READ 1

The Communication Process

Source: http://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/

Communication is a complex process, and it is difficult to determine where or with

whom a communication encounter starts and ends. Models of communication simplify the
process by providing a visual representation of the various aspects of a communication
encounter. Some models explain communication in more detail than others, but even the most
complex model still doesn’t recreate what we experience in even a moment of a
communication encounter. Models still serve a valuable purpose for students of
communication because they allow us to see specific concepts and steps within the process of
communication, define communication, and apply communication concepts. When you
become aware of how communication functions, you can think more deliberately through your
communication encounters, which can help you better prepare for future communication and
learn from your previous communication. The three models of communication we will discuss
are the transmission, interaction, and transaction models.

Although these models of communication differ, they contain some common elements.
The first two models we will discuss, the transmission model and the interaction model, include
the following parts: participants, messages, encoding, decoding, and channels. In
communication models, the participants are the senders and/or receivers of messages in a
communication encounter. The message is the verbal or nonverbal content being conveyed
from sender to receiver. For example, when you say “Hello!” to your friend, you are sending a
message of greeting that will be received by your friend. Although models of communication
provide a useful blueprint to see how the communication process works, they are not complex
enough to capture what communication is like as it is experienced.

The internal cognitive process that allows participants to send, receive, and
understand messages is the encoding and decoding process. Encoding is the process of turning
thoughts into communication. As we will learn later, the level of conscious thought that goes
into encoding messages varies. Decoding is the process
of turning communication into thoughts. For example,
you may realize you’re hungry and encode the
following message to send to your roommate: “I’m
hungry. Do you want to get pizza tonight?” As your What takes place during the
roommate receives the message, he decodes your internal cognitive process in
communication and turns it back into thoughts in order communication?
to make meaning out of it. Of course, we don’t just
communicate verbally—we have various options, or
channels for communication. Encoded messages are
sent through a channel, or a sensory route on which a message travels, to the receiver for
decoding. While communication can be sent and received using any sensory route (sight, smell,
touch, taste, or sound), most communication occurs through visual (sight) and/or auditory

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(sound) channels. If your roommate has headphones on and is engrossed in a video game, you
may need to get his attention by waving your hands before you can ask him about dinner.

Transmission Model of Communication

The transmission model of communication describes communication as a linear, one-

way process in which a sender intentionally transmits a message to a receiver (Ellis &
McClintock, 1990). This model focuses on the sender and message within a communication
encounter. Although the receiver is included in the model, this role is viewed as more of a
target or end point rather than part of an ongoing process. We are left to presume that the
receiver either successfully receives and understands the message or does not. The scholars
who designed this model extended on a linear model proposed by Aristotle centuries before
that included a speaker, message, and hearer. They were also influenced by the advent and
spread of new communication technologies of the time such as telegraphy and radio, and you
can probably see these technical influences within the model (Shannon & Weaver, 1949). Think
of how a radio message is sent from a person in the radio studio to you listening in your car.
The sender is the radio announcer who encodes a verbal message that is transmitted by a radio
tower through electromagnetic waves (the channel) and eventually reaches your (the
receiver’s) ears via an antenna and speakers in order to be decoded. The radio announcer
doesn’t really know if you receive his or her message or not, but if the equipment is working
and the channel is free of static, then there is a good chance that the message was successfully
received.

Figure 1.1 The Transmission Model of Communication

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 Since this model is sender and message focused, responsibility is put on the sender to
help ensure the message is successfully conveyed. This model emphasizes clarity and
effectiveness, but it also acknowledges that there are barriers to effective
communication. Noise is anything that interferes with a message being sent between
participants in a communication encounter. Even if a speaker sends a clear message, noise may
interfere with a message being accurately received and decoded. The transmission model of
communication accounts for environmental and semantic noise. Environmental noise is any
physical noise present in a communication encounter. Other people talking in a crowded diner
could interfere with your ability to transmit a message and have it successfully decoded. While
environmental noise interferes with the transmission of the message, semantic noise refers to
noise that occurs in the encoding and decoding process when participants do not understand a
symbol. To use a technical example, FM antennae can’t decode AM radio signals and vice versa.
Likewise, most French speakers can’t decode Swedish and vice versa. Semantic noise can also
interfere in communication between people speaking the same language because many words
have multiple or unfamiliar meanings.

Although the transmission model may seem simple or even underdeveloped to us

today, the creation of this model allowed scholars to examine the communication process in
new ways, which eventually led to more complex models and theories of communication that
we will discuss more later. This model is not quite rich enough to capture dynamic face-to-face
interactions, but there are instances in which communication is one-way and linear, especially
computer-mediated communication (CMC). As the following “Getting Plugged In” box explains,
CMC is integrated into many aspects of our lives now and has opened up new ways of
communicating and brought some new challenges. Think of text messaging for example. The
transmission model of communication is well suited for describing the act of text messaging
since the sender isn’t sure that the meaning was effectively conveyed or that the message was
received at all. Noise can also interfere with the transmission of a text. If you use an
abbreviation the receiver doesn’t know or the phone autocorrects to something completely
different than you meant, then semantic noise has interfered with the message transmission. I
enjoy bargain hunting at thrift stores, so I just recently sent a text to a friend asking if she
wanted to go thrifting over the weekend. After she replied with “What?!?” I reviewed my text
and saw that my “smart” phone had autocorrected thrifting to thrusting! You have likely
experienced similar problems with text messaging, and a quick Google search for examples of
text messages made funny or embarrassing by the autocorrect feature proves that many others
do, too.

CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING

FILL IN THE BLANKS WITH MISSING CONCEPTS.
The transmission model of communication describes communication as a __________-way,
____________ process in which a sender _______________ a message and transmits it through
a ______________ to a receiver who _____________ it. The transmission of the message many
be disrupted by environmental or semantic ____________. This model is usually too simple to
capture ____________ interactions but can be usefully applied to ____________
communication.

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 Interaction Model of Communication

The interaction model of communication describes communication as a process in

which participants alternate positions as sender and receiver and generate meaning by
sending messages and receiving feedback within physical and psychological contexts
(Schramm, 1997). Rather than illustrating communication as a linear, one-way process, the
interaction model incorporates feedback, which makes communication a more interactive,
two-way process. Feedback includes messages sent in response to other messages. For
example, your instructor may respond to a point you raise during class discussion or you may
point to the sofa when your roommate asks you where the remote control is. The inclusion of a
feedback loop also leads to a more complex understanding of the roles of participants in a
communication encounter. Rather than having one sender, one message, and one receiver, this
model has two sender-receivers who exchange messages. Each participant alternates roles as
sender and receiver in order to keep a communication encounter going. Although this seems
like a perceptible and deliberate process, we alternate between the roles of sender and
receiver very quickly and often without conscious thought.

The interaction model is also less message focused and more interaction focused. While
the transmission model focused on how a message was transmitted and whether or not it was
received, the interaction model is more concerned with the communication process itself. In
fact, this model acknowledges that there are so many messages being sent at one time that
many of them may not even be received. Some messages are also unintentionally sent.
Therefore, communication isn’t judged effective or ineffective in this model based on whether
or not a single message was successfully transmitted and received.

Figure 1.2 The Interaction Model of Communication

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The interaction model takes physical and psychological context into account. Physical context
includes the environmental factors in a communication encounter. The size, layout,
temperature, and lighting of a space influence our communication. Imagine the different
physical contexts in which job interviews take place and how that may affect your
communication. I have had job interviews on a sofa in a comfortable office, sitting around a
large conference table, and even once in an auditorium where I was positioned on the stage
facing about twenty potential colleagues seated in the audience. I’ve also been walked around
campus to interview with various people in temperatures below zero degrees. Although I was a
little chilly when I got to each separate interview, it wasn’t too difficult to warm up and go on
with the interview. During a job interview in Puerto Rico, however, walking around outside
wearing a suit in near 90 degree temperatures created a sweating situation that wasn’t
pleasant to try to communicate through. Whether it’s the size of the room, the temperature, or
other environmental factors, it’s important to consider the role that physical context plays in
our communication.

Psychological context includes the mental and emotional factors in a communication

encounter. Stress, anxiety, and emotions are just some examples of psychological influences
that can affect our communication. I recently found out some troubling news a few hours
before a big public presentation. It was challenging to try to communicate because the
psychological noise triggered by the stressful news kept intruding into my other thoughts.
Seemingly positive psychological states, like experiencing the emotion of love, can also affect
communication. During the initial stages of a romantic relationship individuals may be so “love
struck” that they don’t see incompatible personality traits or don’t negatively evaluate
behaviors they might otherwise find off-putting. Feedback and context help make the
interaction model a more useful illustration of the communication process, but the transaction
model views communication as a powerful tool that shapes our realities beyond individual
communication encounters.

CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING

FILL IN THE BLANKS WITH MISSING CONCEPTS.
The interaction model of communication describes communication as a _______ process in
which participants alternate positions as ____________ and ___________ and generate
____________ by sending and receiving feedback within _____________ and ____________
contexts. This model captures the ___________ aspects of communication but still doesn’t
account for how communication constructs our realities and is influenced by social and cultural
contexts.

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 Transaction Model of Communication

As the study of communication progressed, models expanded to account for more of

the communication process. Many scholars view communication as more than a process that is
used to carry on conversations and convey meaning. We don’t send messages like computers,
and we don’t neatly alternate between the roles of sender and receiver as an interaction
unfolds. We also can’t consciously decide to stop communicating, because communication is
more than sending and receiving messages. The transaction model differs from the
transmission and interaction models in significant ways, including the conceptualization of
communication, the role of sender and receiver, and the role of context (Barnlund, 1970).

To review, each model incorporates a different understanding of what communication is

and what communication does. The transmission model views communication as a thing, like
an information packet, that is sent from one place to another. From this view, communication is
defined as sending and receiving messages. The interaction model views communication as an
interaction in which a message is sent and then followed by a reaction (feedback), which is then
followed by another reaction, and so on. From this view, communication is defined as
producing conversations and interactions within physical and psychological contexts. The
transaction model views communication as integrated into our social realities in such a way
that it helps us not only understand them but also create and change them.

The transaction model of communication describes communication as a process in

which communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts.
In this model, we don’t just communicate to exchange messages; we communicate to create
relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our self-concepts, and engage with others in
dialogue to create communities. In short, we don’t communicate about our realities;
communication helps to construct our realities.

The roles of sender and receiver in the transaction model of communication differ
significantly from the other models. Instead of labeling participants as senders and receivers,
the people in a communication encounter are referred to as communicators. Unlike the
interaction model, which suggests that participants alternate positions as sender and receiver,
the transaction model suggests that we are simultaneously senders and receivers. For example,
on a first date, as you send verbal messages about your interests and background, your date
reacts nonverbally. You don’t wait until you are done sending your verbal message to start
receiving and decoding the nonverbal messages of your date. Instead, you are simultaneously
sending your verbal message and receiving your date’s nonverbal messages. This is an
important addition to the model because it allows us to understand how we are able to adapt
our communication—for example, a verbal message—in the middle of sending it based on the
communication we are simultaneously receiving from our communication partner.

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 Figure 1.3 The Transaction Model of Communication

The transaction model also includes a more complex understanding of context. The
interaction model portrays context as physical and psychological influences that enhance or
impede communication. While these contexts are important, they focus on message
transmission and reception. Since the transaction model of communication views
communication as a force that shapes our realities before and after specific interactions occur,
it must account for contextual influences outside of a single interaction. To do this, the
transaction model considers how social, relational, and cultural contexts frame and influence
our communication encounters.

Social context refers to the stated rules or unstated norms that guide communication.
As we are socialized into our various communities, we learn rules and implicitly pick up on
norms for communicating. Some common rules that influence social contexts include don’t lie
to people, don’t interrupt people, don’t pass people in line, greet people when they greet you,
thank people when they pay you a compliment, and so on. Parents and teachers often explicitly
convey these rules to their children or students. Rules may be stated over and over, and there
may be punishment for not following them.

Norms are social conventions that we pick up on through observation, practice, and trial
and error. We may not even know we are breaking a social norm until we notice people looking
at us strangely or someone corrects or teases us. For example, as a new employee you may
over- or underdress for the company’s holiday party because you don’t know the norm for
formality. Although there probably isn’t a stated rule about how to dress at the holiday party,
you will notice your error without someone having to point it out, and you will likely not deviate
from the norm again in order to save yourself any potential embarrassment. Even though
breaking social norms doesn’t result in the formal punishment that might be a consequence of
breaking a social rule, the social awkwardness we feel when we violate social norms is usually
enough to teach us that these norms are powerful even though they aren’t made explicit like
rules. Norms even have the power to override social rules in some situations. To go back to the
examples of common social rules mentioned before, we may break the rule about not lying if
the lie is meant to save someone from feeling hurt. We often interrupt close friends when
we’re having an exciting conversation, but we wouldn’t be as likely to interrupt a professor
while they are lecturing. Since norms and rules vary among people and cultures, relational and
cultural contexts are also included in the transaction model in order to help us understand the
multiple contexts that influence our communication.

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 Relational context includes the previous interpersonal history and type of relationship
we have with a person. We communicate differently with someone we just met versus
someone we’ve known for a long time. Initial interactions with people tend to be more highly
scripted and governed by established norms and rules, but when we have an established
relational context, we may be able to bend or break social norms and rules more easily. For
example, you would likely follow social norms of politeness and attentiveness and might spend
the whole day cleaning the house for the first time you invite your new neighbors to visit. Once
the neighbors are in your house, you may also make them the center of your attention during
their visit. If you end up becoming friends with your neighbors and establishing a relational
context, you might not think as much about having everything cleaned and prepared or even
giving them your whole attention during later visits. Since communication norms and rules also
vary based on the type of relationship people have, relationship type is also included in
relational context. For example, there are certain communication rules and norms that apply to
a supervisor-supervisee relationship that don’t apply to a brother-sister relationship and vice
versa. Just as social norms and relational history influence how we communicate, so does
culture.

Cultural context includes various aspects of identities such as race, gender, nationality,
ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, and ability. We will learn more about these identities in, but
for now it is important for us to understand that whether we are aware of it or not, we all have
multiple cultural identities that influence our communication. Some people, especially those
with identities that have been historically marginalized, are regularly aware of how their
cultural identities influence their communication and influence how others communicate with
them. Conversely, people with identities that are dominant or in the majority may rarely, if
ever, think about the role their cultural identities play in their communication.

Source: Wikimedia Commons

Cultural context is influenced by numerous aspects of our identities and is not limited to
race or ethnicity. When cultural context comes to the forefront of a communication encounter,
it can be difficult to manage. Since intercultural communication creates uncertainty, it can
deter people from communicating across cultures or lead people to view intercultural
communication as negative. But if you avoid communicating across cultural identities, you will

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likely not get more comfortable or competent as a communicator. Difference, as we will learn
in isn’t a bad thing. In fact, intercultural communication has the potential to enrich various
aspects of our lives. In order to communicate well within various cultural contexts, it is
important to keep an open mind and avoid making assumptions about others’ cultural
identities. While you may be able to identify some aspects of the cultural context within a
communication encounter, there may also be cultural influences that you can’t see. A
competent communicator shouldn’t assume to know all the cultural contexts a person brings
to an encounter, since not all cultural identities are visible. As with the other contexts, it
requires skill to adapt to shifting contexts, and the best way to develop these skills is through
practice and reflection.

CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING

FILL IN THE BLANKS WITH MISSING CONCEPTS.
The transaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which
communicators generate social ___________ within social, relational, and cultural contexts.
This model includes participants who are _______________ senders and receivers and accounts
for how communication ________________ our realities, relationships, and communities.

References

Barnlund, D. C., “A Transactional Model of Communication,” in Foundations of Communication

Theory, eds. Kenneth K. Sereno and C. David Mortensen (New York, NY: Harper and Row, 1970),
83–92.
Ellis, R. and Ann McClintock, You Take My Meaning: Theory into Practice in Human
Communication (London: Edward Arnold, 1990), 71.
Schramm, W., The Beginnings of Communication Study in America (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage,
1997).
Shannon, C. and Warren Weaver, The Mathematical Theory of Communication (Urbana, IL:
University of Illinois Press, 1949), 16.
Thurlow, C., Laura Lengel, and Alice Tomic, Computer Mediated Communication: Social
Interaction and the Internet (London: Sage, 2004), 14.
This is a derivative of COMMUNICATION IN THE REAL WORLD: AN INTRODUCTION TO
COMMUNICATION STUDIES by a publisher who has requested that they and the original author
not receive attribution, which was originally released and is used under CC BY-NC-SA. This work,
unless otherwise expressly stated, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-
NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

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 PROCESS

Questions to answer

1. What communication situations does each model represent?

COMMUNICATION PROCESS (one-way, two- ROLES OF SENDER AND CONTEXT

MODELS way, RECEIVER

Transmission Model

Interaction Model

Transaction Model

2. Getting integrated: How might knowing the various components of the communication
process help you in your:

academic life?

professional life?

civic life?

3. Use the transaction model of communication to analyze a recent communication encounter

you had. Sketch out the communication encounter and make sure to label each part of the
model (communicators; message; channel; feedback; and physical, psychological, social,
relational, and cultural contexts).

Adapted with revisions from: http://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-

communication-process/

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 READ 2 KEY
THE INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IMPERATIVE: CONCEPTS
REDUCE THE STRANGENESS OF STRANGERS
From Communication Works (9th Edition) by Teri Gamble and Michael GLOBALIZATION
Gamble increasing economic,
political, and cultural
While intercultural communication is inevitable, we are neither integration and
as effective nor as successful at it as we could be. The reason is clear: Not interdependence of diverse
all of us work hard enough to understand or to be understood by those cultures- the worldwide
with whom we differ. integration of humanity.

According to intercultural communication theorists Larry A. INTERCULTURAL

Samovar and Richard E. Porter, there are too many of “us” who do not COMMUNICATION
work as hard as we should at intercultural communication simply Interaction with
because we do not wish to live or interact with “them.” Too many of us individuals from different
have adopted an “us versus them” mentality, which prevents us from cultures.
effectively meeting the challenges cultural diversity presents. To counter Source: Communicating in
this, we need to conduct ourselves in a manner designed to reduce the a Multicultural Society
strangeness of strangers; that is, we need to open ourselves to and World, p. 29
differences by adding to our storehouse of knowledge, by learning to
cope with uncertainty, and by developing an appreciation of how increasing our cultural sensitivity
will positively affect our communication competence.

We take a giant step toward improving intercultural communication by accepting the fact
that our culture is not superior to others. Nor should we base our behavioral expectations for the
members of other cultures on our own culture’s norms. To do so would cause us to label the
responses of those who belong to other cultures as foreign or strange. To the extent that we are
able to use our understanding of another’s culture to reduce the number of misunderstandings
between us, to the extent that we do not interpret the behavior of others on the basis of our own
frames of reference, we take further steps toward reducing the strangeness of strangers.

Exploring Cultural Dialectics

Let’s continue by focusing on four variables used to distinguish cultures: (1) individualism
versus collectivism, (2) high-context versus low-context communication, (3) high power distance
versus low power distance, and (4) masculine or feminine culture. Identified by Hofstede,
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, and Hall, these dialectics reveal a culture’s values and help us make
comparisons across cultures.

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INDIVIDUALISM VERSUS COLLECTIVISM

The cultural dimension of individualism versus collectivism reveals how people define
themselves in their relationships with others. Individualistic cultures, such as those of Great Britain,
the United States, Canada, France, and Germany, stress individual goals, whereas collectivistic
cultures, represented by many Arab, African, Asian, and Latin American countries, give precedence
to group goals.

Individualistic cultures cultivate individual initiative and achievement, while collectivistic

cultures tend to nurture group influences. This means that, while the “I” may be most important in
individualistic cultures, the “we” is the dominant force in collectivistic ones. While in collectivistic
cultures the individual is expected to fit into the group, in individualistic cultures emphasis is placed
on developing a sense of self.

HIGH CONTEXT VERSUS LOW CONTEXT

A second way cultures vary in communication style is in their preference for high-context or
low-context communication. Cultures with high-context communication systems are tradition-
bound; their cultural traditions shape the behavior and lifestyle of group members, causing them to
appear to be overly polite and indirect in relating to others. In contrast, cultures with low-context
communication systems generally encourage members to exhibit a more direct communication
style. Members of low-context cultures tend to gather background information when meeting
someone for the first time. Thus, they will ask people they have just met where they went to
college, where they live, and who they work for, while persons from high-context cultures are much
less likely to ask such questions. In addition, persons from low-context cultures are apt to feel that
they have to explain everything rather than rely on non-verbal, contextual information as
demonstrated by those who display a preference for high-context communication. In contrast,
persons who believe that most messages can be understood without direct verbal interaction
reveal their preference for high-context communication. Asian cultures typically emphasize high-
context communication, whereas Western cultures typically represent low-context communication
systems. For example, the Japanese have traditionally valued silence, believing that a person of few
words is thoughtful, trustworthy, and respectable. Thus, the Japanese spend considerately less time
talking than do people in the United States. This orientation also helps explain why the Japanese
often perceive self-disclosures during interaction as socially inappropriate.

HIGH POWER DISTANCE VERSUS LOW POWER DISTANCE

Power distance measures the extent to which individuals are willing to accept power
differences. Individuals from high power distance cultures, such as Saudi Arabia, India, and
Malaysia, view power as a fact of life and are apt to stress its coercive or referent nature. Superiors
and subordinates in these countries are likely to view each other differently; subordinates are quick
to defer to superiors. In contrast, individuals from low power distance cultures, such as Israel,
Sweden, and the United States, believe power should be used only when it is legitimate; thus, they
are apt to employ expert or legitimate power. Superiors and subordinates from low power distance
countries emphasize their interdependence by displaying a preference for consultation;
subordinates will even contradict their bosses when necessary.

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MASCULINE VERSUS FEMININE CULTURE

Cultures differ in their attitudes toward

gender roles. In highly masculine cultures, members
value male aggressiveness, strength, and material
symbols of success. In highly feminine cultures,
members value relationships, tenderness in
members of both sexes, and a high quality of life.
Among highly masculine cultures are Japan, Italy,

Germany, Mexico, and Great Britain. Among highly

Click these links to learn more about Deborah
feminine cultures are Sweden, Norway, the Tannen’s perspectives on language and gender:
Netherlands, Thailand, and Chile. Masculine • http://www.frankjones.org/sitebuilde
cultures socialize members to be dominant and rcontent/sitebuilderfiles/tannen.pdf
competitive. They tend to confront conflicts head- • https://www.youtube.com/watch?
on and are likely to use a win–lose conflict strategy. v=bZj-7-osm84
In contrast, the members of feminine cultures are
more apt to compromise and negotiate to resolve
conflicts, seeking win–win solutions.

Interpreting Cultural Differences

Where a culture falls on the individualistic-collectivistic, low-context–high-context

communication, and power distance scales affects the interactional preferences of its members. In
Japanese and Chinese societies, for example, individuals tend to understate their own
accomplishments and successes, while members of North American cultures typically are taught to
be assertive and take credit for their personal achievements. It appears that individualistic cultures
tend to use low-context communication, while high-context communication tends to
predominate in collectivistic cultures. Thus, whereas members of low-context communication
cultures interact in a direct way with each other, members of high-context communication cultures
interact indirectly. For example, North Americans tend to speak directly on an issue, whereas
individuals from Japan, Korea, and China prefer to avoid confrontation, to preserve a sense of
harmony, and to make it possible for the individuals with whom they are speaking to save face, or
maintain self-esteem. Similarly, rarely will one Saudi Arabian publicly criticize another; to do so
would label the individual as disloyal and disrespectful. When persons from diverse power distance
cultures interact, unless these differences in orientation are acknowledged, interactions may well
result in misunderstandings.

Accessed from:
http://novellaqalive2.mhhe.com/sites/dl/free/0073534226/363131/gam34226_ch02.pdf

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 PROCESS
Questions to answer
1. What makes the four variables different from one another?
2. What strategies can you suggest for effective intercultural communication?

Extending Learning
According to Jerry Shuster, Political Communication Professor of the University of
Pittsburgh, “85% of what an audience takes away is based on body language, mechanisms and
facial expression.” Increase your knowledge on the different types of non-verbal
communication by clicking this link: http://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/4-2-types-of-
nonverbal-communication/

Types of Non-Verbal Communication

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 The silent language of the gestures:
READ 3 Nonverbal communication on the Philippines
http://www.insights-philippines.de/nonverbaleng.htm

Which social situation we also select always – the behavior of a

buyer or a sales person in a supermarket, a job interview or the behavior of
visitors in a soccer-stage -, we notice that we are living in a world of
gesticulatory and mimic signals. The social anthropologist Edward T. Hall
advocates the theory that round about sixty percent of our communication is nonverbal –
without any use of spoken or written language, only with the aid of mimicry, gestures and other
forms of the body-language. Even if this figure seems to be too high, we have to concede that
non-verbal communication represents an important part of the general human communication
and that it can very helpful to recognize and to classify nonverbal signals especially with regard
to the interpretation of hidden attitudes.

Nonverbal signals are already in the same cultural context often ambiguous. In western
societies lifted eyebrows can express doubt but also arrogance; crossed arms - refusal,
isolation, taciturnity or fear. There are no simple equations of the type “X means Y “, a better
interpretation needs very often a knowledge about the social situation. Other cultures can
interpret body-signals more differently – and further doors for misunderstandings are opened.

In the following (paragraphs) we discuss specific peculiarities of the nonverbal

communication in the Philippines. This is especially justified under the aspect that nonverbal
behavior is attached here with increased significance. Gochenour (1) wrote in this context:
“Filipinos have at highly developed sensitivity to the nonverbal aspects of communication.
Filipinos are considerably less dependent on of spoken words than are Europeans Americans;
They watch their listeners carefully and identify body language cues to assess what the person
is feeling.”

Personal space
There exists a personal shelter space – 1.5 to 3 meters in western societies -, which is
defended by the individuals. Its non-recognition and penetration by strangers can provoke
feelings of uneasiness. In a full elevator, this body-distance is removed and feelings of malaise
and indisposition appear quickly.

The Philippines have been characterized as “touch-oriented society “, as society, that

shows within the sexes less body-distance and more body-contacts. So be not surprised or even
disconcert, if in the nearly empty jeepney a person bulges up to you or if a good friend touches
your knee or puts his hand on your shoulder or holds suddenly your hand at walk. Women
frequently welcome each another with a kiss. Presumably this behavior has nothing to do with
homosexuality or bigamy, the gesture wants to be understood as expression of warmth and
friendship. We have indicated a restriction already. The body-contacts refer only to members of
the same sex. Body-contacts to the other sex are taboo and in the public a proper distance is
hold. This is the case especially in rural regions with conservative sex morals. Here, lovers
kissing on the street can quickly become an issue of barangay-conversation. Under the
circumstances of a smaller body-distance, especially western visitors should consider a possible
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perspiration-smell. The noses of most Filipinos may be smaller, their capability however is well
developed.

Hands and fingers

We have some “Dos” in the sense of desired behavior and some “Do nots “ in the sense
of undesirable behavior. Let's speak first from gestures considered as polite.

Also the Filipinos know the soft handshaking as welcome or goodbye greeting. But take
into consideration that the initiative for handshaking has to come from the woman.

There are some situations of passing and crossing, which recommend to lower the head
and to hold together the lightly extended hands. This is the etiquette if you cross a room, where
people are talking or in front of a switched on TV or if you take your way between two
conversation partners. If you are still whispering an “Excuse me”, then you get perhaps as
response a “Never Mind” or a friendly “You are welcome “.

In families with more conservative attitudes older family members get a special respect-
attestation. The younger family-member takes the hand of the older person and leads it to his
forehead. Aarau /Jocces (2) are mentioning that this traditional gesture of respect is on retreat.

A taxi or a person is beckoned with extended arm, downward showing palm and bent
and stretched finger-movements (Scraping movements). In order to attract the attention of a
person, you can touch shortly his elbow with the finger. To indicate an object you can point to it
with your ring respectively pinkie finger. Often the thumb is not often counted when counting.
If you want to pay in the restaurant, you can draw with the hand into air a symbolic rectangle or
you make a short sibilant. But Jens Peter (3) writes that the “sst”- sounds are more and more
disappearing in communication.

Which arm and finger movements are depreciated? If someone puts his hands on his
hips, he is looked as arrogant or that he is angry. It is regarded as impolite – even offending -, if
a person is beckoned with curled index finger. To show the outstretched middle finger is – as
also in many other parts of the world – a kind of obscene war-declaration.

Signals of the head

Jerking the head upwards is mostly interpreted as a “Yes”, jerking the head down as “No
“. If the head is jerked upward and if there is simultaneously a fixed stare it can signalize the
provocative question: What do you really want from me? If someone is scraping his head it can
mean, that he is ignorant and does not know the answer. Some are saying, if the head is
lowered and scratched, this gesture would signalize a guilty conscience.

An “eyebrow flash” is the lifting of the eyebrows combined with a short look and
perhaps a smile. It expresses the friendly perception and is a silent mute, quick greeting. This
mimicry stands also for consent. Often the parents control their children in the public with
silent looks, loud reprimands are as much as possible avoided. It is regarded as rude, to stare at
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a person for a longer time. But strange foreigners can be stared longer. Instead of pointing an
object with hand, the direction of place is often shown by a shifting of eyes and mouth.
Hanewalds(4) is mentioning “clouck-clouck-clouck“-movements in the cheek and interprets
these as disapproval of an event. If a question is not understood, then an open mouth could be
seen very often. Hanewald often reacted to opened mouths with the comment: “Oy, hindi ako
dentista!” (I am no dentist) and by this remark the situation became less seriously.

Laughing at the top of one’s voice - especially if there is a misfortune of another person -
doesn't correspond to the official behavior-codex. Especially women hide their laughter by
covering their mouth with the hand.

However, smiling is wide-spread in South-East Asia. If we follow Aarau (5) then the
Filipinos are “masters of smile”. They smile, if they praise, and they smile if they criticize. They
smile if they are emotional or have caused a small outrage; they smile if they ask for something;
they smile if they are happy“. Each situation has its smile. It is ambiguous and often it has a
conflict-reducing function.

A comedian could put up the question at the end: And what significance has the rubbing
of noses? We can comfort him. Only the Maoris people are touching the tops of their noses as a
greeting-ceremonial.

© Wolfgang Bethge, 2003

______________________________________________________________________________
(1) quoted from: http://www.Language Issues, Philippine Culture, Philippine Beliefs, Filipino
Tradition.htm
(2) Aarau / Alfredo & Gace Roces, Reisegast auf den Philippinen, Munich, 1994, p.18
(3)Jens Peters, Reisehandbuch Philippinen, Berlin, 2002, p. 96
(4) F. and R. Hanewald, Tagalog für Globetrotters, 1983, p. 70
(5) Aarau / Alfredo & Gace Roces, p.19

Questions to answer
1. How do Filipinos communicate using non-verbal means?
2. What role does culture play on the way people communicate
whether through verbal or non-verbal means?

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 READ 4

«It ain’t right, innit?» – About language register in English

Posted on January 29, 2015 by Shiar Youssef

Source: https://celsalangues.wordpress.com/2015/01/29/it-aint-right-innit-about-language-register-in-english/

What is the difference between saying «it ain’ righ’!» (dropping your Ts at the end of words) and
«that is not right!»? Or between «innit?» and «isn’t it?»?

There is no difference in meaning. Both mean exactly the same thing. The only difference is in
the level of formality and ‘properness’.

Linguists call this the language register, sometimes also referred to as tenor, tone or style.

Put simply, a register is a variety of a language used in a particular social setting, using certain
words, phrases and contractions that are not normally used in other settings (or if they did, they
may sound strange or out of place).

For example, when speaking in a formal setting, an English speaker is more likely to use features
of prescribed grammar, like pronouncing words ending in -ing with a velar nasal instead of an
alveolar nasal (e.g. walking, not walkin’). Or she or he may choose more formal words (e.g.
father vs. dad, child vs. kid, and so on). She or he would also usually refrain from using
contractions like “ain’t”.

It may sound intuitive but the differences between how one may talk on the street, with friends,
during a job interview or when writing formal letters and emails are amazing, even though it is
the same person speaking.

This is why a register is a language variation defined by use, not user. The same person may use
more than one register depending on the context or social setting.

Indeed, the term “register” was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956, and
popularized in the 1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to distinguish between language
variations according to the user (defined by variables like social background, geography, sex and
age) and variations according to how and when the language is being used (in the sense that each
speaker has a range of varieties and choices between them at different times).

Register should therefore be distinguished from other, identity-based types of language variation,
such as regional and age dialects, even though it often overlaps with them. It should also be
distinguished from jargon, which is technical terminology used for a special activity or by a
special group, such as computer geeks, scientists, lawyers and so on.

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One of the most analyzed areas where the use of language is determined by the situation is the
formality scale. The term «register» is often used as shorthand for formal/informal styles. But
many would argue that this is a simplistic definition, because register is about more than just
formality, as we have already said.

In one prominent model, Martin Joos (1961) describes five styles in spoken English: frozen or
static register, formal, consultative or participatory, casual and intimate.

http://intrpr.info/library/stringham-understanding-register-formality.pdf

Foreign speakers may find it difficult – especially if they are beginners – to switch between
registers. This is called “code-switching” in linguistics. That is why they may sometimes sound
like TV presenters or politicians (i.e. very formal), even when speaking to close friends. Or they
may sound too informal, even rude, without intending to.

The only solution to this is to familiarize yourself with the social and cultural associations
 of
words and expressions – which is the basis of language registers. Reading and listening to
popular culture, interacting with native speakers and so on.

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 PROCESS
Questions to answer

1. What does language register mean?

2. According to the text, when was the word “register” first used? Who popularized the word?
3. What are the two main type of language styles?
4. According to Martin Joos, what are the five styles in spoken English?
5. What does code-switching mean? Relate with register.
6. How can a person gain familiarity with what words and expressions might mean aside from its
dictionary meaning?

Focus on language
Study the image below and then answer the questions that follow:
1. What influences that way you communicate with others?
2. Does your manner of communicating vary depending on your purpose and
audience?

Photo Source: http://www.public.asu.edu/~gelderen/314text/images/DUDE.JPG?w=240

In English, formal language is used in situations that are more serious, for example when you’re in a job
interview or emailing your university professor. It can also be used when you’re speaking to someone you
don’t know very well and want to make sure you sound respectful.

Informal language is used in more relaxed, everyday situations. Of course, this includes conversations with
friends, family and other people you know well. Unlike many other languages, though, most English speakers
tend to use informal language with people they’ve just met, too.

Source: https://www.eurocentres.com/blog/use-formal-informal-english/

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 Communication Styles: A Tale of Two Countries

You are the Communications Officer of Global Network, an

employment agency which specializes in linking Filipinos with
prospective employers from around the globe. Your task is to ensure
that Filipino hires are well-oriented about the communication context
of their future workplace. Prepare a SKIT featuring how a Filipino can effectively communicate with another
nationality (i.e. Filipino vis-à-vis Arabians; Filipinos vis-à-vis Japanese). The skit should feature your local knowledge
of the Filipinos’ communication style and the assigned country as well. Present scenes which show tips and
strategies on how Filipinos should deal with colleagues or workmates from the country assigned to your group.
Guidelines:
1. The SKIT must adhere to the following:
Length: 3- 5 minutes
Topic: Communication styles of Filipinos and the
assigned nationality
Purpose: The skit is meant to provide information on
how to communicate effectively with colleagues from
another country

2. Research on the various communication styles and

issues of Filipinos and the nationality assigned to your
group. Take note of what makes Filipinos distinct in
terms of communication styles. Then, inquire about
what is unique to the communication styles of the
other nationality. This link, https://www.hofstede-
insights.com/country-comparison/canada,the-philippines/, can help you compare the two countries.

3. Based on your research, summarize the differences/commonalities between the Philippines and the
country assigned to your group.

Aspects Philippines Assigned Country:

Cultural Dialectics and Communication Style
High/Low Context Narrator: Narrator:
Philippines is a high/low? context society. On the other hand, assigned country is
EXPLAIN a high/low? context society.
Thus, Filipinos communicate by Thus, _______communicate by…..

Indicate what the actors would say or do during the skit. The focus should be on a
Filipino in the workplace setting of the assigned country.
Low/ High Power Narrator: Narrator:
Distance

Individualism/Collectivism

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 Feminine/Masculine

*Your skit must show the differences and commonalities of the two nationalities based on cultural
analytics and communication styles.

SAMPLE ANALYSIS: NIGERIA’s Cultural Dimensions

Source:
http://acad.depauw.edu/~mkfinney/teaching/Com227/culturalportfolios/NIGERIA/NewSite/Ty
pologies.html

HIGH CONTEXT: Nigeria is a high context society and because it has more than 250 ethnic
groups, they often use English when greeting strangers because of their linguistic diversity. The
people believe in politeness and cheerfulness when exchanging greetings. When asked about
the wellbeing of someone, time is given to respond, as it is considered respectful. In addition,
Nigerians may stand or sit closely when conversing. There are both verbal and nonverbal
communications in Nigeria but the nonverbal ones seems to be the most common because the
people keep themselves informed about those around them. When it comes to spatial
preference, their sense of personal space is very close. When they meet on the street, they
would come very close to greet each other. This means that more attention is paid to the
context of communication, including behavior and environment, the relationship between the
messenger and receiver, the messenger's family history and status, and so on. Gestures differ
from pushing the palm of your hand forward and spreading the fingers is considered as vulgar
and is to be avoided. One never says “thank you” for food for the tradition of feeding guests is
part the culture and. In addition to gestures, Nigerians pass objects with the right hand or both
hands but not with the left. “A wink at their children in the company of adults signifies that the
child should leave the room. Visiting is also important as it helps maintain family and friendship
ties. Guests may show up at someone's home unannounced yet still be welcomed.

POWER DISTANCE: Is very high in Nigeria because of wide spread of corruption in the country.
Corruption is defined as “the misuse of entrusted power for private benefit.” There is a clear
distinction between the poor and the wealthy because they the people with titles are
considered to be the superior group. These superior people are generally government officials
and chiefs. Being the second most corrupted country in the world, there tends to be a lack of
“upward mobility” for the other citizens of the country. There are also struggles for ethnic-
based parties in the government for individual ethnic groups want to be the ones controlling
the country and this often leads to tribal confrontations. Also, there are power struggles
between Muslims and Christians. There are constant disputes between these two religions
solely for the benefit of maintaining their respective values and beliefs in the country.

INDIVIDUALISM vs. COLLECTIVISM: Nigeria is a collective society therefore individualism is

highly discouraged. Children are taught to interact collectively and the meaning of community
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is very important. Individuals have close ties and the family system is very important because
they live together in compounds. “The extended family is common, with a philosophy that
everyone is his brother’s keeper.” Another important thing that makes Nigeria a collective
society was the struggle for independence. Before the Europeans colonized Africa, is was
divided into regions and different ethnicities lived apart, but in harmony. Colonialism brought
these ethnic groups together to fight for liberation. This strengthened the culture in the societal
and communal aspect.

MASCULINITY vs. FEMININITY: Like many African countries, Nigeria is a patriarchal society.
There is a clear distinction between male and female roles. Very few women are active in
political and professional careers. In fact, single women are regarded as an “oddity” and
therefore sexually available. However, there is an expectation for women to earn a significant
portion of the family income especially in rural areas. “As a rule, men have little obligation to
provide for their wives or children.” The division of labor even goes as far as dictating what
crops men and women cultivate. Women cultivate beans and cassava, while men cultivate
yams.

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