Universidad de Oriente - Module II: Verbal Communication – 2024

The Communication Process

Communication is a complex process, and it is difficult to determine where or with whom a communication
encounter starts and ends. Models of communication simplify the process by providing a visual representation of
the various aspects of a communication encounter. Some models explain communication in more detail than
others, but even the most complex model still doesn’t recreate what we experience in even a moment of a
communication encounter. Models still serve a valuable purpose for students of communication because they
allow us to see specific concepts and steps within the process of communication, define communication, and
apply communication concepts. When you become aware of how communication functions, you can think more
deliberately through your communication encounters, which can help you better prepare for future
communication and learn from your previous communication. The three models of communication we will
discuss are the transmission, interaction, and transaction models.

Although these models of communication differ, they contain some common elements. The first two models we
will discuss, the transmission model and the interaction model, include the following parts: participants,
messages, encoding, decoding, and channels. In communication models, the participants are the
senders and/or receivers of messages in a communication encounter. The message is the verbal or
nonverbal content being conveyed from sender to receiver. For example, when you say “Hello!” to your friend,
you are sending a message of greeting that will be received by your friend.

Although models of communication provide a useful blueprint to see how the communication process works,
they are not complex enough to capture what communication is like as it is experienced.

The internal cognitive process that allows participants to send, receive, and understand messages is the
encoding and decoding process. Encoding is the process of turning thoughts into communication. As we will
learn later, the level of conscious thought that goes into encoding messages varies. Decoding is the
process of turning communication into thoughts. For example, you may realize you’re hungry and encode the
following message to send to your roommate: “I’m hungry. Do you want to get pizza tonight?” As your
roommate receives the message, he decodes your communication and turns it back into thoughts in order to
make meaning out of it. Of course, we don’t just communicate verbally—we have various options, or channels for
communication. Encoded messages are sent through a channel, or a sensory route on which a message travels, to
the receiver for decoding. While communication can be sent and received using any sensory route (sight, smell,
touch, taste, or sound), most communication occurs through visual (sight) and/or auditory (sound) channels. If
your roommate has headphones on and is engrossed in a video game, you may need to get his attention by
waving your hands before you can ask him about dinner.

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TRANSMISSION (LINEAR) MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

The transmission model of communication describes communication as a linear, one-way process in which a
sender intentionally transmits a message to a receiver (Ellis & McClintock, 1990). This model focuses on the
sender and message within a communication encounter. Although the receiver is included in the model, this
role is viewed as more of a target or end point rather than part of an ongoing process. We are left to presume
that the receiver either successfully receives and understands the message or does not. The scholars who
designed this model extended on a linear model proposed by Aristotle centuries before that included a speaker,
message, and hearer. They were also influenced by the advent and spread of new communication technologies of
the time such as telegraphy and radio, and you can probably see these technical influences within the model
(Shannon & Weaver, 1949). Think of how a radio message is sent from a person in the radio studio to you
listening in your car. The sender is the radio announcer who encodes a verbal message that is transmitted by a
radio tower through electromagnetic waves (the channel) and eventually reaches your (the receiver’s) ears via
an antenna and speakers in order to be decoded. The radio announcer doesn’t really know if you receive his or
her message or not, but if the equipment is working and the channel is free of static, then there is a good chance
that the message was successfully received.

Figure 1.1 The Transmission Model of Communication

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Since this model is sender and message focused, responsibility is put on the sender to help
ensure the message is successfully conveyed. This model emphasizes clarity and
effectiveness, but it also acknowledges that there are barriers to effective communication.
Noise is anything that interferes with a message being sent between participants in a
communication encounter. Even if a speaker sends a clear message, noise may interfere
with a message being accurately received and decoded. The transmission model of
communication accounts for environmental and semantic noise. Environmental noise is any
physical noise present in a communication encounter. Other people talking in a crowded
diner could interfere with your ability to transmit a message and have it successfully
decoded. While environmental noise interferes with the transmission of the message,
semantic noise refers to noise that occurs in the encoding and decoding process when
participants do not understand a symbol. To use a technical example, FM antennae can’t
decode AM radio signals and vice versa. Likewise, most French speakers can’t decode
Swedish and vice versa. Semantic noise can also interfere in communication between
people speaking the same language because many words have multiple or unfamiliar
meanings.

Although the transmission model may seem simple or even underdeveloped to us today,
the creation of this model allowed scholars to examine the communication process in new
ways, which eventually led to
more complex models and theories of communication that we will discuss more later. This
model is not quite rich enough to capture dynamic face-to-face interactions, but there are
instances in which communication is one-way and linear, especially computer-mediated
communication (CMC). As the following “Getting Plugged In” box explains, CMC is
integrated into many aspects of our lives now and has opened up new ways of
communicating and brought some new challenges. Think of text messaging for example.
The transmission model of communication is well suited for describing the act of text
messaging since the sender isn’t sure that the meaning was effectively conveyed or that the
message was received at all. Noise can also interfere with the transmission of a text. If you
use an abbreviation the receiver doesn’t know or the phone autocorrects to something
completely different than you meant, then semantic noise has interfered with the message
transmission. I enjoy bargain hunting at thrift stores, so I just recently sent a text to a
friend asking if she wanted to go thrifting over the weekend. After she replied with
“What?!?” I reviewed my text and saw that my “smart” phone had autocorrected thrifting to
thrusting! You have likely experienced similar problems with text messaging, and a quick
Google search for examples of text messages made funny or embarrassing by the
autocorrect feature proves that many others do, too.

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INTERACTION MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

The interaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which

participants alternate positions as sender and receiver and generate meaning by sending
messages and receiving feedback within physical and psychological contexts (Schramm,
1997). Rather than illustrating communication as a linear, one-way process, the interaction
model incorporates feedback, which makes communication a more interactive, two-way
process. Feedback includes messages sent in response to other messages. For example,
your instructor may respond to a point you raise during class discussion or you may point
to the sofa when your roommate asks you where the remote control is. The inclusion of a
feedback loop also leads to a more complex understanding of the roles of participants in a
communication encounter. Rather than having one sender, one message, and one receiver,
this model has two sender-receivers who exchange messages. Each participant alternates
roles as sender and receiver in order to keep a communication encounter going. Although
this seems like a perceptible and deliberate process, we alternate between the roles of
sender and receiver very quickly and often without conscious thought.

The interaction model is also less message focused and more interaction focused. While the
transmission model focused on how a message was transmitted and whether or not it was
received, the interaction model is more concerned with the communication process itself.
In fact, this model acknowledges that there are so many messages being sent at one time
that many of them may not even be received. Some messages are also unintentionally sent.
Therefore, communication isn’t judged effective or ineffective in this model based on
whether or not a single message was successfully transmitted and received.

Figure 1.2 The Interaction Model of Communication

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The interaction model takes physical and psychological context into account. Physical
context includes the environmental factors in a communication encounter. The size, layout,
temperature, and lighting of a space influence our communication. Imagine the different
physical contexts in which job interviews take place and how that may affect your
communication. I have had job interviews on a sofa in a comfortable office, sitting around a
large conference table, and even once in an auditorium where I was positioned on the stage
facing about twenty potential colleagues seated in the audience. I’ve also been walked
around campus to interview with various people in temperatures below zero degrees.
Although I was a little chilly when I got to each separate interview, it wasn’t too difficult to
warm up and go on with the interview. During a job interview in Puerto Rico, however,
walking around outside wearing a suit in near 90 degree temperatures created a sweating
situation that wasn’t pleasant to try to communicate through. Whether it’s the size of the
room, the temperature, or other environmental factors, it’s important to consider the
role that physical context plays in our communication.

Psychological context includes the mental and emotional factors in a communication

encounter. Stress,

anxiety, and emotions are just some examples of psychological influences that can affect our
communication. I recently found out some troubling news a few hours before a big public
presentation. It was challenging to try to communicate because the psychological noise
triggered by the stressful news kept intruding into my other thoughts. Seemingly positive
psychological states, like experiencing the emotion of love, can also affect communication.

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During the initial stages of a romantic relationship individuals may be so “love struck” that
they don’t see incompatible personality traits or don’t negatively evaluate behaviors they
might otherwise find off-putting. Feedback and context help make the interaction model a
more useful illustration of the communication process, but the transaction model views
communication as a powerful tool that shapes our realities beyond individual
communication encounters.

TRANSACTION MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

As the study of communication progressed, models expanded to account for more of the
communication process. Many scholars view communication as more than a process that is
used to carry on conversations and convey meaning. We don’t send messages like
computers, and we don’t neatly alternate between the roles of sender and receiver as an
interaction unfolds. We also can’t consciously decide to stop communicating, because
communication is more than sending and receiving messages. The transaction model
differs from the transmission and interaction models in significant ways, including the
conceptualization of communication, the role of sender and receiver, and the role of
context (Barnlund, 1970).

To review, each model incorporates a different understanding of what communication is

and what communication does. The transmission model views communication as a thing,
like an information packet, that is sent from one place to another. From this view,
communication is defined as sending and receiving messages. The interaction model views
communication as an interaction in which a message is sent and then followed by a
reaction (feedback), which is then followed by another reaction, and so on. From this view,
communication is defined as producing conversations and interactions within physical and
psychological contexts. The transaction model views communication as integrated into our
social realities in such a way that it helps us not only understand them but also create and
change them.

The transaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which

communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts. In
this model, we don’t just communicate to exchange messages; we communicate to create
relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our self-concepts, and engage with others
in dialogue to create communities. In short, we don’t communicate about our realities;
communication helps to construct our realities.

The roles of sender and receiver in the transaction model of communication differ
significantly from the other models. Instead of labeling participants as senders and

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receivers, the people in a communication encounter are referred to as communicators.

Unlike the interaction model, which suggests that participants alternate positions as sender
and receiver, the transaction model suggests that we are simultaneously senders and
receivers. For example, on a first date, as you send verbal messages about your interests
and background, your date reacts nonverbally. You don’t wait until you are done sending
your verbal message to start receiving and decoding the nonverbal messages of your date.
Instead, you are simultaneously sending your verbal message and receiving your date’s
nonverbal messages. This is an important addition to the model because it allows us to
understand how we are able to adapt our communication—for example, a verbal
message—in the middle of sending it based on the communication we are simultaneously
receiving from our communication partner.

The transaction model also includes a more complex understanding of context. The
interaction model portrays context as physical and psychological influences that enhance
or impede communication. While these contexts are important, they focus on message
transmission and reception. Since the transaction model of communication views
communication as a force that shapes our realities before and after specific interactions
occur, it must account for contextual influences outside of a single interaction. To do this,
the transaction model considers how social, relational, and cultural contexts frame and
influence our communication encounters.

Social context refers to the stated rules or unstated norms that guide communication. As
we are socialized into our various communities, we learn rules and implicitly pick up on
norms for communicating. Some common rules that influence social contexts include don’t
lie to people, don’t interrupt people, don’t pass people in line, greet people when they greet
you, thank people when they pay you a compliment, and so on. Parents and teachers often
explicitly convey these rules to their children or students. Rules may be stated over and
over, and there may be punishment for not following them.

Norms are social conventions that we pick up on through observation, practice, and trial
and error. We may not even know we are breaking a social norm until we notice people
looking at us strangely or someone corrects or teases us. For example, as a new employee
you may over- or underdress for the company’s holiday party because you don’t know the
norm for formality. Although there probably isn’t a stated rule about how to dress at the
holiday party, you will notice your error without someone having to point it out, and you
will likely not deviate from the norm again in order to save yourself any potential
embarrassment. Even though breaking social norms doesn’t result in the formal
punishment that might be a consequence of breaking a social rule, the social awkwardness
we feel when we violate social norms is usually enough to teach us that these norms are

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powerful even though they aren’t made explicit like rules. Norms even have the power to
override social rules in some situations. To go back to the examples of common social rules
mentioned before, we may break the rule about not lying if the lie is meant to save someone
from feeling hurt. We often interrupt close friends when we’re having an exciting
conversation, but we wouldn’t be as likely to interrupt a professor while they are
lecturing. Since norms and rules vary among people and cultures, relational and cultural
contexts are also included in the transaction model in order to help us understand the
multiple contexts that influence our communication.

Relational context includes the previous interpersonal history and type of relationship we
have with a person. We communicate differently with someone we just met versus
someone we’ve known for a long time. Initial interactions with people tend to be more
highly scripted and governed by established norms and rules, but when we have an
established relational context, we may be able to bend or break social norms and rules
more easily. For example, you would likely follow social norms of politeness and
attentiveness and might spend the whole day cleaning the house for the first time you
invite your new neighbors to visit. Once the neighbors are in your house, you may also
make them the center of your attention during their visit. If you end up becoming friends
with your neighbors and establishing a relational context, you might not think as much
about having everything cleaned and prepared or even giving them your whole attention
during later visits. Since communication norms and rules also vary based on the type of
relationship people have, relationship type is also included in relational context. For
example, there are certain communication rules and norms that apply to a
supervisor-supervisee relationship that don’t apply to a brother-sister relationship and
vice versa. Just as social norms and relational history influence how we communicate, so
does culture.

Cultural context includes various aspects of identities such as race, gender, nationality,
ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, and ability. We will learn more about these identities in
Chapter 2 “Communication and Perception”, but for now it is important for us to
understand that whether we are aware of it or not, we all have multiple cultural identities
that influence our communication. Some people, especially those with identities that have
been historically marginalized, are regularly aware of how their cultural identities
influence their communication and influence how others communicate with them.
Conversely, people with identities that are dominant or in the majority may rarely, if ever,
think about the role their cultural identities play in their communication.
Cultural context is influenced by numerous aspects of our identities and is not limited to
race or ethnicity.

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REFERENCES

Barnlund, D. C., “A Transactional Model of Communication,” in Foundations of Communication

Theory, eds. Kenneth K. Sereno and C. David Mortensen (New York, NY: Harper and Row,
1970), 83–92.

Ellis, R. and Ann McClintock, You Take My Meaning: Theory into Practice in Human
Communication (London: Edward Arnold, 1990), 71.

Schramm, W., The Beginnings of Communication Study in America (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage,
1997).

Shannon, C. and Warren Weaver, The Mathematical Theory of Communication (Urbana, IL:
University of Illinois Press, 1949), 16.

Thurlow, C., Laura Lengel, and Alice Tomic, Computer Mediated Communication: Social
Interaction and the Internet (London: Sage, 2004), 14.