E-BOOK

A.Y. 2021-2022

No great discovery was ever made without a bold guess.

- Sir Isaac Newton
Introduction: What is Physics……………………………………………………………1

Unit 1: Forces and Motion………………………………………………………...….….2

a. Speed and Velocity……………………………………………...…...……......3
b. Acceleration…………………………………………………...……...……….4
 Motion Graphs (Visual Representation) ……………………….……...….8
c. Laws of Motion………………………...……………………………….….16
 Resultant Vectors…………………………………...……………………34
 Mathematical Applications………………………………………………38
d. Force and Its Effects…………………………………………………...…….42
 Electrostatic and Magnetic Force…………………………...……………43
 Tension and Elastic (Spring)………………………………………….….48
 Buoyant Force………………………………………...………………….52
 Air Resistance and Friction………………………………………………53
 Gravity………………………………………….….…………………….55
 Moment of Force……………………………………….….….………….57
 Impulse and Momentum………………………………...……………….60

Unit 2: Work, Power, and Energy

a. Work, Power, and Energy
b. Heat and Temperature (Specific Heat)
c. Pressure

Unit 3: Waves
a. Properties, Production and Propagation of Sound
b. Human Hearing

Unit 3: Waves
a. The Electromagnetic Spectrum
b. Reflection of Light
c. Refraction of Light
d. Law of Refraction

Unit 4: Electricity
a. Static Electricity
b. Charging, Coulomb’s Law
c. Current, Voltage, and Resistance
d. Series and Parallel Circuits

Unit 5: Magnetism and Electromagnetism

a. Magnetic Properties
b. Electromagnetism (Electric Motors, Transformers)
 ,

Physics is more than calculating the momentum

of billiard balls hitting each other or the friction acting
on a speeding car’s tires. Physics includes the study of
practically every form of matter and how it interacts
with other matter and with energy in various forms. The
image shows one of several large parabolic antennas that
NASA physicists used for years to communicate with
ships and devices completing solar system exploration
missions.

Definition of Physics

What is physics? Physics is the branch of science that studies the physical world, including
objects as small as subatomic particles and as large as galaxies. It studies the nature of matter and
energy and how they interact. Physicists are inquisitive people who want to know the causes of
what they see. How does the moon move? Why does the moon move? Why do the stars shine?
Why do your hands get warm when you rub them together? Physicists, like all scientists, hope to
find explanations that describe more than one phenomenon and offer a better understanding of
how the universe works.

People commonly believe that physics is all about solving word problems and memorizing
equations. While it is true that many physics classes focus on the equations, it is important to
remember that the purpose of physics is less about the problems and more about using equations,
laws, and theories to understand the world we live in.

Review

1. Give your own definition of physics.

2. What do you already know about physics? What do you think you know?
3. Physics is all around us, all the time. Give a few examples of physics you have experienced.

Resources

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lMtXfwk7PXg

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 Types of Quantities

Physics is a mathematical science. The underlying concepts and principles have a

mathematical basis. Throughout the course of our study of physics, we will encounter a variety of
concepts that have a mathematical basis associated with them. While our emphasis will often be
upon the conceptual nature of physics, we will give considerable and persistent attention to its
mathematical aspect.

The motion of objects can be described by words. Even a person without a background in
physics has a collection of words that can be used to describe moving objects. Words and phrases
such as going fast, stopped, slowing down, speeding up, and turning provide a sufficient
vocabulary for describing the motion of objects. In physics, we use these words and many more.
We will be expanding upon this vocabulary list with words such as distance, displacement, speed,
velocity, and acceleration. As we will soon see, these words are associated with mathematical
quantities that have strict definitions. The mathematical quantities that are used to describe the
motion of objects can be divided into two categories. The quantity is either a vector or a scalar.
These two categories can be distinguished from one another by their distinct definitions:

 Scalars are quantities that are fully described by a magnitude (or numerical value) alone.
 Vectors are quantities that are fully described by both a magnitude and a direction.
The remainder of this lesson will focus on several examples of vector and scalar quantities
(distance, displacement, speed, velocity, and acceleration). As you proceed through the lesson,
give careful attention to the vector and scalar nature of each quantity. As we proceed through other
units and become introduced to new mathematical quantities, the discussion will often begin by
identifying the new quantity as being either a vector or a scalar.

Check your understanding

1. 5 m
2. 30 m/sec, East
3. 5 mi., North

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 4. 20 degrees Celsius
5. 256 bytes
6. 4000 Calories

Resources
 https://www.ck12.org/physics/vectors-in-physics/enrichment/Classification-of-Vectors-
and-Scalars-Overview/?referrer=concept_details

Just as distance and displacement have distinctly different meanings (despite their
similarities), so do speed and velocity. Speed is a scalar quantity that refers to "how fast an object
is moving." Speed can be thought of as the rate at which an object covers distance. A fast-moving
object has a high speed and covers a relatively large distance in a short amount of time. Contrast
this to a slow-moving object that has a low speed; it covers a relatively small amount of distance
in the same amount of time. An object with no movement at all has a zero speed.

Velocity as a Vector Quantity

Velocity is a vector quantity that refers to "the rate at which an object changes its position."
Imagine a person moving rapidly - one step forward and one step back - always returning to the
original starting position. While this might result in a frenzy of activity, it would result in a zero
velocity. Because the person always returns to the original position, the motion would never result
in a change in position. Since velocity is defined as the rate at which the position changes, this
motion results in zero velocity. If a person in motion wishes to maximize their velocity, then that
person must make every effort to maximize the amount that they are displaced from their original
position. Every step must go into moving that person further from where he or she started. For
certain, the person should never change directions and begin to return to the starting position.
Velocity is a vector quantity. As such, velocity is direction aware. When evaluating the
velocity of an object, one must keep track of direction. It would not be enough to say that an object
has a velocity of 55 mi/hr. One must include direction information in order to fully describe the
velocity of the object. For instance, you must describe an object's velocity as being 55 mi/hr, east.

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 This is one of the essential differences between speed and velocity. Speed is a scalar quantity and
does not keep track of direction; velocity is a vector quantity and is direction aware.

Determining the Direction of the Velocity Vector

The task of describing the direction of the velocity vector is easy. The
direction of the velocity vector is simply the same as the direction that
an object is moving. It would not matter whether the object is speeding
up or slowing down. If an object is moving rightwards, then its
velocity is described as being rightwards. If an object is moving
downwards, then its velocity is described as being downwards. So an
airplane moving towards the west with a speed of 300 mi/hr has a
velocity of 300 mi/hr, west. Note that speed has no direction (it is a
scalar) and the velocity at any instant is simply the speed value with a direction.

Resources

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=apewLkLAR-U

The final mathematical quantity discussed in Lesson 1 is

acceleration. An often confused quantity, acceleration has a meaning
much different than the meaning associated with it by sports
announcers and other individuals. The definition of acceleration is:

 Acceleration is a vector quantity that is defined as the rate at

which an object changes its velocity. An object is accelerating if
it is changing its velocity.

Sports announcers will occasionally say that a person is accelerating if he/she is moving
fast. Yet acceleration has nothing to do with going fast. A person can be moving very fast and still
not be accelerating. Acceleration has to do with changing how fast an object is moving. If an object

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 is not changing its velocity, then the object is not accelerating. The data at the right are
representative of a northward-moving accelerating object. The velocity is changing over the course
of time. In fact, the velocity is changing by a constant amount - 10 m/s - in each second of time.
Anytime an object's velocity is changing, the object is said to be accelerating; it has an acceleration.
Calculating the Average Acceleration
The average acceleration (a) of any object over a given interval of time (t) can be calculated
using the equation

This equation can be used to calculate the acceleration of the object whose motion is
depicted by the velocity-time data table above. The velocity-time data in the table shows that the
object has an acceleration of 10 m/s/s. The calculation is shown below.

Acceleration values are expressed in units of

velocity/time. Typical acceleration units include the
following:

m/s/s
mi/hr/s
km/hr/s
m/s 2

These units may seem a little awkward to a beginning physics student. Yet they are very
reasonable units when you begin to consider the definition and equation for acceleration. The
reason for the units becomes obvious upon examination of the acceleration equation.

Since acceleration is a velocity change over a time, the units on acceleration are velocity
units divided by time units - thus (m/s)/s or (mi/hr)/s. The (m/s)/s unit can be mathematically
simplified to m/s .
2

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 The Direction of the Acceleration Vector
Since acceleration is a vector quantity, it has a direction associated with it. The direction
of the acceleration vector depends on two things:

 whether the object is speeding up or slowing down

 whether the object is moving in the + or – direction

The general principle for determining the acceleration is:

If an object is slowing down, then its acceleration is in the opposite direction of its motion.

This general principle can be applied to determine whether

the sign of the acceleration of an object is positive or negative, right
or left, up or down, etc. Consider the two data tables below. In each
case, the acceleration of the object is in the positive direction. In
Example A, the object is moving in the positive direction (i.e., has
a positive velocity) and is speeding up. When an object is speeding
up, the acceleration is in the same direction as the velocity. Thus, this
object has a positive acceleration. In Example B, the object is moving
in the negative direction (i.e., has a negative velocity) and is slowing down. According to
our general principle, when an object is slowing down, the acceleration is in the opposite direction
as the velocity. Thus, this object also has a positive acceleration.

This same general principle can be applied to the motion of the objects represented in the
two data tables below. In each case, the acceleration of the object is in the negative direction. In

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 Example C, the object is moving in the positive direction (i.e., has a positive velocity) and is
slowing down. According to our principle, when an object is slowing down, the acceleration is in
the opposite direction as the velocity. Thus, this object has a negative acceleration. In Example D,
the object is moving in the negative direction (i.e., has a negative velocity) and is speeding up.
When an object is speeding up, the acceleration is in the same direction as the velocity. Thus, this
object also has a negative acceleration.

Observe the use of positive and negative as used in the discussion above (Examples A -
D). In physics, the use of positive and negative always has a physical meaning. It is more than a
mere mathematical symbol. As used here to describe the velocity and the acceleration of a moving
object, positive and negative describe a direction. Both velocity and acceleration are vector
quantities and a full description of the quantity demands the use of a directional adjective. North,
south, east, west, right, left, up and down are all directional adjectives. Physics often borrows from
mathematics and uses the + and - symbols as directional adjectives. Consistent with the
mathematical convention used on number lines and graphs, positive often means to the right or up
and negative often means to the left or down. So to say that an object has a negative acceleration
as in Examples C and D is to simply say that its acceleration is to the left or down (or in whatever
direction has been defined as negative). Negative accelerations do not refer acceleration values
that are less than 0. An acceleration of -2 m/s/s is an acceleration with a magnitude of 2 m/s/s that
is directed in the negative direction.

RESOURCES
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vxFYfumAAlY

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 Our study of 1-dimensional kinematics has been concerned with the multiple means by
which the motion of objects can be represented. Such means include the use of words, the use of
diagrams, the use of numbers, the use of equations, and the use of graphs. This lesson focuses on
the use of position vs. time graphs to describe motion. As we will learn, the specific features of
the motion of objects are demonstrated by the shape and the slope of the lines on a position vs.
time graph. The first part of this lesson involves a study of the relationship between the shape of
a p-t graph and the motion of the object.

Contrasting A Constant and a Changing Velocity

To begin, consider a car moving with a constant, rightward (+) velocity - say of +10 m/s.

If the position-time data for such a car were graphed, then the resulting graph would look
like the graph at the right. Note that a motion described as a constant, positive velocity results in a
line of constant and positive slope when plotted as a position-time graph.

Now consider a car moving with a rightward (+), changing velocity - that is, a car that is
moving rightward but speeding up or accelerating.

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 If the position-time data for such a car were graphed, then the resulting graph would look
like the graph at the right. Note that a motion described as a changing, positive velocity results in
a line of changing and positive slope when plotted as a position-time graph.

The position vs. time graphs for the two types of motion - constant velocity and changing
velocity (acceleration) - are depicted as follows.

Constant Velocity Positive Velocity

Positive Velocity Changing Velocity (acceleration)

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 Contrasting a Slow and a Fast Motion
Consider the graphs below as example applications
of this principle concerning the slope of the line on a
position versus time graph. The graph on the left is
representative of an object that is moving with a positive
velocity (as denoted by the positive slope), a constant
velocity (as denoted by the constant slope) and a small
velocity (as denoted by the small slope). The graph on the
right has similar features - there is a constant, positive velocity (as denoted by the constant, positive
slope). However, the slope of the graph on the right is larger than that on the left. This larger slope
is indicative of a larger velocity. The object represented by the graph on the right is traveling faster
than the object represented by the graph on the left. The principle of slope can be used to extract
relevant motion characteristics from a position vs. time graph. As the slope goes, so goes the
velocity.

Slow, Rightward(+) Fast, Rightward(+)

Constant Velocity Constant Velocity

Consider the graphs below as another

application of this principle of slope. The graph on
the left is representative of an object that is moving
with a negative velocity (as denoted by the
negative slope), a constant velocity (as denoted by
the constant slope) and a small velocity (as
denoted by the small slope). The graph on the right
has similar features - there is a constant, negative
velocity (as denoted by the constant, negative slope). However, the slope of the graph on the right

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 is larger than that on the left. Once more, this larger slope is indicative of a larger velocity. The
object represented by the graph on the right is traveling faster than the object represented by the
graph on the left.

Slow, Leftward(-) Fast, Leftward(-)

Constant Velocity Constant Velocity

Representing an Accelerated Motion

As a final application of this principle of slope, consider the two graphs below. Both graphs
show plotted points forming a curved line. Curved lines have changing slope; they may start with
a very small slope and begin curving sharply (either upwards or downwards) towards a large slope.
In either case, the curved line of changing slope is a sign of accelerated motion (i.e., changing
velocity). Applying the principle of slope to the graph on the left, one would conclude that the
object depicted by the graph is moving with a negative velocity (since the slope is negative ).
Furthermore, the object is starting with a small velocity (the slope starts out with a small slope)
and finishes with a large velocity (the slope becomes large). That would mean that this object is
moving in the negative direction and speeding up (the small velocity turns into a larger velocity).
This is an example of negative acceleration - moving in the negative direction and speeding up.
The graph on the right also depicts an object with negative velocity (since there is a negative slope).
The object begins with a high velocity (the slope is initially large) and finishes with a small velocity
(since the slope becomes smaller). So this object is moving in the negative direction and slowing
down. This is an example of positive acceleration.

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 Negative (-) Velocity Leftward (-) Velocity
Slow to Fast Fast to Slow

The principle of slope is an incredibly useful principle for extracting relevant information
about the motion of objects as described by their position vs. time graph. Once you've practiced
the principle a few times, it becomes a very natural means of analyzing position-time graphs.

Resources
 https://www.ck12.org/physics/Graphing-Motion/lecture/What-is-a-
Graph/?referrer=concept_details

The Meaning of the Velocity vs. Time Graph

Our study of 1-dimensional kinematics has been concerned with the multiple means by
which the motion of objects can be represented. Such means include the use of words, the use of
diagrams, the use of numbers, the use of equations, and the use of graphs. This lesson focuses on
the use of velocity versus time graphs to describe motion. As we will learn, the specific features
of the motion of objects are demonstrated by the shape and the slope of the lines on a velocity vs.
time graph. The first part of this lesson involves a study of the relationship between the shape of a
v-t graph and the motion of the object.

Constant Velocity Versus Changing Velocity

Consider a car moving with a constant, rightward (+) velocity - say of +10 m/s. As learned in an
earlier lesson, a car moving with a constant velocity is a car with zero acceleration.

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 If the velocity-time data for such a car were graphed, then the resulting graph would look
like the graph at the right. Note that a motion described as a constant, positive velocity results in a
line of zero slope (a horizontal line has zero slope) when plotted as a velocity-time graph.
Furthermore, only positive velocity values are plotted, corresponding to a motion with positive
velocity.

Now consider a car moving with a rightward (+), changing velocity - that is, a car that is
moving rightward but speeding up or accelerating. Since the car is moving in the positive direction
and speeding up, the car is said to have a positive acceleration.

If the velocity-time data for such a car were graphed, then the resulting graph would look
like the graph at the right. Note that a motion described as a changing, positive velocity results in
a sloped line when plotted as a velocity-time graph. The slope of the line is positive, corresponding
to the positive acceleration. Furthermore, only positive velocity values are plotted, corresponding
to a motion with positive velocity.

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 The velocity vs. time graphs for the two types of motion - constant velocity and changing
velocity (acceleration) - can be summarized as follows.

Positive Velocity Positive Velocity

Zero Acceleration Positive Acceleration

Positive Velocity Versus Negative Velocity

The answers to these questions hinge on one's ability to read a graph. Since the graph is a
velocity-time graph, the velocity would be positive whenever the line lies in the positive region
(above the x-axis) of the graph. Similarly, the velocity would be negative whenever the line lies in
the negative region (below the x-axis) of the graph. As learned in an earlier lesson, a positive
velocity means the object is moving in the positive direction; and a negative velocity means the
object is moving in the negative direction. So one knows an object is moving in the positive
direction if the line is located in the positive region of the graph (whether it is sloping up or sloping
down). And one knows that an object is moving in the negative direction if the line is located in
the negative region of the graph (whether it is sloping up or sloping down). And finally, if a line

14
 crosses over the x-axis from the positive region to the negative region of the graph (or vice versa),
then the object has changed directions.

Speeding up Versus Slowing Down

Now how can one tell if the object is speeding up or slowing down? Speeding up means
that the magnitude (or numerical value) of the velocity is getting large. For instance, an object with
a velocity changing from +3 m/s to + 9 m/s is speeding up. Similarly, an object with a velocity
changing from -3 m/s to -9 m/s is also speeding up. In each case, the magnitude of the velocity
(the number itself, not the sign or direction) is increasing; the speed is getting bigger. Given this
fact, one would believe that an object is speeding up if the line on a velocity-time graph is changing
from near the 0-velocity point to a location further away from the 0-velocity point. That is, if the
line is getting further away from the x-axis (the 0-velocity point), then the object is speeding up.
And conversely, if the line is approaching the x-axis, then the object is slowing down.

Resources
 https://www.ck12.org/physics/Graphing-Motion/lecture/Velocity-
Graphs/?referrer=concept_details

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 Newton's First Law
In a previous chapter of study, the variety of ways by which motion can
be described (words, graphs, diagrams, numbers, etc.) was discussed. In this unit (Newton's Laws
of Motion), the ways in which motion can be explained will be discussed. Isaac Newton (a 17th
century scientist) put forth a variety of laws that explain why objects move (or don't move) as they
do. These three laws have become known as Newton's three laws of motion. The focus of Lesson
1 is Newton's first law of motion - sometimes referred to as the law of inertia.
Newton's first law of motion is often stated as:
An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed
and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.

There is an important condition that must be met in order for the first law to be applicable
to any given motion. The condition is described by the phrase "... unless acted upon by an
unbalanced force." As the long as the forces are not unbalanced - that is, as long as the forces are
balanced - the first law of motion applies.
Suppose that you filled a baking dish to the rim with water and walked around an oval track
making an attempt to complete a lap in the least amount of time. The water would have a tendency
to spill from the container during specific locations on the track. In general, the water spilled when:

 the container was at rest and you attempted to move it

 the container was in motion and you attempted to stop it
 the container was moving in one direction and you attempted to change its direction.

The water spills whenever the state of motion of

the container is changed. The water resisted this change
in its own state of motion. The water tended to "keep on
doing what it was doing." The container was moved
from rest to a high speed at the starting line; the water
remained at rest and spilled onto the table. The container was stopped near the finish line; the water
kept moving and spilled over container's leading edge. The container was forced to move in a

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 different direction to make it around a curve; the water kept moving in the same direction and
spilled over its edge. The behavior of the water during the lap around the track can be explained
by Newton's first law of motion.

Everyday Applications of Newton's First Law

There are many applications of Newton's first law of motion. Consider some of your
experiences in an automobile. Have you ever observed the behavior of coffee in a coffee cup filled
to the rim while starting a car from rest or while bringing a car to rest from a state of motion?
Coffee "keeps on doing what it is doing." When you accelerate a car from rest, the road provides
an unbalanced force on the spinning wheels to push the car forward; yet the coffee (that was at
rest) wants to stay at rest. While the car accelerates forward, the coffee remains in the same
position; subsequently, the car accelerates out from under the coffee and the coffee spills in your
lap. On the other hand, when braking from a state of motion the coffee continues forward with the
same speed and in the same direction, ultimately hitting the windshield or the dash. Coffee in
motion stays in motion.
Have you ever experienced inertia
(resisting changes in your state of motion) in an
automobile while it is braking to a stop? The force
of the road on the locked wheels provides the
unbalanced force to change the car's state of
motion, yet there is no unbalanced force to change
your own state of motion. Thus, you continue in
motion, sliding along the seat in forward motion. A person in motion stays in motion with the same
speed and in the same direction ... unless acted upon by the unbalanced force of a seat belt. Yes!
Seat belts are used to provide safety for passengers whose motion is governed by Newton's laws.
The seat belt provides the unbalanced force that brings you from a state of motion to a state of rest.
Perhaps you could speculate what would occur when no seat belt is used.

There are many more applications of Newton's first law of motion. Several applications are
listed below. Perhaps you could think about the law of inertia and provide explanations for each
application.

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  Blood rushes from your head to your feet while quickly stopping when
riding on a descending elevator.
 The head of a hammer can be tightened onto the wooden handle by
banging the bottom of the handle against a hard surface.
 A brick is painlessly broken over the hand of a physics teacher by
slamming it with a hammer. (CAUTION: do not attempt this at home!)
 To dislodge ketchup from the bottom of a ketchup bottle, it is often
turned upside down and thrusted downward at high speeds and then
abruptly halted.
 Headrests are placed in cars to prevent whiplash injuries during rear-end collisions.
 While riding a skateboard (or wagon or bicycle), you fly forward off the board when hitting
a curb or rock or other object that abruptly halts the motion of the skateboard.

Try This at Home

Acquire a metal coat hanger for which you have permission to destroy. Pull the coat hanger apart.
Using duct tape, attach two tennis balls to opposite ends of the coat hanger as shown in the diagram
at the right. Bend the hanger so that there is a flat part that balances on the head of a person. The
ends of the hanger with the tennis balls should hang low (below the balancing point). Place the
hanger on your head and balance it. Then quickly spin in a circle. What do the tennis balls do?

INERTIA AND MASS

Newton's first law of motion states that "An object at rest stays at rest and an object in
motion stays in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an
unbalanced force." Objects tend to "keep on doing what they're doing." In fact, it is the natural

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 tendency of objects to resist changes in their state of motion. This tendency to resist changes in
their state of motion is described as inertia.

Inertia: the resistance an object has to a change in its state of motion.

Newton's conception of inertia stood in direct opposition to more popular conceptions
about motion. The dominant thought prior to Newton's day was that it was the natural tendency of
objects to come to a rest position. Moving objects, so it was believed, would eventually stop
moving; a force was necessary to keep an object moving. But if left to itself, a moving object
would eventually come to rest and an object at rest would stay at rest; thus, the idea that dominated
people's thinking for nearly 2000 years prior to Newton was that it was the natural tendency of all
objects to assume a rest position.

GALILEO AND THE CONCEPT OF INERTIA

Galileo, a premier scientist in the seventeenth century, developed the concept of inertia.
Galileo reasoned that moving objects eventually stop because of a force called friction. In
experiments using a pair of inclined planes facing each other, Galileo observed that a ball would
roll down one plane and up the opposite plane to approximately the same height. If smoother planes
were used, the ball would roll up the opposite plane even closer to the original height. Galileo
reasoned that any difference between initial and final heights was due to the presence of friction.
Galileo postulated that if friction could be entirely eliminated, then the ball would reach exactly
the same height.
Galileo further observed that regardless of the angle at which the planes were oriented, the
final height was almost always equal to the initial height. If the slope of the opposite incline were
reduced, then the ball would roll a further distance in order to reach that original height.

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 Galileo's reasoning continued - if the opposite incline were elevated at nearly a 0-degree
angle, then the ball would roll almost forever in an effort to reach the original height. And if the
opposing incline was not even inclined at all (that is, if it were oriented along the horizontal), then
... an object in motion would continue in motion...

Forces Don't Keep Objects Moving

Isaac Newton built on Galileo's thoughts about
motion. Newton's first law of motion declares that a
force is not needed to keep an object in motion. Slide a
book across a table and watch it slide to a rest position.
The book in motion on the table top does not come to a
rest position because of the absence of a force; rather it

20
 is the presence of a force - that force being the force of friction - that brings the book to a rest
position. In the absence of a force of friction, the book would continue in motion with the same
speed and direction - forever! (Or at least to the end of the table top.) A force is not required to
keep a moving book in motion. In actuality, it is a force that brings the book to rest.

Mass as a Measure of the Amount of Inertia

All objects resist changes in their state of
motion. All objects have this tendency - they have
inertia. But do some objects have more of a tendency to
resist changes than others? Absolutely yes! The
tendency of an object to resist changes in its state of
motion varies with mass. Mass is that quantity that
is solely dependent upon the inertia of an object. The
more inertia that an object has, the more mass that it has. A more massive object has a greater
tendency to resist changes in its state of motion.
Suppose that there are two seemingly identical bricks at rest on the physics lecture table.
Yet one brick consists of mortar and the other brick consists of Styrofoam. Without lifting the
bricks, how could you tell which brick was the Styrofoam brick? You could give the bricks an
identical push in an effort to change their state of motion. The brick that offers the least resistance
is the brick with the least inertia - and therefore the brick with the least mass (i.e., the Styrofoam
brick).

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 A common physics demonstration relies on this
principle that the more massive the object, the more that object
resist changes in its state of motion. The demonstration goes as
follows: several massive books are placed upon a teacher's
head. A wooden board is placed on top of the books and a
hammer is used to drive a nail into the board. Due to the large
mass of the books, the force of the hammer is sufficiently
resisted (inertia). This is demonstrated by the fact that the
teacher does not feel the hammer blow. (Of course, this story
may explain many of the observations that you previously have
made concerning your "weird physics teacher.") A common variation of this demonstration
involves breaking a brick over the teacher's hand using the swift blow of a hammer. The massive
bricks resist the force and the hand is not hurt. (CAUTION: do not try these demonstrations at
home.)

Watch it!
A physics instructor explains the property of inertia using a phun physics demonstration.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=--MDILG7Znk

Check your understanding

1. Imagine a place in the cosmos far from all
gravitational and frictional influences. Suppose
that you visit that place (just suppose) and throw
a rock. The rock will
a. gradually stop.
b. continue in motion in the same direction at constant speed.

2. Fred spends most Sunday afternoons at rest on the sofa, watching pro football games and
consuming large quantities of food. What affect (if any) does this practice have upon his
inertia? Explain.

22
 3. Mac and Tosh are arguing in the cafeteria. Mac says that if he flings the Jell-O with a
greater speed it will have a greater inertia. Tosh argues that inertia does not depend upon
speed, but rather upon mass. Who do you agree with? Explain why.

4. Ben is being chased through the woods by a bull moose that he was attempting to
photograph. The enormous mass of the bull moose is extremely intimidating. Yet, if Ben
makes a zigzag pattern through the woods, he will be able to use the large mass of the
moose to his own advantage. Explain this in terms of inertia and Newton's first law of
motion.

5. Two bricks are resting on the edge of the lab table. Shirley stands on her toes and spots the
two bricks. She acquires an intense desire to know which of the two bricks are most
massive. Since Shirley is vertically challenged, she is unable to reach high enough and lift
the bricks; she can however reach high enough to give the bricks a push. Discuss how the
process of pushing the bricks will allow Shirley to determine which of the two bricks is
most massive. What difference will Shirley observe and how can this observation lead to
the necessary conclusion?

State of motion
Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist changes in its state of motion. But what is meant
by the phrase state of motion? The state of motion of an object is defined by its velocity - the speed
with a direction. Thus, inertia could be redefined as follows:

Inertia: Tendency of an object to resist changes in its velocity

An object at rest has zero velocity - and (in the absence of an unbalanced force) will remain
with a zero velocity. Such an object will not change its state of motion (i.e., velocity) unless acted
upon by an unbalanced force. An object in motion with a velocity of 2 m/s, East will (in the absence
of an unbalanced force) remain in motion with a velocity of 2 m/s, East. Such an object will not
change its state of motion (i.e., velocity) unless acted upon by an unbalanced force. Objects resist
changes in their velocity.
As we learned, an object that is not changing its velocity is said to have an acceleration of
0 m/s/s. Thus, we could provide an alternative means of defining inertia:
Inertia: tendency of an object to resist acceleration.

23
 Watch it!
An air track glider is shown moving across an air track. Air is blown through many small
holes in the track in order to lift the glider off the track. This reduces, maybe even eliminates, the
action of surface friction upon the glider. The glider moves with what seems to be a constant speed
motion. As they say: objects in motion stay in motion.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V366mKDPxgs

Check your understanding

1. A group of physics teachers is taking some time off for a little putt-
putt golf. The 15th hole at the Hole-In-One Putt-Putt Golf Course
has a large metal rim that putters must use to guide their ball
towards the hole. Mr. S guides a golf ball around the metal rim
When the ball leaves the rim, which path (1, 2, or 3) will the golf
ball follow?

2. A 4.0-kg object is moving across a friction-free surface with a constant velocity of 2 m/s.
Which one of the following horizontal forces is necessary to maintain this state of motion?

a. 0 N
b. 0.5 N c. 2.0 N d. 8.0 N

e. depends on the speed.

Balanced and unbalanced forces

Newton's first law of motion has been frequently stated throughout this lesson.
An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed
and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.

Balanced Forces
But what exactly is meant by the phrase unbalanced force? What is an unbalanced force?
In pursuit of an answer, we will first consider a physics book at rest on a tabletop. There are two
forces acting upon the book. One force - the Earth's gravitational pull - exerts a downward force.

24
 The other force - the push of the table on the book (sometimes referred to as a normal force) -
pushes upward on the book.

Since these two forces are of equal magnitude and in opposite directions, they balance each
other. The book is said to be at equilibrium. There is no unbalanced force acting upon the book
and thus the book maintains its state of motion. When all the forces acting upon an object balance
each other, the object will be at equilibrium; it will not accelerate.
Consider another example involving balanced forces - a person standing on the floor. There
are two forces acting upon the person. The force of gravity exerts a downward force. The floor
exerts an upward force.

25
 Since these two forces are of equal magnitude and in opposite directions, they balance each
other. The person is at equilibrium. There is no unbalanced force acting upon the person and thus
the person maintains its state of motion.

Unbalanced Forces
Now consider a book sliding from left to right across a tabletop. Sometime in the prior
history of the book, it may have been given a shove and set in motion from a rest position. Or
perhaps it acquired its motion by sliding down an incline from an elevated position. Whatever the
case, our focus is not upon the history of the book but rather upon the current situation of a book
sliding to the right across a tabletop. The book is in motion and at the moment there is no one
pushing it to the right. (Remember: a force is not needed to keep a moving object moving to the
right.) The forces acting upon the book are shown below.

The force of gravity pulling downward and the force of the table pushing upwards on the
book are of equal magnitude and opposite directions. These two forces balance each other. Yet
there is no force present to balance the force of friction. As the book moves to the right, friction
acts to the left to slow the book down. There is an unbalanced force; and as such, the book changes
its state of motion. The book is not at equilibrium and subsequently accelerates. Unbalanced forces
cause accelerations. In this case, the unbalanced force is directed opposite the book's motion and
will cause it to slow down.
To determine if the forces acting upon an object are balanced or unbalanced, an analysis
must first be conducted to determine what forces are acting upon the object and in what direction.
If two individual forces are of equal magnitude and opposite direction, then the forces are said to

26
 be balanced. An object is said to be acted upon by an unbalanced force only when there is an
individual force that is not being balanced by a force of equal magnitude and in the opposite
direction.

Check your understanding

Luke Autbeloe drops an approximately 5.0 kg box of shingles (weight = 50.0 N) off the
roof of his house into the swimming pool below. Upon encountering the pool, the box encounters
a 50.0 N upward resistance force (assumed to be constant). Use this description to answer the
following questions. Click the button to view the correct answers.

1. Which one of the velocity-time graphs best describes the motion of the box? Support your
answer with sound reasoning.

2. Which one of the following dot diagrams best describes the motion of the falling box from
the time that they are dropped to the time that they hit the bottom of the pool? The arrows on the
diagram represent the point at which the box hits the water. Support your answer with sound
reasoning.

27
 3. Several of Luke's friends were watching the motion of the falling box. Being "physics
types", they began discussing the motion and made the following comments. Indicate whether
each of the comments is correct or incorrect? Support your answers.
a. Once the box hits the water, the forces are balanced and the box will stop.
b. Upon hitting the water, the box will accelerate upwards because the water applies an
upward force.
c. Upon hitting the water, the box will bounce upwards due to the upward force.

4. If the forces acting upon an object are balanced, then the object
a. must not be moving.
b. must be moving with a constant velocity.
c. must not be accelerating.
d. none of these

Newton's Second Law

Newton's first law of motion predicts the behavior of objects for which all existing forces
are balanced. The first law - sometimes referred to as the law of inertia - states that if the forces
acting upon an object are balanced, then the acceleration of that object will be 0 m/s/s. Objects
at equilibrium (the condition in which all forces balance) will not accelerate. According to
Newton, an object will only accelerate if there is a net or unbalanced force acting upon it. The
presence of an unbalanced force will accelerate an object - changing its speed, its direction, or both
its speed and direction.

28
 Newton's second law of motion pertains to the behavior of objects for which all existing
forces are not balanced. The second law states that the acceleration of an object is dependent upon
two variables - the net force acting upon the object and the mass of the object. The acceleration of
an object depends directly upon the net force acting upon the object, and inversely upon the mass
of the object. As the force acting upon an object is increased, the acceleration of the object is
increased. As the mass of an object is increased, the acceleration of the object is decreased.

The big equation

Newton's second law of motion can be formally stated as follows:
The acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the net force, in the same direction as the net force, and inversely proportional to the
mass of the object.
This verbal statement can be expressed in equation form as follows:
a = Fnet / m
The above equation is often rearranged to a more familiar form as shown below. The net
force is equated to the product of the mass times the acceleration.
Fnet = m • a

29
 In this entire discussion, the emphasis has been on the net force. The
acceleration is directly proportional to the net force; the net force equals mass
times acceleration; the acceleration in the same direction as the net force; an
acceleration is produced by a net force. The NET FORCE. It is important to
remember this distinction. Do not use the value of merely "any 'ole force" in the
above equation. It is the net force that is related to acceleration. The net force is the vector sum of
all the forces. If all the individual forces acting upon an object are known, then the net force can
be determined.
Consistent with the above equation, a unit of force is equal to a unit of mass times a unit
of acceleration. By substituting standard metric units for force, mass, and acceleration into the
above equation, the following unit equivalency can be written.
1 Newton = 1 kg • m/s2
The definition of the standard metric unit of force is stated by the above equation. One
Newton is defined as the amount of force required to give a 1-kg mass an acceleration of 1 m/s/s.

Check your understanding

1. Determine the accelerations that result when a 12-N net force is applied to a 3-kg object
and then to a 6-kg object.
2. A net force of 15 N is exerted on an encyclopedia to cause it to accelerate at a rate of 5
m/s2. Determine the mass of the encyclopedia.
3. Suppose that a sled is accelerating at a rate of 2 m/s2. If the net force is tripled and the mass
is doubled, then what is the new acceleration of the sled?
4. Suppose that a sled is accelerating at a rate of 2 m/s2. If the net force is tripled and the mass
is halved, then what is the new acceleration of the sled?

Newton's Third Law

A force is a push or a pull that acts upon an object as a result of its interaction with another
object. Forces result from interactions! As discussed in the previous lesson, some forces result
from contact interactions (normal, frictional, tensional, and applied forces are examples of contact
forces) and other forces are the result of action-at-a-distance interactions (gravitational, electrical,
and magnetic forces). According to Newton, whenever objects A and B interact with each other,

30
 they exert forces upon each other. When you sit in your chair, your body exerts a downward force
on the chair and the chair exerts an upward force on your body. There are two forces resulting
from this interaction - a force on the chair and a force on your body. These two forces are
called action and reaction forces and are the subject of Newton's third law of motion. Formally
stated, Newton's third law is:

For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

The statement means that in every interaction, there is a pair
of forces acting on the two interacting objects. The size of the forces
on the first object equals the size of the force on the second object.
The direction of the force on the first object is opposite to the
direction of the force on the second object. Forces always come in
pairs - equal and opposite action-reaction force pairs.

Examples of Interaction Force Pairs

A variety of action-reaction force pairs are evident in nature. Consider the propulsion of a
fish through the water. A fish uses its fins to push water backwards. But a push on the water will
only serve to accelerate the water. Since forces result from mutual interactions, the water must also
be pushing the fish forwards, propelling the fish through the water. The size of the force on the
water equals the size of the force on the fish; the direction of the force on the water (backwards)
is opposite the direction of the force on the fish (forwards). For every action, there is an equal (in
size) and opposite (in direction) reaction force. Action-reaction force pairs make it possible for
fish to swim.
Consider the flying motion of birds. A bird flies by using its
wings. The wings of a bird push air downwards. Since forces result
from mutual interactions, the air must also be pushing the bird
upwards. The size of the force on the air equals the size of the force
on the bird; the direction of the force on the air (downwards) is
opposite the direction of the force on the bird (upwards). For every
action, there is an equal (in size) and opposite (in direction) reaction.
Action-reaction force pairs make it possible for birds to fly.

31
 Consider the motion of a car on the way to school. A car is equipped with wheels that spin.
As the wheels spin, they grip the road and push the road backwards. Since forces result from
mutual interactions, the road must also be pushing the wheels forward. The size of the force on the
road equals the size of the force on the wheels (or car); the direction of the force on the road
(backwards) is opposite the direction of the force on the wheels (forwards). For every action, there
is an equal (in size) and opposite (in direction) reaction. Action-reaction force pairs make it
possible for cars to move along a roadway surface.

Identifying Action and Reaction Force Pairs

According to Newton's third law, for every action force there is an equal (in size) and
opposite (in direction) reaction force. Forces always come in pairs - known as "action-reaction
force pairs." Identifying and describing action-reaction force pairs is a simple matter of identifying
the two interacting objects and making two statements describing who is pushing on whom and in
what direction. For example, consider the interaction between a baseball bat and a baseball.

The baseball forces the bat to the left; the bat forces the ball to the right. Together, these
two forces exerted upon two different objects form the action-reaction force pair. Note that in the
description of the two forces, the nouns in the sentence describing the forces simply switch places.

32
 Consider the following three examples. One of the forces in the mutual interaction is
described; describe the other force in the action-reaction force pair.

Baseball pushes glove leftwards.

(The glove pushes the baseball rightward.)

Bowling ball pushes pin leftwards.

(Pin pushes bowling ball rightward.)

Enclosed air particles push balloon wall outwards.

(Balloon wall pushes enclosed air particles inwards.)

33
 Check your understanding

1. Consider the interaction depicted below between foot A, ball B, and foot C. The three
objects interact simultaneously (at the same time). Identify the two pairs of action-
reaction forces. Use the notation "foot A", "foot C", and "ball B" in your statements. Click
the button to view the answer.

2. Identify at least six pairs of action-reaction force pairs in the following diagram.

Resultant Vectors

A study of motion will involve the introduction of a variety of quantities that are used to
describe the physical world. Examples of such quantities include distance, displacement, speed,
velocity, acceleration, force, mass, momentum, energy, work, power, etc. All these quantities can
be divided into two categories - vectors and scalars. A vector quantity is a quantity that is fully
described by both magnitude and direction. On the other hand, a scalar quantity is a quantity that
is fully described by its magnitude. The emphasis of this unit is to understand some fundamentals

34
 about vectors and to apply the fundamentals in order to understand motion and forces that occur
in two dimensions.
Examples of vector quantities that have
been previously discussed include
displacement, velocity, acceleration,
and force. Each of these quantities are unique
in that a full description of the quantity
demands that both a magnitude and a direction
are listed. For example, suppose your teacher
tells you "A bag of gold is located outside the classroom. To find it, displace yourself 20 meters."
This statement may provide yourself enough information to pique your interest; yet, there is not
enough information included in the statement to find the bag of gold. The displacement required
to find the bag of gold has not been fully described. On the other hand, suppose your teacher tells
you "A bag of gold is located outside the classroom. To find it, displace yourself from the center
of the classroom door 20 meters in a direction 30 degrees to the west of north." This statement
now provides a complete description of the displacement vector - it lists both magnitude (20
meters) and direction (30 degrees to the west of north) relative to a reference or starting position
(the center of the classroom door). Vector quantities are not fully described unless both magnitude
and direction are listed.

Representing Vectors
Vector quantities are often represented by
scaled vector diagrams. Vector diagrams depict a vector by
use of an arrow drawn to scale in a specific direction. Vector
diagrams were introduced and used in earlier units to depict
the forces acting upon an object. Such diagrams are
commonly called as free-body diagrams. An example of a
scaled vector diagram is shown in the diagram at the right.
The vector diagram depicts a displacement vector. Observe
that there are several characteristics of this diagram that
make it an appropriately drawn vector diagram.

35
  a scale is clearly listed
 a vector arrow (with arrowhead) is drawn in a specified direction. The vector arrow has
a head and a tail.
 the magnitude and direction of the vector is clearly labeled. In this case, the diagram
shows the magnitude is 20 m and the direction is (30 degrees West of North).

Conventions for Describing Directions of Vectors

Vectors can be directed due East, due West, due South,
and due North. But some vectors are directed northeast (at a 45
degree angle); and some vectors are even directed northeast, yet
more north than east. Thus, there is a clear need for some form
of a convention for identifying the direction of a vector that
is not due East, due West, due South, or due North. There are a
variety of conventions for describing the direction of any vector.
The two conventions that will be discussed and used in this unit
are described below:

1. The direction of a vector is often expressed as an angle of rotation of the vector about its
"tail" from east, west, north, or south. For example, a vector can be said to have a direction
of 40 degrees North of West (meaning a vector pointing West has been rotated 40 degrees
towards the northerly direction) of 65 degrees East of South (meaning a vector pointing
South has been rotated 65 degrees towards the easterly direction).
2. The direction of a vector is often expressed as a counterclockwise angle of rotation of the
vector about its "tail" from due East. Using this convention, a vector with a direction of 30
degrees is a vector that has been rotated 30 degrees in a counter-clockwise direction relative

36
 to due east. A vector with a direction of 160 degrees is a vector that has been rotated 160
degrees in a counter-clockwise direction relative to due east. A vector with a direction of
270 degrees is a vector that has been rotated 270 degrees in a counter-clockwise direction
relative to due east. This is one of the most common conventions for the direction of a
vector and will be utilized throughout this unit.

Two illustrations of the second convention (discussed above) for identifying the direction of
a vector are shown below.

Observe in the first example that the vector is said to have a direction of 40 degrees. You
can think of this direction as follows: suppose a vector pointing East had its tail pinned down and
then the vector was rotated an angle of 40 degrees in the counter-clockwise direction. Observe in
the second example that the vector is said to have a direction of 240 degrees. This means that the
tail of the vector was pinned down and the vector was rotated an angle of 240 degrees in the
counter-clockwise direction beginning from due east. A rotation of 240 degrees is equivalent to
rotating the vector through two quadrants (180 degrees) and then an additional 60 degrees into
the third quadrant.

Representing the Magnitude of a Vector

The magnitude of a vector in a scaled vector diagram is
depicted by the length of the arrow. The arrow is drawn a precise
length in accordance with a chosen scale. For example, the diagram
at the right shows a vector with a magnitude of 20 miles. Since the

37
 scale used for constructing the diagram is 1 cm = 5 miles, the vector arrow is drawn with a length
of 4 cm. That is, 4 cm x (5 miles/1 cm) = 20 miles.
Using the same scale (1 cm = 5 miles), a displacement vector that is 15 miles will be
represented by a vector arrow that is 3 cm in length. Similarly, a 25-mile displacement vector is
represented by a 5-cm long vector arrow. And finally, an 18-mile displacement vector is
represented by a 3.6-cm long arrow. See the examples shown below.

In conclusion, vectors can be represented by use of a scaled vector diagram. On such a

diagram, a vector arrow is drawn to represent the vector. The arrow has an obvious tail and
arrowhead. The magnitude of a vector is represented by the length of the arrow. A scale is indicated
(such as, 1 cm = 5 miles) and the arrow is drawn the proper length according to the chosen scale.
The arrow points in the precise direction. Directions are described by the use of some convention.
The most common convention is that the direction of a vector is the counter-clockwise angle of
rotation which that vector makes with respect to due East.

Mathematical Applications: Vector Addition

A variety of mathematical operations can be performed with and upon vectors. One such
operation is the addition of vectors. Two vectors can be added together to determine the result (or
resultant). This process of adding two or more vectors has already been discussed in an earlier unit.
Recall in our discussion of Newton's laws of motion, that the net force experienced by an object
was determined by computing the vector sum of all the individual forces acting upon that object.
That is the net force was the result (or resultant) of adding up all the force vectors. During that

38
 unit, the rules for summing vectors (such as force vectors) were kept relatively simple. Observe
the following summations of two force vectors:

These rules for summing vectors were applied to free-body diagrams in order to determine the net
force (i.e., the vector sum of all the individual forces). Sample applications are shown in the
diagram below.

In this unit, the task of summing vectors will be extended to more complicated cases in
which the vectors are directed in directions other than purely vertical and horizontal directions.
For example, a vector directed up and to the right will be added to a vector directed up and to the
left. The vector sum will be determined for the more complicated cases shown in the diagrams
below.

39
 There are a variety of methods for determining the magnitude and direction of the result of
adding two or more vectors. The two methods that will be discussed in this lesson and used
throughout the entire unit are:

 the Pythagorean theorem and trigonometric methods

 the head-to-tail method using a scaled vector diagram

The Pythagorean Theorem

The Pythagorean theorem is a useful method for determining the result of adding two (and
only two) vectors that make a right angle to each other. The method is not applicable for adding
more than two vectors or for adding vectors that are not at 90-degrees to each other. The
Pythagorean theorem is a mathematical equation that relates the length of the sides of a right
triangle to the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle.

To see how the method works, consider the following problem:

Eric leaves the base camp and hikes 11 km, north and then hikes 11 km east.
Determine Eric's resulting displacement.

40
 This problem asks to determine the result of adding two displacement vectors that are
at right angles to each other. The result (or resultant) of walking 11 km north and 11 km east is
a vector directed northeast as shown in the diagram to the right. Since the northward
displacement and the eastward displacement are at right angles to each other, the Pythagorean
theorem can be used to determine the resultant (i.e., the hypotenuse of the right triangle).

The result of adding 11 km, north plus 11 km, east is a vector with a magnitude of 15.6
km. Later, the method of determining the direction of the vector will be discussed.

Review

Resources
 https://www.ck12.org/physics/vectors-in-physics/lecture/Vector-
Problem/?referrer=concept_details
 https://www.ck12.org/physics/vectors-in-physics/enrichment/Vector-Operations-
Using-Components-Example-4/?referrer=concept_details

41
 The Meaning of Force
A force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's interaction with
another object. Whenever there is an interaction between two objects, there is a force upon each
of the objects. When the interaction ceases, the two objects no longer experience the force.
Forces only exist as a result of an interaction.

Contact versus Non-Contact Forces

For simplicity sake, all forces (interactions) between objects can be placed into two broad
categories:

 contact forces, and

 forces resulting from action-at-a-distance

Contact forces are those types of forces that result when the two interacting objects are
perceived to be physically contacting each other. Examples of contact forces include frictional
forces, tensional forces, normal forces, air resistance forces, and applied forces.

Non-contact forces are those types of forces that result even when the two interacting objects
are not in physical contact with each other, yet are able to exert a push or pull despite their physical
separation. Examples of action-at-a-distance forces include gravitational forces. For example, the
sun and planets exert a gravitational pull on each other despite their large spatial separation. Even
when your feet leave the earth and you are no longer in physical contact with the earth, there is a
gravitational pull between you and the Earth. Electric forces are action-at-a-distance forces. For
example, the protons in the nucleus of an atom and the electrons outside the nucleus experience an
electrical pull towards each other despite their small spatial separation. And magnetic forces are
action-at-a-distance forces. For example, two magnets can exert a magnetic pull on each other
even when separated by a distance of a few centimeters.

42
 Examples of contact and action-at-distance forces are listed in the table below.

Contact Forces Non-contact forces

Frictional Force Gravitational Force

Tension Force Electrical Force

Normal Force Magnetic Force

Air Resistance Force

Applied Force

Spring Force

TYPES OF FORCES

Electrostatic and Magnetic Force

Suppose that you rubbed a balloon with a sample of animal fur such as a wool sweater or
even your own hair. The balloon would likely become charged and its charge would exert a strange
influence upon other objects in its vicinity. If some small bits of paper were placed upon a table
and the balloon were brought near and held above the paper bits, then the presence of the charged
balloon might create a sufficient attraction for the paper bits to raise them off the table. This
influence - known as an electric force - occurs even when the charged balloon is held some distance
away from the paper bits. The electric force is a non-contact force. Any charged object can exert
this force upon other objects - both charged and uncharged objects.

43
 Opposites attract. And likes to repel.

These two fundamental principles of charge interactions will be used throughout the unit
to explain the vast array of static electricity phenomena. As mentioned in the previous section of
Lesson 1, there are two types of electrically charged objects - those that contain more protons than
electrons and are said to be positively charged and those that contain less protons than electrons
and are said to be negatively charged. These two types of electrical charges - positive and negative
- are said to be opposite types of charge. And consistent with our fundamental principle of charge
interaction, a positively charged object will attract a negatively charged object. Oppositely charged
objects will exert an attractive influence upon each other. In contrast to the attractive force between
two objects with opposite charges, two objects that are of like charge will repel each other. That
is, a positively charged object will exert a repulsive force upon a second positively charged object.
This repulsive force will push the two objects apart. Similarly, a negatively charged object will
exert a repulsive force upon a second negatively charged object. Objects with charges repel each
other.

Interaction Between Charged and Neutral Objects

The interaction between two like-charged objects is repulsive. The interaction between two
oppositely charged objects is attractive. What type of interaction is observed between a charged
object and a neutral object? The answer is quite surprising to many students of physics. Any
charged object - whether positively charged or negatively charged - will have an attractive

44
 interaction with a neutral object. Positively charged objects and neutral objects attract each other;
and negatively charged objects and neutral objects attract each other.

This third interaction between charged and neutral objects is often demonstrated by physics
teachers or experienced by students in physics lab activities. For instance, if a charged balloon is
held above neutral bits of paper, the force of attraction for the paper bits will be strong enough to
overwhelm the downward force of gravity and raise the bits of paper off the table. If a charged
plastic tube is held above some bits of paper, the tube will exert an attractive influence upon the
paper to raise it off the table. And to the bewilderment of many, a charged rubber balloon can be
attracted to a wooden cabinet with enough force that it sticks to the cabinet. Any charged object -
plastic, rubber, or aluminum - will exert an attractive force upon a neutral object. And in
accordance with Newton's law of action-reaction, the neutral object attracts the charged object.

What is the magnetic force?

The magnetic force is a consequence of the electromagnetic force, one of the four
fundamental forces of nature, and is caused by the motion of charges. Two objects containing
charge with the same direction of motion have a magnetic attraction force between them. Similarly,
objects with charge moving in opposite directions have a repulsive force between them.

In our article on magnetic fields we learned how moving charge surrounds itself with a
magnetic field. In this context the magnetic force is a force that arises due to interacting magnetic
fields.

45
 How to find the magnetic force?

Consider two objects. The magnitude of the magnetic force between them depends on how
much charge is in how much motion in each of the two objects and how far apart they are. The
direction of the force depends on the relative directions of motion of the charge in each case.

The usual way to go about finding the magnetic force is framed in terms of a fixed amount
of charge q moving at constant velocity v in a uniform magnetic field B. If we don't know the
magnitude of the magnetic field directly then we can still use this method because it is often
possible to calculate the magnetic field based on the distance to a known current.

Check your understanding

Use your understanding of charge to answer the following questions.

1. Electrical forces ____.

a. can cause objects to only attract each other
b. can cause objects to only repel each other
c. can cause objects to attract or repel each other
d. have no effect on objects

2. On two occasions, the following charge interactions between balloons A, B and C are
observed. In each case, it is known that balloon B is charged negatively. Based on these

46
 observations, what can you conclusively confirm about the charge on balloon A and C for each
situation?

3. Upon entering the room, you observe two balloons

suspended from the ceiling. You notice that instead of
hanging straight down vertically, the balloons seem to be
repelling each other. You can conclusively say ...

a. Both balloons have a negative charge.

b. both balloons have a positive charge.
c. one balloon is charged positively and the other negatively.
d. both balloons are charged with the same type of charge.
Explain your answer.

4. Two objects are charged as shown at the right. Object X

will ____ object Y.
a. attract
b. repel
c. not affect

5. Balloons X , Y and Z are suspended from

strings as shown at the right. Negatively charged
balloon X attracts balloon Y and balloon Y attracts
balloon Z. Balloon Z ____. List all that apply.

a. may be positively charged

b. may be negatively charged
c. may be neutral
d. must be positively charged
e. must be negatively charged
f. must be neutral

RESOURCES

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FTvhPBFGybA

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 Tension and Elastics (Spring)

What will happen to this bungee jumper when he reaches the end of the bungee cord? He
won’t come to an abrupt stop. If he did, he might be seriously hurt. Instead, the cord will
stretch while slowing his fall.
Q: What will happen next?

A: The cord will only stretch so far, and then it will snap back to its original shape,
causing the jumper to bounce back up. Bungee cords are useful for this purpose because they
are elastic.

Elastic force can be very useful and not just for bungee jumping. In fact, you probably
use elastic force every day. A few common uses of elastic force are shown in the Figure
below. Do you use elastic force in any of these ways?

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 Examples of elastic objects
Q: How does the resistance band work? How does it use elastic force?

A: When you pull on the band, it stretches but doesn’t break. The resistance you feel when
you pull on it is elastic force. The farther you stretch the band, the greater the resistance is.
The resistance of the band to stretching is what gives your muscles a workout. After you
stop pulling on the band, it returns to its original shape, ready for the next stretch.

Springs like the spring toy pictured in the Figure below also have elastic force when they
are stretched or compressed. And like stretchy materials, they return to their original shape when
the stretching or compressing force is released. Springs are used in scales to measure weight. They
also cushion the ride in a car.

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 Q: Can you think of other uses of springs?

A: Bedsprings provide springy support beneath a mattress. The spring in a door closer pulls
the door shut. The spring in a retractable ballpoint pen retracts the point of the pen. The
spring in a pogo stick bounces the rider up off the ground.

EXPLORE MORE
At the following URL, read the short article on elasticity and watch the earthquake
animation. Then answer the questions below.
(http://www.scec.org/education/k12/learn/eq5.htm)
1. Which of the following have elastic properties?
a. pencils
b. rocks
c. rubber bands
d. all of the above

2. Materials with elastic properties have a point at which any additional force will
permanently change the object's shape. That point is called the
a. elastic force.
b. rigid structure.
c. elastic limit.
d. breaking point.

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 3. Elastic rebound occurs when materials
a. return to their original shape.
b. stretch beyond their normal limit.
c. permanently change their shape.
d. become brittle and break.

4. Which type of material is most likely to withstand an earthquake without breaking?

a. rigid material
b. compressed material.
c. elastic material.
d. deformed material.

5. In an earthquake, seismic waves are generated by

a. rock displacement.
b. elastic rebound.
c. elastic breakage.
d. plastic deformation.

Check your understanding

1. What is elasticity?
2. How does an elastic material exert elastic force?
3. Explain how elastic force is used to shoot an arrow from a bow.

RESOURCES
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A3FgahPrN6s
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eaICwFMHcaY

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 Buoyant Force
Have you ever dropped your swimming goggles in the deepest part of the pool and tried to
swim down to get them? It can be frustrating because the water tries to push you back up to the
surface as you're swimming downward. The name of this upward force exerted on objects
submerged in fluids is the buoyant force.

So why do fluids exert an upward buoyant force on submerged objects? It has to do with
differences in pressure between the bottom of the submerged object and the top. Say someone
dropped a can of beans in a pool of water.

Because pressure increases as you go deeper in a fluid, the force from pressure exerted
downward on the top of the can of beans will be less than the force from pressure exerted upward
on the bottom of the can.
Essentially it's that simple. The reason there's a buoyant force is because of the rather
unavoidable fact that the bottom (i.e. more submerged part) of an object is always deeper in a fluid
than the top of the object. This means the upward force from water has to be greater than the
downward force from water.

RESOURCES
 https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/fluids/buoyant-force-and-archimedes-
principle/v/fluids-part-6

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 Friction and Air Resistance

The friction force is the force exerted by a surface as an object moves across it or makes
an effort to move across it. There are at least two types of friction force - sliding and static friction.
Though it is not always the case, the friction force often opposes the motion of an object. For
example, if a book slides across the surface of a desk, then the desk exerts a friction force in the
opposite direction of its motion. Friction results from the two surfaces being pressed together
closely, causing intermolecular attractive forces between molecules of different surfaces. As such,
friction depends upon the nature of the two surfaces and upon the degree to which they are pressed
together.
As an object falls through air, it usually encounters some degree of air resistance. Air
resistance is the result of collisions of the object's leading surface with air molecules. The actual
amount of air resistance encountered by the object is dependent upon a variety of factors. To keep
the topic simple, it can be said that the two most common factors that have a direct effect upon the
amount of air resistance are the speed of the object and the cross-sectional area of the object.
Increased speeds result in an increased amount of air resistance. Increased cross-sectional areas
result in an increased amount of air resistance.

Check your understanding

1. An object is falling downward through Earth's atmosphere. In which direction is the air
resistance force?

a. Down
b. Around the object
c. Up
d. Through the object

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 2. An airplane flies east at 400 km/hr. In which direction is the air resistance force acting
upon the airplane?

a. East
b. Up
c. West
d. Down

3. Friction is a force that acts in an ___________ direction of movement.

a. similar
b. parallel
c. opposite
d. west

4. How can friction be reduced?

a. reduce the force acting between the 2 surfaces

b. use wax, grease or oil
c. reduce the roughness of the 2 surfaces coming in contact
d. all of the above are ways of reducing friction

5. How would the absence of friction affect a marble traveling on a long, straight path?

a. The marble’s speed would decrease.

b. The marble would stop immediately.
c. The marble’s speed would increase.
d. The marble would remain at constant speed.

54
 Gravity
The force of gravity is the force with which the earth, moon, or other massively large object
attracts another object towards itself. By definition, this is the weight of the object. All objects
upon earth experience a force of gravity that is directed "downward" towards the center of the
earth. The force of gravity on earth is always equal to the weight of the object as found by the
equation:

Fgrav = m * g
where g = 9.8 N/kg (on Earth)
and m = mass (in kg)

Confusion of Mass and Weight

A few further comments should be added about the single force that is a source of much
confusion to many students of physics - the force of gravity. As mentioned above, the force of
gravity acting upon an object is sometimes referred to as the weight of the object. Many students
of physics confuse weight with mass. The mass of an object refers to the amount of matter that is
contained by the object; the weight of an object is the force of gravity acting upon that object.
Mass is related to how much stuff is there and weight is related to the pull of the Earth (or any
other planet) upon that stuff. The mass of an object (measured in kg) will be the same no matter
where in the universe that object is located. Mass is never altered by location, the pull of gravity,
speed or even the existence of other forces. For example, a 2-kg object will have a mass of 2 kg
whether it is located on Earth, the moon, or Jupiter; its mass will be 2 kg whether it is moving or
not (at least for purposes of our study); and its mass will be 2 kg whether it is being pushed upon
or not.
On the other hand, the weight of an object (measured in Newton) will vary according to
where in the universe the object is. Weight depends upon which planet is exerting the force and
the distance the object is from the planet. Weight, being equivalent to the force of gravity, is
dependent upon the value of g - the gravitational field strength. On earth's surface g is 9.8 N/kg
(often approximated as 10 N/kg). On the moon's surface, g is 1.7 N/kg. Go to another planet, and
there will be another g value. Furthermore, the g value is inversely proportional to the distance

55
 from the center of the planet. So if we were to measure g at a distance of 400 km above the earth's
surface, then we would find the g value to be less than 9.8 N/kg. Always be cautious of the
distinction between mass and weight. It is the source of much confusion for many students of
physics.

Check your understanding

1. When you make a right turn at constant speed in your car what is the force that causes you
(not the car) to change the direction of your velocity? Choose the best possible answer.
a. Friction between your butt and the seat
b. Inertia
c. Air resistance
d. Tension
e. All of the above
f. None of the above

2. A pendulum consisting of a rope with a ball attached at the end is

swinging back and forth. As it swings downward to the right the ball is
released at its lowest point. Decide which way the ball attached at the
end of the string will go at the moment it Is released.

a. Straight upwards
b. Straight downwards
c. Directly right
d. Directly left
e. It will stop

3. Explain using Newton’s Second Law why an object moving in a

circle must experience a net force towards the center of the circle.

56
 4. Using the known distance Earth is from the sun, calculate the speed that Earth is moving
through space in relation to the sun.

5. Using the known distance the moon is from

Earth, calculate the speed that the moon is
moving through space in relation to Earth.

Weather satellites, like the one shown above, are found miles above the earth's surface.
Satellites can be polar orbiting, meaning they cover the entire Earth asynchronously, or
geostationary, in which they hover over the same spot on the equator.

Moment of Force

It is difficult to tighten a nut with your fingers. But with

a spanner, you can produce a larger turning effect. The
turning effect is even greater if you increase the force or
use a longer spanner. The turning effect of a force is called
a moment. It is calculated like this:

Below, there are some examples of forces and their moments. Moments are described as clockwise
or anticlockwise, depending on their direction. The moment of a force is also called a torque

57
 The principle of moments
In diagram A below, the bar is in a state of balance, or equilibrium. Note that the anticlockwise
moment about O is equal to the clockwise moment. One turning effect balances the other. In
diagram B, there are more forces acting but, once again, the bar is in equilibrium. This time, the
total clockwise moment about O is equal to the anticlockwise moment.

These examples illustrate the principle of moments.

If an object is in equilibrium:
the sum of the clockwise moments about any point is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise
moments about that point.

Conditions for Equilibrium

If an object is in equilibrium, the forces on it must balance as well as the as their turning effects.
So:

58
  The sum of the forces in one direction must equal the sum of the forces in the opposite
direction.
 The principle of moments must apply.

For example, in diagram A on the opposite page, the upward force from the support must be 15 N,
to balance the 10 N + 5 N total downward force. Also, if you take moments about any point, for
example P, the total clockwise moment must equal the total anticlockwise moment.
When taking moments about P, you need to include the moment of the upward force from the
support. This doesn't arise when taking moments about O because the force has no moment about
that point.

Example:
Example: Below right, someone of weight 500 N is standing on a plank supported by two trestles.
Calculate the upward forces, X and Y, exerted by the trestles on the plank. (Assume the plank has
negligible weight.)
The system is in equilibrium, so the principle of moments applies. You can take moments about
any point. But taking moments about A or B gets rid of one of the unknowns, X or Y.

Taking moments about A:

clockwise moment = 500 N x 2 m = 1000 N m
anticlockwise moment = Y x 5 m
As the moments balance, 5 Y m = 1000 N m
so: Y = 200 N

From here, there are two methods of finding X. Either take moments about B and do a calculation
like the one above. Or use the fact that X + Y must equal the 500 N downward force. By either
method: X = 300 N

Check your understanding

1. The moment (turning effect) of a force depends on two factors. What are they?
2. What is the principle of moments? What other rule also applies if an object is in
equilibrium?

59
 3. Below, someone is trying to balance a plank with stones. The plank has negligible weight.
a. Calculate the moment of the 4 N force about O.
b. Calculate the moment of the 6 N force about O.

c. Will the plank balance? If not, which way will it tip?

d. What extra force is needed at point P to balance the plank?

Momentum and Impulse

Rachel Flatt performs a layback spin at the 2011
Rostelecom Cup in Moscow, Russia.When an ice skater spins,
angular momentum must be conserved. When her arms or feet
are far away from her body, her spin slows; when she brings her
arms and feet close in to her body, she spins faster.
If a bowling ball and a ping-pong ball are each moving
with a velocity of 5 mph, you intuitively understand that it will
require more effort to stop the bowling ball than the ping pong
ball because of the greater mass of the bowling ball. Similarly, if
you have two bowling balls, one moving at 5 mph and the other moving at 10 mph, you know it
will take more effort to stop the ball with greater speed. It is clear that both the mass and the
velocity of a moving object contribute to what is necessary to change the motion of the moving
object. The product of the mass and velocity of an object is called its momentum. Momentum is
a vector quantity that has the same direction as the velocity of the object and is represented by a
lowercase letter p.
p=mv

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 The momentum of a 0.500 kg ball moving with a velocity of 15.0 m/s will be
p=mv=(0.500 kg)(15.0 m/s)=7.50 kg⋅m/s
You should note that the units for momentum are kg·m/s.

According to Newton’s first law, the velocity of an object cannot change unless a force is
applied. If we wish to change the momentum of a body, we must apply a force. The longer the
force is applied, the greater the change in momentum. The impulse is the quantity defined as the
force multiplied by the time it is applied. It is a vector quantity that has the same direction as the
force. The units for impulse are N·s but we know that Newtons are also kg·m/s2 and so N·s =
(kg·m/s2)(s) = kg·m/s. Impulse and momentum have the same units; when an impulse is applied
to an object, the momentum of the object changes and the change of momentum is equal to the
impulse.
Ft=Δmv
Example 1
A 0.15 kg ball is moving with a velocity of 35 m/s. Find the momentum of the ball.
p=mv=(0.15 kg)(35 m/s)=5.25 kg⋅m/s
Example 2
If a ball with mass 5.00 kg has a momentum of 5.25 kg⋅m/s, what is its velocity?
v=pm=5.25 kg⋅m/s5.00 kg=1.05 m/s

It should be clear from the equation relating impulse to change in momentum, Ft=Δmv,
that any amount of force would (eventually) bring a moving object to rest. If the force is very
small, it must be applied for a long time, but a greater force can bring the object to rest in a shorter
period of time.
If you jump off a porch and land on your feet with your knees locked in the straight
position, your motion would be brought to rest in a very short period of time and thus the force
would need to be very large – large enough, perhaps, to damage your joints or bones.
Suppose that when you hit the ground, your velocity was 7.0 m/s and that velocity was
brought to rest in 0.05 seconds. If your mass is 100. kg, what force was required to bring you to
rest?
F=Δmvt=(100. kg)(7.0 m/s)0.050 s=14,000 N

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 If, on the other hand, when your feet first touched the ground, you allowed your knees to
flex so that the period of time over which your body was brought to rest is increased, then the force
on your body would be smaller and it would be less likely that you would damage your legs.
Suppose that when you first touch the ground, you allow your knees to bend and extend
the stopping time to 0.50 seconds. What force would be required to bring you to rest this time?

F=Δmvt=(100. kg)(7.0 m/s)0.50 s=1400 N

With the longer period of time for the force to act, the necessary force is reduced to one-
tenth of what was needed before.
Extending the period of time over which a force acts in order to lessen the force is a
common practice in design. Padding in shoes and seats allows the time to increase. The front of
automobiles are designed to crumple in an accident; this increases the time the car takes to stop.
Similarly, barrels of water or sand in front of abutments on the highway and airbags serve to slow
down the stoppage time. These changes all serve to decrease the amount of force it takes to stop
the momentum in a car crash, which consequently saves lives.

Example 3
An 0.15 kg baseball is thrown horizontally at 40. m/s and after it is struck by a bat, it is
traveling at -40. m/s.

a. What impulse did the bat deliver to the ball?

b. If the contact time of the bat and bat was 0.00080 seconds, what was the average force the
bat exerted on the ball?
c. Calculate the average acceleration of the ball during the time it was in contact with the bat.

We can calculate the change in momentum and give the answer as impulse because we know that
the impulse is equal to the change in momentum.

a. p=mΔv=(0.15 kg)(−40. m/s−40. m/s)=(0.15 kg)(−80. m/s)=−12 kg⋅m/s

The minus sign indicates that the impulse was in the opposite direction of the original throw.

b. F=Δmvt=−12 kg⋅m/s0.00080 s=−15000 N

Again, the negative sign indicates the force was in the opposite direction of the original throw.

c. a=Fm=−15000 N0.15 kg=−100,000 m/s2

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 Check your understanding

1. A small car with a mass of 800. kg is moving with a velocity of 27.8 m/s.
a. What is the momentum of the car?
b. What velocity is needed for a 2400. kg car in order to have the same momentum?

2. A scooter has a mass of 250. kg. A constant force is exerted on it for 60.0 s. During the
time the force is exerted, the scooter increases its speed from 6.00 m/s to 28.0 m/s.
a. What is the change in momentum?
b. What is the magnitude of the force exerted on the scooter?

3. The brakes on a 15,680 N car exert a stopping force of 640. N. The car’s velocity changes
from 20.0 m/s to 0 m/s.
a. What is the car’s mass?
b. What was its initial momentum?
c. What was the change in momentum for the car?
d. How long does it take the braking force to bring the car to rest?

EXPLORE MORE

Use this resource to answer the question that follows.

https://youtu.be/3g4v8x7xggU
1. Why don't the glasses of water spill when the tablecloth is pulled out from under them?
2. How does the video get from momentum to impulse?

Unit References
Complete Physics for Cambridge IGCSE 3rd Edition
https://www.physicsclassroom.com/
https://www.ck12.org
https://www.khanacademy.org

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