let 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂
𝒃 𝒂 ∗𝒃 =𝒃 𝒂
(i.e) 𝒂 𝒃=𝒃
𝒂 ∗ 𝒂 𝒃 =𝒂∗𝒃
(i.e) 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂.
5. State and prove the distributive inequalities
of a lattice.
Solution :
Statement :
Distributive Inequality :
(i) 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒄 ≥ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒄
(ii) 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 ≤ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒄
Proof :
(i) 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒄 ≥ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒄
By definition of 𝑮𝑳𝑩, we have
𝒂 ∧𝒃 ≤𝒂
𝒂 ∧𝒃 ≤𝒃 ≤𝒃 ∨𝒄
𝒂 ∧𝒃 ≤𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 ------------(1)
By definition of 𝑮𝑳𝑩, we have
𝒂 ∧𝒄 ≤𝒂
𝒂 ∧𝒄 ≤𝒄 ≤𝒃 ∨𝒄
𝒂 ∧𝒄 ≤𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 ------------(2)
From (1) and (2), we have
𝒂 ∧𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧𝒄 ≤𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 ≥ 𝒂 ∧𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧𝒄
(ii) 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 ≤ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒄
By definition of 𝑳𝑼𝑩, we have
𝒂 ≤𝒂 ∨𝒃
By definition of 𝑮𝑳𝑩, we have
𝒃 ∧𝒄 ≤𝒃 ≤𝒂 ∨𝒃
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 ≤ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ------------ (3)
By definition of 𝑳𝑼𝑩, we have
𝒂 ≤𝒂 ∨𝒄
𝒃 ∧𝒄 ≤𝒄 ≤𝒂 ∨𝒄
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 ≤ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒄 ------------ (4)
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 ≤ 𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄
6. State and prove modular inequality of a
lattice.
Solution :
Statement :
Modular Inequality :
𝒂 ≤ 𝒄 iff 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 ≤ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄.
Proof :
Let 𝒂 ≤ 𝒄
Then 𝒂 ∨ 𝒄 = 𝒄 ----------- (1)
By distributive inequality, we have
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 ≤ 𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 ≤ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 [By (1)]
Conversely,
Assume 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 ≤ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄
𝒂 ≤𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 ≤ 𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧𝒄 ≤𝒄
(i.e) 𝒂 ≤ 𝒄
Hence, proved.
7. State and prove isotonic inequality of a
lattice.
Solution :
Statement :
Isotonic inequality :
If 𝑳 , ≤ is a lattice, then for any 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 ∈ 𝑳,
𝒂 ≤ 𝒃 ⟹ 𝒂 ∗ 𝒄 ≤ 𝒃 ∗ 𝒄 and
𝒂 𝒄 ≤𝒃 𝒄
Proof :
We know that
In a lattice,
𝒂 ≤𝒃 ⇔𝒂∗𝒃=𝒂 ⇔𝒂 𝒃 = 𝒃 ………..(A)
Assume 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃
Then 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂 and 𝒂 𝒃 = 𝒃 ……… (1)
Now, 𝒂 ∗ 𝒄 ∗ 𝒃 ∗ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∗ 𝒄 ∗ 𝒃 ∗ 𝒄
[By Associative law]
𝐚 ∗𝐜 ∗ 𝐛 ∗𝐜 =𝐚 ∗ 𝐛∗𝐜 ∗𝐜
= 𝒂 ∗𝒃 ∗ 𝒄 ∗𝒄
=𝒂 ∗𝒄
By (A), we have
𝒂 ∗𝒄 ≤𝒃 ∗𝒄
𝒂 𝒄 𝒃 𝒄 =𝒂 𝒄 𝒃 𝒄
[By Associative law]
𝐚 𝐜 𝐛 𝐜 =𝐚 𝐛 𝐜 𝐜
[By Commutative law]
= 𝒂 𝒃 𝒄 𝒄
[By Associative law]
=𝒃 𝒄
[By (1) and Idempotent law]
By (A), we have
𝒂 𝒄 ≤𝒃 𝒄.
Distributive Lattice
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 = 𝒂 ∧𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧𝒄
and 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄
Modular Lattice
𝒂 ≤ 𝒄, then
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄.
1. Examine whether the lattice given in the
following Hasse diagram is distributive or
not.
1
a b c
0
Solution :
To prove 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒄
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 =𝒂 ∨𝟎
=𝒂 ………..…(1)
𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄 =𝟏 ∧𝟏
=𝟏 ……………(2)
From (1) and (2), we have
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 ≠ 𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄
Therefore, the lattice is not a distributive
lattice.
2. Show that cancellation laws are valid in
distributive lattice.
Solution :
Cancellation Law :
Given 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂 ∗ 𝒄 ………..(1)
𝒂 𝒃=𝒂 𝒄 ……….(2)
𝒄 ∗ 𝒂 𝒃 =𝒄 ∗ 𝒂 𝒄 [By (2)]
=𝒄 ∗ 𝒄 𝒂
𝒄 ∗ 𝒂 𝒃 = 𝒄 …………..(3)
=𝒃 ∗ 𝒃 𝒂
𝒄 ∗ 𝒂 𝒃 = 𝒃 ………… (4)
𝒃 = 𝒄.
3. Prove that every distributive lattice is
modular. Is the converse true ? Justify your
claim.
Solution :
𝒂 ≤ 𝒄, 𝒂 𝒃 ∗𝒄 = 𝒂 𝒃 ∗𝒄
Since 𝑳 is a distributive lattice, for any
𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 ∈ 𝑳, we have
𝒂 𝒃 ∗𝒄 = 𝒂 𝒃 ∗ 𝒂 𝒄
If 𝒂 ≤ 𝒄 , then 𝒂 𝒄=𝒄
Therefore, 𝒂 𝒃 ∗𝒄 = 𝒂 𝒃 ∗𝒄
Thus, the modularity condition is satisfied
Hence, 𝑳 is a modular lattice.
The converse is not true.
For example, the diamond lattice is modular
but not distributive.
Bounded Lattice
𝒂 ∨𝟎=𝒂; 𝒂 ∧𝟎=𝟎
A lattice 𝑳 ,∨ ,∧ , 𝟎 , 𝟏 is called a
complemented lattice if every element
of 𝑳 has at least one complement.
1. If 𝑺𝟒𝟐 is the set of all divisors of 𝟒𝟐 and 𝑫 is
the relation “divisor of” on 𝑺𝟒𝟐 . Prove that
𝑺𝟒𝟐 , 𝑫 is a complemented lattice.
Solution :
𝑺𝟒𝟐 = 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟔 , 𝟕 , 𝟏𝟒 , 𝟐𝟏 , 𝟒𝟐
The Hasse diagram of 𝑺𝟒𝟐 is given by
42
6 14 21
2 3 7
1
The zero element of the lattice is 𝟏 and
unit element of the lattice is 𝟒𝟐.
𝟏 ∨ 𝟒𝟐 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟏 , 𝟒𝟐 = 𝟒𝟐 (≡ 𝟏)
𝟏 ∧ 𝟒𝟐 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟏 , 𝟒𝟐 = 𝟏 (≡ 𝟎)
𝟐 ∨ 𝟐𝟏 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟐 , 𝟐𝟏 = 𝟒𝟐 (≡ 𝟏)
𝟐 ∧ 𝟐𝟏 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟐 , 𝟐𝟏 = 𝟏 (≡ 𝟎)
𝟑 ∨ 𝟏𝟒 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟑 , 𝟏𝟒 = 𝟒𝟐 (≡ 𝟏)
𝟑 ∧ 𝟏𝟒 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟑 , 𝟏𝟒 = 𝟏 (≡ 𝟎)
𝟔 ∨ 𝟕 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟔 , 𝟕 = 𝟒𝟐 (≡ 𝟏)
𝟔 ∧ 𝟕 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟔 , 𝟕 = 𝟏 (≡ 𝟎)
Now 𝟏′ = 𝟒𝟐
𝟐′ = 𝟐𝟏
𝟑′ = 𝟏𝟒
𝟔′ = 𝟕
𝟕′ = 𝟔
𝟏𝟒′ = 𝟑
𝟐𝟏′ = 𝟐
𝟒𝟐′ = 𝟏
Solution :
𝑫𝟒𝟓 = 𝟏 , 𝟑 , 𝟓 , 𝟗 , 𝟏𝟓 , 𝟒𝟓
9 15
3 5
Now 𝟏′ = 𝟒𝟓
𝟓′ = 𝟗
𝟗′ = 𝟓
𝟒𝟓′ = 𝟏
Solution :
Case (i) :
Assume that 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃
𝒂 ≤ 𝒄 and 𝒃 ≤ 𝒄
(i.e) 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 = 𝒃
Similarly, 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 = 𝒂.
Case (ii) :
Assume that 𝒃 ≤ 𝒂
Solution :
𝒊 𝒂 ≤𝒃 ≤𝒄
𝒊𝒊 𝒂 ≤ 𝒄 ≤ 𝒃
𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒃 ≤ 𝒄 ≤ 𝒂
𝒊𝒗 𝒃 ≤ 𝒂 ≤ 𝒄
𝒗 𝒄 ≤𝒂 ≤𝒃
𝒗𝒊 𝒄 ≤ 𝒃 ≤ 𝒂
𝒊 𝒂 ≤𝒃 ≤𝒄
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 =𝒂 ∧𝒄=𝒂 …..(1)
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨ 𝒂 = 𝒂 …..(2) c
From (1) and (2), we have
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 = 𝒂 ∧𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧𝒄 b
Also,
a
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 =𝒂 ∨𝒃=𝒃 …..(3)
𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄 =𝒃 ∧𝒄=𝒃 …..(4)
From (3) and (4), we have
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄
𝒊𝒊 𝒂 ≤ 𝒄 ≤ 𝒃
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 =𝒂 ∧𝒃=𝒂 …..(5)
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨ 𝒂 = 𝒂 …..(6)
b
From (5) and (6), we have
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 = 𝒂 ∧𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧𝒄 c
Also,
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 =𝒂 ∨𝒄=𝒄 …..(7) a
𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄 =𝒃 ∧𝒄=𝒄 …..(8)
From (7) and (8), we have
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄
𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒃 ≤ 𝒄 ≤ 𝒂
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 =𝒂 ∧𝒄=𝒄 …..(9)
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒄 = 𝒃 ∨ 𝒄 = 𝒄 …..(10) a
From (9) and (10), we have
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 = 𝒂 ∧𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧𝒄
c
Also,
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 =𝒂 ∨𝒃=𝒂 …..(11)
𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄 =𝒂 ∧𝒂=𝒂 …..(12)
b
From (11) and (12), we have
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄
𝒊𝒗 𝒃 ≤ 𝒂 ≤ 𝒄
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 =𝒂 ∧𝒄=𝒃 …..(13)
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒄 = 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 = 𝒂 …..(14)
c
From (13) and (14), we have
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 = 𝒂 ∧𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧𝒄
a
Also,
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 =𝒂 ∨𝒃=𝒂 …..(15)
b
𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄 =𝒂 ∧𝒄=𝒂 …..(16)
From (15) and (16), we have
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄
𝒗 𝒄 ≤𝒂 ≤𝒃
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 =𝒂 ∧𝒃=𝒂 …..(17)
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨ 𝒄 = 𝒂 …..(18)
b
From (17) and (18), we have
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 = 𝒂 ∧𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧𝒄
a
Also,
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 =𝒂 ∨𝒄=𝒂 …..(19)
c
𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄 =𝒃 ∧𝒂=𝒂 …..(20)
From (19) and (20), we have
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄
𝒗𝒊 𝒄 ≤ 𝒃 ≤ 𝒂
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 =𝒂 ∧𝒃=𝒃 …..(21)
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒄 = 𝒃 ∨ 𝒄 = 𝒃 …..(22)
a
From (21) and (22), we have
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 = 𝒂 ∧𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧𝒄
b
Also,
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 =𝒂 ∨𝒄=𝒂 …..(23)
c
𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄 =𝒂 ∧𝒂=𝒂 …..(24)
From (23) and (24), we have
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝒄
3. Show that every chain is modular.
Solution :
Let 𝑳 , ≤ be a chain.
Let 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 ∈ 𝑳 and 𝒂 ≤ 𝒄
As 𝑳 is a chain either 𝒃 ≤ 𝒄 or 𝒄 ≤ 𝒃
Assume that 𝒃 ≤ 𝒄
So, 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ≤ 𝒄 and 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃
Thus in this case,
𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧𝒄=𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄
Assume 𝒄 ≤ 𝒃
𝒂 ≤ 𝒃 and
𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧𝒄=𝒃 ∧𝒄=𝒄
while, 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨ 𝒄 = 𝒄
In this case also, we have
𝒂 ∨𝒃 ∧𝒄=𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒄 is satisfied.
Solution :
𝑺𝟑𝟎 = 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟓 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏𝟓 , 𝟑𝟎
6 10 15
2 3 5
1
𝟐 ∨ 𝟑 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟐 , 𝟑 = 𝟔
𝟐 ∧ 𝟑 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟐 , 𝟑 = 𝟏
𝟏𝟎 ∨ 𝟏𝟓 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏𝟓 = 𝟑𝟎
𝟏𝟎 ∧ 𝟏𝟓 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏𝟓 = 𝟓
𝟑 ∨ 𝟏𝟎 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟑 , 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎
𝟑 ∧ 𝟏𝟎 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟑 , 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏
𝟓 ∨ 𝟑𝟎 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟓 , 𝟑𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎
𝟓 ∧ 𝟑𝟎 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟓 , 𝟑𝟎 =𝟓
𝟐 ∨ 𝟑𝟎 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟐 , 𝟑𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎
𝟐 ∧ 𝟑𝟎 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟐 , 𝟑𝟎 = 𝟐
Similarly every pair of elements has LUB and
GLB.
𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟑𝟎 , 𝟏 , 𝟑 , 𝟓 , 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏𝟓 , 𝟑𝟎 ,
𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟓 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟑𝟎 and 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟓 , 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏𝟓 , 𝟑𝟎
Lattice Homomorphism
𝒇 𝒂 ∨𝒃 = 𝒇 𝒂 𝒇 𝒃
𝒇 𝒂 ∧𝒃 =𝒇 𝒂 ∗𝒇 𝒃
If a homomorphism 𝒇 ∶ 𝑳𝟏 → 𝑳𝟐 of two
lattices 𝑳𝟏 , ∨ , ∧ and 𝑳𝟐 , , ∗ is
bijective (i.e) one-one, onto then 𝒇 is called
an isomorphism. If there exists an
isomorphism between two lattices, then
the lattices are said to be isomorphic.
Complete Lattice
𝒂+𝒃=𝒃+𝒂
𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝒃. 𝒂
𝑩𝟑 : Associative laws
𝒂+ 𝒃+𝒄 = 𝒂+𝒃 +𝒄
𝒂. 𝒃. 𝒄 = 𝒂. 𝒃 . 𝒄
𝑩𝟒 : Distributive laws
𝒂 + 𝒃. 𝒄 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 . 𝒂 + 𝒄
𝒂. 𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝒂. 𝒃 + 𝒂. 𝒄
𝑩𝟓 : Complement laws
𝒂 + 𝒂′ = 𝟏
𝒂. 𝒂′ = 𝟎
Note :
𝟎 + 𝟎 = 𝟎
𝟎 + 𝟏 = 𝟏 + 𝟎 = 𝟏 + 𝟏 = 𝟏.
𝟎. 𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟏 = 𝟎.
𝟏. 𝟏 = 𝟏
𝟎′ = 𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟏′ = 𝟎.
Then the algebra { B,+,.,′,0,1} satisfies
all the five properties given above and is the
simplest Boolean algebra called a two-
element Boolean algebra.
1. Idempotent law :
2. Dominance law :
3. Absorption law :
𝒂. 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂 + 𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝒂 ∀ 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑩
4. Demorgan‟s law :
𝒂 + 𝒃 ′ = 𝒂′ . 𝒃′
𝒂. 𝒃 ′ = 𝒂′ + 𝒃′ ∀ 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑩
Proof : (i) 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ′ = 𝒂′ ∧ 𝒃′
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂′ ∧ 𝒃′
= 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂′ ∧ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒃′
[By Distributive law]
= 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒂′ ∧ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒃′
[By Commutative law]
= 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒂′ ∧ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒃′
= 𝒃 ∨𝟏 ∧ 𝒂 ∨𝟏
Hence, 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ′ = 𝒂′ ∧ 𝒃′ .
(ii) 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ′ = 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒃′
𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒃′
= 𝒂 ∨ 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒃′ ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒃′
= 𝒂 ∨ 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒃′ ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒃′ ∨ 𝒂′
= 𝒂 ∨ 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒃′ ∧ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒃′ ∨ 𝒂′
= 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒃′
[By Distributive law]
= 𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒃′
= 𝒃 ∧ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∧ 𝒃′
= 𝒃 ∧𝟎 ∨ 𝒂 ∧𝟎
=𝟎∨𝟎
Hence, 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ′ = 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒃′ .
2. If 𝒂 ,𝒃 are any two elements in a
complemented distributive lattice 𝑳 , show
that the following are equivalent:
𝒂 ≤ 𝒃 , 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃′ = 𝟎 , 𝒂′ 𝒃 = 𝟏 , 𝒃′ ≤ 𝒂′ .
Solution :
(iv) 𝒃′ ≤ 𝒂′ .
It is enough to prove that
𝒊 ⟹ 𝒊𝒊 ⟹ 𝒊𝒊𝒊 ⟹ 𝒊𝒗 ⟹ (𝒊)
To prove : 𝒊 ⟹ 𝒊𝒊
Let 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃
Then 𝒂 𝒃=𝒃
𝒂 𝒃 ∗ 𝒃′ = 𝒃 ∗ 𝒃′
𝒂 ∗ 𝒃′ 𝒃 ∗ 𝒃′ = 𝒃 ∗ 𝒃′
[By distributive law]
𝒂 ∗ 𝒃′ 𝟎 =𝟎 [By complement law]
𝐚 ∗ 𝒃′ = 𝟎 [By Identity law]
Therefore, 𝒊 ⟹ 𝒊𝒊
To prove : 𝒊𝒊 ⟹ 𝒊𝒊𝒊
Let 𝐚 ∗ 𝒃′ = 𝟎
Taking complement on both sides, we have
𝒂 ∗ 𝒃′ ′ = 𝟎′
𝒂′ 𝒃′ ′
= 𝟏 [By demorgan‟s law]
𝒂′ 𝒃=𝟏
Therefore, 𝒊𝒊 ⟹ 𝒊𝒊𝒊 .
To prove : 𝒊𝒊𝒊 ⟹ 𝒊𝒗
𝒂′ 𝒃 = 𝟏
𝒂′ 𝒃 ∗ 𝒃′ = 𝟏 ∗ 𝒃′
𝒂′ ∗ 𝒃′ 𝒃 ∗ 𝒃′ = 𝒃′
[By Distributive law and Identity law]
10 22 55
2 5 11
1
The zero element of 𝑫𝟏𝟏𝟎 is 𝟏 and unit
element of 𝑫𝟏𝟏𝟎 is 𝟏𝟏𝟎.
𝟏 ∨ 𝟏𝟏𝟎 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟏 , 𝟏𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎 (≡ 𝟏)
𝟏 ∧ 𝟏𝟏𝟎 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟏 , 𝟏𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏 (≡ 𝟎)
𝟐 ∨ 𝟓𝟓 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟐 , 𝟓𝟓 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎 (≡ 𝟏)
𝟐 ∧ 𝟓𝟓 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟐 , 𝟓𝟓 = 𝟏 (≡ 𝟎)
𝟓 ∨ 𝟐𝟐 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟓 , 𝟐𝟐 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎 (≡ 𝟏)
𝟓 ∧ 𝟐𝟐 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟓 , 𝟐𝟐 = 𝟏 (≡ 𝟎)
𝟏𝟎 ∨ 𝟏𝟏 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏𝟏 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎 (≡ 𝟏)
10 ∧ 𝟏𝟏 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏𝟏 = 𝟏 (≡ 𝟎)
Now 𝟏′ = 𝟏𝟏𝟎
𝟐′ = 𝟓𝟓
𝟓′ = 𝟐𝟐
𝟏𝟎′ = 𝟏𝟏
𝟏𝟏′ = 𝟏𝟎
𝟐𝟐′ = 𝟓
𝟓𝟓′ = 𝟐
𝟏𝟏𝟎′ = 𝟏
Solution :
𝒃 = 𝟏 .𝒄 [By (1)]
Hence, 𝒃 = 𝒄.
𝒇 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝒇 𝒂 ∪ 𝒇 𝒃 , 𝒇 𝒂 .𝒃 = 𝒇 𝒂 ∩ 𝒇 𝒃 ,
𝒇 𝒂′ = 𝒇 𝒂 , 𝒇 𝟎 = 𝜶 and 𝒇 𝟏 = 𝜷, where 𝜶
and 𝜷 are the zero and unit element of 𝑪.
Isomorphic Boolean Algebras
Solution :
𝒙+𝒚 ′ 𝒙 𝒚 ′ = 𝒙′ . 𝒚′ . 𝒙′ + 𝒚′
= 𝒙′ . 𝒚′ . 𝒙′ + 𝒙′ . 𝒚′ . 𝒚′
= 𝒙′ . 𝒚′ + 𝒙′ . 𝒚′
Solution :
𝒂′ . 𝒃′ . 𝒄 + 𝒂 . 𝒃′ . 𝒄 + 𝒂′ . 𝒃′ . 𝒄′
= 𝒃′ . 𝒄 + 𝒃′ . 𝒂′
𝑺 , + ,∗ ,′ , 𝟏 , 𝟔 is a Boolean algebra.
2 3
1
𝟏 and 𝟔 are the zero and unit element of
𝑺 , + ,∗ ,′ , 𝟏 , 𝟔
If 𝒂 represents any of the elements 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟔 of 𝑺
Clearly, 𝒂 + 𝟎 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝒂, 𝟏 = 𝒂
and 𝒂. 𝟏 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝒂, 𝟔 = 𝒂
𝟏 + 𝟐 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟏, 𝟐 = 𝟐 ; 𝟏. 𝟐 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟏, 𝟐 = 𝟏
𝟐 + 𝟏 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟐, 𝟏 = 𝟐 ; 𝟐. 𝟏 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟐, 𝟏 = 𝟏
𝟔
𝒂. 𝒂′ = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝒂 , 𝒂′ = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝒂 , = 𝟏 (≡ 𝟎)
𝒂