Chapter 1: The Human Body

Anatomy
• Study of the structure and shape of the
body and its parts
Physiology
• Study of how the body and its parts work
or function

Anatomy—Levels of Study
•Gross anatomy
• Large structures
• Easily observable

Microscopic anatomy
• Structures cannot be seen with the
naked eye
• Structures can only be viewed with a
microscope

Gross anatomy

Microscopic anatomy

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 pumped by heart
• Oxygen
• Carbon dioxide
• Nutrients
• Wastes

Lymphatic system
• Returns fluids to blood vessels
• Cleanses the blood
• Involved in immunity
Organ System Overview
•Integumentary system Respiratory system
• Forms the external body covering • Keeps blood supplied with oxygen
• Protects deeper tissue from injury • Removes carbon dioxide
• Helps regulate body temperature
• Location of cutaneous nerve receptors Digestive system
• Breaks down food
Skeletal system • Allows for nutrient absorption into blood
• Protects and supports body organs • Eliminates indigestible material as feces
• Provides muscle attachment for
movement Urinary system
• Site of blood cell formation • Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
• Stores mineral • Maintains acid-base balance
• Regulates water and electrolytes
Muscular system
• Produces movement Reproductive system
• Maintains posture • Produces offspring
• Produces heat • Testes produce sperm and male
hormone
Nervous system • Ovaries produce eggs and female
• Fast-acting control system hormones.
• Responds to internal and external
change Necessary Life Functions
• Activates muscles and glands  Maintain boundaries
Endocrine system  Movement
• Secretes regulatory hormones  Locomotion
• Growth  Movement of substances
• Reproduction  Responsiveness
• Metabolism  Ability to sense changes and react
 Digestion
Cardiovascular system  Breakdown and absorption of
• Transports materials in body via blood nutrients

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 Metabolism—chemical reactions
within the
 body
 Break down complex molecules
into smaller ones
 Build larger molecules from smaller
ones
 Produces energy
 Regulated by hormones
 Excretion
 Eliminates waste from metabolic
reactions
 Wastes may be removed in urine
or feces Homeostasis
 Reproduction  Homeostasis—maintenance of a
 Occurs on cellular level or stable internal environment
organismal level • A dynamic state of equilibrium
 Produces future generation • Necessary for normal body
 Growth functioning and to sustain life
 Increases cell size and number of  Homeostatic imbalance
cell • A disturbance in homeostasis
resulting in disease
Survival Needs
 Nutrients
 Chemicals for energy and cell
building
 Includes carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids, vitamins, and
minerals
 Oxygen
 Required for chemical reactions
 Water
Maintaining Homeostasis
 60 to 80 percent of body weight
 The body communicates through
 Most abundant chemical in the
neural and
human body
 hormonal control systems
 Provides for metabolic reaction
• Receptor
 Stable body temperature
• Responds to changes in the
 37°C (98°F)
environment (stimuli)
 Atmospheric pressure
• Sends information to control center
 Must be appropriate for gas
• Control center
exchange
• Determines set point
• Analyzes information
• Determines appropriate response
• Effector

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 • Provides a means for response to Posterior Body Landmarks
the stimulus.

Feedback Mechanisms
 Negative feedback
o Includes most homeostatic control
mechanisms
o Shuts off the original stimulus, or
reduces its intensity
o Works like a household
thermostat
 Positive feedback
o Increases the original stimulus to
push the variable farther
o In the body this only occurs in
blood clotting and during the birth
of a baby
 The Language of Anatomy
 Special terminology is used to prevent
Directional Terms
 misunderstanding
1. Superior (cranial or cephalad):
 Exact terms are used for
toward the head end or upper part of a
o Position
structure or the body; above
o Direction 2. Inferior (caudal): away from the head
o Regions
end or toward the lower part of a
o Structures
structure or the body; below
3. Ventral (anterior): toward or at the
Regional landmarks front of the body; in front of
Anterior body Landmarks 4. Dorsal (posterior): toward or at the
backside of the body; behind
5. Medial: toward or at the midline of the
body; on the inner side of
6. Lateral: away from the midline of the
body; on the outer side of
7. Intermediate: between a more medial
and a more lateral structure.
8. Proximal: close to the origin of the
body part or point of attachment to a
limb to the body trunk
9. Distal: farther from the origin of a
body part or the point of attachment of
a limb to the body trunk
10. Superficial: toward or at the body
surface

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11. Deep: away from the body surface;
more internal

Body Planes and Sections

•A sagittal section divides the body (or
organ) into left and right parts.
•A median, or midsagittal, section divides
the body (or organ) into equal left and
right parts.
•A frontal, or coronal, section divides the
body (or organ) into anterior and posterior
parts.
•A transverse, or cross, section divides
the body (or organ) into superior and
inferior parts.

Body Cavities
 Dorsal body cavity
 Cranial cavity houses the brain
 Spinal cavity houses the spinal
cord
 Ventral body cavity
 Thoracic cavity houses heart,
lungs, and others
 Abdominopelvic cavity houses
digestive system and most urinary
system organs.

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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The Endocrine System is the collection of

glands that produce hormones that regulate
metabolism, growth and development, tissue
function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep,
and mood, among other things. It is the
Second controlling system of the body. It is
also a Wfast-control system that uses
chemical messengers (hormones) that are
released into the blood.
The 3 Main Functions of the Endocrine
System are:

1. Makes hormones that control your

moods, growthand
development, metabolism, organs, and
reproduction.
2. Controls how your hormones are There are two types of glands; Endocrine and
released. Exocrine. Some glands have purely endocrine
3. Sends t hose hormones into your functions. Some have pure exocrine
bloodstream so they can travel to other functions. Other glands are mixed glands,
body parts. with both endocrine and exocrine functions
(pancreas, gonads).
Glands are organs which produces and
releases substances that perform a A. Endocrine Glands
specific function in the body. There are 8
major organs in our body. They are ductless glands and release the
substances that they make (hormones)
directly into the bloodstream.
Major Glands in Our Body
Examples:
1. Hypothalamus
1. Hypothalamus
2. Pituitary gland But not limited to osmoregulation and
3. Pineal gland thermoregulation but also works with the
pituitary gland in modulating the body’s
4. Thyroid gland
hormones depending on the body’s
5. Parathyroid glands physiological demands.
6. Adrenal glands
2. Pituitary gland
7. Testes
Basically the boss of the endocrine system.
8. Ovaries Takes immense responsibility of regulating
the activity of the other six major endocrine
glands that release hormones.

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3. Pineal gland 2. Sweat Gland
Also called the epiphysis cerebri. Responsible Used as a cooling system of the body.
for altering your state of wakefulness and Releasing stress to regulate
sleep by releasing hormones such as temperature.
melatonin.
3. Prostate Gland
4. Thyroid gland and Parathyroid glands In males they are a group of accessory
Function is for growth development, increase reproductive organs that facilitates
muscle gain, increase metabolism to name a the process of reproduction.
few.
5. Adrenal glands
Located at the retroperitoneal space.
Responsible for secreting stress hormones
that stimulate the physiological adaptations
to mitigate the change in external
environment.

6. Testes
Site of sperm production. Assymetrical.

7. Ovaries Hormones are chemical substances secreted

For the production of gametes and their by endocrine cells into the extracellular fluids
expulsion for fertilization. that regulate the metabolic activity of other
cells in the body.
8. Thymus
Helping develop an important white blood
cell called the T-cell.

9. Pancreas
Release various substances that helps
regulate the blood constant levels as well as
digestion.

B. Exocrine Glands
They are glands with ducts. The secretions are
delivered into ducts and end up on the
epithelial surface.
Examples:
1. Salivary Gland
Secrete their salivary contents to help
keep the oral mucosa protected and
lubricated as well as to help in the
initial stages of digestion (chewing).

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The Chemistry of Hormones 5. Turn on or turn off transcription of
certain genes
Hormones are produced by specialized cells.
These Cells secrete hormones into Hormones Act by Two Mechanisms
extracellular fluids. Blood transfers A. Direct Gene Activation - used by steroid
hormones to target sites. In target sites, hormones and thyroid hormone
hormones regulate the activity of other cells. 1. Steroid hormones diffuse through the
plasma membrane of target cells
Endocrinology is the scientific study of 2. Once inside the cell, the hormone enters
hormones and endocrine organs the nucleus
3. Then, the hormone binds to a specific
Hormones are classified chemically as:
protein within the nucleus
1. Amino acid–based, which includes: 4. Hormone-receptor complex binds to
a. Proteins specific sites on the cell’s DNA
b. Peptides 5. Certain genes are activated to transcribe
c. Amines messenger RNA
6. New proteins are synthesized
2. Steroids that are made from cholesterol
B. Second-Messenger System - used by
3. Prostaglandins which are made from
protein and peptide hormones
highly active lipids that act as local
hormones. 1. Hormone (first messenger) binds to a
membrane receptor
Major Processes that Hormones Control 2. Activated receptor sets off a series of
1. Reproduction reactions that activates an enzyme
2. Growth and development 3. Enzyme catalyzes a reaction that
3. Mobilization of body defenses produces a second-messenger molecule
4. Maintenance of much of homeostasis (such as cyclic AMP, known as cAMP)
5. Regulation of metabolism
4. Oversees additional intracellular changes
Hormone Action to promote a specific response in the
Hormones affect only certain tissues or target cell
organs (target cells or target organs). For a
target cell to respond, specific protein
receptors in which a hormone can attach Stimuli for Control of Hormone Release
must be present. It then alters arouse cells or Hormone levels in the blood are maintained
alter cellular activity. mostly by negative feedback. In this feedback
system, a stimulus or low hormone levels in
Typically, one or more of the following the blood will trigger the release of more
occurs: hormone. The release of hormones stops
1. Change plasma membrane permeability once an appropriate level in the blood is
or membrane potential by opening or reached. The stimuli that activate endocrine
closing ion channels glands fall into three major categories;
2. Activate or inactivate enzymes hormonal, humoral or neural.
3. Stimulate or inhibit cell division
4. Promote or inhibit secretion of a product

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1. Hormonal Stimuli

This is the most common category of

stimulus. Endocrine organs are activated by
other hormones.
Example:
Hormones of the hypothalamus stimulate the
anterior pituitary gland to secrete its
hormones. Many anterior pituitary hormones
stimulate other endocrine organs to release
their hormones in the blood.

2. Humoral indicates various body fluids,

such as blood and bile
Examples: 1. Anterior Pituitary Gland

Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin are This gland is small, controls the
produced in response to changing levels of activity of so many other endocrine glands.
blood calcium levels. Insulin is produced in They are often called the “Master Endocrine
response to changing levels of blood glucose Gland”. The adrenal, thyroid and the gonad
levels atrophies if there is an hyposecretion of these
hormones.
3. Neural stimuli
Hypothalamus produces Releasing Hormones
Nerve fibers stimulate hormone release. Most and Inhibiting Hormones to regulate the
are under the control of the sympathetic function of the anterior Pituitary Gland. These
nervous system. hormones are released into portal circulation,
Examples: which connects hypothalamus to anterior
Sympathetic stimulation of the adrenal pituitary gland.
medulla to release epinephrine and
norepinephrine

Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland is a pea-sized gland
that hangs by a stalk from the hypothalamus
in the brain. It is protected by the sella turcica
of the sphenoid bone. It has two functional
lobes; anterior pituitary and the posterior
pituitary gland.

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B. Posterior Pituitary Gland Six Anterior Pituitary Hormones Affecting
our Body
It is not an endocrine gland as it does not
make the hormones it releases but instead it Two Hormones affect Non-endocrine targets
stands as storage for hormones made by the 1. Growth hormone
hypothalamus. Stores 2 types of hormones 2. Prolactin
from the hypothalamus; oxytocin and anti-
diuretic hormone.
Four are Tropic Hormones
1. Follicle-stimulating hormone
2. Luteinizing hormone
3. Thyrotropic hormone
4. Adrenocorticotropic hormone

All anterior pituitary hormones are proteins

(or peptides). They act through second-
messenger systems. Generally, they Are
regulated by hormonal stimuli and negative
feedback.
1. Growth hormone (GH)
1. Oxytocin GH is a general metabolic hormone. Its
This hormone is released only during major effects are directed to growth of
childbirth. It stimulates contractions of the skeletal muscles and long bones. The GH
uterus during labor, sexual relations, and Plays a role in determining final body size. It is
breastfeeding. It also causes milk ejection protein-sparing and anabolic hormone that
(let-down reflex) in a breastfeeding woman. causes amino acids to be built into proteins. It
also causes fats to be broken down for a
source of energy.
2. Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH)
It is a chemical that inhibits urine 2. Prolactin (PRL).
production (diuresis) by promoting water Prolactin stimulates and maintains milk
reabsorption by the kidneys. As a result, urine production following childbirth. Function in
volume decreases and blood pressure males is unknown.
increases.
In large amounts, causes constriction of
arterioles, leading toincreased blood Gonadotropic Hormones - they are hormones
pressure (the reason why ADH is known as that regulate hormonal activity of the gonads.
vasopressin).Alcohol drinking inhibits ADH There are 2 gonadotropic hormones in the
secretion. body: FSH and LH.
a. The Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH)

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Stimulates follicle development in ovaries in PTH is a hypercalcemic hormone meaning it
women and stimulates sperm increases blood calcium levels and it
development in testes in men. stimulates the kidneys and intestine to absorb
more calcium.
b. The Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
Triggers ovulation of an egg from the ovary II. Thymus
and causes the ruptured follicle to
produce progesterone and some estrogen.
Stimulates testosterone production in males.

3. Thyrotropic hormone (TH), also called

thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
This hormone Influences growth and
activity of the thyroid gland.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). It also
regulates endocrine activity of the adrenal
This hormone is located in the upper thorax,
cortex.
posterior to the sternum. It is largest in
4. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone infants and children and decreases in size
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) throughout adulthood. Thymus produces a
hormone called Thymosin which appears to
plays a large role in how your body responds
be essential for a special group of white blood
to stress. ACTH is produced in the pituitary
cells and the immune system.
gland, its production stimulates the
production and release of cortisol from the Learning Task # 8 Adrenal Glands
adrenal gland.
Adrenal Glands
I. Parathyroid Glands

They are tiny masses on the posterior of This gland sits on top of the kidneys like
the thyroid. It secreteS parathyroid hormone triangular hats. It has 2 regions; adrenal
(PTH). They are most important regulator of cortex and adrenal medulla.
calcium ion (Ca2+) homeostasis of the blood. It
also stimulates osteoclasts to remove calcium
from bone.

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Two Regions Composing the Adrenal Gland Most of the hormones produced are
A. Adrenal Cortex androgens (male sex hormones), but some
estrogens (female sex hormones) are also
Produces 3 major groups of steroid formed
hormones which are collectively known as
corticosteroids. They are the
mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, sex B. Adrenal Medulla
hormones.
It is a knot of nervous tissue. Produces
1. Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone) two similar hormones or catecholamines;
They are produced in outer adrenal cortex. epinephrine or norepinephrine.
They are important in regulating mineral (salt)
1. Epinephrine or Adrenaline
content in blood, particularly sodium and
It is is a hormone and medication.
potassium ions. They also regulate water and
Adrenaline is normally produced by both the
electrolyte balance. The target organ is the
adrenal glands and a small number of
kidney.
neurons in the medulla oblongata, where it
Release of aldosterone is stimulated by: acts as a neurotransmitter involved in
regulating visceral functions (e.g.,
a. Humoral factors (fewer sodium ions or respiration).
too many potassium ions in the blood)
b. Hormonal stimulation (ACTH) 2. Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)
It is a naturally occurring chemical in the
c. Renin and angiotensin II in response to a body that acts as both a stress hormone
drop in blood pressure and neurotransmitter (a substance that sends
Aldosterone production is inhibited by signals between nerve cells). It's released into
atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), a hormone the blood as a stress hormone when the brain
produced by the heart when blood pressure is perceives that a stressful event has occurred.
too high. These hormones prepare the body to
deal with short-term stress (“fight or flight”)
by increasing heart rate, blood pressure,
2. Glucocorticoids (including cortisone and blood glucose levels and dilating small
cortisol) passageways of lungs.
They are produced by middle layer of
adrenal cortex. It promotes normal cell
metabolism and help resist long-term Learning Task # 9 Pancreas
stressors by increasing blood glucose levels
(hyperglycemic hormone). It also Anti-
inflammatory properties and are Released in
response to increased blood levels of ACTH.

3. Sex hormones
It is produced in the inner layer of the
adrenal cortex and in small amounts are
made throughout life.

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It is located close to the stomach in the 1. Estrogens
abdominal cavity. It is a mixed gland, with Stimulate the development of secondary
both endocrine and exocrine functions. The female characteristics and maturation of the
Pancreatic Islets or the Islets of Langerhans female reproductive organs. With
produce 2 hormones; Insulin and Glucagon. progesterone, it also promote breast
These hormones are antagonists that development.
maintain blood sugar homeostasis 2. Progesterone
1. Insulin It acts with estrogen to bring about the
These are produced by beta cells and menstrual cycle. It also helps in the
released when blood glucose levels are implantation of an embryo in the uterus and
high. This hormone increases the rate of helps prepare breasts for lactation.
glucose uptake and metabolism by body
cells. Insulin removes sugar out of the
blood so its effect is Hypoglycemic. Testes
The paired, oval male gonads or testes are
suspended in a sac called Scrotum outside the
2. Glucagon pelvic cavity. It produces sperm and male sex
Glucagon is produced by alpha cells and hormones or androgens, such as
released when blood glucose levels are testosterone.
low. It stimulates the liver to release
glucose to blood, thus increasing blood Testosterone is the most important androgen
glucose levels. because it is responsible for adult male
secondary sex characteristics. It promotes
growth and maturation of male reproductive
Learning Task # 10 Gonads system and is required for sperm cell
production
Gonads
Learning Task # 11
The female and male gonads produce sex
cells. They also produce sex hormones Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and
identical to those of adrenal cortex Organs
production. There are pockets of hormone-producing cells
that are found in the stomach, walls of the
Ovaries
small intestine, kidneys and heart. Some
The female gonads or ovaries are paired, hormones are also produced in the placenta.
slightly larger that almond-sized organs are Placenta
located in the pelvic cavity. They produce
eggs or ova and 2 groups of hormones
namely: estrogen and progesterone.

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 It is a remarkable organ formed temporarily Learning Task # 12 Developmental Aspects of
in the uterus. It produces hormones that the Endocrine System
maintain pregnancy. It produces human In the absence of disease, efficiency of
chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in addition to the endocrine system remains high until old
estrogen, progesterone, and other hormones. age. Decreasing function of female ovaries at
The Human placental lactogen (hPL) prepares menopause leads to such symptoms as
the breasts for lactation. Relaxin relaxes osteoporosis, increased chance of heart
pelvic ligaments and pubic symphysis for disease, and possible mood changes.
childbirth.
Other Sources of Hormones are Identified in Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine
this Chart System

Source Hormone Stimulus for Efficiency of all endocrine glands gradually

secretion decreases with aging, which leads to a
generalized increase in incidence of:

Plasma Prostaglandins Local irritation, 1. Diabetes mellitus

membrane of hormones, etc. 2. Immune system depression
all body cells
3. Lower metabolic rate
4. Cancer rates in some areas
Stomach Gastrin Food

Duodenum Intestinal Food

Gastrin
“Successful and unsuccessful people do not
Duodenum Secretin Food vary greatly in their abilities. They vary in
their desires to reach their potential.”– John
Maxwell
Duodenum Cholecystokinin Food

Kidney Erythropoetin Hypoxia

Kidney Active Vit D3 PTH

Heart Atrial Stretching of

natriuretic Atria
Peptide(ANP)

Adipose Leptin Fatty Foods

Tissue

Adipose Resistin Unknown

Tissue

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 Digestive System I. Mouth
It is the system by which ingested food is
acted upon by physical and chemical means
to provide the body with absorbable nutrients
and to excrete waste products.
Also known as the Gastrointestinal Tract or
the Alimentary Canal, it is a series of
hollow organs joined in a long, twisting tube
from the mouth to the anus. The
hollow organs that make up the GI tract are
the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small Parts of the Mouth:
intestine, large intestine, and anus.
1. Mouth (oral cavity)—mucous membrane–
Functions: lined cavity
1. Ingestion—taking in food
2. Digestion—breaking food into nutrient 2. Lips (labia)—protect the anterior opening
molecules 3. Cheeks—form the lateral walls
3. Absorption—movement of nutrients into
the bloodstream 4. Hard palate—forms the anterior roof
4. Defecation—excretes to rid the body of
indigestible waste 5. Soft palate—forms the posterior roof
6. Uvula—fleshy projection of the soft palate
Two Main Groups of Organs
7. Palatine—located at posterior end of oral
I. Alimentary Canal (Gastrointestinal or GI cavity
Tract)—continuous, coiled, hollow tube.
These organs ingest, digest, absorb, 8. Lingual—located at the base of the tongue
defecate.
9. Vestibule—space between lips externally
II. Accessory digestive organs - includes the
and teeth and gums internally
teeth, tounge, and several large
digestive organs. Assist digestion in 10. Oral cavity proper—area contained by the
various ways. teeth
LEARNING TASK # 2 ORGANS OF THE 11. Tongue—attached at hyoid bone and
ALIMENTARY CANAL styloid processes of the skull, and by the
lingual frenulum to the floor of the mouth
The alimentary canal is a continuous, coiled,
hollow tube that runs through the ventral 12. Tonsils
cavity from stomach to anus
1. Mouth
2. Pharynx Functions of the Mouth
3. Esophagus Mastication (chewing) of food. Tongue
4. Stomach mixes masticated food with saliva. Tongue
5. Small intestine initiates swallowing. Taste buds on the
6. Large intestine tongue allow for taste
7. Anus

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II. Pharynx c. Muscularis externa
d. Serosa

A. Mucosa
Innermost, moist membrane consisting of:
1. Surface epithelium that is mostly simple
columnar epithelium (except for
esophagus— stratified squamous
epithelium)
2. Small amount of connective tissue (lamina
propria)
3. Scanty smooth muscle layer lines the
cavity (known as the lumen)
Serves as a passageway for foods, fluids, and 4. Submucosa - Just beneath the mucosa
air. Food passes from the mouth posteriorly 5. Soft connective tissue with blood vessels,
into the: nerve endings, mucosa-associated
a. Oropharynx—posterior to oral cavity lymphoid tissue, and lymphatic vessels
b. Laryngopharynx—below the oropharynx 6. Muscularis externa—smooth
and continuous with the esophagus muscle, Inner circular layer

Food is propelled to the esophagus by two

skeletal muscle layers in the pharynx: Outer longitudinal layer
a. Longitudinal outer layer
b. b. Circular inner layer 1. Serosa—outermost layer of the wall;
contains fluid-producing cells
Alternating contractions of the muscle layers 2. Visceral peritoneum—innermost layer
(peristalsis) propel the food. that is continuous with the outermost
layer
Anatomy:
3. Parietal peritoneum—outermost layer
About 10 inches long. Runs from pharynx that lines the abdominopelvic cavity by
to stomach through the diaphragm. way of the mesentery

Physiology:
Alimentary Canal Nerve Plexuses
Conducts food by peristalsis (slow rhythmic
Alimentary canal wall contains two
squeezing) to the stomach. Acts as
intrinsic nerve plexuses that are part of the
a passageway for food only (respiratory
autonomic nervous system.
system branches off after the pharynx)
1. Submucosal nerve plexus
2. Myenteric nerve plexus
Layers of Tissue in the Alimentary Canal
Organs Regulate mobility and secretory activity of
Summary of the four layers from innermost to the GI tract organs
outermost, from esophagus to the large
intestine (detailed next)
a. Mucosa
b. Submucosa

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III. Stomach 1. Intrinsic factor, which is needed for
vitamin B12 absorption in the small
intestine
2. Simple columnar epithelium composed
almost entirely of mucous cells. Mucous
cells produce bicarbonate-rich alkaline
mucus. Dotted by gastric pits leading to
gastric glands that secrete gastric juice,
including:
3. Chief cells—produce protein-digesting
enzymes (pepsinogens)
4. Parietal cells—produce hydrochloric acid
The C-shaped organ located on the left that activates enzymes
side of the abdominal cavity. Food enters at 5. Mucous neck cells—produce thin acidic
the cardioesophageal sphincter from the mucus (different from the mucus
esophagus. Food empties into the small produced by mucous cells of the mucosa)
intestine at the pyloric sphincter (valve). 6. Enteroendocrine cells—produce local
Stomach can stretch and hold 4 L (1 gallon) of hormones such as gastrin
food when full.
Functions
Regions  Temporary storage tank for food
 Site of food breakdown
1. Greater curvature is the convex lateral  Chemical breakdown of protein begins
surface  Delivers chyme (processed food) to the
2. Lesser curvature is the concave medial small intestine
surface
3. Cardial (cardia)—near the heart and
surrounds the cardioesophageal sphincter IV. Small Intestine
4. Fundus—expanded portion lateral to the
cardiac region
5. Body—midportion
6. Pylorus—funnel-shaped terminal end
7. Rugae—internal folds of the mucosa
present when the stomach is empty
8. Lesser omentum - double layer of the
peritoneum. Extends from liver to the
lesser curvature of stomach
9. Greater omentum - Another extension of
the peritoneum, covers the abdominal
organs. Fat insulates, cushions, and The body’s major digestive organ. The
protects abdominal organs longest portion of the alimentary tube (2–4
m, or 7–13 feet, in a living person). Site of
nutrient absorption into the blood. It is a
muscular tube extending from the pyloric
Structure of the Stomach Mucosa
sphincter to the ileocecal valve. Suspended

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from the posterior abdominal wall by the
mesentery.
Subdivisions
1. Duodenum
2. Jejunum
3. Ileum
Chemical digestion begins in the small
intestine. Enzymes produced by intestinal
cells and pancreas are carried to the
duodenum by pancreatic ducts. Bile, formed 4. Peyer’s patches - collections of lymphatic
by the liver, enters the duodenum via the bile tissue. Located in submucosa. Increases in
duct. Hepatopancreatic ampulla is the number toward the end of the small intestine.
location where the main pancreatic duct and More are needed there because remaining
bile ducts join. food residue contains much bacteria.
Structural modifications
1. Villi—fingerlike projections formed by the
mucosa. House a capillary bed and lacteal

2. Microvilli—tiny projections of the plasma

membrane (brush border enzymes)

V. Large Intestine

3. Circular folds (plicae circulares)—deep

folds of mucosa and submucosa. Increase
surface area for food absorption. Decrease in
number toward the end of the small intestine.

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Larger in diameter, but shorter in length at 1. Ascending—travels up right side of
1.5 m, than the small intestine. Extends from abdomen and makes a turn at the right colic
the ileocecal valve to the anus (hepatic) flexure

Subdivisions: 2. Transverse—travels across the abdominal

cavity and turns at the left colic (splenic)
1. Cecum flexure
2. Appendix
3. Colon 3. Descending—travels down the left side
4. Rectum
5. Anal canal 4. Sigmoid—S-shaped region; enters the
pelvis. Sigmoid colon, rectum, and anal canal
A. Cecum—saclike first part of the large are located in the pelvis
intestine.

D. Anal canal ends at the anus

B. Appendix - Hangs from the

cecum. Accumulation of lymphoid tissue that
sometimes becomes inflamed (appendicitis).
 Anus—opening of the large intestine
 External anal sphincter—formed by
skeletal muscle and is voluntary
 Internal anal sphincter—formed by
smooth muscle and is involuntary
These sphincters are normally closed except
during defecation. The large intestine delivers
C. Colon
indigestible food residues to the body’s
exterior. Goblet cells produce alkaline mucus
to lubricate the passage of feces. Muscularis
externa layer is reduced to three bands of
muscle, called teniae coli. These bands of
muscle cause the wall to pucker into haustra
(pocketlike sacs)

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LEARNING TASK # 3 ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE membrane (ligament). Periodontal
ORGANS membrane holds tooth in place in the bony
jaw.
A. Teeth
Note: The neck is a connector between the
crown and root

B. Salivary Glands

Teeth masticate (chew) food into smaller

fragments. Humans have two sets of teeth
during a lifetime:
1. Deciduous (baby or milk) teeth - A baby
has 20 teeth by age 2. First teeth to appear
are the lower central incisors.
2. Permanent teeth - replace deciduous
teeth between ages 6 and 12. A full set is 32
Three pairs of salivary glands empty
teeth (with the wisdom teeth). Teeth are
secretions into the mouth
classified according to shape and function:
1. Parotid glands - Found anterior to the
a. Incisors—cutting
ears. Mumps affect these salivary glands
b. Canines (eyeteeth)—tearing or piercing
2. Submandibular glands
c. Premolars (bicuspids)—grinding
3. Sublingual glands
d. Molars—grinding

Two Major Regions of a Tooth Both submandibular and sublingual glands

1. Crown empty saliva into the floor of the mouth
2. Root through small ducts.
1. Crown—exposed part of tooth above the Saliva is a mixture of mucus and serous
gingiva (gum). Enamel covers the crown. fluids. Helps to moisten and bind food
Dentin found deep to the enamel and forms together into a mass called a bolus.
the bulk of the tooth, surrounds the
pulp cavity. Pulp cavity contains connective Contains:
tissue, blood vessels, and nerve fibers (pulp). a. Salivary amylase—begins starch digestion
Root canal where the pulp cavity extends into b. Lysozymes and antibodies—inhibit
the root. bacteria
c. Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted
2. Root - Cement—covers outer surface and
attaches the tooth to the periodontal

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C. Pancreas 1. Bile salts and bile pigments (mostly
bilirubin from the breakdown of
hemoglobin),
2. cholesterol,
3. phospholipids, and
4. electrolytes.
Bile emulsifies (breaks down) fats.
E. Gallbladder

It is a soft, pink triangular gland. Found

posterior to the parietal peritoneum. Mostly
retroperitoneal. Extends across the abdomen
from spleen to duodenum. Produces a wide
spectrum of digestive enzymes that break
down all categories of food. Secretes enzymes
into the duodenum. Alkaline fluid introduced
with enzymes neutralizes acidic chyme Green sac found in a shallow fossa in the
coming from stomach inferior surface of the liver
Hormones Produced by the Pancreas When no digestion is occurring, bile backs up
1. Insulin the cystic duct for storage in the gallbladder
2. Glucagon
While in the gallbladder, bile is concentrated
D. Liver by the removal of water
When fatty food enters the duodenum, the
gallbladder spurts out stored bile

LEARNING TASK # 4 ESSENTIAL PROCESSSES

OF THE GI TRACT
Essential Processes of the GI Tract
1. Ingestion—placing of food into the mouth
2. Propulsion—movement of foods from
one region of the digestive system to
Digestive role is to produce bile. Bile leaves another
the liver through the common hepatic duct
and enters duodenum through the bile duct. Peristalsis—alternating waves of contraction
and relaxation that squeeze food along the GI
Bile is yellow-green, watery solution tract
containing:

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 Segmentation—movement of materials LEARNING TASK # 5 ACTIVITIES OCCURING in
back and forth to foster mixing in the the MOUTH, PHARYNX, and ESOPHAGUS
small intestine
A. Food ingestion and Breakdown
3. Food Breakdown: Mechanical breakdown
Food is placed in the mouth. Physically it
Example: is broken down by chewing. Mixed with
saliva, which is released in response to
a. Mixing of food in the mouth by the mechanical pressure and psychic stimuli.
tongue Salivary amylase begins starch digestion. Food
b. Churning of food in the stomach is placed into the mouth. Essentially, no food
absorption occurs in the mouth
c. Segmentation in the small intestine
B. Food propulsion—swallowing and
Mechanical digestion prepares food for peristalsis
further degradation by enzymes Two phases of swallowing :
1. Buccal phase - It is voluntary and occurs in
the mouth. Food is formed into a
4. Food Breakdown: Digestion
bolus. The bolus is then forced into the
Digestion occurs when enzymes chemically pharynx by the tongue.
break down large molecules into their
2. Pharyngeal-esophageal phase -
building blocks. Each major food group uses
Involuntary transport of the bolus by
different enzymes
peristalsis. Nasal and respiratory
a. Carbohydrates are broken down to passageways are blocked. Peristalsis
monosaccharides (simple sugars) moves the bolus toward the stomach. The
cardioesophageal sphincter is opened
b. Proteins are broken down to amino acids when food presses against it
c. Fats are broken down to fatty acids and
glycerol
LEARNING TASK # 6 ACTIVITIES in the
STOMACH
5. Absorption A. Food breakdown
Gastric juice is regulated by neural and
End products of digestion are absorbed in
hormonal factors. Presence of food or rising
the blood or lymph. Food must enter mucosal
pH causes the release of the hormone gastrin.
cells and then move into blood or lymph
Gastrin causes stomach glands to produce:
capillaries
1. Protein-digesting enzymes
2. Mucus
3. Hydrochloric acid
6. Defecation
Hydrochloric acid makes the stomach
Elimination of indigestible substances from contents very acidic
the GI tract in the form of feces

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Acidic pH activates pepsinogen to pepsin for Hormones (secretin and CCK) also target
protein digestion. Provides a hostile the liver and gallbladder to release bile
environment for microorganisms
Bile acts as a fat emulsifier. It is needed for
1. Protein-digesting enzymes fat absorption and absorption of fat-soluble
vitamins (K, D, E, and A).
a. Pepsin—an active protein-digesting
enzyme A Summary of Hormones Associated with
Digestion
b. Rennin—works on digesting milk protein
in infants; not produced in adults

B. Food Propulsion
1. Peristalsis: waves of peristalsis occur from
the fundus to the pylorus, forcing food
past the pyloric sphincter
2. Grinding: the pylorus meters out chyme
into the small intestine (3 ml at a time)
3. Retropulsion: peristaltic waves close the
pyloric sphincter, forcing contents back
into the stomach; the stomach empties in
4–6 hours

LEARNING TASK # 7 ACTIVITIES of the SMALL Water is absorbed along the length of the
INTESTINE small intestine.
Chyme Breakdown and Absorption In the end products of digestion, most
1. Intestinal enzymes from the brush border substances are absorbed by active transport
function to: through cell membranes. lipids are absorbed
a. Break double sugars into simple sugars. by diffusion.
b. Complete some protein digestion Substances are transported to the liver by the
Release of pancreatic juice from the pancreas hepatic portal vein or lymph.
into the duodenum is stimulated by: In chyme propulsion, Peristalsis is the major
1. Vagus Nerves means of moving food. Segmental
2. Local hormones that travel via the blood to movements include mixing chyme with
influence the release of pancreatic juice (and digestive juices which aid in propelling food.
bile)
a. Secretin
b. Cholecystokinin (CCK)

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LEARNING TASK # 8 ACTIVITIES of the LARGE Nutrition
INTESTINE
Nutrient are substance used by the body for
I. Nutrient breakdown and absorption growth, maintenance, and repair

No digestive enzymes are produced. But Major Nutrients

they Produce some vitamin K and some B 1. Carbohydrates
vitamins and Release gases. Resident bacteria 2. Lipids
digest remaining nutrients. Water, vitamins, 3. Proteins
ions, and remaining water are 4. Water
absorbed. Remaining materials are eliminated
via feces. Minor nutrients
1. Vitamins
Feces contains: 2. Minerals
1. Undigested food residues
2. Mucus A diet consisting of foods from the five food
3. Bacteria groups normally guarantees adequate
4. Water amounts of all the needed nutrients
II. Propulsion of Food Residue and The five food groups are summarized next in
Defecation Table 14.2
Sluggish peristalsis begins when food
residue arrives. Haustral contractions are the
movements occurring most frequently in the
large intestine. Mass movements are slow,
powerful movements that occur three to four
times per day.
Presence of feces in the rectum causes a
defecation reflex. Internal anal sphincter is
relaxed. Defecation occurs with relaxation of
the voluntary (external) anal sphincter.

LEARNING TASK # 9 NUTRITION AND

METABOLISM
Most foods are used as metabolic fuel. Foods
are oxidized and transformed into adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). ATP is chemical energy
that drives cellular activities
Energy value of food is measured in
kilocalories (kcal) or Calories (C)

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Dietary Recommendations from egg yolk, meats, and milk products
(dairy products).
Healthy Eating Pyramid was issued in 1992. It
involves Six major food groups arranged III. Proteins
horizontally
 Most are from animal products (eggs,
milk, meat, poultry, and fish). Essential
amino acids: those that the body cannot
make and must be obtained through
diet. Complete proteins contain all
essential amino acids. Legumes and beans
also have proteins, but the proteins are
incomplete
IV. Vitamins
 Most vitamins function as
coenzymes. Found mainly in fruits and
vegetables
V. Minerals
 Mainly important for enzyme
activity. Foods richest in minerals:
vegetables, legumes, milk, and some
meats.

MyPlate was issued in 2011 by the USDA. LEARNING TASK # 11 METABOLISM

Involves five food groups are arranged by a
round plate. Metabolism is all of the chemical reactions
necessary to maintain life. There are 2 types:
1. Catabolism—substances are broken down
LEARNING TASK # 10 DIETARY SOURCES of to simpler substances; energy is released and
the MAJOR NUTRIENTS captured to make adenosine triphosphate
(ATP)
I. Carbohydrates
2. Anabolism—larger molecules are built from
 Dietary carbohydrates are sugars and
smaller ones
starches. Most are derived from plants
such as fruits and vegetables. Exceptions: I. Carbohydrate Metabolism
lactose from milk and small amounts of
glycogens from meats Carbohydrates are the body’s preferred
source to produce cellular energy (ATP).
II. Lipids
Glucose (blood sugar) is the major breakdown
 Saturated fats from animal products product of carbohydrate digestion. The Fuel
(meats). Unsaturated fats from nuts, used to make ATP
seeds, and vegetable oils. Cholesterol

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 Cellular respiration as glucose is oxidized, are oxidized to produce ATP. Excessive fat
carbon dioxide, water, and ATP are formed. breakdown causes blood to become acidic
(acidosis or ketoacidosis). Then breath has a
Events of Three Main Metabolic Pathways of fruity odor
Cellular Respiration
Common with:
1. Glycolysis 1. “No carbohydrate” diets
 Occurs in the cytosol. Energizes a glucose 2. Uncontrolled diabetes mellitus
molecule so it can be split into two 3. Starvation
pyruvic acid molecules and yield ATP
2. Citric Acid Cycle ( Krebs Cycle) III. Protein Metabolism
 Occurs in the mitochondrion. Produces  Proteins form the bulk of cell structure
virtually all the carbon dioxide and water and most functional molecules. Proteins
resulting from cellular respiration. Yields a are carefully conserved by body
small amount of ATP. cells. Amino acids are actively taken up
3. Electron Transport Chain from blood by body cells. Amino acids are
oxidized to form ATP mainly when other
 Hydrogen atoms removed during fuel sources are not available. Ammonia,
glycolysis and the citric acid cycle released as amino acids are catabolized, is
are delivered to protein carriers. detoxified by liver cells that combine it
Hydrogen atoms are split into hydrogen with carbon dioxide to form urea.
ions and electrons in the mitochondria.
Electrons give off energy in a series
The Central Role of the Liver in Metabolism
of steps to enable the production of ATP.
Liver is the body’s key metabolic organ.
Hyperglycemia—excessively high levels of
glucose in the blood. Excess glucose is stored Roles in Digestion
in body cells as glycogen or converted to fat 1. Manufactures bile
2. Detoxifies drugs and alcohol
Hypoglycemia—low levels of glucose in the 3. Degrades hormones
blood. Glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and 4. Produces cholesterol, blood proteins
fat breakdown occur to restore normal blood (albumin and clotting proteins)
glucose levels 5. Plays a central role in metabolism

Liver can regenerate if part of it is damaged

II. Fat Metabolism or removed
 Fats insulate the body. Protect organs. It To maintain homeostasis of blood glucose
also Build some cell structures levels, the liver performs:
(membranes and myelin sheaths). Provide
reserve energy. 1. Glycogenesis—“glycogen formation”

Excess dietary fat is stored in subcutaneous  Glucose molecules are converted to

tissue and other fat depots. When glycogen and stored in the liver
carbohydrates are in limited supply, more fats 2. Glycogenolysis—“glycogen splitting”

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 Glucose is released from the liver after cholesterol is destined for breakdown and
conversion from glycogen elimination.
3. Gluconeogenesis—“formation of new
sugar”
LEARNING TASK # 12 BODY ENERGY
 Glucose is produced from fats and BALANCE
proteins
Energy intake = Total energy output (heat +
Fats and fatty acids are picked up by the work + energy storage).
liver. Some are oxidized to provide energy for
liver cells. The rest are either stored or Energy intake is the energy liberated during
broken down into simpler compounds and food oxidation. Energy produced during
released into the blood. glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and the electron
transport chain
Blood proteins made by the liver are
assembled from amino acids. Albumin is the Energy output
most abundant protein in blood. a. Energy we lose as heat (60%)
Contains clotting proteins. b. Energy stored as fat or glycogen

Liver cells detoxify ammonia. Ammonia is Interference with the body’s energy balance
combined with carbon dioxide to form urea, leads to:
which is flushed from the body in urine. a. Obesity
b. Malnutrition (leading to body wasting)
Cholesterol Metabolism and Transport
Cholesterol is not used to make ATP. Most Regulation of Food Intake
cholesterol (85%) is produced in the liver; Body weight is usually relatively
only 15% is from the diet. stable. Energy intake and output remain
about equal.
Functions of Cholesterol:
Mechanisms that may Regulate Food Intake
1. Structural basis of steroid hormones and
1. Levels of nutrients in the blood
vitamin D
2. Hormones
2. Building block of plasma membranes 3. Body temperature
4. Psychological factors
Cholesterol and fatty acids cannot freely
circulate in the bloodstream. They are Metabolic Rate and Body Heat Production
transported by lipoproteins (lipid-protein Nutrients yield different amounts of energy.
complexes) known as LDLs and HDLs. Energy value is measured in kilocalories (kcal).
a. Carbohydrates and proteins yield 4
1. Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) transport
kcal/gram
cholesterol to body cells. Rated
b. Fats yield 9 kcal/gram
“bad lipoproteins” since they can lead to
atherosclerosis.
Basic metabolic rate (BMR) is the amount of
2. 2. High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) heat produced by the body per unit of time at
transport cholesterol from body cells to rest. Average BMR is about 60 to 72 kcal/hour
the live. Rated “good lipoproteins” since for an average 70-kg (154-lb) adult.

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Factors that Influence BMR Fever is a controlled hyperthermia. Results
1. Surface area—a small body usually from infection, cancer, allergic reactions, CNS
has a higher BMR injuries. If the body thermostat is set too
2. Gender—males tend to have higher high, body proteins may be denatured, and
BMRs permanent brain damage may occur.
3. Age—children and adolescents have
higher BMRs LEARNING TASK # 13 DEVELOPMENTAL
ASPECTS of the DIGESTIVE SYSTEM and
The amount of thyroxine produced is the METABOLISM
most important control factor. More The alimentary canal is a continuous, hollow
thyroxine means a higher metabolic rate. tube present by the fifth week of
development. Digestive glands bud from the
mucosa of the alimentary tube. The
developing fetus receives all nutrients
through the placenta. In newborns, feeding
must be frequent, peristalsis is inefficient,
and vomiting is common. Teething begins
around age 6 months.
Newborn Reflexes
Total metabolic rate (TMR) is the total 1. Rooting reflex helps the infant find the
amount of kilocalories the body must nipple
consume to fuel ongoing activities. TMR 2. Sucking reflex helps the infant hold on to
increases dramatically with an increase in the nipple and swallow
muscle activity. TMR must equal calories
consumed to maintain homeostasis and Problems of the Digestive System
maintain a constant weight. 1. 1. Gastroenteritis—inflammation of the
gastrointestinal tract; can occur at
Body Temperature Regulation
any time
When foods are oxidized, more than 60% of 2. Appendicitis—inflammation of the
energy escapes as heat, warming the appendix; common in adolescents
body. The body has a narrow range of Metabolism decreases with old age
homeostatic temperature. It must remain
between 35.6ºC and 37.8ºC or (96ºF and Middle-age Digestive Problems
100ºF). 1. Ulcers
2. Gallbladder problems
The body’s thermostat is in the
hypothalamus. Hypothalamus initiates Later middle-age problems
mechanisms to maintain body 1. Obesity
temperature. Heat loss mechanisms involve 2. Diabetes mellitus
radiation of heat from skin and evaporation
of sweat. Heat-promoting mechanisms Activity of the Digestive Tract in Old Age
involve vasoconstriction of skin blood vessels 1. Fewer digestive juices
and shivering. 2. Peristalsis slows
3. Diverticulosis and gastrointestinal
cancers are more common

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Cute si Sachiko
Learning Task #1 The Cardiovascular System
Introduction to the Cardiovascular System:
The Cardiovascular System is an organ system
that conveys blood through vessels to and
from all parts of the body, carrying nutrients
and oxygen to tissues and removing carbon
dioxide and other wastes. It is a closed
tubular system in which the blood is
propelled by a muscular heart. Two circuits,
the pulmonary and the systemic, consist of
arterial, capillary, and venous components. It
is composed of your HEART and BLOOD
VESSELS.
Learning Task #3 Blood Vessels
Learning Task #2 Heart
The heart is a muscular organ about the size
of a fist, located just behind and slightly left
of the breastbone. The heart pumps blood
through the network of arteries and veins
called the cardiovascular system
Located in the thoracic cavity, between the
lungs in the inferior mediastinum.

Apex is directed toward left hip and rests on Blood Vessels are tubular structures carrying
the diaphragm blood to the tissues and organs. There are are
3 major Types of Blood Vessels:
Base points toward right shoulder a. Arteries transport blood and other
substances away from the heart.
b. Veins return blood back toward the
heart.
c. Capillaries surround body cells and
tissues to deliver and absorb oxygen,
nutrients and other substances.

Learning Task #4 Chambers of the Heart

1. Atria (right and left)
- Receiving chambers
Walls of the Heart
- Assist with filling the ventricles
1.Epicardium
- Blood enters under low pressure
2.Myocardium
- Middle layer
2. Ventricles (right and left)
- Mostly cardiac muscles
- Discharging chambers
3. Endocardium
- Thick-walled pumps of the heart
- Inner layer known as Endothelium
- outside layer; Visceral pericardium

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 - During contraction, blood is propelled Heart Valves
into circulation - Allow blood to flow in only one direction,
to prevent backflow
3. Interatrial septum
-Separates the two atria longitudinally

4. Interventricular Septum
-Separates the two ventricles longitudinally

1. Atrioventricular (AV) valves—between

atria and ventricles
a. Left AV valve: bicuspid (mitral) valve
b. Right AV valve: tricuspid valve

- Anchored the cusps in place by chordae

tendineae to the walls of the ventricles
 Blood flows from the right side of the - Open during heart relaxation, when blood
heart to the lungs and back to the left passively fills the chambers
side of the heart. - Closed during ventricular contraction
 Blood is pumped out of right side through
the pulmonary trunk, which splits into
pulmonary arteries and takes oxygen- 2. Semilunar valves—between ventricle and
poor blood to lungs artery
 Oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart a. Pulmonary semilunar valve
from the lungs via pulmonary veins b. Aortic semilunar valve

Systemic circulation - Closed during heart relaxation

 Oxygen-rich blood returned to the left - Open during ventricular contraction
side of the heart is pumped out into the - Valves open and close in response to
aorta pressure changes in the heart
 Blood circulates to systemic arteries and
to all body tissues Learning Task # 5 Cardiac Circulation
 Left ventricle has thicker walls because it
pumps blood to the body through the
systemic circuit
 Oxygen-poor blood returns to the right
atrium via systemic veins, which empty
blood into the superior or inferior vena
cava

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Blood in the heart chambers does not nourish Components include:
the myocardium. The heart has its own 1. Sinoatrial (SA) node
nourishing circulatory system consisting of: - Located in the right atrium
a. Coronary arteries—branch from the aorta - Serves as the heart’s pacemaker
to supply the heart muscle with oxygenated 2. Atrioventricular (AV) node
blood. - is at the junction of the atria and
b. Cardiac veins—drain the myocardium of ventricle. Atrioventricular (AV) bundle
blood. (bundle of His) and bundle branches are
c. Coronary sinus—a large vein on the in the interventricular septum. Purkinje
posterior of the heart; receives blood from fibers spread within the ventricle wall
cardiac veins. muscles.
- Blood empties into the right atrium via
the coronary sinus. - The sinoatrial node (SA node) starts each
heartbeat. Impulse spreads through the
Learning Task #6 Physiology of the Heart atria to the AV node. Atria contract. At
1. Heart functions as a double pump. the AV node, the impulse is delayed
2. Arteries carry blood away from the briefly. Impulse travels through the AV
heart. bundle, bundle branches, and Purkinje
3. Veins carry blood toward the heart. fibers. Ventricles contract; blood is
ejected from the heart.
Double pump
Right side works as the pulmonary circuit  Tachycardia—rapid heart rate, over 100
pump beats per minute
Left side works as the systemic circuit pump  Bradycardia—slow heart rate, less than
Intrinsic conduction system of the heart 60 beats per minutes
- Cardiac muscle contracts spontaneously
and independently of nerve Learning Task # 7 Cardiac Cycle and Heart
impulses. Spontaneous contractions occur Sounds
in a regular and continuous way. Atrial The cardiac cycle refers to one complete
cells beat 60 times per heartbeat, in which both atria and ventricles
minute. Ventricular cells beat 20−40 times contract and then relax
per minute. It needs a unifying control Systole = contraction
system—the intrinsic conduction system Diastole = relaxation
(nodal system)
Average heart rate is approximately 75 beats
Two systems regulate heart activity per minute. On which the Cardiac cycle length
1. Autonomic nervous system is normally 0.8 second
2. Intrinsic conduction system, or the nodal
system Atrial diastole (ventricular filling)
- Sets the heart rhythm  Heart is relaxed and pressure in heart is
- Composed of special nervous tissue low. At this point, Atrioventricular valves
- Ensures heart muscle depolarization in are open and blood flows passively into
one direction only (atria to ventricles) the atria and into ventricles. Semilunar
- Enforces a heart rate of 75 beats per valves are closed.
minute

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Atrial systole Heart rate (HR)
 Ventricles remain in diastole. Atria  Typically 75 beats per minute.
contract. Blood is forced into the
ventricles to complete ventricular filling. Cardiac output is the product of the heart
rate (HR) and the stroke volume (SV)
Isovolumetric contraction CO = HR × SV
 Atrial systole ends; ventricular systole CO = HR (75 beats/min) × SV (70 ml/beat)
begins. Intraventricular pressure rises. AV CO = 5250 ml/min = 5.25 L/min
valves close. For a moment, the ventricles
are completely closed chambers. Regulation of Stroke Volume 60 percent of
Ventricular systole (ejection phase) blood in ventricles (about 70 ml) is pumped
 Ventricles continue to contract. with each heartbeat.
Intraventricular pressure now surpasses
the pressure in the major arteries leaving
the heart. Semilunar valves open. Blood is Starling’s law of the heart
ejected from the ventricles. Atria are The critical factor controlling SV is how
relaxed and filling with blood. much cardiac muscle is stretched. The more
the cardiac muscle is stretched, the stronger
Isovolumetric relaxation the contraction. Venous return is the
 Ventricular diastole begins. Pressure falls important factor influencing the stretch of
below that in the major heart muscle
arteries. Semilunar valves close. For
another moment, the ventricles are Factors modifying basic heart rate
completely closed chambers. When atrial 1. Neural (ANS) controls
pressure increases above intraventricular  Sympathetic nervous system speeds heart
pressure, the AV valves open. rate
 Parasympathetic nervous system,
Heart sounds primarily vagus nerve fibers, slow and
1. Lub—longer, louder heart sound caused steady the heart rate
by the closing of the AV valves
2. Dub—short, sharp heart sound caused 2. Hormones and ions
by the closing of the semilunar valves at  Epinephrine and thyroxine speed heart
the end of ventricular systole rate
 Excess or lack of calcium, sodium, and
Cardiac output (CO) potassium ions also modify heart activity
 Amount of blood pumped by each side
(ventricle) of the heart in 1 minute. 3. Physical factors
 Age, gender, exercise, body temperature
Stroke volume (SV) influence heart rate.
 Volume of blood pumped by each
ventricle in one contraction (each
heartbeat). About 70 ml of blood is
pumped out of the left ventricle with each
heartbeat.

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Learning Task # 8 Blood Vessels Learning Task # 9 Microscopic Anatomy of
Blood Vessels
Three layers (tunics) in blood vessels (except
the capillaries)

Blood vessels form a closed vascular system

that transports blood to the tissues and back
to the heart.
1. Tunica intima forms a friction-reducing
Vessels that carry blood away from the lining.
heart: - Endothelium

2. Tunica Media
- Smooth muscle and elastic tissue
- Controlled by sympathetic nervous
system.

Tunica externa forms protective outermost

Arteries and arterioles. covering
 Vessels that play a role in exchanges - Mostly fibrous connective tissue
between tissues and blood. - Supports and protects the vessel.

Capillary beds Learning Task # 10 Structural differences in

 Vessels that return blood toward the Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries
heart

Venules and veins

1. Arteries have a heavier, stronger,

stretchier tunica media than veins to
withstand changes in pressure.

2. Veins have a thinner tunica media than

arteries and operate under low
pressure. Veins also have valves to

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 prevent backflow of blood. Lumen of cavity. Arterial branches of the
veins is larger than that of abdominal aorta. Celiac trunk is the
arteries. Skeletal muscle “milks” blood first branch of the abdominal aorta.
in veins toward the heart.
Three branches are:
3. Capillaries have only one cell layer thick 1. Left gastric artery (stomach)
(tunica intima). Allow for exchanges 2. Splenic artery (spleen)
between blood and tissue. Blood flow 3. Common hepatic artery (liver)
through a capillary bed is known
as microcirculation. Form networks Superior mesenteric artery supplies most of
called capillary beds that consist of: the:
a. A vascular shunt - small intestine and first half of the large
b. True capillaries intestine.
- Left and right renal arteries (kidney).
4. True capillaries is a branch off a - Left and right gonadal arteries
terminal arteriole. Empty directly into a
postcapillary venule. Its Entrances to *Ovarian arteries in females serve the ovaries
capillary beds are guarded by *Testicular arteries in males serve the testes
precapillary sphincters. * Lumbar arteries serve muscles of the
abdomen and trunk

Learning Task #11 Gross Anatomy of Blood e. Arterial branches of the ascending aorta
Vessels Right and left coronary arteries serve the
A. Major arteries of systemic circulation heart. Intercostal arteries supply the muscles
of the thorax wall. Other branches of the
thoracic aorta (not illustrated) supply the:
- Lungs (bronchial arteries)
- Esophagus (esophageal arteries)
- Diaphragm (phrenic arteries)

f. Arterial branches of the aortic arch

Brachiocephalic trunk splits into the:
- Right common carotid artery
- Right subclavian artery

Left common carotid artery splits into the:

1. Aorta - largest artery in the body. Leaves
- Left internal and external carotid
from the left ventricle of the heart
arteries
Regions
a. Ascending aorta—leaves the left
Left subclavian artery branches into the:
ventricle
- Vertebral artery
b. Aortic arch—arches to the left
- In the axilla, the subclavian artery
c. Thoracic aorta—travels downward
becomes the axillary artery → brachial
through the thorax
artery → radial and ulnar arteries
d. Abdominal aorta passes through the
diaphragm into the abdominopelvic

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Inferior mesenteric artery serves the second Vertebral vein drains the posterior part of the
half of the large intestine. Left and right head. Internal jugular vein drains the dural
common iliac arteries are the final branches sinuses of the brain. Left and right
of the aorta. Internal iliac arteries serve the brachiocephalic veins receive venous blood
pelvic organs. from the:
External iliac arteries enter the thigh →  Subclavian veins
femoral artery→ popliteal artery → anterior  Vertebral veins
and posterior tibial arteries.  Internal jugular veins

Learning Task #12 Major Veins of Systemic Brachiocephalic veins join to form the
Circulation superior vena cava → right atrium of heart
Azygos vein drains the thorax.

Veins draining into the inferior vena cava

 Anterior and posterior tibial veins and
fibial veins drain the legs. Posterior tibial
vein → popliteal vein → femoral vein →
external iliac vein. Great saphenous veins
(longest veins of the body) receive
superficial drainage of the legs. Each
common iliac vein (left and right) is
formed by the union of the internal and
external iliac vein on its own side.

Right gonadal vein drains the right ovary in

Superior vena cava and inferior vena cava females and right testicle in males. Left
enter the right atrium of the heart. Superior gonadal vein empties into the left renal vein.
vena cava drains the head and arms. Inferior Left and right renal veins drain the kidneys.
vena cava drains the lower body Hepatic portal vein drains the digestive
organs and travels through the liver before it
Veins draining into the superior vena enters systemic circulation. Left and right
cava. Radial and ulnar veins → brachial vein hepatic veins drain the liver.
→ axillary vein. Cephalic vein drains the
lateral aspect of the arm and empties into the Arterial supply of the brain and the circle of
axillary vein. Basilic vein drains the medial Willis. Internal carotid arteries divide into
aspect of the arm and empties into the Anterior and Middle cerebral arteries. These
brachial vein. Basilic and cephalic veins are arteries supply most of the cerebrum.
joined at the median cubital vein (elbow Vertebral arteries join once within the skull to
area). form the basilar artery. Basilar artery serves
the brain stem and cerebellum. Posterior
Subclavian vein receives: cerebral arteries form from the division of the
 Venous blood from the arm via the basilar artery. These arteries supply the
axillary vein posterior cerebrum.
 Venous blood from skin and muscles via
external jugular vein.

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Anterior and posterior blood supplies are Measuring Blood Pressure
united by small communicating arterial Two arterial blood pressures are measured:
branches. Result—complete circle of 1. Systolic—pressure in the arteries at the
connecting blood vessels called cerebral peak of ventricular contraction
arterial circle, or circle of Willis. 2. Diastolic—pressure when ventricles relax

Hepatic portal circulation is formed by veins Expressed as systolic pressure over diastolic
draining the digestive organs, which empty pressure in millimeters of mercury (mm
into the hepatic portal vein: Hg) For example, 120/80 mm Hg.
1. Digestive organs
2. Spleen Auscultatory method is an indirect method of
3. Pancreas measuring systemic arterial blood pressure,
most often in the brachial artery.
Hepatic portal vein carries this blood to the
liver, where it is processed before returning Effects of Various Factors on Blood Pressure
to systemic circulation Arterial blood pressure (BP) is directly related
to cardiac output and peripheral
Learning Task # 13 Physiology of Circulation resistance. Cardiac output (CO; the amount of
A. Vital signs blood pumped out of the left ventricle per
 Measurements of arterial pulse, blood minute). Peripheral resistance (PR; the
pressure, respiratory rate, and body amount of friction blood encounters as it
temperature flows through vessels):
BP = CO × PR
B. Arterial pulse
 Alternate expansion and recoil of a blood A. Neural factors: the autonomic nervous
vessel wall (the pressure wave) that system
occurs as the heart beats. Monitored  Parasympathetic nervous system has little
at pressure points in superficial arteries, to no effect on blood
where pulse is easily palpated. Pulse pressure. Sympathetic nervous system
averages 70 to 76 beats per minute at promotes vasoconstriction (narrowing of
rest, in a healthy person. vessels), which increases blood pressure.

C. Blood Pressure B. Renal factors: the kidneys

 The pressure the blood exerts against the  Kidneys regulate blood pressure by
inner walls of the blood vessels. The force altering blood volume. If blood pressure is
that causes blood to continue to flow in too high, the kidneys release water in the
the blood vessels. urine. If blood pressure is too low, the
kidneys release renin to trigger formation
When the ventricles contract: of angiotensin II, a
 Blood is forced into elastic arteries close vasoconstrictor. Angiotensin II stimulates
to the heart and blood flows along a release of aldosterone, which enhances
descending pressure gradient. Pressure sodium (and water) reabsorption by
decreases in blood vessels as distance kidneys.
from the heart increases. Pressure is high
in the arteries, lower in the capillaries,
and lowest in the veins.

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C. Temperature 3. Diffusion through pores of fenestrated
 Heat has a vasodilating effect. Cold has a capillaries
vasoconstricting effect 4. Transport via vesicles

D. Chemicals Fluid movements at capillary beds. Fluid

 Various substances can cause increases or movement out of or into a capillary depends
decreases in blood pressure. Epinephrine on the difference between the two pressures:
increases heart rate and blood pressure. 1. Blood pressure forces fluid and solutes
out of capillaries
E. Diet 2. Osmotic pressure draws fluid into
 Commonly believed that a diet low in salt, capillaries
saturated fats, and cholesterol prevents
hypertension (high blood pressure). Blood pressure is higher than osmotic
pressure at the arterial end of the capillary
Variations in blood pressure bed. Blood pressure is lower than osmotic
Normal human range is variable. pressure at the venous end of the capillary
Systolic pressure ranges from 110 to bed. Thus, fluid moves out of the capillary at
140 mm Hg the beginning of the bed and is reclaimed at
Diastolic pressure ranges from 70 to the opposite (venule) end.
80 mm Hg
Learning Task # 14 Developmental Aspects of
Hypotension (low blood pressure). Low the Cardiovascular System
systolic (below 100 mm Hg). Often associated In an embryo
with illness. Acute hypotension is a warning The heart develops as a simple tube and
sign for circulatory shock pumps blood by week 4 of pregnancy. The
heart becomes a four-chambered organ
Hypertension (high blood capable of acting as a double pump over the
pressure). Sustained elevated arterial next 3 weeks.
pressure of 140/90 mm Hg. Warns of
increased peripheral resistance. Umbilical cord
 Carries nutrients and oxygen from
Capillary exchange of gases and nutrients maternal blood to fetal blood. Fetal
Interstitial fluid (tissue fluid) is found between wastes move from fetal blood to maternal
cells. Substances move to and from the blood blood.
and tissue cells through capillary
walls. Exchange is due to concentration Houses:
gradients. Oxygen and nutrients leave the  One umbilical vein, which carries nutrient-
blood and move into tissue cells. Carbon and oxygen-rich blood to the fetus. Two
dioxide and other wastes exit tissue cells and umbilical arteries, which carry wastes and
enter the blood. carbon dioxide–rich blood from the fetus
to placenta.
Substances take various routes entering or  Shunts by passing the lungs and liver are
leaving the blood present in a fetus.
1. Direct diffusion through membranes  Blood flow bypasses the liver through the
2. Diffusion through intercellular clefts ductus venosus and enters the inferior
(gaps between cells in the capillary wall)

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 vena cava → right atrium of heart. Blood 7. Blood transports everything that must
flow bypasses the lungs. Blood entering be carried from one place to another,
right atrium is shunted directly into left such as:
atrium through foramen ovale (becomes a) Nutrients
fossa ovalis at or after birth). Ductus b) Wastes
arteriosus connects aorta and pulmonary c) Hormones
trunk (becomes ligamentum arteriosum d) Body heat
at birth).
Blood volume
Age-related problems associated with the  About 5–6 liters, or about 6 quarts, of
cardiovascular system include: blood are found in a healthy adult. Blood
1. Weakening of venous valves makes up 8 percent of body weight.
2. Varicose veins
3. Progressive arteriosclerosis Learning Task # 16 Components of Blood
4. Hypertension resulting from loss of Blood is the only fluid tissue, a type of
elasticity of vessels connective tissue, in the human body.
5. Coronary artery disease resulting from a. Formed elements (living cells)
fatty, calcified deposits in the vessels b. Plasma (nonliving fluid matrix)

Learning Task # 15 Blood When blood is separated:

 Erythrocytes sink to the bottom (45
percent of blood, a percentage known as
the hematocrit). Buffy coat contains
leukocytes and platelets (less than 1
percent of blood). Buffy coat is a thin,
whitish layer between the erythrocytes
The blood is the fluid that carries oxygen and and plasma. Plasma rises to the top (55
other elements to the tissues and carbon percent of blood)
dioxide away from the tissues through the
heart and vascular system of humans and
other animals.
Blood characteristics
1. Sticky, opaque fluid
2. Heavier and thicker than water
3. Color range
a) Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red
b) Oxygen-poor blood is dull red or
purple
4. Metallic, salty taste
5. Blood pH is slightly alkaline, between Plasma
7.35 and 7.45  It is 90 percent water, straw-colored
6. Blood temperature is slightly higher fluid.
than body temperature, at 38ºC or  Includes many dissolved substances
100.4ºF  Nutrients
 Salts (electrolytes)
 Respiratory gases

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  Hormones Hemoglobin is an iron-bearing protein. Binds
 Plasma proteins oxygen. Each hemoglobin molecule can bind 4
 Waste products oxygen molecules. Each erythrocyte has 250
million hemoglobin molecules. Normal blood
contains 12–18 g of hemoglobin per 100
milliliters (ml) of blood.
Homeostatic imbalance of RBCs

Anemia is a decrease in the oxygen-carrying

ability of the blood due to:
 Lower-than-normal number of RBCs
 Abnormal or deficient hemoglobin
content in the RBCs.
Plasma proteins the most abundant solutes
 Sickle cell Anemia (SCA) results from
in plasma. Most are made by the liver
abnormally shaped hemoglobin
Include:
1. Albumin—an important blood buffer and
II. White Blood Cells
contributes to osmotic pressure
2. Clotting proteins—help to stem blood loss
when a blood vessel is injured
3. Antibodies—help protect the body from
pathogens

Blood composition varies as cells exchange

substances with the blood. Liver makes more
proteins when levels drop. Respiratory and
urinary systems restore blood pH to normal
when blood becomes too acidic or
alkaline. Plasma helps distribute body heat.
WBCs, also called leukocytes, are an
Learning Task # 17 Formed Elements important part of the immune
1. Erythrocytes system. These cells help fight infections by
2. Leukocytes attacking bacteria, viruses, and germs that
3. Platelets invade the body. White blood cells originate
in the bone marrow but circulate throughout
I. Erythrocytes (red blood cells, or RBCs) the bloodstream.
 Main function is to carry oxygen. Normal
count is 5 million RBCs per cubic Crucial in body’s defense against disease.
millimeter (mm3) of blood. They are complete cells, with nucleus and
organelles. Able to move into and out of
RBCs differ from other blood cells because: blood vessels (diapedesis). Respond to
1. Anucleate (no nucleus) chemicals released by damaged tissues
2. Contain few organelles; lack mitochondria (known as positive chemotaxis). Move by
3. Essentially bags of hemoglobin (Hb) amoeboid motion. Our body has 4,800 to
4. Shaped like biconcave discs 10,800 WBCs per mm3 of blood

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Disorders A. Granulocytes
 Leukocytosis a. Neutrophils
 WBC count above 11,000 cells per  Most numerous WBC. Multilobed
mm3 of blood. Generally indicates an nucleus. Cytoplasm stains pink and
infection. contains fine granules. Function as
phagocytes at active sites of
 Leukopenia infection. Numbers increase during
 Abnormally low WBC count infection. 3,000–7,000 neutrophils per
 Commonly caused by certain drugs, mm3 of blood (40–70 percent of WBCs).
such as corticosteroids and anticancer
agents. b. Eosinophils
 Nucleus stains blue-red. Brick-red
 Leukemia cytoplasmic granules. Function is to kill
 Bone marrow becomes cancerous parasitic worms and play a role in allergy
 Numerous immature WBC are attacks. 100–400 eosinophils per mm3 of
produced blood (1–4 percent of WBCs).

Types of leukocytes c. Basophils

1. Granulocytes  Rarest of the WBCs. Large histamine-
- Granules in their cytoplasm can be containing granules that stain dark
stained blue. Contain heparin (anticoagulant). 20–
- -Possess lobed nuclei 50 basophils per mm3 of blood (0–1
- Include neutrophils, eosinophils, and percent of WBCs)
basophils
B. Agranulocytes
2. Agranulocytes a. Lymphocytes
- Lack visible cytoplasmic granules  Large, dark purple nucleus. Slightly larger
- Nuclei are spherical, oval, or kidney- than RBCs. Reside in lymphatic
shaped tissues. Play a role in immune
- Include lymphocytes and monocytes response. 1,500–3,000 lymphocytes per
mm3 of blood (20–45 percent of WBCs)
List of the WBCs, from most to least
abundant b. Monocytes
1. Neutrophils  Largest of the white blood
2. Lymphocytes cells. Distinctive U- or kidney-shaped
3. Monocytes nucleus. Function as macrophages when
4. Eosinophils they migrate into tissues. Important in
5. Basophils fighting chronic infection. 100–700
monocytes per mm3 of blood (4–8
Easy way to remember this list percent of WBCs)
Never
Let III. Platelets
Monkeys  Fragments of megakaryocytes
Eat (multinucleate cells). Needed for the
Bananas clotting process. Normal platelet count is
300,000 platelets per mm3 of blood.

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Learning Task # 18 Hematopoiesis (Blood Cell Step 1: Vascular Spasms
Formation) A. Immediate response to blood vessel
 Hematopoiesis is the process of blood cell injury.
formation. Occurs in red bone marrow B. Vasoconstriction causes blood vessel
(myeloid tissue). All blood cells are to spasm
derived from a common stem cell C. Spasms narrow the blood vessel,
(hemocytoblast). Hemocytoblasts form decreasing blood loss
two types of descendants
a) Lymphoid stem cell, which Step 2: Platelet Plug Formation
produces lymphocytes D. Collagen fibers are exposed by a break
b) Myeloid stem cell, which can in a blood vessel. Platelets become
produce all other formed “sticky” and cling to fibers. Anchored
elements platelets release chemicals to attract
more platelets. Platelets pile up to
Formation of Red Blood Cells form a platelet plug (white thrombus)
Since RBCs are anucleate, they are unable to
divide, grow, or synthesize proteins. RBCs Step 3: Coagulation
wear out in 100 to 120 days. When worn out, E. Injured tissues release tissue factor
RBCs are eliminated by phagocytes in the (TF). PF3 (a phospholipid) interacts
spleen or liver. Lost cells are replaced by with TF, blood protein clotting factors,
division of hemocytoblasts in the red bone and calcium ions to trigger a clotting
marrow. cascade. Prothrombin activator
Rate of RBC production is controlled by a converts prothrombin to thrombin (an
hormone called erythropoietin. Kidneys enzyme).
produce most erythropoietin as a response to F. Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins
reduced oxygen levels in the into hairlike molecules of insoluble
blood. Homeostasis is maintained by negative fibrin. Fibrin forms a meshwork (the
feedback from blood oxygen levels. basis for a clot). Within the hour,
serum is squeezed from the clot as it
Formation of White Blood Cells and Platelets retracts. Serum is plasma minus
WBC and platelet production is controlled by clotting proteins.
hormones. Colony stimulating factors (CSFs) G. Blood usually clots within 3 to 6
and interleukins prompt bone marrow to minutes. The clot remains as
generate leukocytes. Thrombopoietin endothelium regenerates. The clot is
stimulates production of platelets from broken down after tissue repair.
megakaryocytes.
Learning Task # 20 Disorders of Hemostasis
Learning Task # 19 Hemostasis I. Undesirable clotting
Hemostasis is the process of stopping the A. Thrombus
bleeding that results from a break in a blood  A clot in an unbroken blood vessel. It Can
vessel .Hemostasis involves three phases or be deadly in areas such as the lungs
steps:
1. Vascular spasms B. Embolus
2. Platelet plug formation  A thrombus that breaks away and floats
3. Coagulation (blood clotting) freely in the bloodstream. Can later clog
vessels in critical areas such as the brain.

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II. Bleeding disorders Learning Task # 22 Human Blood Groups
A. Thrombocytopenia I. ABO Blood Group
 Insufficient number of circulating Blood types are based on the presence or
platelets. Arises from any condition that absence of two antigens:
suppresses the bone marrow. Even  Type A
normal movements can cause bleeding  Type B
from small blood vessels that require
platelets for clotting. Evidenced by 1. Presence of both antigens A and B is
petechiae (small purplish blotches on the called type AB
skin). 2. Presence of antigen A is called type A
3. Presence of antigen B is called type B
B. Hemophilia 4. Lack of both antigens A and B is
 Hereditary bleeding disorder. Normal called type O
clotting factors are missing. Minor tissue
damage can cause life-threatening  Type AB can receive A, B, AB, and O blood
prolonged bleeding.  Type AB is the “universal recipient”
 Type B can receive B and O blood
Learning Task # 21 Blood Groups and  Type A can receive A and O blood- Type O
Transfusions can receive O blood
 Large losses of blood have serious  Type O is the “universal donor”
consequences. Loss of 15 to 30 percent
causes weakness. Loss of over 30 percent II. Rh blood group
causes shock, which can be fatal  Named for the eight Rh antigens
 Blood transfusions are given for (agglutinogen D). Most Americans are Rh+
substantial blood loss, to treat severe (Rh-positive), meaning they carry the Rh
anemia, or for thrombocytopenia. antigen
 Blood contains genetically determined
proteins known as antigens. Antigens are If an Rh–(Rh-negative) person receives Rh+
substances that the body recognizes as blood:
foreign and that the immune system may a) The immune system becomes sensitized
attack. Most antigens are foreign and begins producing antibodies;
proteins. We tolerate our own “self” hemolysis does not occur, because as it
antigens. Antibodies are the “recognizers” takes time to produce antibodies
that bind foreign antigens. Blood is b) Second, and subsequent, transfusions
“typed” by using antibodies that will involve antibodies attacking donor’s Rh+
cause blood with certain proteins to RBCs, and hemolysis occurs (rupture of
clump (agglutination) and lyse. RBCs).
 There are over 30 common red blood cell c) Rh-related problem during pregnancy
antigens. The most vigorous transfusion d) Danger occurs only when the mother is
reactions are caused by ABO and Rh blood Rh–, the father is Rh+, and the child
group antigens. inherits the Rh+ factor
e) RhoGAM shot can prevent buildup of anti-
Rh+ antibodies in mother’s blood
f) The mismatch of an Rh-mother carrying
an Rh+ baby can cause problems for the
unborn child

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g) The first pregnancy usually proceeds Learning Task# 25 Blood Circulation
without problems; the immune system is  The cardiovascular system is composed of
sensitized after the first pregnancy. In a 2 circulatory paths: pulmonary circulation,
second pregnancy, the mother’s immune the circuit through the lungs where the
system produces antibodies to attack the body is oxygenated; the systemic
Rh+ blood (hemolytic disease of the circulation, the circuit through the rest of
newborn) the body to provide oxygenated blood.

Learning Task # 23 Blood Typing Reflect on these question:

 Blood samples are mixed with anti-A and Which heart chamber has the thickest walls?
anti-B serum. Agglutination or the lack of What is the functional significance of this
agglutination leads to identification of structural difference?
blood type. Typing for ABO and Rh factors What are the parts involved in the pulmonary
is done in the same manner. Cross and systemic circulation
matching—testing for agglutination of
donor RBCs by the recipient’s serum, and Learning Task# 26 The Lymphatic System
vice versa

Think about this:

What happens during bleeding?
What is leukemia and how would it affect the
patient’s daily living?

Learning Task #24 Developmental Aspects of

Blood
Sites of blood cell formation
 The fetal liver and spleen are early sites of
blood cell formation. Bone marrow takes
over hematopoiesis by the seventh
month. Congenital blood defects include
various types of hemolytic anemias and
hemophilia. Incompatibility between
maternal and fetal blood can result in
fetal cyanosis, resulting from destruction
of fetal blood cells. Fetal hemoglobin The lymphatic system is a network of tissues
differs from hemoglobin produced after and organs that help rid the body of toxins,
birth. Physiologic jaundice occurs in waste and other unwanted materials. The
infants when the liver cannot rid the body primary function of the lymphatic system is to
of hemoglobin breakdown products fast transport lymph, a fluid containing infection-
enough. fighting white blood cells, throughout the
 Leukemias are most common in the very body.
young and very old. Older adults are also
at risk for anemia and clotting disorders. Consists of two semi-independent parts:
1. Lymphatic vessels
2. Lymphoid tissues and organs

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Lymphatic System Functions walled. Larger vessels have valves. Low-
1. Transports escaped fluids from the pressure, pumpless system.
cardiovascular system back to the
blood Lymph transport is aided by:
2. Plays essential roles in body defense a. Milking action of skeletal muscles
and resistance to disease b. Pressure changes in thorax during
breathing
Learning Task # 27 Lymphatic Vessels c. Smooth muscle in walls of lymphatics

Lymph nodes are small glands that

filter lymph, the clear fluid that circulates
through the lymphatic system. They become
swollen in response to infection and
tumors. Lymphatic fluid circulates through
the lymphatic system, which is made of
channels throughout your body that are
 Lymph consists of excess tissue fluid and similar to blood vessels.
plasma proteins carried by lymphatic
vessels. If fluids are not picked up, edema
occurs as fluid accumulates in
tissues. Lymphatic vessels (lymphatics)
pick up excess fluid (lymph) and return it
to the blood
 Lymphatic vessels (lymphatics) form a
one-way system. Lymph flows only
toward the heart
 Lymph capillaries weave between tissue
cells and blood capillaries. Walls overlap
to form flaplike minivalves. Fluid leaks
into lymph capillaries. Capillaries are
anchored to connective tissue by
filaments. Higher pressure on the inside
closes minivalves. Fluid is forced along the
vessel.
 Lymphatic collecting vessels Lymph nodes filter lymph before it is returned
 Collect lymph from lymph to the blood.
capillaries. Carry lymph to and away from
lymph nodes. Return fluid to circulatory Harmful materials that are filtered :
veins near the heart. Right lymphatic duct  Bacteria
drains the lymph from the right arm and  Viruses
the right side of the head and  Cancer cells
thorax. Thoracic duct drains lymph from  Cell debris
rest of body.
 Lymphatic vessels are similar to veins of
the cardiovascular system. They are thin-

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Defense cells within lymph nodes Thymus
1. Macrophages—engulf and destroy  Found overlying the heart. Functions at
bacteria, viruses, and other foreign peak levels only during youth.
substances in lymph
2. Lymphocytes—respond to foreign Tonsils
substances in lymph  Small masses of lymphoid tissue deep to
3. Most lymph nodes are kidney-shaped, the mucosa surrounding the pharynx
less than 1 inch long, and buried in (throat). Trap and remove bacteria and
connective tissue. Surrounded by a other foreign pathogens. Tonsillitis results
capsule. Divided into compartments by when the tonsils become congested with
trabeculae: bacteria.
a. Cortex (outer part) contains
follicles—collections of Peyer’s patches
lymphocytes. Germinal centers  Found in the wall of the small
enlarge when antibodies are intestine. Similar lymphoid follicles are
released by plasma cells found in the appendix. Macrophages
b. Medulla (inner part) contains capture and destroy bacteria in the
phagocytic macrophages. intestine

Flow of lymph through nodes Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)

 Lymph enters the convex side through Acts as a sentinel to protect respiratory and
afferent lymphatic vessels. Lymph flows digestive tracts
through a number of sinuses inside the Includes:
node. Lymph exits through efferent  Peyer’s patches
lymphatic vessels. Because there are  Tonsils
fewer efferent than afferent vessels, flow  Appendix
is slowed.
Learning Task# 28 Body Defenses
Several other lymphoid organs contribute to Two mechanisms that make up the immune
lymphatic function (in addition to the lymph system defend us from foreign materials
nodes) 1. Innate ( nonspecific ) defense system
 Spleen  Mechanisms protect against a variety of
 Thymus invaders. Responds immediately to
 Tonsils protect body from foreign materials.
 Peyer’s patches
 Appendix 2. Adaptive (specific) defense system
 Fights invaders that get past the innate
Spleen system. Specific defense is required for
 Located on the left side of the each type of invader. The highly specific
abdomen. Filters and cleans blood of resistance to disease is immunity.
bacteria, viruses, debris. Provides a site
for lymphocyte proliferation and immune Immunity—specific resistance to disease
surveillance. Destroys worn-out blood Immune system is a functional system rather
cells. Forms blood cells in the fetus. Acts than an organ system in an anatomical sense
as a blood reservoir.

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Innate body defenses are mechanical barriers Damaged cells release inflammatory
to pathogens (harmful or disease-causing chemicals such as:
microorganisms) and include: a. Histamine
1. Body surface coverings b. Kinin
a. Intact skin
b. Mucous membranes These chemicals causes blood vessels to
2. Specialized human cells dilate, capillaries to become leaky and
3. Chemicals produced by the body Phagocytes and white blood cells to move
into the area (called positive chemotaxis)
Surface Membrane Barriers
 Surface membrane barriers, such as the Functions of the Inflammatory Response
skin and mucous membranes, provide 1. Prevents spread of damaging agents
the first line of defense against the 2. Disposes of cell debris and pathogens
invasion of microorganism through phagocytosis
3. Sets the stage for repair
Protective secretions produced by these
membranes. Acidic skin secretions inhibit Process of the Inflammatory Response
bacterial growth. Sebum is toxic to bacteria 1. Neutrophils migrate to the area of
Mucus traps microorganisms. Gastric juices inflammation by rolling along the vessel
are acidic and kill pathogens. Saliva and tears wall (following the scent of chemicals
contain lysozyme (enzyme that destroys from inflammation)
bacteria. 2. Neutrophils squeeze through the capillary
walls by diapedesis to sites of
Learning Task# 29 Internal Defenses: Cells inflammation
and Chemicals 3. Neutrophils gather in the precise site of
Cells and chemicals provide a second line of tissue injury (positive chemotaxis)
defense. They are natural killer cells and and consume any foreign material
phagocytes. It is an inflammatory response. It present.
uses chemicals that kill pathogens. It also
induces fever. Phagocytes
 Cells such as neutrophils and
A. Natural killer (NK) cells macrophages engulf foreign material by
 Lyse (burst) and kill cancer cells, virus- phagocytosis. The phagocytic vesicle is
infected cells fused with a lysosome, and enzymes
 Release chemicals digest the cell’s contents.
called perforin and granzymes to degrade
target cell content Antimicrobial proteins enhance innate
defenses by:
B. Inflammatory Response 1. Attacking microorganisms directly
 Triggered when body tissues are injured 2. Hindering reproduction of
 Four most common indicators (cardinal microorganisms
signs) of acute inflammation
1. Redness Most important types
2. Heat 1. Complement proteins
3. Pain 2. Interferon
4. Swelling (edema)

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I. Antimicrobial Proteins: Complement Three aspects of adaptive defense
Proteins 1. Antigen specific—the adaptive defense
 Complement refers to a group of at least system recognizes and
20 plasma proteins that circulate in the acts against particular foreign
plasma. Complement is activated when substances.
these plasma proteins encounter and 2. Systemic—immunity is not restricted
attach to cells (known to the initial infection site.
as complement fixation). Membrane 3. Memory—the adaptive defense
attack complexes (MACs) as a result system recognizes and mounts a
of complement fixation. It will then stronger attack on previously
produce holes or pores in cells. Pores encountered pathogens
allow water to rush into the cell then the
cell bursts (lyses). Two Arms of the Adaptive Defense System
1. Humoral Immunity = antibody-mediated
II. Antimicrobial Proteins: Interferons immunity
 Interferons are small proteins secreted by  Provided by antibodies present in
virus-infected cells. Interferons bind to body fluids.
membrane receptors on healthy cell
surfaces to interfere with the ability of 2. Cellular Immunity = cell-mediated
viruses to multiply immunity
 Targets virus-infected cells, cancer
Fever cells, and cells of foreign grafts
 Abnormally high body temperature is a
systemic response to invasion by Antigens
microorganisms Antigens are any substance capable of
 Hypothalamus regulates body exciting the immune system and provoking an
temperature at 37ºC (98.6ºF) immune response. Two types; self and non
 The hypothalamus thermostat can be self.
reset higher by pyrogens (secreted by
white blood cells) The antigens that do not originate in your
 High temperatures inhibit the release of body are called non self antigens. Immune
iron and zinc (needed by bacteria) from cells called lymphocytes recognize non self
the liver and spleen antigens and produce antibodies that bind
 Fever also increases the speed of repair specifically to each antigen.
processes
Examples of common non self antigens
a) Foreign proteins provoke the strongest
Learning Task# 30 Adaptive Body Defenses response
Adaptive body defenses are the body’s b) Nucleic acids
specific defense system, or the third line of c) Large carbohydrates
defense. d) Some lipids
e) Pollen grains
Immune response is the immune system’s f) Microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, viruses
response to a threat. Antigens are targeted
and destroyed by antibodies.

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Self-antigen immunocompetence in the thymus
 The antigens on your own cells are and oversee cell-mediated
known as self-antigens, immunity. Identify foreign
antigens. Those that bind self-
Human cells have many protein and antigens are destroyed. Self-tolerance
carbohydrate molecules. Self-antigens do not is important part of lymphocyte
trigger an immune response in us. The “education”.
presence of our cells in another person’s body  B cells develop immunocompetence
can trigger an immune response because they in bone marrow and provide humoral
are foreign. Restricts donors for transplants. immunity. Immunocompetent T and
B lymphocytes migrate to the lymph
Haptens, or incomplete antigens, are not nodes and spleen, where encounters
antigenic by themselves. When they link up with antigens occur. Differentiation
with our own proteins, the immune system from naïve cells into mature
may recognize the combination as foreign lymphocytes is complete when they
and respond with an attack. Found in poison bind with recognized
ivy, animal dander, detergents, hair dyes, antigens. Mature lymphocytes
cosmetics (especially T cells) circulate
continuously throughout the body
Learning Task # 31 Cells of the Adaptive
Defense System: An Overview Antigen-presenting cells (APCs)
Crucial cells of the adaptive system  Engulf antigens and then present
A. Lymphocytes—respond to specific fragments of them on their own surfaces,
antigens where they can be recognized by T cells.
a. B lymphocytes (B cells) produce
antibodies and oversee humoral Major types of cells behaving as APC's
immunity 1. Dendritic cells
b. T lymphocytes (T cells) constitute the 2. Macrophages
cell-mediated arm of the adaptive 3. B lymphocytes
defenses; do not make antibodies
When they present antigens, dendritic cells
B. Antigen-presenting cells (APCs)—help the and macrophages activate T cells, which
lymphocytes but do not respond to release chemicals.
specific antigens
1. Lymphocytes Learning Task # 32 Humoral (Antibody-
 Arise from hemocytoblasts of bone Mediated) Immune Response
marrow. Whether a lymphocyte  B lymphocytes with specific receptors
matures into a B cell or T cell depends bind to a specific antigen. The binding
on where it becomes event sensitizes, or activates, the
immunocompetent. lymphocyte to undergo clonal selection. A
large number of clones is produced
2. Immunocompetence (primary humoral response)
 The capability to respond to a specific  Most of the B cell clone members
antigen by binding to it with antigen- (descendants) become plasma cells
specific receptors that appear on the  Produce antibodies to destroy antigens
lymphocyte’s surface. T cells develop  Activity lasts for 4 or 5 days

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 Plasma cells begin to die Antibody structure
 Some B cells become long-lived memory  Four polypeptide chains, two heavy and
cells capable of mounting a rapid attack two light, linked by disulfide bonds to
against the same antigen in subsequent form a T- or Y-shaped molecule. Each
meetings polypeptide chain has a variable (V)
(secondary humoral response). These region and a constant (C) region. Variable
cells provide immunological memory. regions form antigen-binding sites, one on
each arm of the T or Y. Constant regions
Active Immunity determine the type of antibody formed
 Occurs when B cells encounter antigens (antibody class)
and produce antibodies. Active immunity
can be: Antibody classes
a. Naturally acquired during bacterial  Antibodies of each class have slightly
and viral infections different roles and differ structurally and
b. Artificially acquired from vaccines functionally.

Passive immunity Five major immunoglobulin classes (MADGE)

 Occurs when antibodies are obtained 1. IgM—can fix complement
from someone else. Naturally acquired 2. IgA—found mainly in secretions, such
from a mother to her fetus or in the as mucus or tears
breast milk. Artificially acquired from 3. IgD—important in activation of B cell
immune serum or gamma globulin 4. IgG—can cross the placental barrier
(donated antibodies). Immunological and fix complement; most abundant
memory does not occur. Protection is antibody in plasma
short-lived (2–3 weeks) 5. IgE—involved in allergies

Monoclonal Antibodies Antibody Function

 Antibodies prepared for clinical testing for  Antibodies inactivate antigens in a
diagnostic services. Produced from number of ways. Complement fixation:
descendants of a single cell line. Exhibit chief antibody ammunition used against
specificity for only one antigen. cellular antigens.
1. Neutralization: antibodies bind to
Examples of Uses for Monoclonal Antibodies specific sites on bacterial exotoxins or
a. Cancer treatment on viruses that can cause cell injury.
b. Diagnosis of pregnancy 2. Agglutination: antibody-antigen
c. Treatment after exposure to hepatitis reaction that causes clumping of cells.
and rabies 3. Precipitation: cross-linking reaction in
which antigen-antibody complex
Antibodies (immunoglobulins, Igs) settles out of solution.
 Constitute gamma globulin part of blood
proteins. Soluble proteins secreted by Learning Task # 33 Cellular (Cell-Mediated)
activated B cells (plasma cells). Formed in Immune Response
response to a huge number of antigens  Main difference between two arms of the
adaptive response
 B cells secrete antibodies
 T cells fight antigens directly

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 Like B cells, immunocompetent T cells are activity. A few members of each clone are
activated to form a clone memory cells
 Like B cells, immunocompetent T cells are
activated to form a clone by binding a Learning Task # 34 Organ Transplants and
recognized antigen. Unlike B cells, T cells Rejection
are unable to bind to free Major Types of Transplants, or Grafts
antigens. Antigens must be presented by 1. Autografts—tissue transplanted from one
a macrophage, and double recognition site to another on the same person
must occur. APC engulfs and presents the 2. Isografts—tissue grafts from a genetically
processed antigen in combination with a identical person (identical twin)
protein from the APC 3. Allografts—tissue taken from a person
other than an identical twin (most
Different Classes of Effector T Cells common type of graft)
A. Helper T cells 4. Xenografts—tissue taken from a different
B. Cytotoxic T cells animal species (never successful)
 T cells must recognize non self and
self through the process of antigen Blood group and tissue matching is done to
presentation ensure the best match possible. 75% match is
a. Non self—the antigen fragment needed to attempt a graft. Organ transplant is
presented by APC followed by immunosuppressive therapy to
b. Self—coupling with a specific prevent rejection
glycoprotein on the APC’s surface at
the same time Learning Task # 35 Disorders of Immunity
C. Cytotoxic (killer) T cells The Most Important Disorders of the Immune
 Specialize in killing infected System
cells. Insert a toxic chemical (perforin 1. Allergies
or granzyme). The perforin enters the 2. Autoimmune diseases
foreign cell’s plasma 3. Immunodeficiencies
membrane. Pores now appear in the
target cell’s membrane. Granzymes 1. Allergies
(protein-digesting enzymes) enter and  Allergies, or hypersensitives, are
kill the foreign cell. abnormal, vigorous immune
responses. The immune system
D. Helper T cells overreacts to an otherwise harmless
 Recruit other cells to fight antigen, and tissue damage occurs.
invaders. Interact directly with B cells
bound to an antigen, prodding the B Types of Allergies
cells into clone production. Release a. Immediate (acute) Hypersensitivity
cytokines, chemicals that act  Seen in hives and anaphylaxis. Due to IgE
directly to rid the body of antigens. antibodies and histamine. Anaphylactic
shock is systemic, acute allergic response
Regulatory T cells and is rare
 Release chemicals to suppress the activity b. Delayed hypersensitivity
of T and B cells. Stop the immune  Reflects activity of T cells, macrophages,
response to prevent uncontrolled and cytokines. Symptoms usually appear
1–3 days after contact with antigen.

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 Allergic contact dermatitis (poison ivy, Learning Task # 36 Developmental Aspects of
cosmetics) the Lymphatic System and Body Defenses
 Lymphatic vessels form by budding off
Autoimmune Diseases from veins. Lymph nodes present by fifth
 Occurs when the body’s self-tolerance week of development. The thymus and
breaks down. The body produces auto- the spleen are the first lymphoid organs
antibodies and sensitized T lymphocytes to appear in the embryo. Other lymphoid
that attack its own tissues. Most forms of organs are poorly developed before
autoimmune disease result from the birth. The immune response develops
appearance of formerly hidden self- around the time of birth
antigens or changes in the structure of
self-antigens, and antibodies formed  The ability of immunocompetent cells to
against foreign antigens that resemble recognize foreign antigens is genetically
self-antigens determined. Stress appears to interfere
with normal immune response. Efficiency
Examples of Autoimmune Diseases of immune response wanes in old age,
1. Rheumatoid arthritis—destroys joints and infections, cancer,
2. Myasthenia gravis—impairs immunodeficiencies, and autoimmune
communication between nerves and diseases become more prevalent
skeletal muscles
3. Multiple sclerosis—white matter of brain
and spinal cord is destroyed
4. Graves’ disease—thyroid gland produces
excess thyroxine
5. Type I diabetes mellitus—destroys
pancreatic beta cells, resulting
in deficient insulin production
6. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)—
affects kidney, heart, lung, and skin
7. Glomerulonephritis—severe impairment
of kidney function due to acute
inflammation

Immunodeficiencies
 May be congenital or acquired. Severe
combined immunodeficiency disease
(SCID) is a congenital disease. AIDS
(acquired immune deficiency syndrome)
is caused by a virus that attacks and
cripples the helper T cells. Result from
abnormalities in any immune
element.Production or function of
immune cells or complement is abnormal.

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Cute si Sachiko
Nervous System  Hypothalamus
 It has the ability to let humans know - controls and regulates temperature,
oneself: consciousness or intelligence is appetite, water, balance, sleep, and
what sets us apart from other species. blood vessel constriction and dilation.
 Sytem of nerves (tissue), neurons (cells), - plays a role in emotions such as anger,
and dendrites. happiness and pain.

Purpose 4. Midbrain
 Coordinates all activities of the body. - located below the cerebrum.
 Enables the body to respond and adapt to - responsible for eye and auditory
changes both inside and out. reflexes.

Split into 2 parts: 5. Pons

Central Nervous System (CNS) - located below the midbrain (in the
 is made up of the brain and the spinal brainstem).
cord. - responsible for certain reflex actions
such as chewing, tasting and saliva
Brain production.
 is found within the cranium of skull.
 It has 6 main sections 6. Medulla Oblongata
1. Cerebrum - located at the bottom of the
- the largest section brainstem.
- divided by the left and right - connects to the spinal cord.
hemisphere - regulating heart and blood vessel
- further divided into 4 lobes function, digestion, respiration,
1. Frontal – reasoning and thought. coughing, blood pressure and
2. Parietal – integrates sensory swallowing.
information. - also known as the center for
3. Temporal – processes auditory respiration.
information from the ears.
4. Occipital – processing visual information Spinal Cord
from the eyes.  Is the link between the brain and the
2. Cerebellum nerves and the rest of the body.
- located below the cerebrum and
above the 1st cervical of the neck.  It has 4 regions:
- muscle coordination, balance, posture a) Cervical
and muscle tone. b) Thoracic
3. Diencephalon c) Lumbar
- found between the cerebrum and d) Spinal nerves (afferent and efferent
midbrain. spinal nerves which merge to form
- It has two main structures: the peripheral spinal nerves)
 Thalamus  Afferent Spinal nerves
- Directs sensory impulses to the o carries information from the
cerebrum. body to the brain.
- behaves much like a relay station. o INPUT

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  Efferent Spinal nerves
o carries information from the  Parasymphathetic Nervous System
brain to the body. - Is the counterbalance to the
o OUTPUT symphathetic response to danger
whether real of imagined.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - Brings all the systems of the
 A system that regulates the functions of body back to normal.
the central nervous system which lie - Rest and digest response
outside its major components which are
the brain and spinal cord. The Nervous system is a complex network of
nerves and cells that carry messages to and
Subdivided into 2 smaller systems from the brain and spinal cord to various
1. Somatic Nervous System parts of the body. The nervous system
 Responsible for carrying motor and includes both the Central nervous system and
sensory information. Peripheral nervous system. The Central
 It is made up of nerves that connect nervous system is made up of the Brain and
to skin, sensory organs, and all Spinal Cord and The Peripheral nervous
skeletal muscles. system is made up of the Somatic and the
 Responsible for nearly all voluntary Autonomic nervous systems.
muscle movements.  Brain
 Processes sensory information from  Spinal Cord
external stimuli includes hearing,  Nerves
touch, and sight.
 The structures that allows this The central nervous system consists of the
communication to happen between brain and spinal cord. The brain plays
the nerves throughout the body are a central role in the control of most bodily
the: functions, including awareness, movements,
 Afferent Sensory Neurons sensations, thoughts, speech, and memory.
- Conducting inward Some reflex movements can occur via spinal
- Takes information from the cord pathways without the participation of
nerves to the CNS. brain structures.
 Efferent Motor Neurons
- Conducting outward The brain is an organ that serves as the
- Takes information from the CNS center of the nervous system in all vertebrate
to the muscle fibers throughout and most invertebrate animals. It is located in
the body. the head, usually close to the sensory organs
for senses such as vision. It is the most
 Autonomous/Autonomic Nervous complex organ in a vertebrate's body.
System
The brain has 6 important parts:
Further divided into two:
 Sympathetic Nervous System A. Cerebrum or the cerebral hemispheres are
- Is vital to our survival the most superior part of the brain.
- Fight or flight response of the
body. It revs up the body to
either defend yourself or escape
the threat.

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 3. Occipital lobe - is the
visual processing area of the brain. It is
associated with visuospatial processing,
distance and depth perception, color
determination, object and face
recognition, and memory.

The Cerebral cortex or the outermost layer of

the brain is divided into 4 regions or lobes:

1. Frontal Lobe - is the part of the brain that

controls important cognitive skills in
4. Temporal lobe - is involved in primary
humans, such as emotional expression,
auditory perception, such as hearing, and
problem solving, memory, language,
holds the primary auditory cortex. The
judgment, and sexual behaviors. It is, in
primary auditory cortex
essence, the “control panel” of our
receives sensory information from the
personality and our ability to
ears and secondary areas process the
communicate.
information into meaningful units such as
speech and words.

2. Parietal Lobe - The parietal lobes are

divided into two functional regions. One
involves sensationand perception and the
other is concerned with B. Cerebellum - is a major structure of the
integrating sensory input, primarily with hindbrain that is located near the brainstem.
the visual system. The first function This part of the brain is responsible for
integrates sensory information to form a coordinating voluntary movements. It is also
single perception (cognition). responsible for a number of functions
including motor skills such as balance,
coordination, and posture.

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C. Diencephalon- is a division of the forebrain F. Medulla Oblungata - the continuation of
(embryonic prosencephalon), and is situated the spinal cord within the skull, forming the
between the telencephalon and the midbrain lowest part of the brainstem and containing
(embryonic mesencephalon). It consists of control centers for the heart and lungs.
structures that are on either side of the third
ventricle, including the thalamus, the
hypothalamus, the epithalamus and the
subthalamus.

D. Midbrain - The midbrainor mesencephalon

is the forward-most portion of the brainstem 1. Which part of the brain is affected during
and is associated with vision, hearing, motor hypertension and cough.
control, sleep and wakefulness, arousal 2. Which part of the brain is affected in
(alertness), and temperature regulation. cases of vertigo?

Summary:
12 pairs of cranial nerves carry info to and
from our brain and body.
Cerebrum- outer layer (cortex. Latin. Bark).
The surface is only 1/8 inch thick but contains
E. Pons- The ponsis a portion of the brain hundreds of neurons. More than 2/3 of the
stem, located above the medulla oblongata surface of the cortex heights in hundreds of
and below the midbrain. It is a bridge little folds that make up the lines of the brain.
between various parts of the nervous system, Animals that are less intellegent has a
including the cerebellum and cerebrum, smoother brain surface.
which are both parts of the brain
The Limbic System under our cortex
processes the emotions that drives. Contains
the brain reward circuit releasing dopamine.
Drugs signal the brain to release high
amounts of dopamine which results to being
high and having difficulty in enjoying small

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things. Repeated activation of this reward
pathway leads to addiction.
Amygdala which processes emotions and the
Hippocampus in the temporal lobe which
acts as a memory indexer.
Hypothalamus - wakes you up in the morning
and gets the adrenaline flowing (e.g. in a test)
Pituitary gland- also known as master gland
which helps control growth, pregnancy and
body temperature. 2. Arachnoid Mater-middle, meningeal layer
Pineal gland – which helps you control sleep
and circadian rhythms.

3. Pia Mater-outermost layer, clings tightly to

the surface of the brain.

Nervous Tissues are soft and delicate, even

slight pressure can injure the irreplaceable
neurons. Nature tries to protect the brain and
spinal cord by enclosing them within the bone
(the skull and the vertebral column). There
are also 3 additional protection for the CNS: B. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)-is a watery
“broth” with components similar to blood
A. Meninges plasma. It is a clear, colorless body fluid found
There are 3 connective tissue membranes in the brain and spinal It is produced by
covering the CNS: specialized ependymal cells in the choroid
plexuses of the ventricles of the brain, and
1. Dura Mater-the outermost layer, absorbed in the arachnoid granulations.
leathery, and double layered.

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 the sensory cortex. It is also a center for
coordinating many reflexes and contains
reflex arcs that can independently control
reflexes.

C. Blood-brain Barrier- (BBB) is a highly

selective semipermeable border of
endothelial cells that prevents solutes in the
circulating blood from non-selectively
crossing into the extracellular fluid of the
central nervous system where neurons reside.
The Peripheral Nervous System refers to
parts of the nervous system outside the
brain and spinal cord. It includes the
cranial nerves, spinal nerves and their roots
and branches, peripheral nerves, and
neuromuscular junctions.

The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular

structure made up of nervous tissue, which
extends from the medulla oblongata in the
brainstem to the lumbar region of the
vertebral column. It encloses the central
canal of the spinal cord, which contains
cerebrospinal fluid. There are 31 pairs of
nerves in the Spinal Cord; 8 cervical, 12
thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal.
Each pair connects the spinal cord with a A nerve is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of
specific region of the body. axons (the projections of neurons) in the
peripheral nervous system (PNS). A nerve
The spinal cord functions primarily in the
provides a structured pathway that supports
transmission of nerve signals from the motor
the electrochemical nerve impulses
cortex to the body, and from the afferent
transmitted along each of the axons. The
fibers of the sensory neurons to

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nerve works through its nerve cell called the
Neuron.

3. Axon- An axon, or nerve fiber, is a long

slender projection of a nerve cell, or
neuron, that conducts electrical impulses
away from the neuron's cell body
The neuron is the basic working unit of the or soma. Axons are in effect the primary
brain, a specialized cell designed to transmit transmission lines of the nervous system
information to other nerve cells, muscle, or and as bundles they help make up nerves.
gland cells. Neurons are cells within the
nervous system that transmit information to 4. Myelin Sheath- Myelin is an insulating
other nerve cells, muscle, or gland cells. layer, or sheath that forms around nerves,
Most neurons have a cell body, an axon, and including those in the brain and spinal
dendrites cord. It is made up of protein and fatty
substances. This myelin sheath allows
The parts of a Neuron are the following: electrical impulses to transmit quickly and
1. Soma or cell body- contains the nucleus
and other structures common to living 5. Schwann Cell- Schwann cells are the main
cells. These structures support the glial cell in the PNS and play an essential
chemical processing of the neuron; the role in the survival and functions of
most important of which is the neurons. In response to nerve injury,
production of neurotransmitters. Schwann cells undergo rapid changes in
phenotype [199] and their basal lamina
provides a conduit for axon regrowth, a
critical process for nerve regeneration.

2. Dendrite- Dendrites are appendages that

are designed to receive communications
from other cells. They resemble a tree-like
structure, forming projections that
become stimulated by other neurons and
conduct the electrochemical charge to
the cell body (or, more rarely, directly to
the axons).

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The 12 pairs of the Cranial Nerves and the 31 autonomic nervous system. Sometimes
pairs of the Spinal Nerves make up the called the rest and digest system,
Peripheral Nervous System. the parasympathetic system conserves
energy as it slows the heart rate,
increases intestinal and gland activity,
and relaxes sphincter muscles in the
gastrointestinal tract.

The Peripheral Nervous System is divided

into the Autonomic Nervous System and the
Somatic Nervous System.
The Autonomic Nervous System is the motor
subdivision of the PNS. It is a The somatic nervous system is the part of the
control system that acts largely unconsciously peripheral nervous system associated with
and regulates bodily functions, such as the the voluntary control of body movements via
heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, skeletal muscles. The somatic nervous system
pupillary response, urination, and sexual consists of afferent nerves or sensory nerves,
arousal. This system is the primary and efferent nerves or motor nerve.
mechanism in control of the fight-or-flight
response. This system is divided into 2; the
Sympathetic and the Parasympathetic.

1. The sympathetic nervous system directs

the body's rapid involuntary response to
dangerous or stressful situations. A flash
flood of hormones boosts the body's
alertness and heart rate, sending extra
blood to the muscles.
2. The parasympathetic nervous system is
one of three divisions of the

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1. Afferent or Sensory Nerves-These
are sensory neurons
carrying nerve impulses
from sensory stimuli toward the
central nervous system and
brain. Afferent neurons carry signals to
the brain and spinal cord as sensory
Transmits sensory gathered from the skin,
muscles and joints to the CNS.

2. Efferent or Motor Nerves-Efferent, or

motor, nerve fibers carry impulses away
from the central nervous Carries
information from the CNS to the muscles
and glands.

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THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM LT#2 ANATOMY OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
An organ system that functions primarily for
the purpose of reproduction, and is
comprised of sex organs or Gonads.

1. Testes
2. Duct system
a. Epididymis
b. Ductus (vas) deferens
c. Urethra
Accessory organs
Gonads: a. Seminal glands (vesicles)
1. Testes in males b. Prostate
2. Ovaries in females c. Bulbourethral glands
External genitalia
a. Penis
b. Scrotum

Testes
Each testis is connected to the trunk via the
spermatic cord, which houses:
a. Blood vessels
b. Nerves
c. Ductus deferens
Gonads produce gametes (sex cells) and
secrete hormones: Coverings of the testes
1. Sperm—male gametes a) Tunica albuginea—capsule that
2. Ova (eggs)—female gametes surrounds each testis
b) Septa—extensions of the capsule that
extend into the testis and divide it
into lobules.

Each lobule contains one to four seminiferous

tubules
a. Tightly coiled structures
b. Function as sperm-forming factories

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 d. Empty sperm into the rete testis Vasectomy—cutting of the ductus deferens at
e. Sperm travels from the rete testis to the level of the testes prevents transportation
the epididymis. Interstitial cells in the of sperm (form of birth control)
seminiferous tubules produce
androgens such as testosterone. 3. Urethra
 Extends from the base of the urinary
Duct System bladder to the tip of the penis. Carries
The duct system transports sperm from the both urine and sperm. Sperm enters from
body and includes: the ejaculatory duct
1. Epididymis
2. Ductus deferens Urethra Regions
3. Urethra a. Prostatic urethra—surrounded by
prostate gland
1. Epididymis b. Membranous urethra—prostatic
 Highly convoluted tube 6 m (20 ft) urethra to penis
long. Found along the posterior lateral c. Spongy (penile) urethra—runs the
side of the testis. First part of the male length of the penis to the external
duct system. Temporary storage site for urethral orifice
immature sperm. Sperm mature as they
journey through the epididymis. During Ejaculation causes the internal urethra
ejaculation, sperm are propelled to the sphincter to close
ductus deferens. - Prevents urine from passing into the
urethra
2. Ductus (vas) deferens - Prevents sperm from entering the
 Runs from the epididymis via the urinary bladder
spermatic cord through the inguinal canal
and arches over the urinary bladder. ACCESSORY GLANDS AND SEMEN
Moves sperm by peristalsis into the 1. Seminal vesicles
urethra. 2. Prostate
a. Ampulla—end of the ductus 3. Bulbourethral glands
deferens, which empties into the - Seminal vesicles - Located at the base
ejaculatory duct of the bladder. Produce a thick,
b. Ejaculatory duct—passes through yellowish secretion (60% of semen)
the prostate to merge with the that contains:
urethra a) Fructose (sugar)
b) Vitamin C
Ejaculation—smooth muscle in the walls of c) Prostaglandins
the ductus deferens create peristaltic waves d) Other substances that nourish and
to squeeze sperm forward activate sperm

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Duct of each seminal vesicle joins that of the Regions of the penis
ductus deferens on each side to form the 1. Shaft
ejaculatory duct 2. Glans penis (enlarged tip)
3. Prepuce (foreskin) - Folded cuff of
Prostate - Encircles the upper (prostatic) part skin around proximal end. Often
of the urethra. Secretes a milky fluid. Helps to removed by circumcision.
activate sperm. Fluid enters the urethra
through several small ducts Internally there are three areas of spongy
erectile tissue around the urethra. Erections
Bulbourethral Glands - Pea-sized glands occur when this erectile tissue fills with blood
inferior to the prostate. Produce a thick, clear during sexual excitement.
mucus. Mucus cleanses the spongy (penile)
urethra of acidic urine prior to ejaculation Male Reproductive Functions
and serves as a lubricant during sexual Chief roles of the male in the reproductive
intercourse. process:
1. Produce sperm
Semen 2. Produce a hormone, testosterone
It is a milky white mixture of sperm and
accessory gland secretions. It is a components Spermatogenesis
of accessory gland secretions. Liquid portion  Sperm production - Begins at puberty and
acts as a transport medium to dilute continues throughout life. Millions of
sperm. Sperm are streamlined cellular sperm are made every day
“tadpoles”. Fructose provides energy for  Sperm are formed in the seminiferous
sperm cells. Alkalinity of semen helps tubules of the testis
neutralize the acidic environment of  Spermatogonia (primitive stem cells)
vagina. Semen inhibits bacteria. begin the process by dividing
rapidly. During puberty, follicle-
LEARNING TASK # 4 EXTERNAL GENITALIA stimulating hormone (FSH) is secreted in
A. Scrotum increasing amounts
B. Penis  Each division of a spermatogonium stem
cell produces:
Scrotum A. Type A daughter cell, a stem cell, that
 Divided sac of skin outside the abdomen continues the stem cell population
that houses the testes. Viable sperm B. Type B daughter cell, which becomes
cannot be produced at normal body a primary spermatocyte, destined
temperature. Maintains testes at 3°C to undergo meiosis and form four
lower than normal body temperature. sperm
Penis
 Male organ of copulation that delivers
sperm into the female reproductive tract.

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Meiosis 1. Deepening of voice
 The special type of nuclear division that 2. Increased hair growth
differs from mitosis. Occurs in the 3. Enlargement of skeletal muscles
gonads. Includes two successive divisions 4. Increased bone growth and density
of the nucleus (meiosis I and II). Results in
four daughter cells (gametes). ANATOMY OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
 Gametes are spermatids with 23 SYSTEM
chromosomes. 23 chromosomes are half 1. Ovaries
the usual 46 found in other body cells. 23 2. Duct system
is known as the haploid number (n)—half a. Uterine (fallopian) tubes
the genetic material as other body b. Uterus
cells. Union of a sperm (23 chromosomes, c. Vagina
n) with an egg (23 chromosomes, n) 3. External genitalia
creates a zygote (2n, or 46
chromosomes). Ovaries
Produce eggs (ova) and hormones (estrogen
Spermiogenesis and progesterone). Each ovary houses ovarian
 Spermatids are nonmotile and not follicles consisting of:
functional as sperm. A streamlining 1. Oocyte (immature egg)
process is needed to strip excess 2. Follicle cells—layers of different cells
cytoplasm from a spermatid and modify it that surround the oocyte
into a sperm. A sperm has three regions:
head, midpiece, tail. Acrosome sits Ovarian follicles
anterior to the sperm head (nucleus). The A. Primary follicle—contains an immature
entire process of spermatogenesis, oocyte
including spermiogenesis, takes 64 to 72 B. Vesicular (Graafian) follicle—growing
days. follicle with a maturing oocyte
C. Ovulation—the follicle ruptures when the
Testosterone Production egg is mature and ready to be
During puberty: ejected from the ovary; occurs about
 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) begins every 28 days. The ruptured follicle is
prodding seminiferous tubules to produce transformed into a corpus luteum
sperm. Luteinizing hormone (LH) begins
activating the interstitial cells to produce Ovary support
testosterone.  Suspensory ligaments secure the ovaries
Testosterone to the lateral walls of the pelvis. Ovarian
 Most important hormonal product of the ligaments anchor ovaries to the uterus
testes. Stimulates reproductive organ medially. Broad ligaments, a fold of
development. Underlies sex drive peritoneum, enclose and hold the ovaries
 Causes secondary sex characteristics like: in place.

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Duct System  Cervix—narrow outlet that protrudes into
1. Uterine (fallopian) tubes the vagina
2. Uterus
3. Vagina Layers of the Uterus
a) Endometrium, Inner layer
Uterine (fallopian) tubes (mucosa). Site of implantation of a
 Form the initial part of the duct fertilized egg. Sloughs off if no
system. Receive the ovulated oocyte from pregnancy occurs (menstruation or
the ovaries. Provide a site for menses).
fertilization. Empty into the uterus. Little b) Myometrium is the middle layer of
or no contact between ovaries and smooth muscle that contracts during
uterine tubes. Supported and enclosed by labor
the broad ligament c) Perimetrium (visceral peritoneum) is
the outermost serous layer of the
Uterine (fallopian) tube structure uterus
Infundibulum
 distal, funnel-shaped end Vagina
 Fimbriae - fingerlike projections of the  Passageway that extends from cervix to
infundibulum. Receive the oocyte from exterior of body and is located between
the ovary. Cilia located inside the uterine urinary bladder and rectum. Serves as the
tube transport the oocyte canal that allows a baby or menstrual flow
to leave the body. Female organ of
Uterus copulation. Receives the penis during
 Situated between the urinary bladder and sexual intercourse
rectum. Size and shape of a pear, in a  Hymen—partially closes the vagina until it
woman who has never been pregnant. is ruptured
Receives, retains, nourishes a fertilized
egg. EXTERNAL GENITALIA AND FEMALE
PERINEUM
Uterine Support The female external genitalia, or vulva,
 Broad ligament suspends the uterus in the includes:
pelvis. Round ligament anchors the uterus 1. Mons pubis
anteriorly. Uterosacral ligament anchors 2. Labia
the uterus posteriorly 3. Clitoris
4. Urethral orifice
Regions of the Uterus 5. Vaginal orifice
 Body—main portion 6. Greater vestibular glands
 Fundus—superior rounded region above
where uterine tube enters

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(1) Mons Pubis. a fatty area overlying the time a female is born. Ability to release
pubic symphysis. Covered with pubic hair eggs begins at puberty with the onset of
after puberty. the menstrual cycle. Reproductive ability
(2) Labia or skin folds ends at menopause (in female’s fifties).
b) Labia majora, hair-covered skin
folds. Enclose the labia minora. Also Oogenesis and the Ovarian Cycle
encloses the vestibule  Oogenesis is the process of producing
c) Labia minora—delicate, hair-free ova (eggs) in a female. Oogonia are
folds of skin female stem cells found in a developing
2) Vestibule, Enclosed by labia fetus. Oogonia undergo mitosis to
majora. Contains external openings of the produce primary oocytes that are
urethra and vagina. surrounded by cells that form primary
3) Greater vestibular glands, One is found on follicles in the ovary. Primary oocytes are
each side of the inactive until puberty. Follicle-
vagina. Secretions lubricate vagina during stimulating hormone (FSH) causes some
intercourse primary follicles to mature each
4) Clitoris, Contains erectile month. Cyclic monthly changes
tissue. Corresponds to the male penis. constitute the ovarian cycle
The clitoris lacks a reproductive duct. The
clitoris is similar to the penis in that it is:  Meiosis starts inside maturing
a) Hooded by a prepuce follicle. First meiotic division produces a
b) Composed of sensitive erectile larger secondary oocyte and a smaller
tissue first polar body. A vesicular follicle
c) Swollen with blood during sexual contains a secondary oocyte (maturation
excitement from a primary follicle takes about 14
days). Ovulation of a secondary oocyte
Perineum occurs with the release of luteinizing
 A diamond-shaped region between the hormone (LH). Secondary oocyte is
anterior ends of the labial folds, anus released and surrounded by a corona
posteriorly, and ischial tuberosities radiata. Meiosis is completed after
laterally ovulation only if sperm penetrates the
oocyte. Ovum is produced
Female Reproductive Functions and Cycles
 The total supply of eggs is determined by  Two additional polar bodies are
the time a female is born. Ability to produced. Once ovum is formed, the 23
release eggs begins at puberty with the chromosomes can be combined with the
onset of the menstrual 23 chromosomes of the sperm to form
cycle. Reproductive ability ends the fertilized egg (zygote). If the
at menopause (in female’s fifties). The secondary oocyte is not penetrated by a
total supply of eggs is determined by the

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 sperm, it dies and does not complete from the anterior pituitary, regulate the
meiosis to form an ovum production of estrogens and
progesterone by the ovaries. Ovulation
Meiosis typically occurs about midway through
 Males—produces four functional sperm cycle, on day 14.
 Females—produces one functional ovum
and three tiny polar bodies Stages of the menstrual cycle
1. Menstrual phase
Sex cell size and structure 2. Proliferative stage
 Sperm are tiny, motile, and equipped with 3. Secretory stage
nutrients in seminal fluid. Egg is large, is
nonmotile, and has nutrient reserves to Days 1–5: menstrual phase
nourish the embryo until implantation. Functional layer of the endometrium is
sloughed. Bleeding occurs for 3 to 5
Hormone Production by the Ovaries days. Ovarian hormones are at their lowest
Estrogens are produced by follicle cells. Cause levels. By day 5, growing ovarian follicles are
secondary sex characteristics: producing more estrogen.
1. Enlargement of accessory organs of the
female reproductive system. Days 6–14: proliferative stage
2. Development of breasts Regeneration of functional layer of the
3. Appearance of axillary and pubic hair endometrium. Endometrium is repaired,
4. Increase in fat beneath the skin, thickens, and becomes well
particularly in hips and breasts vascularized. Estrogen levels rise. Ovulation
5. Widening and lightening of the pelvis occurs in the ovary at the end of this stage.
6. Onset of menses (menstrual cycle)
Days 15–28: secretory phase
Progesterone is produced by the corpus Levels of progesterone rise and increase the
luteum. Production continues until LH blood supply to the endometrium, which
diminishes in the blood. Does not contribute becomes more vascular. Endometrium
to the appearance of secondary sex increases in size and readies for implantation.
characteristics
Other major effects LEARNING TASK # 8 MAMMARY GLANDS
1. Helps maintain pregnancy Present in both sexes, but function only in
2. Prepares the breasts for milk production females. Modified sweat glands
Function is to produce milk to nourish a
UTERINE (MENSTRUAL CYCLE) newborn. Stimulated by sex hormones
 Cyclic changes of the endometrium, about (mostly estrogens) to increase in size.
28 days in length. Regulated by cyclic
production of estrogens and
progesterone by the ovaries. FSH and LH,

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Parts of the Mammary Gland
1. Areola—central pigmented area
2. Nipple—protruding central area of areola
3. Lobes—internal structures that radiate
around nipple
4. Lobules—located within each lobe and
contain clusters of alveolar glands
5. Alveolar glands—produce milk when a
woman is lactating (producing milk)
6. Lactiferous ducts—connect alveolar
glands to nipple
7. Lactiferous sinus—dilated portion where
milk accumulates

Mammography
 Mammography is X-ray examination
that detects breast cancers too small
to feel. American Cancer Society
recommends mammography annually
for women between 45 and 54 years
old and every 2 years thereafter if the
results are normal.
 Breast cancer is often signaled by a
change in skin texture, puckering, or
leakage from the nipple.

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The Respiratory System Learning Task #3 Nose
 It is the only externally visible part of the
The Respiratory System is a series
of organs responsible for taking in oxygen and respiratory system. its nostrils (nares) are
expelling carbon dioxide. The the route through which air enters the
primary organs of the respiratory system are nose.
the lungs, which carry out this exchange of
gases as we breathe. The respiratory organs
oversee the gas exchanges that occur
between the blood and the external
environment.

 The Nasal cavity is the interior of the nose

while the Nasal septum divides the nasal
cavity. The Olfactory receptors are
located in the mucosa on the superior
surface while the rest of the cavity is lined
with respiratory mucosa, which:
Organs of the Respiratory System a. Moistens air
1. Nose b. Traps incoming foreign particles
2. Pharynx c. Enzymes in the mucus destroy
3. Larynx bacteria chemically
4. Trachea
6. Lungs Conchae are projections from the lateral
walls
Functional Anatomy of the Respiratory a. Increase surface area
System b. Increase air turbulence within the
Gas exchanges between the blood and nasal cavity
external environment occur only in the alveoli c. Increased trapping of inhaled
of the lungs: particles. The palate separates the
 Upper respiratory tract includes nasal cavity from the oral cavity
passageways from the nose to larynx d. Hard palate is anterior and
 Lower respiratory tract includes supported by bone
passageways from trachea to alveoli e. Soft palate is posterior and
 Passageways to the lungs purify, unsupported
humidify, and warm the incoming air.

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Paranasal sinuses  Oropharynx and laryngopharynx serve as
 They are the cavities within the frontal, common passageway for air and
sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillary bones food. Epiglottis routes food into the
surrounding the nasal cavity posterior tube, the esophagus

 Pharyngotympanic tubes open into the

nasopharynx and drains the middle ear

 Tonsils are clusters of lymphatic tissue

that play a role in protecting the body
from infection.
a. Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid), a
Sinuses: single tonsil, is located in the
a. Lighten the skull nasopharynx.
b. Act as resonance chambers for speech b. Palatine tonsils (2) are located in
c. Produce mucus the oropharynx at the end of the
soft palate
Learning Task # 4 The Pharynx c. Lingual tonsils (2) are found at the
 It is commonly called the throat. It is base of the tongue
a Muscular passageway from nasal cavity
to larynx. It is continuous with the Learning Task # 5 The Larynx
posterior nasal aperture. Commonly called the voice box. Located
inferior to the pharynx. Made of eight rigid
hyaline cartilages. Thyroid cartilage (Adam’s
apple) is the largest.

Three Regions of the Pharynx

1. Nasopharynx—superior region behind
nasal cavity
2. Oropharynx—middle region behind
mouth
3. Laryngopharynx—inferior region
Functions
attached to larynx
1. Routes air and food into proper channels
2. Plays a role in speech

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 Epiglottis - a Spoon-shaped flap of elastic Learning Task # 7 The Main Bronchi
cartilage. It protects the superior opening It is formed by division of the trachea. Each
of the larynx. it routes food to the bronchus enters the lung at the hilum (medial
posteriorly situated esophagus and routes depression). The Right bronchus is wider,
air toward the trachea shorter, and straighter than left.
Bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller
 During swallowing, the epiglottis rises and branches
forms a lid over the opening of the larynx.
The Vocal folds (true vocal cords) vibrate
with expelled air and allow us to speak.

 The glottis includes the vocal cords and

the opening between the vocal cords

Learning Task # 6 Trachea

It is commonly called the windpipe. It is a 4-
inch-long tube that connects to the larynx. Its
walls are reinforced with C-shaped rings of Learning Task # 8 Lungs
hyaline cartilage, which keep the trachea Occupies the entire thoracic cavity except for
patent (open). It is lined with ciliated mucosa. the central mediastinum.
The Cilia beat continuously in the opposite
direction of incoming air so it can expel
mucus loaded with dust and other debris
away from lungs.

 Apex of each lung is near the clavicle

(superior portion). The base rests on the
diaphragm.Each lung is divided into lobes
by fissures:
1. Left lung—two lobes
2. Right lung—three lobes

Serosa covers the outer surface of the lungs.

a. Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the
lung surface

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 b. Parietal pleura lines the walls of the 1. Pulmonary Ventilation—moving air
thoracic cavity into and out of the lungs (commonly
called breathing)
Pleural fluid fills the area between layers
 Allows the lungs to glide over the thorax 2. External Respiration—gas exchange
 Decreases friction during breathing between pulmonary blood and alveoli
 Pleural space (between the layers) is o Oxygen is loaded into the blood
more of a potential space o Carbon dioxide is unloaded from the
blood
The Bronchial Tree
 The main bronchi subdivide into smaller 3. Respiratory Gas Transport—transport
and smaller branches. The Bronchial of oxygen and carbon dioxide via the
(respiratory) tree is the network of bloodstream
branching passageways. All but the
smallest passageways have reinforcing 4. Internal Respiration—gas exchange
cartilage in the walls. Conduits to and between blood and tissue cells in
from the respiratory zone. systemic capillaries
The Bronchioles serves as the smallest
conducting passageways. Non-respiratory Gas Movements
Many situations other than breathing move
air into or out of the lungs may modify the
normal respiratory rhythm. Coughs and
Sneezes clear the air passages of debris of
collected mucus. Laughing and crying reflect
our emotions.

Examples are the following:

MOVEMENT MECHANISM AND RESULT
Cough Taking a deep breath, closing
glottis, and forcing air
Learning Task # 8 Respiratory Physiology superiorly from the lungs
against glottis. Then, glottis
Functions of the Respiratory System
opens suddenly, and a blast of
1. Supply the body with oxygen
2. Dispose of carbon dioxide air rushes upward. Coughs act
to clear the lower respiratory
passageways.
Respiration includes four distinct events:
Four Events of Respiration

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Sneeze Similar to a cough, except that 1. Bronchial sounds—produced by air rushing
expelled air is directed through through large passageways such as the
nasal cavities instead or trachea and bronchi
through oral cavity. The uvula, 2. Vesicular Breathing Sounds—soft sounds
a dangling tag of tissue hanging of air filling alveoli
from the soft palate, becomes
depressed and closes oral External Respiration, Gas Transport, and
cavity off from pharynx, rooting Internal Respiration
air through nasal cavities. I. Gas Transport
Sneezes clear upper respiratory Gas exchanges occur as a result of
passages. diffusion. External respiration is an exchange
Crying Inspiration followed by a of gases occurring between the alveoli and
release of air in a number of pulmonary blood (pulmonary gas
short expirations. Primarily an exchange). Internal respiration is an exchange
emotionally induced of gases occurring between the blood and
mechanism. tissue cells (systemic capillary gas exchange)
Laughing Essentially same as crying in Movement of the gas is toward the area of
terms of the air movements lower concentration
produced. Also an emotionally
induced mechanism. II. External Respiration
Oxygen is loaded into the blood. Oxygen
Hiccups Sudden inspirations resulting diffuses from the oxygen-rich air of the alveoli
from spasms of diaphragm; to the oxygen-poor blood of the pulmonary
initiated by irritation of capillaries. Carbon dioxide is unloaded out of
diaphragm or phrenic nerves, the blood. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the
which serves diaphragm. The blood of the pulmonary capillaries to the
sound occurs when inspired air alveoli
hits vocal folds of closed glottis.
Yawn Very deep inspiration, taken III. Gas Transport in the Blood
with jaws wide open; ventilates Oxygen transport in the blood. Most oxygen
all alveoli (some alveoli may travels attached to hemoglobin and forms
remain collapsed during normal oxyhemoglobin (HbO2).A small dissolved
quiet breathing) amount is carried in the plasma.
Carbon dioxide transport in the blood. Most
Learning Task # 11 Respiratory Sounds carbon dioxide is transported in the plasma as
 Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope bicarbonate ion (HCO3–). A small amount is
 Two recognizable sounds can be heard carried inside red blood cells on hemoglobin,
with a stethoscope: but at different binding sites from those of
oxygen

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For carbon dioxide to diffuse out of blood into - Patients become cyanotic and are
the alveoli, it must be released from its sometimes called “blue bloaters” as a
bicarbonate form: result of chronic hypoxia and carbon
Bicarbonate ions enter RBC. Combine with dioxide retention
hydrogen ions. Form carbonic acid
(H2CO3). Carbonic acid splits to form water + III. Emphysema
CO2. Carbon dioxide diffuses from blood into  Alveoli walls are destroyed; remaining
alveoli. alveoli enlarge
 Chronic inflammation promotes lung
IV. Internal Respiration fibrosis, and lungs lose elasticity
Exchange of gases between blood and tissue  Patients use a large amount of energy
cells. It is An opposite reaction from what to exhale; some air remains in the
occurs in the lungs. Carbon dioxide diffuses lungs
out of tissue cells to blood  Sufferers are often called “pink
(called loading). Oxygen diffuses from blood puffers” because oxygen exchange is
into tissue (called unloading) efficient
 Overinflation of the lungs leads to a
Learning Task # 13 Respiratory Disorders permanently expanded barrel chest
I. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease  Cyanosis appears late in the disease
(COPD)
It is exemplified by chronic bronchitis and IV. Lung cancer
emphysema  It is the leading cause of cancer death for
Shared features of these diseases men and women. Nearly 90 percent of
1. Patients almost always have a history cases result from smoking. It is an
of smoking aggressive cancer that metastasizes
2. Labored breathing (dyspnea) rapidly
becomes progressively worse  Three Common Types
3. Coughing and frequent pulmonary - Adenocarcinoma
infections are common - Squamous cell carcinoma
4. Most COPD patients are hypoxic, - Small cell carcinoma
retain carbon dioxide and have
respiratory acidosis, and ultimately Developmental Aspects of the Respiratory
develop respiratory failure System
 Lungs do not fully inflate until 2 weeks
II. Chronic bronchitis after birth. This change from
- Mucosa of the lower respiratory nonfunctional to functional respiration
passages becomes severely inflamed depends on surfactant. Surfactant lowers
- Excessive mucus production impairs surface tension so the alveoli do not
ventilation and gas exchange collapse. Surfactant is formed late in
pregnancy, around 28 to 30 weeks

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 Respiratory rate changes throughout life
a) Newborns: 40 to 80 respirations per
minute
b) Infants: 30 respirations per minute
c) Age 5: 25 respirations per minute
d) Adults: 12 to 18 respirations per
minute.

Rate often increases again in old age

 Asthma
 Chronically inflamed, hypersensitive
bronchiole passages
 Respond to irritants with dyspnea,
coughing, and wheezing
 Usually affects Youth and middle age
 Most respiratory system problems are a
result of external factors, such as
infections and substances that physically
block respiratory passageways

Effects of Aging
1. Elasticity of lungs decreases
2. Vital capacity decreases
3. Blood oxygen levels decrease
4. Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide
decrease
5. Elderly are often hypoxic and exhibit
sleep apnea
6. More risks of respiratory tract infection

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Lymphatic System and Body Defenses o Pressure changes in thorax
Functions: during breathing
 Transports escaped fluids from the o Smooth muscle in walls of
cardiovascular system back to the lymphatic
blood.
 Plays essential roles in body defense Lymph capillaries
and resistance to disease.  Weave between tissue cells and blood
capillaries
Recall that the hydrostatic and osmotic  Walls overlap to form flaplike mini valves
pressures operating at the capillary beds  Fluid leaks into lymph capillaries
force fluid out of the blood at the arterial  Capillaries are anchored to connective
ends of the beds (“upstream”) and cause tissue by filaments
most of the expelled fluid to be reabsorbed at  Higher pressure on the inside closes mini
the venous ends (“downstream”). valves
 Fluid is forced along the vessel
Two Semi-Independent parts:
1. Lymphatic vessels This is very similar to the way that valves in
2. Lymphoid tissues and organs veins work to ensure blood returns to the
heart, despite being under low pressure.
Lymphatic vessels (Lymphatics)
 Lymph consists of excess tissue fluid Lymphatic Collecting Vessels
and plasma proteins carried by  Collect lymph from lymph capillaries
lymphatic vessels  Carry lymph to and away from lymph
 If fluids are not picked up, edema nodes
occurs as fluid accumulates in tissues  Return fluid to circulatory veins near
 Lymphatic vessels (lymphatics) pick up the heart
excess fluid (lymph) and return it to  Right lymphatic duct drains the lymph
the blood from the right arm and the right side
 Form a one-way system of the head and thorax
 Lymph flows only toward the heart  Thoracic duct drains lymph from rest
 Similar to veins of the cardiovascular of body
system:
o Thin-walled Lymph nodes
o Larger vessels have valves  Lymph nodes filter lymph before it is
o Low-pressure, pumpless returned to the blood
system  Harmful materials that are filtered:
 Lymph transport is aided by: o Bacteria
o Milking action of skeletal o Viruses
muscles o Cancer cells
o Cell debris

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Defense cells within lymph nodes o Tonsils
1. Macrophages – engulf and destroy o Peyer’s patches
bacteria, viruses, and other foreign o Appendix
substances in lymph
2. Lymphocytes – respond to foreign
substances in lymph

 Most lymph nodes are kidney-shaped,

less than 1 inch long, and buried in
connective tissue:
o Surrounded by a capsule
o Divided into compartments by
trabeculae

Cortex (outer part)

 Contains follicles—collections of Spleen
lymphocytes  Located on the left side of the
 Germinal centers enlarge when abdomen
antibodies are released by plasma cells  Filters and cleans blood of bacteria,
viruses, debris
 Provides a site for lymphocyte
Medulla (inner part)
proliferation and immune surveillance
 Contains phagocytic macrophages
 Destroys worn-out blood cells
 Forms blood cells in the fetus
Flow of Lymph through Nodes
 Acts as a blood reservoir
1. Lymph enters the convex side through
afferent lymphatic vessels
Thymus
2. Lymph flows through a number of
 Found overlying the heart
sinuses inside the node
 Functions at peak levels only during
3. Lymph exits through efferent
youth
lymphatic vessels
4. Because there are fewer efferent than
Tonsils
afferent vessels, flow is slowed
 Small masses of lymphoid tissue deep
to the mucosa surrounding the
Lymphatic tissues and organs
pharynx (throat)
 Other lymphoid organs  Trap and remove bacteria and other
Several other lymphoid organs contribute to
foreign pathogens
lymphatic function (in addition to the lymph  Tonsillitis results when the tonsils
nodes)
become congested with bacteria
o Spleen
o Thymus

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Peyer’s patches
 Found in the wall of the small
intestine
 Similar lymphoid follicles are found in
the appendix
 Macrophages capture and destroy
bacteria in the intestine

Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)

 Includes: Peyer’s patches, Tonsils and
Appendix
 Acts as a sentinel to protect respiratory
and digestive tracts

Body Defenses
Two mechanisms that make up the immune
system to defend us from foreign materials
1. Innate (nonspecific) Defense System
 Mechanisms protect against a variety
2. Adaptive (specific) Defense System
of invaders
 Fights invaders that get past the
 Responds immediately to protect
innate system
body from foreign materials
 Specific defense is required for each
 Mechanical barriers to pathogens
type of invader
(harmful or disease-causing
 The highly specific resistance to
microorganisms) and include:
disease is immunity
o Body surface coverings
o Intact skin
 Immunity - specific resistance to
o Mucous membranes
disease
o Specialized human cells
 Immune system - is a functional
o Chemicals produced by the
system rather than an organ system in
body
an anatomical sense

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 The Immune System Phagocytes
 Cells such as neutrophils and
Innate Defense Mechanism Adaptive DM macrophages engulf foreign
material by phagocytosis
First line of Second line of Third line of
 The phagocytic vesicle is fused
Defense Defense Defense
with a lysosome, and enzymes
 Skin  Phagocytic cells  Lymphocytes
digest the cell’s contents
 Mucous  Natural Killer  Antibodies
membranes Cells  Macrophages
 Secretions  Antimicrobial and other Inflammatory response
of skin and proteins antigen
 Triggered when body tissues are
mucous  The presenting
membranes inflammatory cells injured
response  Four most common indicators
 Fever
(cardinal signs) of acute inflammation
o Redness
Surface membrane barriers
o Heat
 Such as the skin and mucous membranes,
o Pain
provide the first line of defense against
o Swelling (edema)
the invasion of microorganisms
 Damaged cells release inflammatory
 Protective secretions produced by these
chemicals
membranes:
o Histamine
– Acidic skin secretions inhibit
o Kinin
bacterial growth
 These chemicals cause:
– Sebum is toxic to bacteria
o Blood vessels to dilate
– Mucus traps microorganisms
o Capillaries to become leaky
– Gastric juices are acidic and kill
o Phagocytes and white blood
pathogens
cells to move into the area
– Saliva and tears contain lysozyme
(called positive chemotaxis)
(enzyme that destroys bacteria)
Function
 Prevents spread of damaging agents
Internal defenses: cells and chemicals
 Disposes of cell debris and pathogens
 Cells and chemicals provide a second
through phagocytosis
line of defense
 Sets the stage for repair

Natural Killer cells and Phagocytes

Process
NK cells
 Neutrophils migrate to the area of
 Lyse (burst) and kill cancer cells, virus-
inflammation by rolling along the
infected cells
vessel wall (following the scent of
 Release chemicals called perforin and
chemicals from inflammation)
granzymes to degrade target cell
contents

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  Neutrophils squeeze through the
capillary walls by diapedesis to sites of Fever
inflammation  Abnormally high body temperature is a
 Neutrophils gather in the precise site systemic response to invasion by
of tissue injury (positive chemotaxis) microorganisms
and consume any foreign material  Hypothalamus regulates body
present temperature at 37ºC (98.6ºF)
 The hypothalamus thermostat can be
Antimicrobial Proteins reset higher by pyrogens (secreted by
 Enhance innate defenses by: white blood cells)
o Attacking microorganisms directly  High temperatures inhibit the release of
o Hindering reproduction of iron and zinc (needed by bacteria) from
microorganisms the liver and spleen
 Most important types  Fever also increases the speed of repair
o Complement proteins processes
o Interferon
 Antimicrobial proteins: complement Adaptive Body Defenses
proteins  Adaptive body defenses are the body’s
o Complement refers to a group of specific defense system, or the third line
at least 20 plasma proteins that of defense
circulate in the plasma  Immune response is the immune
o Complement is activated when system’s response to a threat
these plasma proteins encounter  Antigens are targeted and
and attach to cells (known as destroyed by antibodies
complement fixation)
 Membrane attack complexes (MACs), one Three aspects of adaptive defense
result of complement fixation, produce 1. Antigen specific
holes or pores in cells  the adaptive defense system recognizes
o Pores allow water to rush into the and acts against particular foreign
cell substances
o Cell bursts (lyses)
 Activated complement enhances the ANTIGENS
inflammatory response  are any substance capable of exciting the
 Antimicrobial proteins: interferons immune system and provoking an
o Interferons are small proteins immune response
secreted by virus-infected cells  Examples of common nonself antigens
o Interferons bind to membrane  Foreign proteins provoke the
receptors on healthy cell surfaces strongest response
to interfere with the ability of  Nucleic acids
viruses to multiply

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 Large carbohydrates Two arms of the Adaptive Defense System

Some lipids 1. Humoral Immunity = antibody-

Pollen grains mediated immunity
Microorganisms (bacteria, fungi,  Provided by antibodies present in body
viruses) fluids
 Self-Antigens 2. Cellular Immunity = cell- mediated
 Human cells have many protein immunity
and carbohydrate molecules  Targets virus-infected cells, cancer
 Self-antigens do not trigger an cells, and cells of foreign grafts
immune response in us
 The presence of our cells in Cells of the Adaptive Defense System: An
another person’s body can trigger overview
an immune response because Crucial cells of the adaptive system
they are foreign 1. Lymphocytes
 Restricts donors for  Respond to specific antigens
transplants  B lymphocytes (B cells) produce
 Haptens antibodies and oversee humoral
 incomplete antigens, are not immunity
antigenic by themselves  T lymphocytes (T cells) constitute the
 When they link up with cell-mediated arm of the adaptive
our own proteins, the defenses; do not make antibodies
immune system may  T cells develop immunocompetence in
recognize the combination the thymus and oversee cell-mediated
as foreign and respond immunity
with an attack o Identify foreign antigens
 Found in poison ivy, o Those that bind self-antigens
animal dander, are destroyed
detergents, hair dyes, o Self-tolerance is important
cosmetics part of lymphocyte
“education”
 SYSTEMIC
o immunity is not restricted to the  B cells develop immunocompetence
initial infection site in bone marrow and provide humoral
 MEMORY immunity
o the adaptive defense system  Immunocompetent T and B
recognizes and mounts a stronger lymphocytes migrate to the lymph
attack on previously encountered nodes and spleen, where encounters
pathogens with antigens occur
 Differentiation from naïve cells into
mature lymphocytes is complete

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 when they bind with recognized  A large number of clones is produced
antigens (primary humoral response)
 Mature lymphocytes (especially T  Most of the B cell clone members
cells) circulate continuously (descendants) become plasma cells
throughout the body o Produce antibodies to destroy
antigens
 Arise from hemocytoblasts of bone o Activity lasts for 4 or 5 days
marrow o Plasma cells begin to die
 Whether a lymphocyte matures into a  Some B cells become long-lived
B cell or T cell depends on where it memory cells capable of mounting a
becomes immunocompetent rapid attack against the same antigen
in subsequent meetings (secondary
Immunocompetence - The capability to humoral response)
respond to a specific antigen by binding o These cells provide
to it with antigenspecific receptors that immunological memory
appear on the lymphocyte’s surface

2. Antigen-presenting cells (apcs)

 help the lymphocytes but do not
respond to specific antigens
 Engulf antigens and then present
fragments of them on their own
surfaces, where they can be
recognized by T cells
 Major types of cells behaving as APCs
 Dendritic cells
 Macrophages
 B lymphocytes Active Immunity
 When they present antigens, dendritic  Occurs when B cells encounter
cells and macrophages activate T cells, antigens and produce antibodies
which release chemicals  Active immunity can be:
– Naturally acquired during
Humoral Immune Response bacterial and viral infections
 B lymphocytes with specific receptors – Artificially acquired from
bind to a specific antigen vaccines
 The binding event sensitizes, or
activates, the lymphocyte to undergo Passive Immunity
clonal selection  Occurs when antibodies are obtained
from someone else

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 – Naturally acquired from a o Variable regions form
mother to her fetus or in the antigen-binding sites, one on
breast milk each arm of the T or Y
– Artificially acquired from o Constant regions determine
immune serum or gamma the type of antibody formed
globulin (donated antibodies) (antibody class)
 Immunological memory does not
occur
 Protection is short-lived (2–3 weeks)
 Monoclonal antibodies
– Antibodies prepared for clinical
testing for diagnostic services
– Produced from descendants of
a single cell line
– Exhibit specificity for only one
antigen
– Examples of uses for
monoclonal antibodies:
 Cancer treatment Antibody Classes
 Diagnosis of pregnancy  Antibodies of each class have slightly
 Treatment after exposure different roles and differ structurally
to hepatitis and rabies and functionally
 Five major immunoglobulin classes
Antibodies (Immunoglobulins, IGS) (MADGE)
 Constitute gamma globulin part of 1. IgM—can fix complement
blood proteins 2. IgA—found mainly in secretions, such as
 Soluble proteins secreted by activated mucus or tears
B cells (plasma cells) 3. IgD—important in activation of B cell
 Formed in response to a huge number 4. IgG—can cross the placental barrier and
of antigens fix complement; most abundant
antibody in plasma
Structure 5. IgE—involved in allergies
 Four polypeptide chains, two heavy
and two light, linked by disulfide
bonds to form a T- or Y-shaped
molecule
 Each polypeptide chain has a variable
(V) region and a constant (C) region

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 Main difference between two arms of the
adaptive response:
 B cells secrete antibodies
 T cells fight antigens directly

 Like B cells, immunocompetent T cells are

activated to form a clone by binding with
a recognized antigen
 Unlike B cells, T cells are unable to bind to
free antigens
- Antigens must be presented by a
macrophage, and double recognition
must occur
- APC engulfs and presents the
processed antigen in combination
with a protein from the APC

Different classes of Effector T Cells

1. Helper T cells
 Recruit other cells to fight
Antibody Function invaders
 Antibodies inactivate antigens in a  Interact directly with B cells
number of ways: bound to an antigen, prodding the
– Complement fixation: chief B cells into clone production
antibody ammunition used  Release cytokines, chemicals that
against cellular antigens act directly to rid the body of
– Neutralization: antibodies bind to antigens
specific sites on bacterial
exotoxins or on viruses that can 2. Cytotoxic (killer) T cells
cause cell injury  Specialize in killing infected cells
– Agglutination: antibody-antigen  Insert a toxic chemical (perforin or
reaction that causes clumping of granzyme)
cells  The perforin enters the foreign
– Precipitation: cross-linking cell’s plasma membrane
reaction in which antigen-  Pores now appear in the target
antibody complex settles out of cell’s membrane
solution  Granzymes (protein-digesting
enzymes) enter and kill the
Cellular Immune Response (cell-mediated) foreign cell

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  Cytotoxic T cell detaches and
seeks other targets
3. Regulatory T cells
 Release chemicals to suppress the
activity of T and B cells
 Stop the immune response to
prevent uncontrolled activity
 A few members of each clone are
memory cells

T cells must recognize nonself and self through

the process of antigen presentation
• Nonself—the antigen fragment Organ Transplants and Rejection
presented by APC • Blood group and tissue matching is
• Self—coupling with a specific done to ensure the best match possible
glycoprotein on the APC’s surface at the o 75% match is needed to
same time attempt a graft
• Organ transplant is followed by
immunosuppressive therapy to prevent
rejection

Major Types of Transplants or Grafts

• Autografts—tissue transplanted from
one site to another on the same person
• Isografts—tissue grafts from a
genetically identical person (identical
twin)
• Allografts—tissue taken from a person
other than an identical twin (most
common type of graft)
• Xenografts—tissue taken from a
different animal species (never
successful)

Disorders of Immunity
The most important disorders of the immune
system
1. Allergies
– Allergies, or hypersensitivities, are
abnormal, vigorous immune responses

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 – The immune system overreacts to an  Most forms of autoimmune disease
otherwise harmless antigen, and tissue result from the appearance of formerly
damage occurs hidden self antigens or changes in the
structure of self-antigens, and antibodies
formed against foreign antigens that
resemble self-antigens
 Examples of autoimmune diseases:
– Rheumatoid arthritis—destroys
joints
– Myasthenia gravis—impairs
communication between nerves and
skeletal muscles
– Multiple sclerosis—white matter of
brain and spinal cord is destroyed
– Graves’ disease—thyroid gland
produces excess thyroxine
– Type I diabetes mellitus—destroys
pancreatic beta cells, resulting in
deficient insulin production
– Systemic lupus erythematosus
Types of Allergies (SLE)—affects kidney, heart, lung,
1. Immediate (Acute) Hypersensitivity and skin
• Seen in hives and anaphylaxis – Glomerulonephritis—severe
• Due to IgE antibodies and impairment of kidney function due
histamine to acute inflammation
• Anaphylactic shock is systemic,
acute allergic response and is rare 3. Immunodeficiencies
2. Delayed Hypersensitivity  May be congenital or acquired
• Reflects activity of T cells, o Severe combined
macrophages, and cytokines immunodeficiency disease
• Symptoms usually appear 1–3 days (SCID) is a congenital disease
after contact with antigen o AIDS (acquired immune
• Allergic contact dermatitis (poison deficiency syndrome) is caused
ivy, cosmetics) by a virus that attacks and
cripples the helper T cells
2. Autoimmune diseases  Result from abnormalities in any
 Occurs when the body’s self-tolerance immune element
breaks down  Production or function of immune cells
 The body produces auto-antibodies and or complement is abnormal
sensitized T lymphocytes that attack its
own tissues

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Developmental Aspects of the Lymphatic
System and Body Defenses
• Lymphatic vessels form by budding off
from veins
• Lymph nodes present by fifth week of
development
• The thymus and the spleen are the first
lymphoid organs to appear in the
embryo
• Other lymphoid organs are poorly
developed before birth
• The immune response develops around
the time of birth
• The ability of immunocompetent cells
to recognize foreign antigens is
genetically determined
• Stress appears to interfere with normal
immune response
• Efficiency of immune response wanes in
old age, and infections, cancer,
immunodeficiencies, and autoimmune
diseases become more prevalent

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MUSCULAR SYSTEM IMPORTANCE OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE:
 Muscles are responsible for all types of  Help support & bind muscle fibers
body movement – they contract or shorten  Increase muscle strength
 “machines” of the body  Provides a route (entry & exit)
 nerves & blood vessels
Terminologies:
 sarco - flesh CONNECTIVE TISSUE WRAPPINGS OF
 myo - muscle SKELETAL MUSCLE:
 my/s – muscle Endomysium – around single muscle fiber
 endo – within/inner  Perimysium – around a fascicle (bundle)
 peri – around of fibers
 epi – on, above, upon  Epimysium – covers the entire skeletal
muscle
3 Muscle Types  Fascia – on the outside of the epimysium
 Differ in their cell structure, body location,
& how they are stimulated to contract.
 Skeletal & smooth muscle cells are
elongated. For these reasons these type of
muscle cells (but not cardiac) is called
muscle fibers.

1. Skeletal Muscle
CHARACTERISTICS:
• Most are attached by tendons to bones
• Cells are multinucleate
• Striated – have visible banding
• Voluntary – subject to conscious control
• Reflexes - without command
• Cells are surrounded and bundled by
connective tissue

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SKELETAL MUSCLES ATTACHEMENTS: 3. Cardiac Muscle
 Epimysia - blends into a connective tissue CHARACTERSITICS:
attachment  Has striations
1. TenDon- cord-like structure  Single nucleus
(collagen fibers)  Branching cells joined by special
2. Aponeuroses- sheet-like structure junctions called intercalated discs
 Site of Muscle Attachment  Involuntary
1. Bones  Arranged in spiral figure 8-shaped
2. Cartilages bundles
3. Connective tissue coverings  Closely coordinated contraction & steady
pace

2. Smooth Muscle
CHARACTERISTICS:
 No striations
 Spindle-shaped cells FUNCTIONS OF THE MUSCLE:
 Single nucleus  Produce movement
 Involuntary  Maintain posture
 Mainly in the walls of hollow visceral  Stabilize joints
organs  Generate heat
 Contraction - slow, sustained and tireless
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF SKELETAL
MUSCLE
 Multiple nucleus beneath the
sarcolemma
Sarcolemma
 specialized plasma membrane of the
muscle fiber
 “muscle husk”

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Myofibril Myofilaments
 Complex organelle composed of – Actin & myosin containing structure
bundles of myofilaments – Thick filaments
 Myofibrils are aligned to give distinct – composed of protein myosin
bands: – Has ATPase enzymes – split ATP to
 I band = light band generate power for contraction
 A band = dark band
Myosin filament heads
– Projection or cross bridges

MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION:

The Sliding Theory
▪ Activation by nerve causes myosin heads
(cross bridges) to attach to binding sites
of the thin filament
▪ Myosin heads then bind to the next site of
Sarcomere the thin filament
– Muscle segment; region of a myofibril ▪ This continued action causes a sliding of
between 2 successive Z discs the myosin along the actin
– Contractile unit of a muscle fiber ▪ The result is that the muscle is shortened
(contracted)

ORGANIZATION OF SACOMERE:
 Thick filaments = myosin filaments
 Composed of the protein myosin
 Has ATPase enzymes – split ATP to
generate power for contraction
 Thin filaments = actin filaments
 Composed of the protein actin +
regulatory binding protein

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MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS  filled with interstitial fluid
CROSS BRIDGE CYCLE  nerve & muscle do not make contact
SacroPlasmic Reticulum (SR)
– specialized smooth ER EVENTS AT NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION
– store calcium; release it on demand ALS- AmytroPhic Lateral Sclerosis
when the muscle fiber is stimulated to – Lou Gehrig’s disease
contract – Motor neuron degenerate over time,
– important muscle fiber resulting in paralysis that gradually
worsens
– Stephen Hawking
– Cause is unknown
– Command characteristics:
 Malfunctioning mitochondria
 Inflammation
 Generation of free radicals that
damage DNA and tissue much like
intense UV light
– 3-5 years because breathing muscles will
eventually be affected, resulting in
suffocation

Botox for Spasticity- Cerebral Palsy

Nerve Stimulus to Muscles – Uses various forms of botulinum toxin to
Motor Unit temporarily paralyze muscle activity
• One neuron & the entire muscle cell – Botulinum toxin
it stimulates  cosmetics and therapeutic
reasons
Skeletal Muscles  Affect the body at the
 Must be stimulated by a nerve cell neuromuscular junctions called
(motor neuron) to contract synapses
– Prevents the release of the chemical
Axon – long threadlike extension of neuron; acetylcholine
nerve fiber – Can be injected but not ingested
Axon terminals – branching – Related uncontrolled movements:
 Hypochondriasis
Neuromuscular Junctions  Migraines
 Association site of nerve and muscle  Cerebral Palsy
 Contain vesicles filled with chemical
referred to as a neurotransmitter PROPERTIES OF SKELETAL MUSCLE ACTIVITY
Acetylcholine (ACh) – specific (SINGLE CELL OR FIBERS)
neurotransmitter that stimulates skeletal  Contractility – ability to shorten when an
muscle cells adequate stimulus is received
 Excitability (irritability)– ability to
Synaptic Cleft receive and respond to a stimulus
 gap between nerve & muscle  Extensibility – ability to be stretched

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  Elasticity – ability to recoil and  CP is a high-energy molecule
resume resting length after – After ATP is depleted, ADP is left
stretched – CP transfers energy to ADP, to regenerate
ATP
CONTRACTION OF A SKELETAL MUSCLE – CP supplies are exhausted in < 15 sec
 Muscle fiber contraction is “all or
none” AEROBIC RESPIRATION PATHWAY
– a muscle cell will contract to its – Supplies ATP at rest & during light /
fullest extent when it is stimulated moderate exercise
adequately; it never partially – Series of metabolic pathways that occur
contracts in the mitochondria
 Graded responses – Glucose is broken down to Carbon dioxide
– different degrees of skeletal muscle and water, releasing energy (32-36 ATP)
shortening – This is a slower reaction that requires
– By changing the frequency of muscle continuous oxygen
stimulation
– By changing the number of muscle ANAEROBIC GLYCOLISIS AND LACTIC ACID
cells being stimulated FORMATION:
– Reaction that breaks down glucose
MUSCLE RESPONSE TO INCREASINGLY RAPID without oxygen
STIMULATION – Glucose is broken down to pyruvic acid to
• Twitch - single, brief, jerky contractions produce about 2 ATP
• Tetanic Contraction – Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid
– Muscles are stimulated so rapidly that – This reaction is not as efficient, but is fast
no evidence of relaxation is seen  Huge amounts of glucose are
– Completely smooth contractions & needed
sustained  Lactic acid produces muscle
 Lockjaw – caused by toxin made by fatigue (sore muscles)
bacteria; causes muscles to go into
uncontrollable spasms, finally causing MUSCLE FATIGUE AND OXYGEN
respiratory arrest DEBT/DEFICIT
Oxygen – get rid of lactic acid Fatigued
ENERGY FOR MUSCLE CONTRACTION Muscles – unable to contract
Muscles used stored ATP for energy  When a muscle is fatigued, it is unable
 Bonds of ATP are broken to release to contract
energy  The common reason for muscle
 Only 4-6 seconds worth of ATP is stored fatigue is oxygen debt
by muscles  Oxygen must be “repaid” to
 After this initial time, other pathways tissue to remove oxygen debt
must be utilized to produce ATP  Oxygen is required to get rid
of accumulated lactic acid
PATHWAYS FOR ATP REGENERATION:  Increasing acidity (from lactic acid) and
DIRECT PHOSPHORYLATION lack of ATP causes the muscle to contract
– Muscle cells contain creatine phosphate less
(CP)

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TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS:  Muscles are attached to at least two
Istonic Contractions points:
• Myofilaments are able to slide past 1. Origin – attachment to an
each other during contractions immovable bone
• The muscle shortens, movement 2. Insertion – attachment to a
occurs movable bone

Isometric Contactions TYPES OF ORDINARY BODY MOVEMENTS:

• Muscle filaments are trying to slide, 1. Flexion – decreases angle of joint and
but the muscle is pitted against an brings two bones closer together
immovable object 2. Extension - opposite of flexion
• Tension in the muscles increases, but 3. Rotation - movement of a bone in
do not shorten. longitudinal axis (shaking head “no”)
4. Abduction – moving limb away from the
midline or median plane; fanning
movement of the fingers or toes when
they are spread apart
5. Adduction – opposite of abduction;
movement of limb toward the body
midline
6. Circumduction – combination of flexion,
extension abduction and adduction;
commonly seen in ball-and-socket joints
such as the shoulder

Muscle Tone
• State of continuous partial contractions
• Some fibers are contracted even in a
relaxed muscle
• Result of different motor units being
stimulated in a systemic way
• Muscle remains firm, healthy, and
constantly ready for action

EFFECTS OF EXERCISE ON THE MUSCLE

 Results of increased muscle use
 Increase in muscle size
 Increase in muscle strength
 Increase in muscle efficiency
 Muscle becomes more fatigue TYPES OF MUSCLES
resistant • Prime mover – muscle with the major
responsibility for producing a certain
MUSCLES AND BODY MOVEMENTS movement
 Movement is attained due to a muscle
moving an attached bone

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 • Antagonist – muscle that opposes or LOCATION OF THE MUSCLE’S ORIGIN AND
reverses a prime mover INSERTION
• Synergist – muscle that aids the action of  Named for their attachment sites
the prime mover or by reducing  Example: sterno (on the sternum),
undesirable movements (syn=together, sternocleidomastoid, biceps brachii,
erg=work) pectoralis major, clavicle (cleido), mastoid

 When a prime mover is active, its SHAPE OF THE MUSCLE

antagonist is stretched and relaxed.  Named for their distinct shapes
 Example: deltoid (triangular)
 Fixators (specialized synergists) - hold a
bone still or stabilizes the origin of a ACTION OF THE MUSCLE
prime mover  Named for their action
 Example: flexor and extensor (flexes or
extends a bone), adductor muscles of the
NAMING OF SKELETAL MUSCLE: thigh all bring about its adduction
DIRECTION OF MUSCLE FIBERS
 named in reference to some ARRAGEMENT OF ITS FASCICLES
imaginary line; usually the midline of  circular - concentric rings; close by
the body or the long axis of a limb contracting; sphincters (orbicularis
bone muscles)
 Example: rectus (straight);  convergent - converge toward a single
transversus insertion tendon; triangular or fan-
shaped (pectoralis major)
RELATIVE SIZE OF MUSCLE  parallel - parallel to the long axis of the
 such terms as maximus, minimus, and muscle; straplike.
longus  fusiform - spindle-shaped with an
 Example: gluteus maximus – largest expanded belly (biceps brachii)
muscle of the gluteus muscle group  pennate - (“feather”); a short fascicle
maximus – largest; minimus – smallest; attaches obliquely to a central tendon
longus – longest pectoralis major
HEAD AND NECK MUSCLES
LOCATION OF THE MUSCLE 2 CATEGORIES OF HEAD AND MUSCLES
 Named for the bone with which they are 1. FACIAL- inserted into soft tissue;
associated. muscle or skin
 Example: frontalis, temporalis, occipitalis  Frontalis. raise eyebrows; wrinkle
pectoralis major, transversus abdominis, forehead
external intercostals  Occipitallis. pulls scalp posteriorly
 Orbicularis Oculi. close eyes, squint,
NUMBER OF ORIGINS blink, wink.
 Example: triceps (three heads), biceps  Orbicularis Oris. closes mouth;
brachii, quadriceps protrudes lips (kiss)
 Buccinator. flattens the cheek; whistle
 Zygomaticus. raises corners of the
mouth upward; grin

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 2. CHEWING- break down food in the body  Involved in forced breathing
- Paired except:
 platysma, orbicularis oris, frontalis, 2. External Oblique
occipitalis  8th rib to ilium
– Buccinator. chewing muscle  flex the vertebral column
– Masseter. covers angle of  rotate trunk and bend it laterally
lower jaw; elevate mandible
– Temporalis. synergist of
masseter in closing the jaw 3. Internal Oblique
– Iliac crest to last three ribs
1. Platysma- pull the corners of the
mouth inferiorly (“sad clown” face); 4. Transversus Abdominis
tenses neck – from lower ribs & iliac crest to pubis
2. Sternocleidomastoid- both muscles – compresses abdominal contents
contract – neck flexion; “prayer”
muscles DEEP TRUNK MUSCLE
3. Torticollis- twisting of the neck in A. POSTERIOR MUSCLES
one side  Trapezius
– extend the head
TRUNK MUSCLE – elevate, depress, adduct, & stabilize
1. Anterior Muscle scapula
 Pectoralis Major  Latissimus dorsi
– forms anterior wall of the axilla – Pulling arm posteriorly
– adduct & flex arm – extends & adducts humerus power
stroke (swimming)
2. Intercostal Muscle  Erector spinae
– Deep muscles found between the – composite muscle – 3 muscle
ribs. columns (longissimus, iliocostalis,
 Vertebral column and spinalis)
 Anterior thorax muscles – Head & back extension (prime
 Muscles of the abdominal wall mover)
– control the action of bending over
3. External Intercostal Muscle at the waist
- small muscles between the ribs; – common source of lower back pain
synergist of diaphragm  Quadratus Lumborum
 Diaphragm- acts with external – iliac crest to upper lumbar vertebrae
intercostal to accomplish – (1) flexes the spine laterally
inspiration – Both - extend the lumbar spine

MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMINAL GIRDLE ARM MUSCLE

1. Rectus Abdominis 1. Deltoid
 Pubis to rib cage – winds across the shoulder girdle from
 Flex vertebral column spine of the scapula to the clavicle;
 Compress the abdominal contents inserts to proximal humerus
(defecation; childbirth) – Arm abduction (prime movers)

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UPPER LIMB MUSCLE III. Quadriceps Group
1. Biceps Brachii – As a whole act to extend the knee
– bulges when elbow is flexed powerfully (kicking a football.)
– lifts radius – Rectus femoris - extends knee; flex
– Forearm flexion (prime mover); thigh at hip
supinate the forearm – Insertion: patella; tibial tuberosity
– vastus lateralis & rectus – IM (infants)
2. Brachials
– lifts ulna IV. Adductor Group (Groin Muscle)
– elbow flexion – adduct thigh

3. Brachiordialis MUSCLE CAUSING MOVEMENT AT TH ANKLE

– Weak muscle from humerus to AND FOOT
distal forearm 1. Tibialis Anterior
 Ankle dorsiflexion (prime mover)
4. Triceps Brachii
– Posterior humerus 2. Tibialis Posterior
– Elbow extension (prime mover)  Foot inversion (prime mover)
– “boxer’s” muscle
3. Extensor Digitorum Longus
MUSCLE CAUSING MOVEMENT AT HIP JOINT  Toe extension (prime mover)
1. Gluteus Maximus
– climbing stairs, jumping 4. Fiburalis (Peroneus) Muscle (Longus,
– Hip extensor Brevis, & Tertius)
 plantar flexes & everts the foot
2. Gluteus Medius
– IM injections 5. Gastrocnemius
– hip abductor; stabilizes pelvis  “toe dancer’s” muscle
(walking)  Ankle plantar flexion (prime mover)

3. Iliopsoas 6. Soleus
– fused muscle  arises on the tibia & fibula = does not
– Hip flexion (prime mover) affect knee movement
– Keep body from falling backward  strong plantar flexor

MUSCLE CAUSING MOVEMENT AT THE KNEE DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECT

JOINT  Mid adolescence – Developed Muscle
I. Hamstring Group  16th Week of Pregnancy - Movements
– Thigh extension & knee flexion (prime of the Fetus
movers)  After Birth- Gross Reflex
– (Biceps femoris, semimembranosus,  Cephalic/Caudal Direction
semitendinosus)  Proximal /Distal Direction

II. Sartious
– “tailor’s” muscle
– weak thigh flexor

Cute si Sachiko
DISORDERS
1. Muscular Dystrophy: inherited, muscle
enlarge due to increased fat and
connective tissue, but fibers degenerate
and atrophy
2. Duchenne’s MD: lacking a protein to
maintain the sarcolemma
3. Myasthenia Gravis: progressive
weakness due to a shortage of
acetylcholine receptors

Cute si Sachiko