The Ethnobotany of Chitral Valley, Pakistan With Particular Reference To Medicinal Plants

Pak. J. Bot., 41(4): 2009-2041, 2009.
THE ETHNOBOTANY OF CHITRAL VALLEY, PAKISTAN WITH

PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO MEDICINAL PLANTS
HAIDAR ALI1 AND M. QAISER2
1
Department of Botany, University of Karachi, 75270-Karachi, Pakistan, [email protected]
2
Federal Urdu University for Arts, Science and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
Abstract
An ethnobotanical survey was carried out to collect information regarding the various
indigenous uses, especially the medicinal plants in Chitral valley. A total of 83 taxa are reported as
being used locally for various purposes. Our results suggest that root is the major plant part used in
most of the recipes. Majority of the recipes are prepared in the form of decoction from freshly
collected plant parts. Mostly a single species is used and are mainly taken orally. All of these plants
are collected from the wild, 7 of which are reported as scarce locally. Unsustainable collection
methods, poor post harvest methods, soil erosion and intense deforestation are the main causes of
the depletion of local flora. As the Chitrali people still partly depend on medicinal plants for
majority of their ailments, therefore loss of these plant resources will, to a certain extent, hamper
the existing healthcare system in the area. Measures for the conservation of plant resources
especially medicinal plants of Chitral valley are urgently needed.
Introduction
The use of plants by man is dated back to the origin of life on earth. In the beginning
plant use was restricted to food, medicine and shelter but with the passage of time man
explored the potential of plants for a number of other purposes. Hence, their dependency
on plants increased both directly and indirectly. Wild plants have always been the matter
of high concern and have always been used for their potential of human well being (Ali et
al., 2003; Ali, 2003). With the passage of time wild plants were cleared from their
original habitat to replace the desired cultivated crops on large scale. This practice has
always been affected by the availability of plants in their natural habitat and the way
these resources are used by the local people are imperative. In developing countries
medicinal plants provide a real alternative for primary health care system (Buitron, 1999).
Due to the high cost of conventional allopathic medicine and inaccessibility of medicinal
health care facilities especially in rural areas, the locals are compelled to rely on
medicinal plants. According to an estimate between 35,000 and 70,000 plant species are
used in folk medicine worldwide (Lewington, 1990; Fransworth & Soejarto, 1991), since
comparability of foreign trade statistics is limited and compilation of the trade figures of
all botanicals is impossible (Lange, 2006). Products from hundreds of species are being
collected from remote forests and meadows and traded to international markets and
consumed (Olsen, 2005). These harvests provide an important source of income to huge
number of rural households.
About 70-80% of the world population use traditional medicine for curing their
illness and ailments (Fransworth & Soejarto, 1991; Pei, 2001). But this was estimated
about a decade ago. The percentage of people using traditional medicine decreased in
developed countries: 40-50% in Germany, 42% in the USA, 48% in Australia and 49% in
France (Titz, 2004). This might be due to the unavailability of medicinal plants in the
wild.
2010 HAIDAR ALI & MUHAMMAD QAISER
In the period 1991-2003, an average of 467,000 tones (valued at US $ 1.2 billion) of

pharmaceutical plants were traded annually on the global scale, with the dominance of
few countries (Lange, 2006).
For Pakistan a total of 1572 genera and 5521 species are identified (Ali, 2008), most
of which are confined to the mountainous areas (Ali & Qaiser, 1986). Very few attempts
have been made to document the indigenous uses of medicinal plants such as Ahmad &
Sher (2003) and Khan (1996). But this information is rather incomplete as very few
common plants are listed. Many of the species reported in these studies are either
misidentified or no identification has been made up to species level. Hussain (2003)
collected ethnobotanical information of fruit plants of Chitral and listed about 19
cultivated fruit plant species. Similarly, Hussain et al., (2007) documented the uses of
111 plants of Mastuj. They have also included number of cultivated species. In addition
to that no information is available about the exact locality, habitat and the voucher
specimen. We have not included those plants which have already been listed by Hussain
et al., (2007) while the exception of few taxa which have different vernacular names in
other parts of Chitral valley and used differently.
Main objective of the present study is to document the indigenous knowledge of wild
plants of entire Chitral valley and provide scientific basis for further research.
The study area
Chitral is located in the extreme north-east of N.W.F.P., parallel to the pan handle
shaped Wakhan corridor of Afghanistan. It is the largest district of the province with
14850 sq. km area, covering 20% of the provincial landscape. It lies within 350 15´ 06”
to 360 55´32” North and 710 11´ 32” to 730 51´ 34” East with a population of 3,20,000
(Anon., 1998).
It is bordered on the east by district Ghizer of Northern areas of Pakistan, on the
south by districts of Dir and Swat. Nooristan of Afghanistan lies across the border to the
West and on the north-west by the Wakhan corridor, which separates Pakistan and
Tajikistan (Fig.1). Three distinct mountain ranges surround the Chitral region, to the
north-west bordering Afghanistan is the Hindu Kush range, to the east-south is the Hindu
Raj range and in between there is Shandoor-Karakoram range.
Chitral’s main valley is 354 km long with a maximum width c. 4800 m. However, at
some places it is barely 180 m wide, while the side valleys are even narrower. Fan-
deposits may be found in open spaces along both the main and side valleys. These are the
places where most of the villages and cultivated fields are formed (Ali & Qaiser, 2006).
High mountain topography is the characteristic feature of Chitral, which is the only
cause of its isolated nature. Therefore the entry into Chitral is limited to only few passes
i.e., Lowari Pass and Shandoor Pass, which are at an altitude of 3300m and 3800m
respectively. But these passes are closed due to heavy snowfall for almost 6 months of
the year and the area is totally inaccessible during winter (Ali & Qaiser, 2005).
Elevation of the area varies from about 1070 m (about 3500 ft) in the extreme south
in Arandu to 7,690 m (25,230 ft) at the summit of Tirich Mir in the Hindu Kush. High
mountain and rough topography of the area have given rise to lot of narrow side valleys.
Erosion and glacial drift have contributed to fan-deposits along both the main and side
valleys. These fan deposits are the main areas of habitation by human, hence villages and
cultivated fields are found on these alluvial deposits (Ali & Qaiser, 2006).

ETHNOBOTANY OF CHITRAL VALLEY, PAKISTAN
Fig. 1. Location map of the study area showing the localities visited. 1. Lowari top, 2. Ziarat, 3. Arandu, 4. Drosh, 5. Madaklasht, 6. Birir, 7. Bomboret, 8. Joghore, 9.
Koghozi, 10. Goleen, 11. Chitral, 12. Chitral Gol, 13. Shoghore, 14. Garm Chashma, 15. Shah Sadin, 16. Arkari, 17. Agram Gol, 18. Kiyar, 19. Barum, 20. Charun, 21.
Booni, 22. Mastuj, 23. Laspur, 24. Shandoor, 25. Chumarkan, 26. Chuinch, 27. Brep, 28. Qaq lasht, 29. Shagram, 30. Bendok, 31. Rich Gol, 32. Shah Jinali, 33. Wasam,
34. Yarkhun Lasht, 35. Kankhoon, 36. Chikar, 37. Karambar An., 38. Shajinali An, 39. Khote lasht, 40. Shoghore.
2011
.38
B C
A
Fig. 2. Traditional agricultural tools and techniques are still commonly used in Chitral: A,
Agricultural land in Ayun-Chitral; B, Oxen are still used for threshing purposes; C, Traditional
ploughing is still used even in the lower Chitral.
Most of the land (72%) is either glaciated or covered with bare mountains and rocks.
Small patches of forests, alpine and pasture meadows cover only 24% and croplands
make only 1-2% of the total land in the district (Haserodt, 1996). Approximately
34% of the Chitral district lies above 4500 m (Kolb, 1994). About 686 km2 of Chitral
is covered by glaciers, which is about 10% of the total area of Chitral. There are
about 22 glaciers which are more than 10 km long including the longest Chianter
glacier, which is 32 km long, covering an area ca. 170 km2 (Gruber, 1977). In some
places, some glacier tongues extend down to 3200 m into the semi-arid valleys. In
the high glacier regions, precipitation may be as high as four times, whereas the
valley bottoms are dry and desert-like (Haserodt, 1989).
In Chitral the population is heterogeneous, with ethnic diversity inhabiting in
37 valleys. The Kalash people are “Kafir” i.e., non Muslims and their religion is
known as “Kalasha”. Tehsil Chitral has a majority of Khowar people and about
10,000 are Kalash people. Whereas, tehsils Drosh and Arandu of the lower Chitral
are inhabited by three communities i.e., Khowar, Gujars and Afghans (Shaw &
Shaw, 1993). In view of ethnic diversity, Chitral is a land of great contrast and
variability. Six ethnic groups reside in Chitral speaking 11 indigenous languages;
each ethnic group is distinct enough to hold its own culture and has their own
distinct way of plant resource use. Ethnobotanical use in Chitral is intricately
linked to local culture and it is as old as the history of the area.

ETHNOBOTANY OF CHITRAL VALLEY, PAKISTAN 2013
Materials and Methods
Comprehensive field studies were conducted throughout the Chitral valley. Starting
from May to the end of September, continuously for three years i.e., 2005-2007, 40
localities were studied thoroughly. These localities were selected as representatives of the
whole Chitral valley. The emphasis was given to the inaccessible and previously non-
visited localities during long excursions of 7-10 days campaign in these areas. These
excursions were conducted with the help of local guides and porters, using horses or
sometimes yaks for transportation of plants and plant pressers. The lower Chitral was
studied in May and June while upper Chitral was studied from July to the end of
September, because of the inaccessibility (snow bound area) and also the lack of
flowering period. Plant specimens were collected along with extensive field notes
including habit, habitat, life form, phenological status, abundance, GPS value and altitude
etc. Efforts were made to photograph habit including flowers, fruits and habitat of most
of the plant species. In each smaller valley local inhabitants were interviewed regarding
the local names and various indigenous uses. Importance was given to the educated or
elderly people especially women and village leaders, as their knowledge and experience
are considered as comparatively more authentic. For each plant, ethnobotanical
information was collected from people of different ages belonging to different ethnic
groups, because sometimes the information collected from different ethnic groups were
different from each other. It was emphasized to collect as much information as possible
so that the relatively most authentic and most reliable information could be screened by
tallying them with the information collected from the other ethnic groups. During the
interviews, semi-structured questionnaire was developed as per modification from Croom
(1983) and Lipp (1989). Audio visual recording devices were used to record the complete
interviews for future reference. Majority of the informants were uneducated and reluctant
to give information but with the passage of time they became used to it and gave
complete information regarding the complete recipe preparation and procedures. All the
collected plants are properly pressed, dried and mounted on standard herbarium sheets
and the voucher specimens are deposited at Karachi University Herbarium (KUH).
Specimens were identified with the help of pertinent Floras and confirmed with the
authentically identified specimens already present in the Karachi University Herbarium.
As all the specimens are collected by the first author, therefore, in voucher specimen only
the collection number is cited. The nomenclature is based on Flora of Pakistan (Nasir &
Ali, 1970-1979: Nasir & Ali, 1980-1989: Ali & Nasir, 1989-1992: Ali & Qaiser, 1993-
2009) and Flora Iranica (Rechinger 1957-2001) or as far as possible on more recent
available data on other taxonomic work. We have generally followed Boulos (1983) for
western medical terminology.
Results
Total of 83 taxa are recorded for their ethnobotanical uses, belonging to 78 genera
and 48 families. Of these, 13 are trees, 14 shrubs, 41 perennial herbs, 3 biennial herbs and
12 annual herbs.
According to three years field observations, 7 taxa viz., Aesculus indica, Allium
barszczewskii, Anthemis cotula, Bunium persicum, Delphinium nordhagenii, Ferula
narthex and Paeonia emodi are extensively exploited by the local people for their various
ethnobotanical uses. Due to over exploitation by the local people, a drastic decrease has
been observed in the population of these taxa in the wild. These taxa deserve special
attention on urgent basis, as their populations have alarmingly decreased in the wild.

Delphinium nordhagenii is endemic to Chitral (Riedl & Nasir, 1991) and Allium
barszczewskii has been collected only from Chitral in Pakistan (Nasir, 1975). These two
taxa are overexploited for their medicinal value. Unsustainable means of collection and
ignorance of the people regarding the rarity of these taxa are the main causes of depletion
of their population in the wild. Conservation measures should be adapted immediately to
protect these taxa from becoming extinct.
Pinus gerardiana is listed in the IUCN Red List 2008 (Anon., 2008) as Near
Threatened (NT). According to our observations the local people are ignorant of the
proper season and methods of seed collection and sometimes they damage the whole tree.
These unsustainable means of seed collection has directly decreased the rate of juvenile
growth.
According to our observations the far flung and remote villages, representing more
than 60% of the district’s populations, are still depending on wild plants for their various
needs. Particularly the local medicinal plants are exploited for the remedy of different
ailments. The local “Hakims” and “Tabibs” (local medical practitioners) usually
prescribe a useful drug plant or its part for the treatment of various diseases. These
“Hakims” and “Tabibs” never had formal education in medicine from any institute; rather
it was inherited from ancestors, passed down through generations.
1. Botanical name: Acer pentapomicum J.L. Stewart ex Brandis

Family: Aceraceae
Habit: Tree
Voucher specimen: 5074
Locality: Beband, Madaklasht, 3333m
Vernacular name: Zrong
Part used: Leaves and wood
Ethnobotanical use: Leaves are used as fodder and wood is used as firewood.
2. Botanical name: Achillea wilhelmsii C. Koch

Family: Asteraceae
Habit: Perennial herb
Locality: Beband, Madaklasht, 3333m
Vernacular name: Boi baro
Part used: Whole plant
Ethnobotanical use: Decoction is used for stomach disorder and diarrhoea. The
whole plant is boiled in milk and used as remedy in severe
constipation. Young shoots are used as green tea
especially for stomach disorders.
3. Botanical Name: Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Camb.) Hook.f.

Family: Hippocastanaceae
Habit: Tree
Locality: Bakamak Chitral, 1300m
Vernacular name: Bankhor
Part used: Fruits
Ethnobotanical use: Fruits are eaten raw for colic. Only few trees are found in the

lower Chitral. According to the locals this plant had a very thick
population in lower Chitral some twenty years back, but its
ruthless cutting for fuel wood has locally threatened this plant.
4. Botanical name Ajuga bracteosa Wall. ex Benth.

Family: Labiatae
Locality: Riri Chatho ghari Chitral, 2766m
Vernacular name: Boti
Part used: Leaves
Ethnobotanical use: Leaves are bitter in taste and used in fever. The young leaves
are dried, powdered and eaten three times a day for throat
infection and fever.
5. Botanical name: Allium barszczewskii Lipsky

Family: Alliaceae
Habit: Biennial herb
Locality: Bandook Terich Molikhoo, 3212m
Vernacular name: Kach
Part used: Leaves
Ethnobotanical use: Leaves are bitter in taste and are eaten raw or cooked
along with other pot herbs for gastrointestinal disorders
especially stomachache. This taxon has been extensively
utilized unsustainably, for medicinal purposes in various
preparations, therefore it has become very rare in the wild.
6. Botanical name: Anthemis cotula L. (Fig. 3)

Family: Asteraceae
Locality: Agram gol Arkari Lutkhoo, 3063m
Vernacular name: Sherisht
Part used: Inflorescence
Ethnobotanical use: Flowers are boiled in water or tea and used for various
gastrointestinal disorders like stomachache and gas trouble.
7. Botanical name: Arnebia euchroma (Royle ex Benth.) I.M. Johnston

Family: Boraginaceae
Voucher specimen: 2380A
Locality: Arkari gol Lutkhoo, 2033m
Vernacular name: Phosuk
Part used: Root and stem

Fig. 3. Anthemis cotula known as “Sherisht” is exploited for gastrointestinal disorders by the
local people. A drastic decrease has been observed in its population during the last three years of
field studies.
Ethnobotanical use: It is used as dyes for cloths. The roots and lower stem contain
dye, which is used for dying carpets made of wool. In ancient
times it was used for colouring cloths. The paste prepared by
boiling the roots in water is applied for boils and wound.
8. Botanical name: Arisaema jacquemontii Blume

Family: Araceae
Locality: Shoghore Kiyar Lutkhoo, 1875m
Vernacular name: Marjarai
Part used: Fruits and rhizome
Ethnobotanical use: Fruits and rhizomes are poisonous and cause sedation.
Very small quantity is used during meal for relieving
body pain. Also used in small quantities in various
preparations by “Hakims” for psychic and nervous
disorders.
9. Botanical name: Artemisia rutifolia Spreng.

Family: Asteraceae
Habit: Shrub

Locality: Chikar Baroghill, 3503m
Vernacular name: Afsanteen
Part used: Flower head
Ethnobotanical use: The flowers are dried, powdered and used as anthelmintic.
10. Botanical name: Astragalus oplites Benth. ex Parker

Family: Fabaceae-Papilionoideae
Habit: Shrub
Voucher specimen: 1184B
Locality: Madaklasht Drosh, 2689m
Vernacular name: Dume ruba
Part used: Shoot
Ethnobotanical use: Shoots are collected in summer, stored and used as fuel
wood in winter.
11. Botanical name: Berberis calliobotrys Aitch. ex Koehne

Family: Berberidaceae
Habit: Shrub
Locality: Petch Otch Thiole Arkari, 2140m
Vernacular name: Chowenj
Part used: Fruits and bark
Ethnobotanical use: The fruits are crushed, boiled in water and are used for
fever. Bark of the rhizome is powdered, mixed with same
weight of black pepper, same weight of “Desi ghee” (type
of butter) a paste is prepared which is applied for
backache. Decoction of root bark is used as a gargle for
pharyngitis. It is also considered to be equally beneficial
for the relief of intestinal colic.
12. Botanical name: Bergenia stracheyi (Hook.f. & Thorns.) Engl.

Family: Saxifragaceae
Locality: Chitral Gol, 3132m
Vernacular name: Bisabur
Part used: Leaves, roots and latex
Ethnobotanical use: Latex is directly applied on pimples. Decoction of roots or
leaves is prepared and is used for toothache and bleeding
of gums.
13. Botanical name: Bunium persicum (Boiss.) Fedtsch.

Family: Umbelliferae
Locality: Langar Torikhoo, 3035m
Vernacular name: Hojoj
Part used: Fruits

Ethnobotanical use: Fruits of this plant are used locally for indigestion,
gastrointestinal disturbances and abdominal pain. Fruit is
collected mainly for commercial purposes as it fetches a
high price in the local market. Due to expansion in
agriculture, unrestricted collection and overgrazing, this
plant is rapidly disappearing from its natural habitat with
an alarming rate.
14. Botanical name: Carex stenophylla Wahlenb. subsp. stenophylloides (V.

Krecz.) Egor.
Family: Cyperaceae
Locality: Danespawee Torokhoo, 3200m
Vernacular name: Lokh
Part used: Leaves and flowers
Ethnobotanical use: Leaves and flowers are mixed with mud and applied on
the walls for plaster. Also used as fodder for cattle. Mats
are also made from the young shoots. This practice is
common among the poor Wakhi community in Baroghill
valley, upper Chitral.
15. Botanical name: Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don

Family: Pinaceae
Habit: Tree
Locality: Zeenor Chitral, 2539m
Vernacular name: Diyar
Part used: Wood
Ethnobotanical use: Oil extracted from the freshly cut wood is used for
various skin diseases. Wood is very famous for making
furniture, also used for constructional purposes etc. The
wood is over exploited by local and nomadic Gujurs for
fuel purposes.
16. Botanical name: Chenopodium botrys L.

Family: Chenopodiaceae
Habit: Annual herb
Locality: Darband shekhlasht Yarkhoon, 2749m
Vernacular name: Kunakh
Part used: Whole Plant
Ethnobotanical use: Decoction is used in treatment of catarrh also used as
anthelmintic.
17. Botanical name: Chenopodium foliosum Asch.

Habit: Annual herb

Locality: Pasti Rabat ghari, 3728m
Vernacular name: Pelili mrach
Part used: Ripe fruits
Ethnobotanical use: The ripe fruits are eaten raw for its taste; they are also
used for eye infection. Juice is extracted from the ripe and
clean fruits and is applied for eye infections.
18. Botanical name: Chenopodium murale L.

Habit: Annual herb
Locality: Birir proper, Chitral, 2490m
Vernacular name: Darkunakh
Ethnobotanical use: Used as pot herb. Especially used for abdominal pains,
diuretic and considered as anthelmintic.
19. Botanical name: Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.

Family: Asteraceae
Locality: Birir proper, 2050m
Vernacular name: Lata khar
Part used: Shoot
Ethnobotanical use: Eaten only by donkeys as fodder.
20. Botanical name: Clematis orientalis L.

Family: Ranunculaceae
Habit: Shrub
Locality: Rowa Torikhoo, 2459m
Vernacular name: Chontruk
Part used: Flowers and fruits
Ethnobotanical use: Flowers and fruits are fried in oil, then wheat flour and
water are added, a soup is prepared and given to the
patient in diarrhoea and dysentery.
21. Botanical name: Codonopsis clematidea (Schrenk) C. B. Clarke

Family: Campanulaceae
Locality: Ashat Yarkhoon, 3800m
Vernacular Name: Ganda Mazakh, Danu
Part used: Root
Ethnobotanical use: Roots are boiled in water and then dried until a solid
substance is prepared, which is broken into pieces and
mixed with boiled milk and then eaten in solid form for
urinary tract problems. It is also used as aphrodisiac.

22. Botanical name: Convolvulus arvensis L.

Family: Convolvulaceae
Vernacular name: Bakarbali
Part used: Root
Ethnobotanical use: The roots are dried, powdered and used as purgative i.e.
for evacuation of bowels.
23. Botanical name: Cousinia thomsonii C. B. Clarke

Family: Asteraceae
Locality: Danespawee Yarkhoon, 2979m
Vernacular name: Khar
Part used: Root
Ethnobotanical use: Root is chewed as gum and used as aphrodisiac.
24. Botanical name: Crataegus songarica C. Koch

Family: Rosaceae
Habit: Tree
Locality Shermali Sahat Molikhoo, 3347m
Vernacular name: Gooni
Part used: Fruits, wood and leaves
Ethnobotanical use: Fruits are edible and considered as cardio tonic. Wood is
heavy, hard and tough and used for making tool hands,
mallets and other small items. Also used as fuel wood.
Leaves are used for fodder.
25. Botanical name: Daphne mucronata Royle

Family: Thymelaeaceae
Habit: Shrub
Locality: Near TV booster Chitral, 2470m
Vernacular name: Lovomekeen
Part used: Fruits
Ethnobotanical use: Fruits are ground, mixed with water and the paste
produced is used for pimples and freckles on face.
26. Botanical name: Delphinium nordhagenii Wendelbo (Fig. 4)

Family: Ranunculaceae
Locality: Atthak Terich Molikhoo, 3471m
Vernacular name: Jagh Josho
Part used: Roots and flowers

Ethnobotanical use: Used as hair tonic. Flowers and roots are powdered,
mixed with mustard oil and applied on hairs for 6-7
hours and then washed. This taxon is endemic to
Chitral and due to the unsustainable use by the locals a
drastic decrease has been observed in its population
during the course of study.
27. Botanical name: Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb. & Berth.

Family name: Brassicaceae
Habit: Annual herb
Voucher specimen: 8
Locality Danin gol Chitral, 1506m
Vernacular name: Kheli Kheli
Part used: Young shoot, leaves and seeds
Ethnobotanical use: Young shoots and seeds are powdered and used for gas
trouble and intestinal disorders. The decoction is used as
painkiller. Freshly collected leaves are taken with milk for
reducing high fever.
28. Botanical name: Elaeagnus angustifolia L. var. angustifolia

Family: Eleagnaceae
Habit: Tree
Locality: Booni gol Mastooj, 2243m
Vernacular name: Shinjoor
Part used: Fruit and flowers
Ethnobotanical use: Young flowers are strongly aromatic and are extensively
plucked for its fragrance. The local people place the
flowers in their caps. Ripe fruits are eaten raw for their
taste. Ripe fruits are boiled in water, sugar is added to
enhance flavor and syrup is prepared. This syrup is used
for sour throat and high fever.
29. Botanical name: Ephedra intermedia Schrenk & Meyer (Fig. 5)

Family: Ephedraceae
Habit: Shrub
Locality: Agram Gol Ghari, Arkari, 3351m
Vernacular name: Somani
Ethnobotanical use: The plant is extensively used in snuff preparation. Ripe
fruits are boiled in water and used for asthma and
tuberculosis.
30. Botanical name: Eremurus stenophyllus (Boiss. & Buhse) Baker subsp.
stenophyllus
Family: Asphodelaceae

A
Fig. 4. Delphinium nordhagenii Wendelbo; A, habit; B, flower close up. (An important
medicinal plant-endemic to Chitral).

Locality: Yashkist Yarkhoon, 2979m
Vernacular name: Sheresh
Part used: Roots and leaves
Ethnobotanical use: Root is dried, powdered and used as glue for its clinging
power. Also used as potherb.
31. Botanical name: Euphorbia prostrata Ait.

Family: Euphorbiaceae
Habit: Annual herb
Vernacular name: Sherak, Darkunakh
Part used: Latex
Ethnobotanical use: Latex is known as “Sherak” and is applied on skin for
eruptions and ringworm.
32. Botanical name: Ferula narthex Boiss. (Fig. 6)

Locality: Booni gol Mastook, 2282m

Vernacular name: Raw
Ethnobotanical use: Leaves and young shoots are edible and used as potherb
and the gum obtained from the roots and stem by making
incisions is used as a condiment. Locally this species is
used for cough, asthma, toothache, gastric problems and
anti-constipation. Owing to the usefulness of this species
for different local remedies, many local people and
nomadic Gujurs are actively involved in the collection
and marketing of this drug plant. The collectors being
ignorant, uproot and over exploit this important medicinal
plant in unscientific and unsustainable way.
Consequently, the plant is disappearing from the wild and
becoming rare in its natural habitat.
33. Botanical name: Fraxinus hookeri Wenzig

Family: Oleaceae
Habit: Tree
Locality: Moroi hill Chitral, 2010m
Vernacular name: Soom, Toor
Part used: Bark and leaves
Ethnobotanical use: Decoction prepared from the bark of the stem is used for
high fever. Sugar is added to reduce astringency. The
plant is extensively exploited for fodder and fuel wood
purposes; therefore it has become very rare.
34. Botanical name: Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley

Family: Fumariaceae
Habit: Annual herb
Locality: Bakamak hill Chitral, 2000m
Vernacular name: Shahtara
Ethnobotanical use: Whole plant is boiled in water to prepare a decoction and
is used for constipation.
35. Botanical name: Galium elegans Wall.

Family: Rubiaceae
Locality: Surwat towards Terich gol, 2332m
Vernacular name: Mattar
Ethnobotanical use: Juice is extracted from the whole plant and is used as
aperients and diuretic.

Fig. 5. A, Mr. Naik Zada, a local resident of Chowinch-Mastuj collected Ephedra intermedia
Schrenk & Meyer, commonly known as “Somani” for preparing snuff; B, fruiting.

A B
Fig. 6. Ferula narthex: A, habitat; B, an incision is made in the stem and latex is collected and
sold in the market with a trade name “Hinj”. Local population is under tremendous pressure, due
to the unsustainable means of plant collection by the locals. (Mr. Abdul Hameed Khan; a local
informant in the foreground).
36. Botanical name: Gentianodes olivieri (Griseb.) Omer, Ali & Qaiser
Synonym: Gentiana olivieri Griseb.
Family: Gentianaceae
Locality: Bakamak hill Chitral, 2114m
Vernacular name: Nilkant
Part used: Root
Ethnobotanical use: Decoction of root is used for urinary tract infections, also
used for stomachic.
37. Botanical name: Geranium wallichianum D. Don ex Sweet

Family: Geraniaceae
Locality: Yashkist Yarkhoon, 2973m
Vernacular name: Ratanjothe
Part used: Rhizome

Ethnobotanical use: Rhizome is dried, powdered, boiled in water and used

for lowering blood pressure, also used for
Leucorrhoea. Rhizome is mixed in a sweet dish and
used for backache. Also used as a tonic in various
preparations.
38. Botanical name: Hyoscyamus niger L.

Family: Solanaceae
Locality: Kiyar Sosoom Chitral, 2886m
Vernacular name: Joli gao
Part used: Leaves
Ethnobotanical use: The plant is considered as poisonous. Leaves are boiled in
excess quantity of water and used in small quantity for
asthma and woofing cough.
39. Botanical name: Hypericum perforatum L.

Family: Guttiferae (Clusiceae)
Locality: Sosoom Ghari Chitral, 2686m
Vernacular name: Matali, Zarbali
Part used: Flowers
Ethnobotanical use: Flowers are dried, powdered and used for abdominal pain.
Especially used for backache when taken with milk after
dinner.
40. Botanical name: Juncus thomsonii Buchenau

Family: Juncaceae
Locality: Mnband Yarkhoon, 2973m
Vernacular name: Gawag
Ethnobotanical use: Used as fodder, the roots are considered as food for wild
ducks.
41. Botanical name: Lepidium sativum L.

Family: Brassicaceae
Habit: Annual herb
Locality: Papoon arkari Lutkhoo, 3156m
Vernacular name: Sat-bootey
Part used: Leaves and seeds
Ethnobotanical use: Leaves are dried, powdered and used for abdominal
problems; seeds are also used for colic.

42. Botanical name: Linum perenne L.
Family: Linaceae
Locality: Parsan ghari Molikhoo, 2722m
Vernacular name: Shetiki
Part used: Seeds
Ethnobotanical use: Seeds are ground and fried. Then a paste is prepared
which is used in urinary tract infections. Seeds are
chewed and kept for few minutes in between the jaws for
toothache. Also used for high blood pressure in various
preparations.
43. Botanical name: Malva neglecta Wallr.

Family: Malvaceae
Locality: Birir Shekhandeh Chitral, 1900m
Vernacular name: Yor paghusu
Ethnobotanical use: Young shoots are used as potherb. The roots are boiled
and mixed with the seeds of Lepidium sativum and used
as purgative for young cattle.
44. Botanical name: Marrubium vulgare L.

Family: Labiatae
Locality: Birir Shekhandeh Chitral, 1900m
Vernacular name: Istore Zokho
Part used: Young leaves
Ethnobotanical use: Decoction is made from the young leaves and is used
against cough. Sugar is added for enhancing flavor. It is
commonly used in Ashrete valley especially during winter
when other medicines are not available.
45. Botanical name: Mentha royleana Benth.

Family: Labiatae
Locality: Chitral college, 1523m
Vernacular name: Bain
Part used: Leaves
Ethnobotanical use: The dried leaves are mixed with green tea and are taken
for the treatment of vomiting. The powdered leaves are
mixed with curd and eaten for the treatment of dysentery
and diarrhoea. Decoction of the leaves is taken as a
cooling agent. Dried leaves and flower tops are
carminative and are used in the form of tea.

46. Botanical name: Myrtama elegans (Royle) Ovcz. & Kinzik.

Synonym: Tamaricaria elegans (Royle) Qaiser & Ali
Family: Tamaricaceae
Habit: Shrub
Locality: Joghore gol Chitral, 1528m
Vernacular name: Phapaki
Part used: Flowers
Ethnobotanical use: Flowers are dried, crushed and its paste is used in
backache.
47. Botanical name: Onosma hispida Wall. & G.Don

Family: Boraginaceae
Locality: Shahdoke Lowari Ziarat, 2927m
Vernacular name: Phusuk
Part used: Roots
Ethnobotanical use: Roots are dried in shade for several days, and then
powdered and mixed with mustard oil and is used to
remove dandruff. Decoction of roots is used for colouring
clothes.
48. Botanical name: Origanum vulgare L.

Family: Labiatae
Vernacular name: Ishpain
Ethnobotanical use: Shoot is chewed for toothache. It is also used as flavoring agent.
Roots are boiled in water and are used for coloring clothes.
49. Botanical name: Orobanche cernua Leofl.

Family: Orobanchaceae
Locality: Danespawe Yarkhoon, 2979m
Vernacular name: Shomandaw
Ethnobotanical use: Whole plant is eaten raw for its taste.
50. Botanical name: Oxalis corniculata L.

Family: Oxalidaceae
Habit: Annual herb
Locality: Shershan towards Shoghore, 1584m
Vernacular name: Mayoono gamboori

Part used: Leaves and roots
Ethnobotanical use: Juice is extracted from fresh leaves and is used for
stomach troubles. Leaves are also used as vegetables.
Fresh leaves are crushed and used to stop bleeding from
wounds. Decoction of the root is anthelmintic.
51. Botanical name: Paeonia emodi Wall. ex Royle var. emodi

Family: Paeoniaceae
Locality: Petao Madaklasht, 2689m
Vernacular name: Mamekhi
Part used: Stem and roots
Ethnobotanical use: Stem is dried, powdered and a paste is produced, which is
applied externally for joints pain. It is also used as a
plaster on bone fractures. Roots are dried and their
decoction is applied externally for backache.
52. Botanical name: Peganum harmala L.

Family: Zygophyllaceae
Locality: Shahdok Lowari Ziarat, 2928m
Vernacular name: Ispand
Part used: Seeds and roots
Ethnobotanical use: Seeds are powdered and used as anthelmintic. Root is
boiled in water and used to kill lice.
53. Botanical name: Perovskia abrotanoides Benth.

Family: Labiatae
Habit: Shrub
Locality: Drosh Gol Ghari, 2123m
Vernacular name: Pharbek josho
Part used: Young shoot and leaves
Ethnobotanical use: The strongly aromatic young shoots are dried in shade and
wrapped in a fine cloth which is kept in traditional grain
stores for the effective control of pest infection. Fresh
leaves are ground to extract juice, which is applied
externally for cold sponging to reduce high fever.
54. Botanical name: Pinus gerardiana Wall. ex Lamb.

Family: Pinaceae
Habit: Tree
Vernacular name: Chilghoza
Part used: Seeds

Ethnobotanical use: The seeds are commonly used as tonic, carminative,

appetizer and aphrodisiac. The oil extracted from the
kernels is valued highly for its stimulating and healing
power. The nuts of this tree are being over harvested and
in some cases the local people remove all of the cones. As
a result, there is virtually no natural regeneration of this
species. The nuts are sold in the market as dry fruit and
fetch a good price. The unsustainable means of
“Chilghoza” collection has drastically decreased its plant
population in the wild.
55. Botanical name: Pistacia chinensis Bunge subsp. integerrima (J.L.

Stewart) Rech.f.
Family: Anacardiaceae
Habit: Tree
Locality: Istar Terich Torikhoo, 2256m
Vernacular name: Kakkar
Part used: Galls
Ethnobotanical use: The galls are powdered, fried in ghee and given for
dysentery.
56. Botanical name: Pistacia khinjuk Stocks

Family: Anacardiaceae
Habit: Tree
Locality: Joghore gol Chitral, 1774m
Vernacular name: Binju
Part used: Dried leaves and seeds
Ethnobotanical use: Dried leaves are burnt in smoke and are considering as
devil repellent.
57. Botanical name: Plantago major L.

Family: Plantaginaceae
Locality: Chowinch Mastook, 2900m
Vernacular name: Hojoj, Brono Achar
Part used: Leaves and seeds
Ethnobotanical use: Fresh leaves are wrapped around the boils, after a day
or two the pus drains out and the heal fills up within
three days. Leaves are chopped and used for skin
discoloration caused by injury. Seeds are used in
dysentery.
58. Botanical name: Podophyllum emodi Wall. ex Royle
Family: Podophyllaceae

Locality: Ziarat Lowari Drosh, 3227m
Vernacular name: Mamekhi
Part used: Roots
Ethnobotanical use: Roots are used as tonic and analgesic. It is also used for
uterine diseases and as a blood purifier. Due to the high
price and demand of its roots, it is uprooted and sold in
the market. This practice has drastically decreased its
population in the wild.
59. Botanical name: Populus euphratica Olivier

Family: Salicaceae
Habit: Tree
Locality: Chowincj Mastooj, 2800m
Vernacular name: Terik
Part used: Wood and young leaves
Ethnobotanical use: Wood is used for furniture and young leaves are used for
thatching roofs. It is also used for making brooms.
60. Botanical name: Prangos pabularia Lindl.

Locality: Ishpeder Chitral Gol, 2829m
Vernacular name: Moshain
Ethnobotanical use: Leaves and seeds are dried and powdered and are used in
various gastric problems especially in constipation. The
dried plants are stored and used as fodder for cattle during
winter, especially used for increasing milk.
61. Botanical name: Punica granatum L.

Family: Punicaceae
Habit: Tree
Locality: Hashthnaghri Arandu, 1335m
Vernacular name: Dadlum
Part used: Fruit
Ethnobotanical use: The fruit pericarp is dried, powdered, mixed with sugar and
used for diarrhoea and dysentery. It is also used against
swellings resulted from injuries. Fruit is astringent, cooling
agent and blood purifier. The fruit pericarp is mixed with tea
and is given for whooping cough; it is also used as laxative.
62. Botanical name: Rheum spiciforme Royle (Fig. 7)
Family: Polygonaceae
Locality: Mnband Yarkhoon, 2960m

Vernacular name: Rewand

Part used: Shoot
Ethnobotanical use: Used as potherb. It is purgative i.e., used for evacuation of
bowels.
63. Botanical name: Rheum webbianum Royle

Locality: Chowinch Mastooj, 3000m
Vernacular name: Ishpar
Part used: Root, leaf stalk and stem
Ethnobotanical use: Root is used as purgative. Leaf stalk is cooked as
vegetable. The unripe stem and leaf stalk are also eaten
raw for its taste. The young poor children collect the plant
and sell it in the market to fetch some money.
64. Botanical name: Rosa webbiana L.

Family: Rosaceae
Habit: Shrub
Locality: Parwak Mastooj, 2243m
Vernacular name: Throni
Part used: Fruits
Ethnobotanical use: Decoction is prepared from the fruits in boiled water and
then strained overnight to treat asthma.
65. Botanical name: Rubus anatolicus (Focke) Focke ex Hausskn.

Family: Rosaceae
Habit: Shrub
Locality: Moni Lutkhoo, 1967m
Vernacular name: Atchu
Part used: Fruits
Ethnobotanical use: Fruits are edible and are considered as tonic and are used
as aphrodisiac. Fruits are carminative and are also used
for diarrhoea and looseness of bowel.
66. Botanical name: Rumex hastatus D. Don.

Habit: Shrub
Locality: Owyon Chitral, 1500m
Vernacular name: Sirkonzu
Part used: Leaves
Ethnobotanical use: Leaves are eaten to increase appetite, also used as
purgative, astringent and diuretic.

Fig. 7. Rheum spiciforme: a very rare plant of higher altitude, found only in Yarkhoon valley
upper Chitral.
67. Botanical name: Salix iliensis Regel

Family: Salicaceae
Habit: Tree
Locality: Dodorgas Mastooj, 3010m
Vernacular name: Theli
Part used: Wood and young leaves
Ethnobotanical use: Wood is used in roofs of mud houses. Young leaves are
used for thatching and basketry; they are also used for
binding the bundles of fodder and firewood.
68. Botanical name: Salix denticulata Anderson subsp. denticulata

Family: Salicaceae
Habit: Tree
Locality: Bashqaar Gol Chat, 3624m
Vernacular name: Terik, Jangali Bed
Part used: Whole tree
Ethnobotanical use: Thin flexible branches are bent for making baskets.
Leaves are eaten by cattle and the wood is used for fuel
and other domestic purposes.

69. Botanical name: Saponaria griffithiana Boiss.

Family: Caryophyllaceae
Locality: Sor Laspur Mastooj, 3135m
Vernacular name: Zennah
Part used: Roots
Ethnobotanical use: The fleshy rootstock is used as a substitute for soap.
70. Botanical name: Saxifraga sibirica L.

Family: Saxifragaceae
Locality: Degheri Shah Saleem Lutkhoo, 3045m
Vernacular name: Dromosoro
Part used: Shoot
Ethnobotanical use: Used as general body tonic. Decoction is used for
backache.
71. Botanical name: Seriphidium brevifolium (Wall. ex DC.) Ling & Y.R.Ling
Synonym: Artemisia brevifolia Wall. ex DC.
Family: Asteraceae
Habit: Shrub
Vernacular name: Shashgeen
Part used: Shoot
Ethnobotanical use: Shoot is used as broom, especially used at high altitude
like Yarkhoon lasht, Baroghill and Chikar etc., where
there is no availability of other grasses.
72. Botanical name: Silene conoidea L.

Family: Caryophyllaceae
Habit: Annual herb
Locality: Warich Gol Molikhoo, 2348m
Vernacular name: Apupar
Part used: Seeds and leaves
Ethnobotanical use: A paste is prepared by grinding seeds and young leaves
which is applied on pimples. This paste is also used for
backache.
73. Botanical name: Sisymbrium irio L.

Family: Brassicaceae
Habit: Annual herb
Locality: Terich ghari Molikhoo, 3087m
Vernacular name: Khelikheli

Part used: Seeds
Ethnobotanical use: Seeds are powdered and a paste is prepared, which is
applied externally for stabbing pain. The paste is also
used for clearing facial pimples and against sunburn.
74. Botanical name: Spirea canescense D.Don.

Family: Rosaceae
Habit: Shrub
Vernacular name: Tharghalik
Part used: Young branches
Ethnobotanical use: Young branches are especially used for their elasticity
when making carpets and woolen shawls. Young shoots
are finely ground and a paste is prepared which is used as
sun block in summer and against the chilling effect of
cold weather in winter.
75. Botanical name: Swertia petiolata D. Don

Family: Gentianaceae
Vernacular name: Momera
Part used: Shoot
Ethnobotanical use: The ripe shoots have powder-like substance which is used
for curing eye diseases.
76. Botanical name: Thymus linearis Benth. subsp. linearis Jalas (Fig 8)
Family: Labiatae
Habit: Annual herb
Locality: Bakhtoli gol Lutkhoo, 3145m
Vernacular name: Sew
Ethnobotanical use: Whole plant is boiled in water and used for stomach
disorders. It is also considered as carminative and tonic.
Leaves are dried and are mixed in tea for its taste.
77. Botanical name: Trachydium roylei Lindl.

Locality: Droneel Sosoom Lutkhoo, 2476m
Vernacular name: Mushen
Part used: Leaves

A
B A
Fig. 8. A, Mr. Shah Feroz demonstrates the indigenous uses of Thymus linnearis var. linearis in
Sosoon Kiyar valley Lutkhoo; B, close up of the flower.
Ethnobotanical use: Leaves are strongly aromatic. They are crushed and a
thick paste is produced, which is applied to scorpion
stings.
78. Botanical name: Trigonella foenum-graecum L.

Family: Fabaceae-Papilionoideae
Habit: Annual herb
Locality: Lowari top Drosh, 3192m
Vernacular name: Sugon
Part used: Seeds and leaves
Ethnobotanical use: Seeds and leaves are used as potherb. It is also used to
stop loose motions and emmenegogue.
79. Botanical name: Urtica dioica L.

Family: Urticaceae
Vernacular name: Drozono

Ethnobotanical use: Decoction of the plant is astringent and anthelmintic.
Leaves cause severe irritation which can be soothed by
rubbing leaves of Rumex. Young leaves are used as
potherb.
80. Botanical name: Viola rupestris Schm. (Fig. 9)

Family: Violaceae
Locality: Shekhlasht Khot Torikhoo, 3838m
Vernacular name: Milkhon, Banafsha
Ethnobotanical use: Leaves are powdered and used for fever, headache and
constipation. Decoction is used in chest infection.
81. Botanical name: Xanthium strumarium L.

Family: Asteraceae
Locality: Merene gol Chitral, 2189m
Vernacular name: Chaspak
Part used: Leaves and roots
Ethnobotanical Leaves are chewed for dental sourness. Root is used in
Use: earache and strumous disease.
82. Botanical name: Zataria multiflora Boiss.

Family: Labiatae
Habit: Shrub
Locality: Arandu gol, 1125m
Vernacular name: Thrushnaghooli
Part used: Shoot
Ethnobotanical use: Shoot is dried, powdered and used as stomachache and
intestinal pain.
83. Botanical name: Ziziphora clinopodioides Lam. subsp. pseudodasyantha

(Rech.f.) Rech.f.
Family: Labiatae
Locality: Shekhlasht Khot Torikhoo, 3819m
Vernacular name: Kawkoti
Part used: Shoot
Ethnobotanical use: Young shoots of the plant are dried, powdered and used in
the preparation of aromatic tea for gastrointestinal
disorders, especially in severe diarrhoea. It is also used as
carminative.

A
Fig. 9. Viola rupestris Schm.: A, habit; B, flower close up, locally known as
“Milkhon” is used for chest infection.
Discussion
It can be rightly assumed that the present day ethnobotanical pharmacology is as old
as man himself. Different medicinal plants have been in use from the time immemorial
(Lama et al., 2001; Pärtel et al., 2005). Rig Veda between 4500-1600 BC and Ayurveda
between 2500-600 BC are considered among the first compiled records of medicinal
plants in Indo-Pak (Ahmad, 2002). The prevalent system of traditional medicine traces its
origin to Greek medicine system, which was adopted by the Arabs, and spread to the
subcontinent and Europe (Iqbal & Hamayun, 2004). Whereas, Susruta Samhita (600 BC),
a Sanskrit text on surgery, mentioned the progress made during Buddhist period, where
medicinal plants were cultivated by qualified specialists (Ahmad, 2002; Raju, 2003).
Even in the present age of science and technology, in the developed countries people still
rely on traditional system of healthcare not only because of its low price, but also due to
very less side effects, as compared to the modern allopathic medicines (Khan, 2003).
That is why they are being used extensively world over especially in the third world
countries.
The people of the valley have been using plant resources for their various ailments
since time immemorial. The local people know the beneficial plants and preparation of
raw drugs through personal experience and ancestral prescription and long utility. In
addition, the costly allopathic medicines are out of reach of a common man.
Chitral is a remote area and remains cutoff from rest of the world for almost 6
months of the year due to heavy snowfall. Therefore, people of the valley are more

dependants on plant resources as compared to other adjacent areas. It is recommended
that the local community should be educated regarding the importance, pre and post
harvest methods. In addition, they should also be trained regarding the cultivation of
these highly valuable medicinal plants on commercial basis, and thereafter their trade and
marketing. This will ultimately generate extra sources of income and will reduce pressure
on the extraction of these valuable medicinal plants.
In Chitral valley the use of plant resources is also a source of income, besides
fulfilling their various utilitarian needs. The plant collectors are often herders, shepherds
or other poor village dwellers of the population. Settlements of majority of the population
are subject to the seasonal changes in the valley. In winter they come down to the valley
bottoms due to the unavailability of fodder for their cattle, and at the onset of summer as
the snow melts and new plants start sprouting, they move towards the higher altitudes. In
upper Chitral, each Chitrali family has 2-3 houses located at different altitudes as they
keep on shifting from one house to the other throughout the year, subject to the seasonal
changes and availability of fodder for their cattle.
The local people are ignorant about the importance of these plants at global level.
Sometimes they collect plants in excess quantity and in most cases the whole plant is
uprooted. It is pertinent to mention that majority of the plant collectors in upper Chitral
are children. They don’t know about the proper methods and time of plant collection, as a
result most of their collection is useless. On the other hand they are ignorant about the
drying, storing or preserving techniques which ultimately leads to wastage of plant
resource.
During our excursion to Chitral Gol National Park, it was observed that about 94% of
the Ferula narthex plants were destroyed. Sometime they were cut just above the root for
collecting the latex. Chitral Gol is a protected area and all these destructive practices should
be stopped immediately, in order to ensure the survival of these valuable plant resources.
Acknowledgement
This paper is part of Ph.D. dissertation of the first author. Higher Education
Commission of Pakistan is acknowledged for financing the project.
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(Received for publication 14 January 2009)

The Ethnobotany of Chitral Valley, Pakistan With Particular Reference To Medicinal Plants

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Pak. J. Bot., 41(4): 2009-2041, 2009.

THE ETHNOBOTANY OF CHITRAL VALLEY, PAKISTAN WITH

In the period 1991-2003, an average of 467,000 tones (valued at US $ 1.2 billion) of

The study area

1. Botanical name: Acer pentapomicum J.L. Stewart ex Brandis

2. Botanical name: Achillea wilhelmsii C. Koch

3. Botanical Name: Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Camb.) Hook.f.

4. Botanical name Ajuga bracteosa Wall. ex Benth.

5. Botanical name: Allium barszczewskii Lipsky

6. Botanical name: Anthemis cotula L. (Fig. 3)

7. Botanical name: Arnebia euchroma (Royle ex Benth.) I.M. Johnston

8. Botanical name: Arisaema jacquemontii Blume

9. Botanical name: Artemisia rutifolia Spreng.

10. Botanical name: Astragalus oplites Benth. ex Parker

11. Botanical name: Berberis calliobotrys Aitch. ex Koehne

12. Botanical name: Bergenia stracheyi (Hook.f. & Thorns.) Engl.

13. Botanical name: Bunium persicum (Boiss.) Fedtsch.

14. Botanical name: Carex stenophylla Wahlenb. subsp. stenophylloides (V.

15. Botanical name: Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don

16. Botanical name: Chenopodium botrys L.

17. Botanical name: Chenopodium foliosum Asch.

18. Botanical name: Chenopodium murale L.

19. Botanical name: Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.

20. Botanical name: Clematis orientalis L.

21. Botanical name: Codonopsis clematidea (Schrenk) C. B. Clarke

22. Botanical name: Convolvulus arvensis L.

23. Botanical name: Cousinia thomsonii C. B. Clarke

24. Botanical name: Crataegus songarica C. Koch

25. Botanical name: Daphne mucronata Royle

26. Botanical name: Delphinium nordhagenii Wendelbo (Fig. 4)

27. Botanical name: Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb. & Berth.

28. Botanical name: Elaeagnus angustifolia L. var. angustifolia

29. Botanical name: Ephedra intermedia Schrenk & Meyer (Fig. 5)

Voucher specimen: 5133

31. Botanical name: Euphorbia prostrata Ait.

32. Botanical name: Ferula narthex Boiss. (Fig. 6)

33. Botanical name: Fraxinus hookeri Wenzig

34. Botanical name: Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley

35. Botanical name: Galium elegans Wall.

37. Botanical name: Geranium wallichianum D. Don ex Sweet

Ethnobotanical use: Rhizome is dried, powdered, boiled in water and used

38. Botanical name: Hyoscyamus niger L.

39. Botanical name: Hypericum perforatum L.

40. Botanical name: Juncus thomsonii Buchenau

41. Botanical name: Lepidium sativum L.

43. Botanical name: Malva neglecta Wallr.

44. Botanical name: Marrubium vulgare L.

45. Botanical name: Mentha royleana Benth.

46. Botanical name: Myrtama elegans (Royle) Ovcz. & Kinzik.

47. Botanical name: Onosma hispida Wall. & G.Don

48. Botanical name: Origanum vulgare L.

49. Botanical name: Orobanche cernua Leofl.

50. Botanical name: Oxalis corniculata L.

51. Botanical name: Paeonia emodi Wall. ex Royle var. emodi

52. Botanical name: Peganum harmala L.

53. Botanical name: Perovskia abrotanoides Benth.

54. Botanical name: Pinus gerardiana Wall. ex Lamb.

Ethnobotanical use: The seeds are commonly used as tonic, carminative,