Chemical Bonds

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 Definition: What is a Chemical Bond?

 Different Types of Chemical Bonds with Examples

 FAQs

Definition: What is a Chemical Bond?

Chemical bonds are forces that hold the atoms together in a molecule. They are a result of strong
intramolecular interactions among the atoms of a molecule. The valance (outermost) electrons of
the atoms participate in chemical bonds. When two atoms approach each other, these outer
electrons start to interact. Although electrons repel each other, they are attracted to the protons
within atoms. The interplay of forces results in the formation of bonds between the atoms. The main
types of chemical bonds are ionic bond, covalent bond, hydrogen bond, and metallic bond [1,2].

A bond between two atoms depends upon the electronegativity difference between the atoms. If
the electronegativity difference is significantly high, the atoms transfer electrons to form ions and
thereby form an ionic bond. If the electronegativity difference is zero or small, then the atoms
combine to form covalent bonds.

Different Types of Chemical Bonds with Examples

Types of Chemical Bonds

1. Ionic Bond

As the name suggests, ionic bonds are a result of the attraction between ions. Ions are formed when
an atom loses or gains an electron. These types of bonds are commonly formed between a metal
and a nonmetal [1-5].

Examples

 Sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) combine to form stable crystals of sodium chloride (NaCl), also
known as common salt.

 Magnesium (Mg) and oxygen (O) combine to form magnesium oxide (MgO).

 Potassium (K) and chlorine (Cl) combine to form potassium chloride (KCl)

 Calcium (Ca) and fluorine (F) combine to form calcium fluoride (CaF 2)

2. Covalent Bond

In the case of a covalent bond, an atom shares one or more pairs of electrons with another atom and
forms a bond. This sharing of electrons happens because the atoms must satisfy the octet (noble gas
configuration) rule while bonding. Such type of bonding is common between two nonmetals. The
covalent bond is the strongest and most common form of chemical bond in living organisms.
Together with the ionic bond, they form the two most important chemical bonds [1-7].

A covalent bond can be divided into a nonpolar covalent bond and a polar covalent bond. In the case
of a nonpolar covalent bond, the electrons are equally shared between the two atoms. On the
contrary, in polar covalent bonds, the electrons are unequally distributed between the atoms.

Examples

 Two atoms of iodine (I) combine to form iodine (I2) gas.

 One atom of carbon (C) combines with two atoms of oxygen (O) to form a double covalent
bond in carbon dioxide (CO2).

 Two atoms of hydrogen (H) combine with one atom of oxygen (O) to form a polar molecule
of water (H2O).

 Boron (B) and three hydrogens (H) combine to form the polar borane (BH 3).

3. Hydrogen Bond

A hydrogen bond is a chemical bond between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom.
However, it is not an ionic or covalent bond but is a particular type of dipole-dipole attraction
between molecules. First, the hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to a very electronegative atom
resulting in a positive charge, which is then attracted towards an electronegative atom resulting in a
hydrogen bond [1,4-6].

Examples

 Hydrogen atom from one molecule of water bonds with the oxygen atom from another
molecule. This bonding is quite significant in ice.

 In chloroform (CH3Cl) and ammonia (NH3), hydrogen bonding occurs between the hydrogen
of one molecule and carbon/nitrogen of another.

 Nitrogen bases present in DNA are held together by a hydrogen bond.

4. Metallic Bonds

A metallic bond is a force that holds atoms together in a metallic substance. Such solid consists of
tightly packed atoms, where the outermost electron shell of each metal atoms overlaps with a large
number of neighboring atoms. As a consequence, the valence electrons move freely from one atom
to another. They are not associated with any specific pair of atoms. This behavior is called non-
localization [1,2,4].

Examples

 Sodium metal

 Aluminum foil

 Copper wire

Other Types of Chemical Bonds

Van der Waals Bond

Neutral molecules are held together by weak electric forces known as Van der Waals forces. Van der
Waals force is a general term used to define the attraction of intermolecular forces between
molecules. This type of chemical bond is the weakest of all bonds [4,5].

Examples include hydrogen bonding, dispersion forces, and dipole-dipole forces.

Peptide Bond

Within a protein, multiple amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds, thereby forming a long
chain. Peptide bonds are formed by a biochemical reaction that extracts a water molecule as it joins
the amino group of one amino acid to the carboxyl group of neighboring amino acids. Aside from
peptide bonds, hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, and disulfide bonds are also common in proteins [8].

Examples include polypeptides like insulin and growth hormone.

FAQs

Q.1. What happens to chemical bonds during chemical reactions?

Ans. During chemical reactions, the bonds holding the molecules together break apart and form new
bonds, rearranging the atoms into different substances.

Q.2. Why do atoms form chemical bonds?

Ans. Atoms form chemical bonds to make their outer electron shells more stable.

Q.3. What subatomic particles participate in chemical bonding?

Ans. Among the subatomic particles, only electrons actively participate in chemical bonding.

Q.4. How are chemical bonds important in metabolism?

Ans. Our body uses the energy stored in chemical bonds in order to do work and keep it active and
functional.

Q.5. Which kind of energy is stored in a chemical bond?

Ans. Potential energy is stored in covalent bonds, holding the atoms together in a molecule.

Q.6. What causes chemical bonds to break during a reaction?

Ans. Each bond requires a discrete amount of energy to either break or form. Without this energy,
the reaction cannot take place. This energy is known as the bond energy.

Q.7. Why are noble gases not likely to form chemical bonds?

Ans. The electronic configurations of noble gases are such that their outermost shells are
complete.The full valence electron shells of these atoms make noble gases extraordinarily stable and
unlikely to form chemical bonds because they do not tend to gain or lose electrons.

Q.8. Do mixtures have strong chemical bonds?

Ans. No. The substances that make up a mixture can be separated by physical means because they
have different physical properties and are not chemically bonded.
Ionic Bond
TABLE OF CONTENTS

 What is an Ionic Bond?

 How do Ionic Bonds Form

 Properties and Characteristics of Ionic Bonds

 Examples of Ionic Bond

 Ionic Bond Lewis Structure

 FAQs

What is an Ionic Bond?

An ionic bond, also known as an electrovalent bond, is a type of chemical bond formed due to the
electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions in a compound or molecule.

Ionic bond forms when the valence (outermost) electrons of one atom are transferred permanently to
another atom following the octet rule. The atom that loses electrons becomes a positively charged ion,
known as a cation. The atom that gains electrons becomes a negatively charged ion, known as an anion.
When the two ions combine via ionic bond, they form ionic compounds.

 The types of elements forming ionic bonds are metals and nonmetals [1-4].

How do Ionic Bonds Form

Electronegativity is a property of an atom, measuring how strongly it attracts or holds onto electrons. Ionic
bonds are formed when there is a high electronegativity difference between the atoms. The high difference
in electronegativities results in an electrostatic attraction between the electrons of one atom and the other
atom’s nuclei. When atoms transfer electrons, they achieve a stable, inert gas electronic configuration. As a
result, the outermost (valence) shells of the atoms are complete [1-4].
Ionic Bond

Properties and Characteristics of Ionic Bonds

Ionic bonds affect the properties of ionic compounds, mostly the physical properties [3,4]. They are
mentioned below:

 Involves the transfer of electrons from one atom to another

 Formed between a metal and nonmetal with sharp electronegativity difference so that the

nonmetal can attract the electrons from the metal

 The attraction between the nuclei and electrons is electrostatic with charge separation. They are

the most reactive of all the bonds in the appropriate medium.

 Strength is directly proportional to the quantity of the charges and inversely proportional to the

distance between the charged ions.

 Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points. The atoms are held together in a lattice

structure, and much energy is needed to melt the compounds.

 Ionic compounds generally have a lattice structure and are crystalline at room temperature.

 Ionic compounds are brittle, and they break along the planes where the pressure is applied.
 The ionic compound dissolves in water and other polar solvents very smoothly. The crystals break

up into ions, which are the carriers of electricity. Aside, ionic compounds also conduct electricity in a

molten state.

 Ionic compounds are insoluble in nonpolar solvents.

 Ionic compounds display a high rate of reaction.

 Bonds are non-directional, and so, ionic compounds do not exhibit isomerism.

Examples of Ionic Bond

Here are some examples of ionic bonds along with their formulae [1-4].

1. Sodium chloride (NaCl)

Sodium (Na) has a valency of one. It has only one electron to in its outermost (valence) shell. Chlorine has
seven electrons in its outermost shell and requires one electron to complete the shell. Therefore, sodium
will donate its lone electron and become sodium ion (Na+), thereby taking the electronic configuration of
its nearest inert gas, neon. Chlorine is more electronegative than sodium and will accept the electron to
form chloride (Cl–) ion. In this process, chlorine achieves its nearest inert gas configuration, i.e., argon.
The two atoms combine to form an ionic bond, resulting in NaCl, which is commonly known as table salt.

2. Magnesium oxide (MgO)

Magnesium (Mg) has two electrons in its outermost shell, and oxygen (O) has six. Magnesium will donate
the two electrons to achieve its nearest inert gas configuration, i.e., neon. As a result, magnesium will
become a magnesium ion (Mg2+). Oxygen (O) is more electronegative than magnesium. It requires two
electrons to complete its outermost shell and achieve its nearest inert gas configuration, neon. Therefore, it
will attract the two electrons from magnesium and transform them into oxide (O 2-) ion. Finally, an ionic
bond results between the two atoms, and we get MgO.

3. Calcium Chloride (CaCl2)
Calcium (Ca) has two valence electrons, and chlorine (Cl) has seven. The former will give off its two
electrons to form calcium ion (Ca+). Chlorine is more electronegative than calcium will attract those
electrons. Hence, two chlorine atoms will combine with calcium. Each will attract one electron, resulting
in a chloride (Cl–) ion. As a result, there will be two ionic bonds between calcium and chlorine. The
resulting product, CaCl2, is commonly known as rock salt.

4. Potassium Oxide (K2O)
Potassium (K) has one electron in its outermost shell. Oxygen (O) has six electrons in its outermost shell
and requires two to complete the shell. It is more electronegative than potassium, and so it will attract two
electrons from two potassium atom. Thus, both the potassium will donate one electron to oxygen, resulting
in two potassium cations (K+) and one oxide anion (O–). As a result, the molecule potassium oxide will
have two ionic bonds.

Ionic Bond Examples

Ionic Bond Lewis Structure

Lewis dot structure can be used to represent compounds containing ionic bonds. In this method of
representation, dots represent the outmost electrons around the atom.

Ionic Bond Lewis Structure

FAQs
Q.1. Are ionic bonds stronger than covalent bonds?

Ans. It depends upon the environment. In a vacuum, ionic bonds are stronger than covalent bonds because
of the strong electrostatic interaction. However, in water, ionic bonds disassociate, making them weaker.
Q.2. Which compound contains both ionic and covalent bonds?

Ans. Sodium nitrate (NaNO3) is a compound with both ionic and covalent bonds.
Q.3. Do ionic bonds share electrons?

Ans. No. Unlike covalent bonds, ionic bonds do not share electrons.

Q.4. How are hydrogen bonds similar to ionic bonds?

Ans. Hydrogen bonds are similar to ionic bonds in that they are formed through the attraction of atoms
possessing opposite polarities.
Covalent Bond
TABLE OF CONTENTS

 What is a Covalent Bond?

 How are Covalent Bonds Formed

 Properties and Characteristics of Covalent Bond

 Types of Covalent Bond

 Examples of Covalent Bonds

 Covalent Bond Lewis Structure

 Pure Covalent Bonds

 FAQs

What is a Covalent Bond?

A covalent bond is a type of chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. The
binding arises from the electrostatic attraction of their nuclei for the electrons. It is responsible for holding
the atoms together. Atoms share electrons so that they can obtain a stable electronic configuration
following octet rule. Compounds that exhibit covalent bonds are known as covalent compounds. Covalent
bonds are more common in organic chemistry than ionic bonds. They are also known as molecular bond [1-
9]
.
Covalent Bond

How are Covalent Bonds Formed

A covalent bond is formed when the electronegativity difference between the two atoms is too small (<2)
for electron transfer. Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to draw electrons to itself. Atoms will
covalently bond with other atoms to gain more stability, obtained by sharing the outermost (valence)
electrons and forming a complete electron shell.

Covalent bonds hold atoms together because the attraction between the positively charged nuclei and the
negatively charged shared electrons is greater than the repulsions between the nuclei themselves. This
attraction makes the molecules stable. The strength of a covalent bond is determined by the energy
required to break it, that is, the energy necessary to separate the bonded atoms.

Properties and Characteristics of Covalent Bond

Covalent bonds are responsible for the general behavior of stable covalent compounds. Here are the
properties and characteristics of a covalent bond [9]:

 Formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms

 Formed between two nonmetals or between a nonmetal and a metalloid

 There can be multiple covalent bonds between two atoms

 Bond is strong, and much energy is needed to break them

 Directional. A single molecular formula may represent several compounds with different

properties – a phenomenon known as isomerism.

 Covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points

 Most covalent compounds do not conduct electricity

 Covalent compounds are insoluble in polar solvents like water. However, they dissolve in

nonpolar solvents like benzene and toluene.

 Reactions of covalent compounds are relatively slow

Types of Covalent Bond

A covalent bond can be classified by the number of shared electrons, the polarity of bonds, and the
coordination of the atoms.

Based on the number of shared electron pairs, there are three types of covalent bonds [1-6]:

1. Single Covalent Bond

When one pair of electrons, or two electrons, are shared between the atoms, it is known as a single
covalent bond or merely a single bond.

Examples: H2, Cl2, Br2, I2, HCl, NH3, CH4, and C2H6

2. Double Covalent bond

When two pairs of electrons, or four electrons, are shared between the atoms, it is known as a double
covalent bond or double bond.

Examples: O2, CO2, SO2, and C2H4

3. Triple Covalent Bond

When three pairs of electrons, or six electrons, are shared between the atoms, it is known as a triple
covalent bond or triple bond.

Examples: N2, C2H2, and CN–

Based on the polarity of the bond and the coordination of the atoms, there can be three other types of
covalent bonds:
1. Polar Covalent Bond

A covalent bond is likely to be polar when the atoms sharing the electrons have a significant difference in
their electronegativities, i.e., between 0.1 to 2. As a result, the bonded pair is attracted toward the more
electronegative atom making that atom slightly negative, and the other atom becomes slightly positive.

Examples: H2O, CHCl3, CH3OH, HCl, and NH3

2. Nonpolar Covalent Bond

When the electronegativity difference between the atoms is zero, then electrons are equally shared between
the atoms. In this case, the covalent bond is nonpolar.

Examples: H2, O2, N2, CO2, and CH4

3. Coordinate Covalent Bond or Dative Covalent Bond

In this type of covalent bond, the shared pair of electrons comes from one of the atoms. This kind of bond
is typically observed in the bonding of metal ions to ligands.

Examples: BF3.NH3, Al2Cl6, HNO3, CO, H3O+, and NH4+

Covalent Bond Types

Examples of Covalent Bonds

Nonmetals like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen form covalent bonds with themselves or other
atoms. The number of covalent bonds that they can form is as follows:
Hydrogen – 1

Oxygen – 2

Nitrogen – 3
Carbon – 4

Here are some examples of covalent compounds [1-9]:

1. Hydrogen (H2)
Hydrogen (H) is the simplest of all elements. It has only one electron and requires another electron to
achieve the electronic configuration of its nearest inert gas helium. So, two hydrogen atoms will bond
together in a single bond to form a hydrogen molecule.

2. Oxygen (O2)
The valency of oxygen (O) is two, which means that it requires two electrons to complete its outermost
(valence) shell. Therefore, two oxygen atoms will combine and share their two valence electrons, resulting
in a double bond.

2. Nitrogen (N2)
Nitrogen (N) has five valence electrons, so it needs three more valence electrons to complete its octet. Two
nitrogen atoms will combine. Each will share three electrons to form three covalent bonds, i.e., a triple
bond, resulting in a nitrogen molecule.

3. Water (H2O)
A water molecule consists of two hydrogen (H) and one oxygen (O) atoms. Oxygen has a valency of two,
and hydrogen has only one electron in its orbital. So, each hydrogen atom will share its electron and
covalently bond with the oxygen. As a result, there will be two single bonds.

4. Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Carbon dioxide has two oxygen (O) atoms that are bonded to a single carbon (C) atom. The valency of
carbon is four, and that of oxygen is two. So, each oxygen forms a double bond by sharing two of its
valence electrons with the carbon. Hence, each C=O bond is a double bond.

5. Methane (CH4)
Methane is made up of one carbon (C) and four hydrogen (H) atoms. The valency of carbon is four, and
that of hydrogen is one. So, each hydrogen will share its only electron and form a single covalent bond
with the carbon. There will be a total of four covalent bonds in methane, all of which are single bonds.

6. Ammonia (NH3)
Nitrogen (N) has five electrons in its outer orbital and requires three more to complete its valence shell.
Hydrogen (H) will share its lone electron with nitrogen, and three hydrogen atoms are required to complete
nitrogen’s outermost shell. This sharing of electrons results in three single covalent bonds.
7. Carbon Monoxide (CO)

The carbon monoxide molecule is represented by three covalent bonds between the carbon (C) and oxygen
(O) atoms. Carbon has a valency of four and will require four electrons to complete its outermost shell.
Oxygen has a valency of two and requires two electrons to complete its outermost shell. Therefore, a
regular double bond will form between the two atoms. Carbon is left with a deficit of two electrons, which
will come from oxygen as it already has lone pairs. As a result, the third covalent bond will be a coordinate
covalent bond.
Covalent Bond Examples

Covalent Bond Lewis Structure

Lewis dot structure can represent a molecule with covalent bonds. The valance electrons are shown as dots
around the atom, and a dashed line shows the bond with a neighboring atom.
 Covalent Bond Lewis Structure

Pure Covalent Bonds

By definition, a pure covalent bond is one that exists between two atoms with the same electronegativities.
Thus, a pure covalent bond does not display any ionic character. Diatomic elements are perfect examples
of pure covalent bonds because both the atoms evenly share the electrons.

Examples: H2, O2, and N2

FAQs
Q.1. Are hydrogen bonds covalent?

Ans. No. Hydrogen bonds are not covalent bonds.

Q.2. Is NaCl a covalent bond?

Ans. No. NaCl is not a covalent bond. It is an ionic bond.

Q.3. Do covalent bonds give water a low heat capacity?

Ans. No. Covalent bonds give water a high heat capacity.

Q.4. Is peptide bond covalent?

Ans. Yes. A peptide bond a type of covalent bond.

Q.5. Does ozone have ionic or covalent bonds?

Ans. Ozone has covalent bonds. The reason is that in ozone, the atoms are associated by sharing electrons
within them.

Hydrogen Bond
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

 What is a Hydrogen Bond?

 How is Hydrogen Bond Formed?

 Hydrogen Bond Donor and Acceptor

 Properties and Characteristics of Hydrogen Bond

 Types of Hydrogen Bond

 Importance and Applications of Hydrogen Bonding in Daily Life

 Hydrogen, Ionic, and Covalent Bonds

 Hydrogen Bond vs. Ionic Bond vs. Covalent Bond

 Similarities between Hydrogen and Ionic Bonds

 FAQs

What is a Hydrogen Bond?
A hydrogen bond is a type of chemical bond that involves the electrostatic attraction between a hydrogen
atom and an atom containing a lone pair of electrons in a substance. In order for a hydrogen bond to occur,
the hydrogen must be bonded to an electronegative atom.

The hydrogen bond is not covalent, although the molecules present in the substance are covalent [1-5].

Hydrogen
Bond
How is Hydrogen Bond Formed?
When a hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to an electronegative atom, the shared pair of electrons is
attracted to the latter. As a result, the hydrogen is slightly positively charged, and the electronegative atom
is slightly negatively charged. This property is known as polarity, and such molecules are called polar
molecules. When two or more such molecules are present in a substance, the positive end of one molecule
is attracted to another molecule’s opposing end. This type of bonding is a hydrogen bond.

Hydrogen Bond Donor and Acceptor

In a hydrogen bond, the donor is usually a strongly electronegative atom such as nitrogen (N), oxygen (O),
or fluorine (F) that is covalently bonded to a hydrogen atom. On the other hand, the hydrogen acceptor is
an electronegative atom of an adjacent molecule, containing a lone pair involved in the hydrogen bond
(example, O, N, Cl, and F).

Properties and Characteristics of Hydrogen Bond

 A weak force of attraction between molecules

 Alters the physical properties of the molecules. For example, it increases the melting and boiling

point of a substance, thereby making it less volatile

 Stronger than the weak Van der Waals bond, but weaker than ionic and covalent bonds

 Responsible for solubility of many substances in water

 Responsible for high viscosity and surface tension of the substances

Types of Hydrogen Bond

There are two types of hydrogen bond [1-5].
 Hydrogen
Bond Types

1. Intramolecular Hydrogen Bond

An intramolecular hydrogen bond occurs within a single molecule. It occurs when two functional groups
of a molecule can form hydrogen bonds with each other. For this to happen, both the hydrogen donor and
hydrogen acceptor must be present within one molecule. They must be within proximity of each other.
Example

 Ethylene glycol (C2H4(OH)2) has two hydroxyl (OH) groups. The hydrogen bond takes place

between the two groups due to molecular geometry.

2. Intermolecular Hydrogen Bond

An intermolecular hydrogen bond occurs between two or more separate molecules in a substance. The
hydrogen donors and acceptors are present in positions where they can interact. The intermolecular
hydrogen bond’s strength is most often estimated by measuring the equilibria between molecules
containing donor and acceptor units in solutions.

Examples

1. Water (H2O)
The water molecule consists of two hydrogen (H) atoms covalently bound to an oxygen (O) atom. Since it
is more electronegative than hydrogen, oxygen pulls the shared electrons more closely to itself. This
sharing gives the oxygen atom a slightly more negative charge, and the two hydrogens a slightly positive
charge. This imbalance causes the water molecule to have a positive and negative side, and hence, water is
a polar molecule. The molecules align such that the hydrogen on one molecule will face the oxygen on
another molecule. This alignment gives water a greater viscosity and also allows it to dissolve other polar
molecules.

2. Ethanol (C2H5OH)
Ethanol is an alcohol that contains an -OH group. It has a hydrogen (H) atom attached directly to an
oxygen (O) atom, which still has two lone pairs of electrons like a water molecule. As a result, the OH
bond is polar. The hydrogen bond is observed between ethanol molecules, although it is not as effective as
water. The hydrogen bonding is limited because there is only one hydrogen in each ethanol molecule with
a sufficient positive charge.

3. Ammonia (NH3)
Ammonia consists of three hydrogen (H) atoms connect to a nitrogen (N) atom. Nitrogen, being more
electronegative than hydrogen, will attract the shared pair of electrons, making it slightly negative. The
hydrogen will be slightly positive, resulting in a hydrogen bond. The amount of hydrogen bonding is
limited because each nitrogen only has one lone pair in its outermost shell. There are not enough lone pairs
of electrons in a cluster of ammonia molecules to satisfy all the hydrogens. That means that each ammonia
molecule can form one hydrogen bond using its lone pair and one involving one of its positive hydrogens.
The other hydrogens do not participate in hydrogen bonding. The result is that ammonia has a lower
boiling point than water.

4. Hydrogen Fluoride (HF)

Fluorine (F) is a very electronegative element. So, the shared electrons will be attracted strongly towards
the fluorine and away from the hydrogen. That leaves the hydrogen with quite a lot of positive charge, and
the fluorine quite negative charge. The fluorine also has lone pairs of electrons, which is very strongly
attracted to the positive hydrogen. Thus, the reasonably positive hydrogen on one HF molecule will be
attracted to one of these lone pairs on a nearby HF molecule.

Hydrogen Bond Examples

Importance and Applications of Hydrogen Bonding in Daily

Life
Hydrogen bonding is essential in many chemical and biological processes. It can account for many natural
phenomena [1,6].

1. Plants
Water can stick to itself and other molecules. The former is known as cohesion and the latter, adhesion.
When water droplets fall on a leaf, the hydrogen bonds formed between water molecules are more
substantial than the intermolecular forces of adhesion between the water molecules and leaf. This specific
property of water explains its high surface tension.

2. Proteins

Intramolecular hydrogen bonding is responsible for the secondary, tertiary, and quaternary proteins and
nucleic acids’ structures. The hydrogen bonds assist the proteins, and the nucleic acids form and maintain
specific shapes.

3. DNA

The double-helix model of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) consists of two intertwined strands held together
by a base pair. The hydrogen bonds between the bases on adjacent strands are responsible for this. Because
of different bases’ structures, adenine (A) always forms hydrogen bonds with thymine (T). In contrast,
guanine (G) always forms hydrogen bonds with cytosine (C) [7].

Hydrogen, Ionic, and Covalent Bonds

Hydrogen Bond vs. Ionic Bond vs. Covalent Bond

Hydrogen Bond Ionic Bond Covalent Bond

Between
two nonmetals or a
Between a hydrogen Between metal and a
atom and an nonmetal and a
Types of atoms electronegative atom nonmetal
metalloid

Electrostatic attraction
between hydrogen and Electrostatic attraction
an electronegative between oppositely Sharing electrons
atom charged ions between atoms
Formation

Type of bond in
covalent
Secondary – Primary
compounds
 Hydrogen Bond vs. Ionic Bond vs. Covalent Bond

Hydrogen Bond Ionic Bond Covalent Bond

Weak Strong Strong

Strength

Strength is high if the

electronegativity
difference between
hydrogen and the atom Strength is high with the Strength is high
to which it is two atoms have a high when the bonded
covalently bonded is electronegativity atoms have similar
Factors affecting
high difference electronegativity
the strength

Both polar and

Polar molecules Polar molecules nonpolar molecules
Occurrence

Low, but increases in

Low molten state and solutions Low
Conductivity

Does not apply Yes Yes

Octet Rule

Both intramolecular
and intermolecular,
although the latter is
Intramolecular
common Intramolecular Intramolecular
or intermolecular

The attraction between

two water (H2O) Sodium chloride (NaCl) Ammonia (NH3) and
molecules and two and magnesium oxide hydrochloric acid
Examples strands of DNA (MgO) (HCl)
Ionic Covalent and Hydrogen Bond

Similarities between Hydrogen and Ionic Bonds

 Involve electrostatic forces

 The electrostatic attraction is between atoms with opposite charges

 Involve polar molecules

 Disrupted by polar solvents, like water

 Ionic bond takes place within a molecule. Hydrogen bond can take place within a molecule.

FAQs
Q.1. Does acetone have hydrogen bonding?

Ans. Acetone (CH3OCH3) does not have hydrogen bonding because no hydrogens bonded directly to the
oxygen.
Q.2. How does soap affect hydrogen bonds between water molecules?

Ans. Soap reduces the surface tension of water by weakening the hydrogen bonds.
References

Metallic Bond
TABLE OF CONTENTS

 What is Metallic Bonding?

 How are Metallic Bonds Formed

 Properties and Characteristics of Metallic Bond

 Examples of Metallic Bond

 FAQs

What is Metallic Bonding?

A metallic bond is a type of chemical bond in which a ‘cloud’ of free moving valence electrons is bonded
to the positively charged ions in a metal. It can be described as the sharing of free electrons among a lattice
of positively charged metal ions. The structure of metallic bonds is entirely different from that of ionic and
covalent bonds. Metal is the only substance that contains a metallic bond [1-5].
 Metallic Bond

German physicist Paul Drude first introduced the idea of metallic bonding in 1900.

How are Metallic Bonds Formed

The electrons are detached from the atoms and delocalized throughout the metal, i.e., they move freely.
However, the interactions between the ions and electrons are still prevalent. These interactions give rise to
a binding force that holds the metallic crystal together. This force is the basis of a metallic bond [1-5].

Properties and Characteristics of Metallic Bond

The metallic bond is responsible for many of the properties of metals [1,2].
Electrical and thermal conductivity: The mobile electrons are charge carriers in the conduction of
electricity and energy carriers in heat conduction. Therefore, metals can conduct electricity and heat.
Malleability and ductility: A metal can be hammered into sheets and drawn into wires. These shapes are
possible because the atoms share electrons and slide past each other.
High melting and boiling points: The metallic bond is formed due to the strong electrostatic forces
between the sea of electrons and cations. As a result, metals have high melting and boiling points.
Luster and high reflectivity: The delocalized electrons willingly absorb and re-emit visible light. This
property gives metals their characteristic luster.

Examples of Metallic Bond

The metallic bond is commonly observed in metals. Here are some examples [2-4]:

1. Sodium (Na)

Sodium has a lone electron in its outermost orbital, i.e., the 3s orbital. When sodium atoms arrange
together, the outermost electron of one atom shares space with the corresponding electron on a neighboring
atom. As a result, a 3s molecular orbital is formed. Each sodium atom has eight other atoms in its
neighbor. The sharing takes place between a central sodium atom and the 3s orbital of its neighbors.

All the 3s orbitals overlap to give many molecular orbitals that extend over the entire sodium metal. The
outermost electrons are said to be delocalized over the whole metal structure. These electrons are no longer
attached to any particular atom but move freely around the entire metal.

2. Magnesium (Mg)

Magnesium has two electrons in its outermost shell, the 3s shell. Both these electrons are delocalized. The
metallic bond formation in magnesium is the same as sodium, except it has more electron density than
sodium. Besides, each of magnesium nucleus has a twice the charge as in sodium. Therefore, the attraction
between the nuclei and the delocalized electrons will be stronger than sodium. The strength of the bond is
generally higher in magnesium.

3. Aluminum (Al)

Aluminum has three valence electrons in the 3s orbital. When the atoms lose all three electrons, aluminum
ions end up having a positive charge +3. These positively charged ions repel each other but are held
together in the block by the negative electrons. As a result, by sharing the electrons, the cations arrange
themselves in a steady pattern. This regular pattern of atoms gives rise to the crystalline structure of
metals. In a crystal lattice, atoms are tightly packed close to one another to maximize the bond strength.
Metallic Bond Examples

FAQs
Q.1. Are metallic bonds soluble in water?
Ans. Some metals are soluble in water, whereas others are not. Alkali metals like sodium
and potassium react vigorously react with water releasing hydrogen gas.
Q.2. Is a covalent bond stronger than a metallic?

Ans. Yes. A covalent bond is more robust than a metallic because of the overlap of electron orbital.

APPLICATION OF PHASE DIAGRAMS IN SOLIDIFICATION AND CASTING PROBLEMS

William J. Boettinger

The analysis of problems involving the casting of alloys requires a complex blend
of fluid mechanics, heat flow, chemical diffusion and solid mechanics. However,
the phase diagram, especially when applied to the character of a material at a given
position and time (local equilibrium), provides the basic constitutive relation
regarding the physical state of the alloy.  The information from a phase diagram
must be placed upon a framework of mass, momentum and energy balance
equations that describe the kinetics of a given situation. Since 1950, great progress
has been made in the analysis of solidification problems using this concept of local
equilibrium.

A major use of phase diagrams comes about in the prediction of the degree of
microsegregation and inclusion (or second-phase) formation. Modern approaches
to the microsegregation problem accept the inevitable difficulty of solid state
chemical diffusion compared to the liquid state and replace mass balance
accompanied by complete diffusion, i.e., the "lever rule" with mass balance
accompanied by incomplete diffusion (the Scheil equation). This equation when
coupled with the partition coefficients of the various solutes can be used to
estimate the liquid composition (and solid composition) as a function of fraction
solid or, equivalently, the fraction solid as a function of temperature. Partition
coefficients can be read directly from the phase diagram. Additionally, the
solidification path can be calculated and the prediction made of the fraction solid
when the liquid can begin formation of second-phase particles, inclusions or
eutectics. Such liquid compositions are directly read from phase diagrams. This
analysis yields an estimate for the volume fraction of all the phases that will occur
in the cast structure, as well as the magnitude of concentration gradients which will
exist in the cast solid. In the prediction of macrosegregation, the mass balance is
augmented by fluid flow terms to predict local increases or decreases in the
fraction of second-phase particles and concomitant shifts in the average
composition in that location. Such analysis has been successfully applied to
describe chill zone, centerline, cross section change and "V" segregation. Data for
this require parameters read directly from phase diagrams.
The prediction of fraction solid as a function of temperature described above, when
coupled with a heat flow analysis of castings, yields the thickness of the mushy
zone or liquid-solid region in castings. The thickness of the mushy zone is very
important for the prediction and control of microporosity and gas porosity, as well
as hot tearing characteristics of castings. The former are generally caused by the
difficulty of fluid flow through the mushy zone to feed solidification shrinkage,
whereas the latter is caused by the formation of large thermal contraction stresses
acting on an insufficiently strong solid in a mushy zone. Gas porosity analysis also
requires data regarding the solubility of gases in metals. Mushy-zone thickness has
also been associated with grain multiplication and the formation of equiaxed zone
of ingot castings.

Theories of dendrite coarsening, which lead to predictions of dendrite arm spacings

in castings as a function of local solidification time, rely on the partition coefficient
and liquidus slope from the phase diagram as parameters. Dendrite arm spacings
are correlated to the strength of castings as well as to homogenization times
required for subsequent heat treatment of castings.

The analysis of cast structures produced by rapid solidification has presented a new
challenge to the usefulness of phase diagrams. Here the phase diagram is best
viewed as a representation of the thermodynamically possible states of alloys. It
will, in general, not be able to describe the exact state of the system, but it will
place bounds on the temperatures and compositions at which certain
transformations can occur. In this situation, the phase diagram is most useful when
the underlying free-energy functions for the phases are known or are estimated
from the existing measured phase-diagram features. These functions can then be
used to construct metastable extensions of phase boundaries and construct new
phase diagram boundaries such as a To curve, which place a bound on partitionless
crystallization. Both of these are useful in the analysis of enhanced solubility
during rapid solidification. Such constructions must be done carefully and
compared to experiments, for at best they are interpolations and at work
extrapolations. They do provide, however, an extremely useful starting point for
the analysis of rapid solidification problems.