Republic of the Philippines

DR. EMILIO B. ESPINOSA SR. MEMORIAL STATE

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY
(MASBATE STATE COLLEGE)
www.debesmscat.edu.com
Cabitan Mandaon, Masbate

MODULE

2
the nature of
science

ELECTIVE 2: Environmental Science

PREPARED BY: JOHN MICO LLANZA

COS Instructor

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 INTERRELATED SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES:
MATTER, ENERGY, AND ENVIRONENT

A. Overview

Many of the processes that occur in the natural world involve

interactions between matter and energy. This photo shows the topsoil being
washed away due to the massive amount of rainfall rseulting to tsunami wave
that hit Eastern Samar, Philippines.

www.google.com/search?q=storm+surge+in+samar&client=ms-android-oppo-rev1&hl=en-
GB&prmd=vin&sxsrf=ALeKk

B. Lesson Title
THE NATURE OF SCIENCE
C. Objectives
At the end of this lesson the students should be able to;
 Understand that science is usually reliable because information is gathered in a manner that requires
impartial evaluation and continuous revision
 Understand that matter is made up of atoms that have a specific subatomic structure of protons,
electrons, and neutrons
 Perform experimental activity using different variables identify the different process skills in the
development of science ideas particularly experimenting
 Explained the effect of controlled variables, dependent variables, and independent variables in making
an experiment

Lesson proper:

LESSON 2.1: SCIENCE VS. PSEUDOSCIENCE

Popular psychology topics: myth or real

o Most people use only 10% of their brain
o Expressing anger is better than holding it in
o Opposite attract in relationships
o High self-esteem is needed for good psychological health
o Listening to Mozart can make infants smarter
o A full moon can trigger wacky behavior
o Your first guess is the right one on a test
o Most people will have a mid-life crisis
o Handwriting can reveal personality traits

SCIENCE PSEUDOSCIENCE
Its goal is to achieve a more complete understanding of Its goal is more likely to be driven by personal or private
the physical world. gains (profit or fame)
There is research to back up their claims. Constantly Little evidence is to support their ideas and research that is
looking to expand knowledge of the subject. carried out tries only to prove they are right.
Explanations must be stated in clear, unambiguous Pseudoscientific explanation tend to be vague and
terms. ambiguous.

SCIENCE
o It is a systematized knowledge derived from observation, study, and experimentation.
o It deals phenomena that can be examined empirically.

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 o The objective is to describe the make-up of the physical universe and the underlying principles that
activities therein.
o In the process, scientist attempt to agree upon a limited number of constituents that combine to produce
the complexity the natural domain and to derive a set of laws that describe the interactions among those
components.
o Scientific observations are carried out under controlled conditions in order to minimize the impact of
researchers’ biases and expectations as well as random influences from the environment.
PSEUDOSCIENCE
o The word “pseudo” means false. It is therefore translated as “false science”
o Basically it is a study or claim that is not backed with any hard data or facts
o A claim, belief or practice which is presented as scientific which does not adhere to a valid scientific
method, lacks supporting evidence and cannot be reliably tested or otherwise lacks scientific status.
o Claims that appear to be scientific but that actually validate the criteria of science
 “claims exhibit superficial trappings of science but little of its substance” (Lilienfield, 2014)
o Examples:
 Astrology
 Creationism
 Paranormal science
 Reflexology
 crop circles, alien abductions, Big Foot, ..
 what about… hypnosis for memory recovery, multiple personality disorder, Rorschach inkblot test,
handwriting analysis, polygraphs…?
o Scientific revolution (new paradigm/theory) or pseudoscience?
 Thomas Kuhn (1970)
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v-GT3NoGiLyTQ&feature=related
o Skeptic vs. critic vs. scientist

PSEUDOSCIENCE AND SCIENCE

o Each has different approach to evidence
 Science seeks out contradictory evidence and add it into theory
o Good or bad science, NOT good or bad scientist
 No scientist is free of biases
 But, can be aware of biases and try to control them
o Pseudoscience beliefs are not foolish or stupid
 Don’t be a critic just to be contrary
 There are remarkable theories that appear to be true
 Seek out the truth – require good research methods!
o Do not confuse pseudoscience beliefs with religious beliefs
 Religious claims cannot be tested empirically so are outside the boundaries of science (Lilienfeld,
2004)

SCIENTIFIC APPROACH
o What are the “criteria of science”?
 Systematic empiricism
 Design controlled study to observe behavior and draw conclusions
 Publicly verifiable knowledge
 Present research so it can be observed, replicated, criticized and tested in other ways
 Empirically solvable problems
 Questions are potentially answerable (can’t as “is there life after death”)
 Principle of falsifiability – possible to disconfirm the hypotheses

CHARACTERISTICS OF PSEUDOSCIENCE
o A tendency to invoke loopholes or ad hoc hypotheses to immunize claims from falsification
o An absence of self-correction; intellectual stagnation
o An emphasis on confirmation
o A tendency to place burden of proof on skeptics
o Excessive reliance on anecdotal and testimonial evidence to substantiate claims
o Evasion of scrutiny afforded by peer review
o Absence to build on existing scientific knowledge
o Use of impressive-sounding jargon
o Absence of boundary conditions or where claims do not hold
o Use of vague, exaggerated or improvable claims

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 o an over-reliance on confirmation rather than rigorous attempts of refutation
o a lack of openness to evaluation by other experts
o a general absence of systematic processes to rationally develop theories

WHEN IT IS PSEUDOSCIENCE
o A field, practice, or body of knowledge can reasonably be called pseudoscience when it is presented as
consistent with the norms of scientific research while failing to meet these norms.
o True science is distinguishable from revelation, theology, or spirituality in that it offers insights into the
physical world obtained by empirical research and testing. If it contains these elements, it is
pseudoscience.

CONSPIRACY THEORIES
o A subtype of pseudoscience
o Usually based on an event or series of events which does not adhere to a valid scientific method, lacks
supporting evidence, cannot reliably tested or otherwise lacks scientific status.
 JFK
 9/11
 Moon landing
 Roswell
 Ancient Aliens

LESSON 2.2: SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Requires a systematic search for information and continual checking and rechecking to see if previous ideas are
still supported by new information.
If the new evidence is not supported, scientists discard or change their original ideas.
Scientific ideas undergo constant re-evaluation, criticism, and modification.

Steps of the Scientific Method

1. Make an observation. Observation occurs when we use our senses (smell, sight,
hearing, taste, touch) or an extension of our senses (microscope, tape recorder, x-
ray machine, thermometer) to record an event.

2. Form a hypothesis. Hypothesis is a statement that provides a possible

answer to a question or an explanation for an observation that can be tested. A good
hypothesis must be logical, account for all the relevant informational currently available,
llow one to predict future events relating to the questions being asked.

3. Perform experiment. Experiment is a re-creation of an event or

occurrence in a way that enables a scientist to support or disprove a
hypothesis. This can be difficult because a particular event may involve a
great many separate happenings called variables. The best
experimental design is a controlled experiment in which two groups
differ in only one way.
For example:
Tumors of the skin and liver occur in the fish that live in certain rivers (observation)
This raises the question: What causes the tumors?
Many people feel that tumors are caused by toxic chemicals that have
been released into the rivers by industrial plants (hypothesis)

4. Analyze the data. Modify the procedure if needed. Confirm the result of
your experiment by retesting if applicable. Include tables, graphs, and
photographs.
5. Report your findings. Include a statement that accepts or rejects the
hypothesis. Make recommendations for further study and possible
improvements to the procedure.

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 6. Communicate the result. Be prepared to present the project to an audience. Expect questions from the audience.
Communication is a central characteristics of scientific method.an important part of the communication process
involves the publication of articles in scientific journals about one’s research, thoughts, and opinions.

LESSON 2.3: CONDUCTING AN EXPERIMENT

What is Experimentation?
Experimentation is a way of testing a hypothesis.
A test under controlled conditions that is made to demonstrate a known truth.
Examined the validity of a hypothesis or determine the efficacy of something previously untried.
It’s a cause-and-effect test between two variables.
Experimenting with Scientific Method
Problems and Questions
o Why do we want to do experiments?
o We want to do experiments to find the answers to our questions or problems.
o What is the problem?
 An egg sinks to the bottom if you drop it into a glass of ordinary drinking water but what happens if
you add salt?
o Look at your surroundings. Identify possible problems that you observed
Hypothesis
o Educated guess
o Referred to as an “if-then” statement, a hypothesis makes a prediction about what will happen as the result
of a specific event.
o Consider the background knowledge
Sample problem
o Your friend’s car doesn’t start
o Potential hypothesis for the car not starting are:
 My guess is that a dead battery is the reason for the car not starting
 My guess is that a damaged alternator is the reason for the car not starting
 My guess is that the spark plugs are not firing properly
 My guess is that blown fuses are the reason for the car not starting
o A good hypothesis takes the form of “if I do this, then that will happen”.
 If the water faucet is opened, then the amount of water flowing is increase.
 If fenders are placed on a bicycle, then the user will stay dry going through puddles.
 If a prisoner’s learns a work skill while in jail, then he is less likely to commit a crime when he is
released.
 If I raise the temperature of a cup of water, then the amount of sugar that can be dissolved in it will
be increased.

Designing & Doing the Experiment

Step 1 – Consider Your Question or Problem: (What am I testing and how can I do it?)

Step 2 – Think About All the Variables: (What might change in the experiment)
A variable is a difference or a part of your experiment that can change.
Example: if you were to do an experiment on plants, you could change………. the amount of water or light and the kind
of dirt or plant.

Step 3 – Set-Up a Controlled Experiment (How do I keep the variables from changing?)
In your experiment design you can only have one variable that changes should be the one you are testing.
If you chose to do an experiment on light and plant growth, you would make sure that the variable that changes is the
amount of light.

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Controlled Variables
All other variables are kept the same in order to be sure which affected the outcome
Also called the constant variable
Example: amount of sunlight, temperature, and others

Independent Variable
The variable which is manipulated
This is what you change
Example: kind of water

Dependent variable
Also called the responding variable
Changes because of what you did to it (independent)
This is the outcome
Example: growth of the plant

Step 4 – Doing the Experiment (What materials do I Need?)

This is the easiest part of designing and doing an experiment because all you have to do is get your materials
together and set it up! WARNING! You need to make sure that you’re taking it seriously and thinking about safety.

Observing and Recording

Observing and recording is an important step in the Scientific Method. Your observations and the data you collect
help you answer your question or problem and form your conclusion. It might be a good idea to have a friend helps
you do this step.

Qualitative Data
Observe means to examine carefully. You observe what is happening in the experiment by using your senses, but
not all of them! Some of the senses are not safe to use when you’re doing an experiment such as touch and taste.

Quantitative Data
Information that you collect using instruments is called quantitative data. Data may be time, distance, length, speed,
volume, mass, or weight.

Conclusion
 is the summary of what happened in the experiment
 a conclusion is a re-examination of your original hypothesis in regards to the data you have collected.
 Is the final and most important part of the process
 …..i therefore conclude that an egg floats in water with salt.
 For example: conclusion for watering seeds with water
o “The roots of the plant had turned brown and started to die because the salt had prevented them from
absorbing water”
---------------------------------End of Module--------------------------------------

REFERENCES

1. Enger, E.D. & Smith, B.F. (2016). Environmental Science A Study of Interrelationships (4th ed.) McGraw-Hill
Education, New York, nY 10121.
2. Miller, G.T. & Spoolman S.E. (2016). Environmental Science. (1st ed.) Cengage Learning 20 channel central street
Boston, MA 02210, USA
3. Tayo, G.T.;,Gascon, C.N., Maglambayan, V.B., Novicio, L.P., & Viril, V.M. (2004). Fundamentals of Environmental
Science.Trinitas Publishing, Inc. Trinitas Complex, Pantoc Road, Pantoc Meycauayan Bulacan.
4. Enger & Smith (1999). Environmental Science. A Study of Interralationship. McGraw Hill Higher Education.

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Worksheet:

Quick Lab #1
Name: Date:
Course & year:

EXPERIMENT
Directions. Perform this experiment at your convenience. Attach a photo or any evidence that will support
your experiment. Don’t forget to follow the directions carefully.

Objectives:
1. Perform experimental activity using different variables
2. Explain the effect of controlled variables, dependent variables, and independent variables in
making an experiment

Materials:
1 egg
Water
6 tablespoon salt
A tall drinking glass

Procedures:
1. Pour water in the glass until it is about half full.
2. Stir in lots of salt (about 6 tablespoons)
3. Carefully pour in plain water until the glass is nearly full (be careful not to disturb or mix the salty
water with the plain water)
4. Lower the egg into the water and watch what will happen next.

Assumptions:
What do you think will happen to this egg if placed in a What could help this egg float in
tap water? water?
Assumptions: Assumptions:
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.

Answer the following questions by providing textual evidences based from the experiment being
performed.
1. What happened to the egg when you placed it into the water with salt?
2. What made the egg float?
3. What are the materials that are used in the experiment?
4. What materials changed?
5. What are the materials that remained constant?
6. If the salt was not mixed to the water do you think the egg will float? Why or Why not?

Note: Please conduct the activity at home individually, then submit it thru PM in messenger at my account
(Environmental Science). On or before September 24, 2021. Please be guided accordingly. For some queries,
just send a message thru messenger (@Environmental Science), phone (09305286906) or thru our GC

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Worksheet:

Worksheet #2
Name: Date:
Course & year:

ACTIVITY
Directions. Classify the following data as to its classification by writing it on the table.

Which is Which….

 blue/green color, gold frame  picture is 10” by 14”

 smells old and musty  weighs 8.5 pounds
 with frame 14” by 18”  surface area of painting is 140 sq. in.
 texture shows brush strokes of oil paint  peaceful scene of the country
 masterful brush strokes cost 300.00

Qualitative Data Quantitative Data

Note: Please conduct the activity at home individually, then submit it thru PM in messenger at my account
(Environmental Science). On or before September 24, 2021. Please be guided accordingly. For some queries,
just send a message thru messenger (@Environmental Science), phone (09305286906) or thru our GC

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