Hydroponics

Hydroponics (From the Greek words hydro, water and ponos, labor) is a method of
growing plants using mineral nutrient solutions, in water, without soil. Terrestrial plants
may be grown with their roots in the mineral nutrient solution only or in an inert medium,
such as perlite, gravel, mineral wool, or coconut husk.

Researchers discovered in the 19th century that plants absorb essential mineral nutrients
as inorganic ions in water. In natural conditions, soil acts as a mineral nutrient reservoir
but the soil itself is not essential to plant growth. When the mineral nutrients in the soil
dissolve in water, plant roots are able to absorb them. When the required mineral
nutrients are introduced into a plant's water supply artificially, soil is no longer required
for the plant to thrive. Almost any terrestrial plant will grow with hydroponics.
Hydroponics is also a standard technique in biology research and teaching.

Hydroponics culture is not new. One of the first experiments in water culture was
made by Woodward in England in 1699. By the mid-19th century, Sachs and Knop,
the real pioneers in the field, had developed a method of growing plants without soil.
The term “hydroponics” was first used by Dr. W. F. Gericks in the late 1930s to
describe a method of growing plants with roots immersed in an aerated, dilute
solution of nutrients.
Today, hydroponics is used in commercial greenhouse vegetable production around
the world. There are several advantages to hydroponics culture with some problems.
In automated hydroponics culture, some of the watering and fertilizer additions canbe
computerized, reducing labor input.

Advantages of Hydroponics
• Land is not necessary. It can be practiced even in upstairs, open spaces and
in protected structures.
• Clean working environment. The grower will not have any direct contact with
soil.
• Low drudgery. No need of making beds, weeding, watering, etc.
• Continuous cultivation is possible.
• No soil borne diseases or nematode damage.
• Off-season production is possible.
• Vegetable cultivation can be done with leisure sense.
• Many plants were found to give yield early in hydroponics system.
• Higher yields possible with correct management practices.
• Easy to hire labour as hydroponics system is more attractive and easier than
cultivation in soil.
• No need of electricity, pumps, etc. for the non-circulating systems of solution
culture.
• Possibility of growing a wide variety of vegetable and flower crops including
Anthurium, marigolds, etc.
• Water wastage is reduced to minimum.
• Possible to grow plants and rooted cuttings free from soil particles for export.

Environmental management system

Environmental management system (EMS) refers to the management of an
organization's environmental programs in a comprehensive, systematic, planned and
documented manner. It includes the organisational structure, planning and resources for
developing, implementing and maintaining policy for environmental protection.

An Environmental Management System (EMS):

• Serves as a tool to improve environmental performance

• Provides a systematic way of managing an organization’s environmental affairs
• Is the aspect of the organization’s overall management structure that addresses
immediate and long-term impacts of its products, services and processes on the
environment
• Gives order and consistency for organizations to address environmental concerns
through the allocation of resources, assignment of responsibility and ongoing
evaluation of practices, procedures and processes
• Focuses on continual improvement of the system

Environmental impact assessment

An environmental impact assessment (EIA) is an assessment of the possible positive or
negative impact that a proposed project may have on the environment, together consisting
of the natural, social and economic aspects.

The purpose of the assessment is to ensure that decision makers consider the ensuing
environmental impacts when deciding whether to proceed with a project. The
International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA) defines an environmental impact
assessment as "the process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the
biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of development proposals prior to major
decisions being taken and commitments made."[1]. EIAs are unique in that they do not
require adherence to a predetermined environmental outcome, but rather they require
decisionmakers to account for environmental values in their decisions and to justify those
decisions in light of detailed environmental studies and public comments on the potential
environmental impacts of the proposal[2].

EIAs began to be used in the 1960s as part of a rational decision making process. It
involved a technical evaluation that would lead to objective decision making. EIA was
made legislation in the US in the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) 1969. It has
since evolved as it has been used increasingly in many countries around the world. As per
Stephen J(2006) , EIA as it is practiced today, is being used as a decision aiding tool
rather than decision making tool. There is growing dissent on the use of EIA as its
influence on development decisions is limited and there is a view it is falling short of its
full potential.There is a need for stronger foundation of EIA practice through training for
practitioners, guidance on EIA practice and continuing research[3].
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Standard 14011 covers EIA and
includes key steps for carrying out the assessment. These steps include the scope of EIA.
EIAs have often been criticized for having too narrow spatial and temporal scope. At
present no procedure has been specified for determining a system boundary for the
assessment. The system boundary refers to ‘the spatial and temporal boundary of the
proposal’s effects’. This boundary is determined by the applicant and the lead assessor,
but in practice, almost all EIAs address the direct, on-site effects alone [4] .

However, as well as direct effects, developments cause a multitude of indirect effects

through consumption of goods and services, production of building materials and
machinery, additional land use for activities of various manufacturing and industrial
services, mining of resources etc . The indirect effects of developments are often an order
of magnitude higher than the direct effects assessed by EIA. Large proposals such as
airports or ship yards cause wide ranging national as well as international environmental
effects, which should be taken into consideration during the decision-making process [5].

Broadening the scope of EIA can also benefit threatened species conservation. Instead of
concentrating on the direct effects of a proposed project on its local environment some
EIAs used a landscape approach which focused on much broader relationships between
the entire population of a species in question. As a result, an alternative that would cause
least amount of negative effects to the population of that species as a whole, rather than
the local subpopulation, can be identified and recommended by EIA [6].

There are various methods available to carry out EIAs, some are industry specific and
some general methods:

• Industrial products - Product environmental life cycle analysis (LCA) is used for
identifying and measuring the impact on the environment of industrial products.
These EIAs consider technological activities used for various stages of the
product: extraction of raw material for the product and for ancillary materials and
equipment, through the production and use of the product, right up to the disposal
of the product, the ancillary equipment and material[7].

• Genetically modified plants - There are specific methods available to perform

EIAs of genetically modified plants. Some of the methods are GMP-RAM,
INOVA etc.[8]

• Fuzzy Arithmetic - EIA methods need specific parameters and variables to be

measured to estimate values of impact indicators. However many of the
environment impact properties cannot be measured on a scale eg landscape
quality, lifestyle quality, social acceptance etc. and moreover these indicators are
very subjective. Thus to assess the impacts we may need to take the help of
information from similar EIAs, expert criteria, sensitivity of affected population
etc. To treat this information, which is generally inaccurate, systematically, fuzzy
arithmetic and approximate reasoning methods can be utilised. This is called as a
fuzzy logic approach[9].
At the end of the project, an EIA should be followed by an audit. An EIA audit evaluates
the performance of an EIA by comparing actual impacts to those that were predicted. The
main objective of these audits is to make future EIAs more valid and effective. The two
main considerations are:

• scientific - to check the accuracy of predictions and explain errors.

• management- to assess the success of mitigation in reducing impacts.

Some people believe that audits be performed as a rigorous scientific testing of the null
hypotheses. While some believe in a simpler approach where you compare what actually
occurred against the predictions in the EIA document[10].

After an EIA, the precautionary and polluter pays principles may be applied to prevent,
limit, or require strict liability or insurance coverage to a project, based on its likely
harms. Environmental impact assessments are sometimes controversial.

E-Waste Management
Definition of e-waste :

Electronic waste, popularly known as ‘e-waste’ can be defined as electronic equipments /

products connects with power plug, batteries which have become obsolete due to:
advancement in technology
changes in fashion, style and status
nearing the end of their useful life.

Classification of e-waste :

E-waste encompasses ever growing range of obsolete electronic devices such as

computers, servers, main frames, monitors, TVs & display devices, telecommunication
devices such as cellular phones & pagers, calculators, audio and video devices, printers,
scanners, copiers and fax machines besides refrigerators, air conditioners, washing
machines, and microwave ovens, e-waste also covers recording devices such as DVDs,
CDs, floppies, tapes, printing cartridges, military electronic waste, automobile catalytic
converters, electronic components such as chips, processors, mother boards, printed
circuit boards, industrial electronics such as sensors, alarms, sirens, security devices,
automobile electronic devices.

Indian Scenario :

There is an estimate that the total obsolete computers originating from government
offices, business houses, industries and household is of the order of 2 million nos.
Manufactures and assemblers in a single calendar year, estimated to produce around 1200
tons of electronic scrap. It should be noted that obsolence rate of personal computers
(PC) is one in every two years. The consumers finds it convenient to buy a new computer
rather than upgrade the old one due to the changing configuration, technology and the
attractive offers of the manufacturers. Due to the lack of governmental legislations on e-
waste, standards for disposal, proper mechanism for handling these toxic hi-tech
products, mostly end up in landfills or partly recycled in a unhygienic conditions and
partly thrown into waste streams. Computer waste is generated from the individual
households; the government, public and private sectors; computer retailers;
manufacturers; foreign embassies; secondary markets of old PCs. Of these, the biggest
source of PC scrap are foreign countries that export huge computer waste in the form of
reusable components.

Electronic waste or e-waste is one of the rapidly growing environmental problems of the
world. In India, the electronic waste management assumes greater significance not only
due to the generation of our own waste but also dumping ofe-waste particularly computer
waste from the developed countries.

With extensively using computers and electronic equipments and people dumping old
electronic goods for new ones, the amount ofE-Waste generated has been steadily
increasing. At present Bangalore alone generates about 8000 tonnes of computer waste
annually and in the absence of proper disposal, they find their way to scrap dealers.

E-Parisaraa, an eco-friendly recycling unit on the outskirts of Bangalore which is located

in Dobaspet industrial area, about 45 Km north of Bangalore, makes full use ofE-Waste.
The plant which is India’s first scientific e-waste recycling unit will reduce pollution,
landfill waste and recover valuable metals, plastics & glass from waste in an eco-friendly
manner. E-Parisaraa has developed a circuit to extend the life of tube lights. The circuit
helps to extend the life of fluorescent tubes by more than 2000 hours. If the circuits are
used, tube lights can work on lower voltages. The initiative is to aim at reducing the
accumulation of used and discarded electronic and electrical equipments.

India as a developing country needs simpler, low cost technology keeping in view of
maximum resource recovery in an environmental friendly methodologies. E-Parisaraa,
deals with practical aspect ofe-waste processing as mentioned below by hand. Phosphor
affects the display resolution and luminance of the images that is seen in the monitor.

E-Parisaraa’s Director Mr. P. Parthasarathy, an IIT Madras graduate, and a former

consultant for a similar e-waste recycling unit in Singapore, has developed an eco-
friendly methodology for reusing, recycling and recovery of metals, glass & plastics with
non-incineration methods . The hazardous materials are segregated separately and send
for secure land fill for ex.: phosphor coating, LED’s, mercury etc.

We have the technology to recycle most of the e-waste and only less than one per cent of
this will be regarded as waste, which can go into secure landfill planned in the vicinity by
the HAWA project.

Carbon credit
A carbon credit is a generic term for any tradable certificate or permit representing the
right to emit one tonne of carbon dioxide or carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2-e).[1][2][3]

Carbon credits and carbon markets are a component of national and international attempts
to mitigate the growth in concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs). One carbon credit
is equal to one ton of carbon dioxide, or in some markets, carbon dioxide equivalent
gases. Carbon trading is an application of an emissions trading approach. Greenhouse gas
emissions are capped and then markets are used to allocate the emissions among the
group of regulated sources. The goal is to allow market mechanisms to drive industrial
and commercial processes in the direction of low emissions or less carbon intensive
approaches than those used when there is no cost to emitting carbon dioxide and other
GHGs into the atmosphere. Since GHG mitigation projects generate credits, this
approach can be used to finance carbon reduction schemes between trading partners and
around the world.

There are also many companies that sell carbon credits to commercial and individual
customers who are interested in lowering their carbon footprint on a voluntary basis.
These carbon offsetters purchase the credits from an investment fund or a carbon
development company that has aggregated the credits from individual projects. The
quality of the credits is based in part on the validation process and sophistication of the
fund or development company that acted as the sponsor to the carbon project. This is
reflected in their price; voluntary units typically have less value than the units sold
through the rigorously validated Clean Development Mechanism.

ISO
ISO stands for the International Organization for Standardization, located in Geneva,
Switzerland. ISO is a non-governmental organization established in 1947. The
organization mainly functions to develop voluntary technical standards that aim at
making the development, manufacture and supply of goods and services more efficient,
safe and clean.

What are the 17 requirements of the ISO 14001:2004 standard?

• Environmental Policy - develop a statement of the organization’s commitment to

the environment
• Environmental Aspects and Impacts - identify environmental attributes of
products, activities and services and their effects on the environment
• Legal and Other Requirements - identify and ensure access to relevant laws and
regulations
• Objectives and Targets and Environmental Management Program - set
environmental goals for the organization and plan actions to achieve objectives
and targets
• Structure and Responsibility - establish roles and responsibilities within the
organization
 • Training, Awareness and Competence - ensure that employees are aware and
capable of their environmental responsibilities
• Communication - develop processes for internal and external communication on
environmental management issues
• EMS Documentation - maintain information about the EMS and related
documents
• Document Control - ensure effective management of procedures and other
documents
• Operational Control - identify, plan and manage the organization’s operations and
activities in line with the policy, objectives and targets, and significant aspects
• Emergency Preparedness and Response - develop procedures for preventing and
responding to potential emergencies
• Monitoring and Measuring - monitor key activities and track performance
including periodic compliance evaluation
• Evaluation of Compliance - develop procedure to periodically evaluate
compliance with legal and other requirements
• Nonconformance and Corrective and Preventive Action - identify and correct
problems and prevent recurrences
• Records - keep adequate records of EMS performance
• EMS Audit - periodically verify that the EMS is effective and achieving
objectives and targets
• Management Review - review the EMS

Global warming
Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of Earth's near-surface air
and oceans since the mid-20th century and its projected continuation. According to the
2007 Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC), global surface temperature increased 0.74 ± 0.18 °C (1.33 ± 0.32 °F) during the
20th century.[2][A] Most of the observed temperature increase since the middle of the 20th
century has been caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases, which result
from human activity such as the burning of fossil fuel and deforestation.[3] Global
dimming, a result of increasing concentrations of atmospheric aerosols that block sunlight
from reaching the surface, has partially countered the effects of warming induced by
greenhouse gases.

Climate model projections summarized in the latest IPCC report indicate that the global
surface temperature is likely to rise a further 1.1 to 6.4 °C (2.0 to 11.5 °F) during the 21st
century.[2] The uncertainty in this estimate arises from the use of models with differing
sensitivity to greenhouse gas concentrations and the use of differing estimates of future
greenhouse gas emissions. An increase in global temperature will cause sea levels to rise
and will change the amount and pattern of precipitation, probably including expansion of
subtropical deserts.[4] Warming is expected to be strongest in the Arctic and would be
associated with continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice. Other likely effects
include changes in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, species
extinctions, and changes in agricultural yields. Warming and related changes will vary
from region to region around the globe, though the nature of these regional variations is
uncertain.[5] As a result of contemporary increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, the
oceans have become more acidic, a result that is predicted to continue.[6][7]

The scientific consensus is that anthropogenic global warming is occurring.[8][9][10][B]

Nevertheless, political and public debate continues. The Kyoto Protocol is aimed at
stabilizing greenhouse gas concentration to prevent a "dangerous anthropogenic
interference".[11] As of November 2009, 187 states had signed and ratified the protocol

Ecolabel
Ecolabels and Green Stickers are labelling systems for food and consumer products.
Ecolabels are often voluntary, but Green Stickers are mandated by law in North America
for major appliances and automobiles. They are a form of sustainability measurement
directed at consumers, intended to make it easy to take environmental concerns into
account when shopping. Some labels quantify pollution or energy consumption by way of
index scores or units of measurement; others simply assert compliance with a set of
practices or minimum requirements for sustainability or reduction of harm to the
environment. Usually both the precautionary principle and the substitution principle are
used when defining the rules for what products can be ecolabelled.[citation needed]

Ecolabelling systems exist for both food and consumer products. Both systems were
started by NGOs but nowadays the European Union have legislation for the rules of
ecolabelling and also have their own ecolabels, one for food and one for consumer
products. At least for food, the ecolabel is nearly identical with the common NGO
definition of the rules for ecolabelling. Trust in the label is an issue for consumers, as
manufacturers or manufacturing associations could set up "rubber stamp" labels to
greenwash their products.

Many people believe that most food ecolabels are the same as organic labelling. This is
not inaccurate, a great many certification standards with ecolabels exist, such as
Rainforest Alliance, Utz coffee, cocoa and tea, GreenPalm, Marine Stewardship Council,
and many more; these are aimed at sustainable food production and good social and
environmental performance. These are mainstream standards aimed at improving whole
sectors of the food industry, in addition there are many more of these which are business-
to-business standards that do not carry consumer-facing ecolabels.

ISO 14001
. -ISO 14001 is part of a family of 16 international ISO 14000
standards designed to assist companies in reducing their negative impact on the
environment (Federal Facilities Council Report 1999). The standard is not an
environmental management system as such and therefore does not dictate absolute
environmental performance requirements (National Academy Press 1999), but serves
instead as a framework to assist organisations in developing their own environmental
management system (RMIT University). ISO 14001 can be integrated with other
management functions and assists companies in meeting their environmental and
economic goals.

ISO 14001, as with other ISO 14000 standards, is voluntary (IISD 2010), with its main
aim to assist companies in continually improving their environmental performance,
whilst complying with any applicable legislation. Organisations are responsible for
setting their own targets and performance measures, with the standard serving to assist
them in meeting objectives and goals and the subsequent monitoring and measurement of
these (IISD 2010). This means that two organisations that have completely different
measures and standards of environmental performance, can both comply with ISO 14001
requirements (Federal Facilities Council Report 1999).

The standard can be applied to a variety of levels in the business, from organisational
level, right down to the product and service level (RMIT university). Rather than
focusing on exact measures and goals of environmental performance, the standard
highlights what an organisation needs to do to meet these goals (IISD 2010). Success of
the system is very dependant on commitment from all levels of the organisation,
especially top management (Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand 2004), who
need to be actively involved in the development, implementation and maintenance of the
environmental management system (iso14001.com.au 2010). In 2008 there were an
estimated 188 000 companies from 155 countries, certified as ISO 14001 compliant
(ISO14001.com.au 2010)

ISO 14001 is known as a generic management system standard, meaning that it is

applicable to any size and type of organisation, product or service, in any sector of
activity and can accommodate diverse socio-cultural and geographic conditions
(Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand 2004). All standards are periodically
reviewed by ISO and new ones issued (Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand
2004).

[edit] Basic principles and methodology

The fundamental principle and overall goal of the ISO 14001 standard, is the concept of
continual improvement (Federal Facilities Council Report 1999). ISO 14001 is based on
the Plan-Do-Check-Act methodology (Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand 2004)
which has been expanded to include 17 elements, grouped into five phases that relate to
Plan-Do-Check-Act; Environmental Policy, Planning, Implementation & Operation,
Checking & Corrective Action and lastly Management Review (Martin 1998).
[edit] Plan – establish objectives and processes required

Prior to implementing ISO 14001, an initial review or gap analysis of the organisation’s
processes and products is recommended, to assist in identifying all elements of the
current operation and if possible future operations, that may interact with the
environment, termed environmental aspects (Martin 1998). Environmental aspects can
include both direct, such as those used during manufacturing and indirect, such as raw
materials (Martin 1998). This review assists the organisation in establishing their
environmental objectives, goals and targets, which should ideally be measurable; helps
with the development of control and management procedures and processes and serves to
highlight any relevant legal requirements, which can then be built into the policy
(Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand 2004).

Greenhouse effect
The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface
is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions. Since
part of this re-radiation is back towards the surface, energy is transferred to the surface
and the lower atmosphere. As a result, the temperature there is higher than it would be if
direct heating by solar radiation were the only warming mechanism.[1][2]

This mechanism is fundamentally different from that of an actual greenhouse, which

works by isolating warm air inside the structure so that heat is not lost by convection.

The greenhouse effect was discovered by Joseph Fourier in 1824, first reliably
experimented on by John Tyndall in 1858, and first reported quantitatively by Svante
Arrhenius in 1896.[3]

If an ideal thermally conductive blackbody was the same distance from the Sun as the
Earth is, it would have a temperature of about 5.3 °C. However, since the Earth reflects
about 30%[4] (or 28%[5]) of the incoming sunlight, the planet's effective temperature (the
temperature of a blackbody that would emit the same amount of radiation) is about −18
or −19 °C,[6][7] about 33°C below the actual surface temperature of about 14 °C or 15 °C.
[8]
The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature
and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse
effect.

Global warming, a recent warming of the Earth's surface and lower atmosphere,[9] is
believed to be the result of a strengthening of the greenhouse effect mostly due to human-
produced increases in atmospheric greenhouse gases.[10

Ozone layer
The ozone layer is a layer in Earth's atmosphere which contains relatively high
concentrations of ozone (O3). This layer absorbs 97–99% of the Sun's high frequency
ultraviolet light, which is damaging to life on Earth.[1] It is mainly located in the lower
portion of the stratosphere from approximately 13 to 40 kilometres (8.1 to 25 mi) above
Earth, though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically.[2] The ozone layer was
discovered in 1913 by the French physicists Charles Fabry and Henri Buisson. Its
properties were explored in detail by the British meteorologist G. M. B. Dobson, who
developed a simple spectrophotometer (the Dobsonmeter) that could be used to measure
stratospheric ozone from the ground. Between 1928 and 1958 Dobson established a
worldwide network of ozone monitoring stations, which continue to operate to this day.
The "Dobson unit", a convenient measure of the columnar density of ozone overhead, is
named in his honor.

Origin of ozone
The photochemical mechanisms that give rise to the ozone layer were discovered by the
British physicist Sidney Chapman in 1930. Ozone in the Earth's stratosphere is created by
ultraviolet light striking oxygen molecules containing two oxygen atoms (O2), splitting
them into individual oxygen atoms (atomic oxygen); the atomic oxygen then combines
with unbroken O2 to create ozone, O3. The ozone molecule is also unstable (although, in
the stratosphere, long-lived) and when ultraviolet light hits ozone it splits into a molecule
of O2 and an atom of atomic oxygen, a continuing process called the ozone-oxygen cycle,
thus creating an ozone layer in the stratosphere, the region from about 10 to 50 kilometres
(33,000 to 160,000 ft) above Earth's surface. About 90% of the ozone in our atmosphere
is contained in the stratosphere. Ozone concentrations are greatest between about 20 and
40 kilometres (12 and 25 mi), where they range from about 2 to 8 parts per million. If all
of the ozone were compressed to the pressure of the air at sea level, it would be only a
few millimeters thick.

Food chain
Food chains and food webs are representations of the predator-prey relationships
between species within an ecosystem or habitat.

Many chain and web models can be applicable depending on habitat or environmental
factors. Every known food chain has a base made of autotrophs, organisms able to
manufacture their own food (e.g. plants, chemotrophs).

Organisms represented in food chains

In nearly all food chains, solar energy is input into the system as light and heat, utilized
by autotrophs (i.e., producers) in a process called photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is
reduced (gains electrons) by being combined with water (a source of hydrogen atoms),
producing glucose. Water splitting produces hydrogen, but is a nonspontaneous
(endergonic) reaction requiring energy from the sun. Carbon dioxide and water, both
stable, oxidized compounds, are low in energy, but glucose, a high-energy compound and
good electron donor, is capable of storing the solar energy.[1] This energy is expended for
cellular processes, growth, and development. The plant sugars are polymerized for
storage as long-chain carbohydrates, including other sugars, starch, and cellulose.

Glucose is also used to make fats and proteins.[2] Proteins can be made using nitrates,
sulfates, and phosphates in the soil.[3] When autotrophs are eaten by heterotrophs, i.e.,
consumers such as animals, the carbohydrates, fats, and proteins contained in them
become energy sources for the heterotrophs.[2]

The food chain consists of four main parts:

• The Sun, which provides the energy for everything on the planet.
• Producers: these include all green plants. These are also known as autotrophs,
since they make their own food. Producers are able to harness the energy of the
sun to make food. Ultimately, every (aerobic) organism is dependent on plants
for oxygen (which is the waste product from photosynthesis) and food (which is
produced in the form of glucose through photosynthesis). They make up the bulk
of the food chain or web.
• Consumers: In short, consumers are every organism that eats something else.
They include herbivores (animals that eat plants), carnivores (animals that eat
other animals), parasites (animals that live off of other organisms by harming it),
and scavengers (animals that eat dead animal carcasses). Primary consumers are
the herbivores, and are the second largest biomass in an ecosystem. The animals
that eat the herbivores (carnivores) make up the third largest biomass, and are also
known as secondary consumers. This continues with tertiary consumers, etc.
• Decomposers: These are mainly bacteria and fungi that convert dead matter into
gases such as carbon and nitrogen to be released back into the air, soil, or water.
Fungi, and other organisms that break down dead organic matter are known as
saprophytes. Even though most of us hate those mushrooms or molds, they
actually play a very important role. Without decomposers, the earth would be
covered in trash. Decomposers are necessary since they recycle the nutrients to
be used again by producers.

Eco hotels
WHAT ARE ECO HOTELS?

 Eco hotel is used to describe a hotel that is enviornment friendly.

 The basic definition of a green hotel is an environmentally-
responsible lodging that follows the practices of green living.
 These hotels have to be certified green by an independent third-party
or by the state they are located in.
Traditionally, these hotels were mostly presented as Eco Lodges because
of their location, often in jungles, and their design inspired by the use of
traditional building methods applied by skilled local craftsmen in areas,
such as Costa Rica and Indonesia.

Today, the term has developed to include properties in less “natural”

locations that have invested in improving their “green” credentials.

CRITERIA FOR AN ECO HOTEL

An eco hotel must usually meet the following criteria

• Dependence on the natural environment

• Ecological sustainability
• Proven contribution to conservation
• Provision of environmental training programs
• Incorporation of cultural considerations
• Provision of an economic return to the local community

Characteristics of eco-hotel

Green hotels follow strict green guidelines to ensure that their guests are
staying in a safe, non-toxic and energy-efficient accommodation. Here are
some basic characteristics of a green hotel:

• Housekeeping uses non-toxic cleaning agents and laundry detergent

• 100% organic cotton sheets, towels and mattresses
• Non-smoking environment
• Energy-efficient lighting
• Serve organic and
• local-grown food
• Non-disposable dishes
• Graywater recycling,
• Newspaper recycling program

Top 4 Eco-hotels in the World

• Costa Rica: Monte Azul Hotel and Center for Fine Arts

Costa Rica is already a known pioneer of eco-tourism, however, the set up

as Monte Azul Hotel seems to beg for some redefinition.

• Pescadero, Baja, Mexico: Rancho Pescadero

Although it’s pretty challenging to get here (it sits at the end of twisting
roads with steep drops), you’ll be pleasantly rewarded once you reach the
12-suite eco-hotel. Rancho Pescadero is six miles off Todos Santos, sitting
on a prime piece of land at the Pacific coast.

• Hadahaa, Maldives: Alila Villas

Its tide-blue pool is full of starfishes and it has an electric-blue lagoon

with a coral-reef rich with varieties of tropical fish. The entire resort
consists villas, built over the water with vast sundecks and angled timber
roofs which keep everything cool.

• New South Wales, Australia: Wolgan Valley Resort and Spa

This $112 million property was built mainly to conserve 4,000 acres
of wildlife. Surrounded by the Great Blue Mountains, this area is
definitely every nature-lover’s paradise. You can explore eucalyptus
forests, ancient flora, marsupials, and even sandstone outcrops.

IMPACT OF TOURISM AND TRAVEL

 These are environmentally-friendly, energy conserving, non toxic
and recyclable. Environmentally friendly hotels
 They not only save money for the owner and guests, but also
resources for the world.
 Thus many of tourists will be attracted to a green hotel just because
it is taking environmentally friendly steps. Organizations like the
"Green Hotels Association” bring together hotels interested in
environmental issues
 THIS HAS INCREASEM TOURISM RATE IN COUNTRIES LIKE
MALAYASIA

Going Green at the Orchid How a Hotel in Mumbai is

Saving Environment
• The Orchid at Vile Parle won the First Choice Responsible Tourism
Awards, and the Britist Travel Awards at London for being an
environmentally responsible tourism hotel.
• The pens/pencils are made using recycled board, reprocessed
plastic and scrap wood. Cloth replace paper mats, and all their
stationery us made from recycled paper.
• Says Kannampilly, “We believe in the three ‘R’s – Reduce, Reuse,
and Recycle.

IT HELPS IN
  Waste Management
 Energy Management
 Water Management
 Employee Education and Community Involvement
 Environment Commitment

CONCLUSION
• Laws and educative programs through mass communication
combined with a moral obligation to save the planet Earth are the
need of the hour. Hotel and tourism ministry and each one of us
need to pull our socks up and tighten our shoe laces as the clock is
ticking—every second taking us towards destruction. All is not lost,
there is time—so act now!
• From energy and water conservation to on-going environmental
conservation efforts, the hotels are committed to preserving Mother
Nature in both big and small ways.

Carbon Bank
• "Carbon Bank" is a term used to describe the international effort to reduce carbon
gas emissions (Carbon dioxide, Methane, CFC's etc) which may contribute to
global warming. An industrialized nation may produce more than its share and a
less developed nation may be provided incentives for not destroying its rain
forests such as food aid and so on, since plant life, and especially the very rich
plant life of the tropical rain forests removes carbon dioxide from the air by
photosynthesis.
• The Global Carbon Bank has established its reputation as an innovaative market
leader and trusted business partner. The Global Carbon Bank was founded on the
principles of partnership, integrity, and insight. Guided by our understanding of
local needs we established a strong presence in many of the worlds most dynamic
growth markets and have developed a unique perspective of what our clients are
looking for from their banking partner. By bridging both established and
emerging markets we have been able to build long-term relationships with our
clients based upon a the strength of our advice and our disciplined approach to
investing. Our goal is to work together with you to create your future however
you see it, and to give you peace of mind that your affairs are well looked after.
We accomplish this by our uncompromising commitment to you and your future
needs. The Global CArbon Bank has an extensive range of financial products,
traditional and innovative, personal and commercial, local and international. All
of which can be tailored to your unique circumstances and financial goals. Along
with our highly personalized approach we bring to our clients a deep cross
cultural knowledge and global network with relationship partners in over twenty
countries. Our expertise and resources become yours no matter where you are. A
world wide reach that fits seamlessly with our comprehensive approach to
 managing your wealth in a world of uncertainty. At The Global Carbon Bank our
expertise and experience have been clearly recognized with industry accolades,
recognition we hope you find equally rewarding.

Water cycle
The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle or H2O cycle, describes the
continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. Water can
change states among liquid, vapour, and ice at various places in the water cycle.
Although the balance of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time, individual
water molecules can come and go, in and out of the atmosphere. The water moves from
one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the
atmosphere, by the physical processes of evaporation, condensation, precipitation,
infiltration, runoff, and subsurface flow. In so doing, the water goes through different
phases: liquid, solid, and gas.

The hydrologic cycle also involves the exchange of heat energy, which leads to
temperature changes. For instance, in the process of evaporation, water takes up energy
from the surroundings and cools the environment. Conversely, in the process of
condensation, water releases energy to its surroundings, warming the environment.

The water cycle figures significantly in the maintenance of life and ecosystems on Earth.
Even as water in each reservoir plays an important role, the water cycle brings added
significance to the presence of water on our planet. By transferring water from one
reservoir to another, the water cycle purifies water, replenishes the land with freshwater,
and transports minerals to different parts of the globe. It is also involved in reshaping the
geological features of the Earth, through such processes as erosion and sedimentation. In
addition, as the water cycle involves heat exchange, it exerts an influence on climate as
well.

Coastal Land Management-australia

Coastal Responsibilities

The Borough acts as the Crown Land Manager for most foreshore areas within the
Borough on behalf of the Department of Sustainability and Environment. The
management of the coast and foreshore areas is therefore a responsibility shared by
Council with the State Government.

A Queenscliffe Coastal Management Plan has been developed to provide guidance on

Coastal Management in the Borough of Queenscliffe. The plan can be downloaded on
this page.
This plan is underpinned by the Victorian Coastal Strategy (VCS), which provides a
long-term vision for the planning, management and sustainable use of our coast, and the
policies and actions Victorians will need to implement over the next five years to help
achieve that vision.

It identifies and responds to three significant issues affecting Victoria’s coast that require
specific attention:

• Climate Change
• Population and Growth
• Marine Ecological Integrity

The Victorian Coastal Strategy 2008 is established under the Coastal Management Act
1995, and is the third VCS to be produced since 1997 – they are reviewed every five
years. The VCS can be downloaded on this page.

Foreshore Reserves

The Council, in conjunction with the Department of Sustainability and Environment,

manage and maintain numerous reserves located along the bayside beaches and the surf
beach at Point Lonsdale.

From the sensitive shores of Swan Bay, to the pleasant bayside beaches of Queenscliff
and Point Lonsdale, to the rugged face of Bass Strait at Point Lonsdale's surf beach, the
features, flora and fauna are a treat for the locals and visitors alike.

Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act was enacted in 1977, to
provide for the levy and collection of a cess on water consumed by persons operating and
carrying on certain types of industrial activities. This cess is collected with a view to
augment the resources of the Central Board and the State Boards for the prevention and
control of water pollution constituted under the Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1974. The Act was last amended in 2003.

Furnishing of Water Consumption Return

Under the provisions of the Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977,
every person carrying on a specified industry (Annexure-I) and every local authority is
required to furnish a return on Form-I (Annexure-II) showing the quantity of water
consumed in a month on or before the 5th of the following month to the concerned
Regional Office of the Board for onward transmission to the Assessing Authority
(Member Secretary).
In the case the industry/local body fails to furnish the returns, the said authority shall,
after making such inquiry as it deems fit by order, self assess the amount of cess payable
by the concerned persons for carrying on of any specified industry or local authority, at
the rate as shown in (Annexure-III) as the case may be.

The industry/local authority is required to pay cess amount within a period of 45/30 days
from the date of assessment order, failing which interest @ 2% per month, on the amount
of cess is payable. The assessing authority may also levy a penalty equivalent to the
amount of cess not paid by the due date.
Where any person or local authority liable to pay cess under this Act installs any plant for
the treatment of sewage or trade effluent, such person or local authority shall from such
date be entitled to rebate of 25% of the cess payable by such person or, as the case may
be, local authority.

Provided that a person or local authority shall not be entitled to the said rebate, if he or it
consumes water in excess of the maximum quantity as may be prescribed (Annexure-IV)
for any specified industry or local authority or fails to comply with any of the provisions
of Section 25 of the Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 or any of the
standards laid down by the Central Government under the Environment (Protection) Act,
1986.

THE WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) CESS

(AMENDMENT) ACT, 2003

No.19 OF 2003

[ 13th March, 2003]

An Act further to amend the Water(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act,
1977.

BE it enacted by parliament in the Fifty-fourth Year of the Republic of India as

follows:-

1. Short Title and Commencement

(1) This Act may be called the Water(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess
(Amendment) Act, 2003.

(2) It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by
notification in the Official Gazette, appoint.

2. Amendment of Section 2

In the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977.(hereinafter

referred to as the principal Act), in section 2, for clause(C), the following clause
shall be substituted, namely:-

'(C) "industry" includes any operation or process, or treatment and

disposal system, which consumes water or gives rise to sewage effluent or trade
effluent, but does not include any hydel power unit;'.

3. Substitution of Certain Expression

In the principal Act, for the words "specified industry", wherever they occur, the
word "industry" shall be substituted.

4. Substitution of New Section for Section 16

For section 16 of the principal Act, the following section shall be substituted,
namely:-

Power of Central Government to Exempt the Levy of Water Cess

"16.(1) Notwithstanding anything contained in section 3, the Central Government
may, by notification in the Official Gazette, exempt any industry, consuming
water below the quantity specified in the notification, from the levy of water cess.

(2) In exempting an industry under sub-section (1), the Central Government

shall take into consideration –

(a) the nature of raw material used;

(b) the nature of manufacturing process employed;

(c) the nature of effluent generated;

(d) the source of water extraction;

(e) the nature of effluent receiving bodies; and

(f) the production data, including water consumption per unit production, in
the industry and the location of the industry."

5. Omission of Schedule I

Schedule I to the principal Act shall be omitted.

6. Substitution of New Schedule for Schedule II

For Schedule II to the principal Act, the following Schedule shall be substituted ,
namely:-

"SCHEDULE II
 (see section 3)

Purpose for which water is Maximum rate under sub-section Maximum rate under
consumed (2) of section 3 section (2A) of Section 3
1. Industrial cooling, spraying Five paise Ten paise
in mine pits or boiler feeds
per kilolitre Per kilolitre.

2. Domestic purpose
Two paise Three paise

per kilolitre per kilolitre.

3. Processing whereby water

gets polluted and the Ten paise Twenty paise
pollutants are –
a) easily biodegradable ; or per kilolitre per kilolitre.
b) non – toxic; or
c) both non toxic and easily
bio degradable.

4. Processing whereby water

gets polluted and the pollutants
are –

a) not easily biodegradable;

or
b) toxic; or
c) both toxic and not easily Fifteen paise Thirty paise
biodegradable.
per kilolitre per kilolitre."
ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION
Legislative Environment
The Indian Constitution provides necessary directives and powers for framing and enforcing
environmental legislation. The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), the Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) form the
regulatory and administrative core.

6.1.1 Administrative Issues

The powers of the Environment (Protection) Act have been exercised by the
Central Government through the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF).
However, the monitoring mechanism for implementation of the Act is still
undefined, although for the various regulations enforcement institutions have
been enlisted. Also in several areas of environmental concern, such as
vehicular-pollution control, the MoEF has no decisive role, since it is
implemented by a separate Ministry through the Motor Vehicles Act.

In general, environmental issues are on the concurrent list which means that
they are included in jurisdiction of both Central and State Governments. The
local bodies, in turn, have certain responsibilities. Central Government gives
the policy guidelines, but the implementation of environmental laws and
regulations is a state responsibility. Every state and union territory has a
Department of Environment. States also have the State Pollution Control Board
(SPCB) whose activities are coordinated by the CPCB. The SPCB can be seen
as an executing agency of the Department of Environment – together they
manage the implementation of environmental laws on a state level. Apart from
coordinating the activities of SPCBs the CPCB is advising the Central
Government in all the matters related to protection of environment. As it is
stated in the Constitution of India, it is the duty of the state (Article 48 A) to
‘protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife
of the country’.

The major instrument with the State to check environmental degradation is

undoubtedly regulation. The country has adopted almost all environmental
protection Acts and rules enforced in developed countries. The government has
formulated comprehensive legislation to enable the institutions like pollution
control boards to effectively protect the environment. There are around 30 acts
 and rules related to environment. These can be accessed at
http://www.envfor.nic.in/legis/legis.html.

There are also other Ministries and departments that deal with environmental
issues. These include Ministry of New and Renewable Energy Sources,
Ministry of Power, Ministry of Rural Development, Ministry of Urban
Development & Poverty Alleviation, Ministry of Petroleum etc.

6.1.2 Problematic Implementation and Gaps

Despite the existence of a legal framework for environmental protection, environmental

degradation continues. The laws are in place, but the enforcement mechanism is very weak.
The need to reduce the gap between principle and practice cannot be over- emphasized.

Any policy or any law is only as good as its implementation. It is unfortunately

true that the Indian enforcement mechanism is very weak although the laws are
very well drawn up. A careful analysis of the laws reveals that there are
inherent deficiencies in legislation which are closely linked to lapses in
enforcement. Perhaps, the most serious lacunas are the over-dependences on
the legal system. In a view with of the legislative and executive indifference,
inefficiency and failures, the role of the judiciary becomes important in shaping
the environmental laws: The laws are often not implemented thoroughly in
practice before the Supreme Court has given an enforcing statement. In Delhi
for instance it was the Supreme Court that enforced the entire public transport
systems to switch to CNG. There are also other similar examples.

Public Interest Litigation (PIL) has become and important tool in the hands of
environmentalists and the judiciary for protection of environment from
pollution and degradation.

However, usually the courts are too busy to devote enough time for
environment related litigations and as a result of that, thousands of cases filed
by the State against the violators of Environmental Acts are still pending after
years on the statutes. In a good number of cases where decisions are taken the
polluters have been given the benefit of doubt on technical grounds, as the
Boards could not adequately meet the “onus of proof”. More often than not, the
polluters hire highly paid advocates to plead their cases, whereas the State
Boards are unable to do so because of financial constraints.

There are also gaps in legislation and some major areas of hazards are not
covered. Because of a multiplicity of regulatory agencies, there is a need for
authority which can assume the lead role in studying, planning and
implementing long term requirements of environmental safety and give a
direction and coordinate a speedy and adequate response to environmental
threats.

6.1.3 Environment and Pollution Control Related Laws

The legislation on environmental and pollution control related issues is extensive andvery
much industry specific.

The most important Act is The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. The Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986 intends to achieve the place of umbrella legislation by providing
solution to virtually every kind of environmental problems through appointment of
authorities and rule-making mechanism. It also aims at coordinating the activities of various
Central and State Authorities established under previous enactments like Water and Air Acts.

The Environment (Protection) Act, consisting of 26 sections distributed in four chapters, for
instance prohibits persons carrying on industry operation etc. from discharging or any
environmental pollutants in excess of the prescribed standards. Further, the statute permits
handling of hazardous substance only in accordance with the procedure and after complying
with such safeguards that are prescribed for the same. The Act provides for penalties
(including imprisonment) in cases of contravention of the provisions.

The concentration of powers in the central government is the hallmark of the Environment
Act: Extensive powers have been given to the central Government for prevention, control and
abatement of environmental pollution. The Central Government can, by notification in
the official Gazette, introduce new environment-related standards, restrictions and
prohibitions.

Some of the important rules made under the Act include:

• The Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986

• The Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989
• The Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemical Rules, 1989
• The Hazardous Micro-Organism Rules, 1989
• The Chemical Accident (Emergency Planning, Preparedness and Response)
Rules, 1996
• The Bio-Medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998
• The Recycled Plastics Manufacture and Uses Rules, 1999
• The Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000
• The Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000
• The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000.

Out of these the Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 cover the widest array
of issues. The Rules lay down procedures for setting standards for emissions
and discharge of environmental pollutants and introduce standards for
numerous industries (totally 86). Subsequently CPCB has identified 17
categories of major polluting industries2 for which action plans have been
formulated and standards introduced.

Besides the aforesaid existing procedural Rules framed under the parent Act,
there are various quasi-laws like

• Emission Standards as per Air Act, 1981

• Emission Standards for Automobiles for Prevention and Control of Pollution.
• Specifications for standard Tolerance Limits for Industrial and Sewage
effluents followed by West Bengal Pollution Control Board
• Standards for Emissions of Air Pollution into the Atmosphere from Industrial
Plants
• Guidelines for diversion of forestlands for non-forest purposes under forest
Act, 1980
• Guidelines for Environmental Impact Assessment
• Guidelines for Environmental Appraisal of Industrial Projects.
• Guidelines for Integrating Environmental concerns with exploitation of
Mineral Resources
• Environmental Guidelines for Formulation of River Valley projec
• Environmental Guidelines for Thermal Power Plants
• Guidelines for Environmental Impact Assessment of Shipping and Harbour
Projects
• Prevention of Hazards from Industrial Units: government of India's
Instruction
• Environmental Clearance of Industrial License Conditions of letter of Intent/
Industrial License.
• Environmental Guidelines for Siting of Industries