Chapter 6

Moral Accountability
 
As we have discussed in our previous lessons that human acts are
voluntary. Therefore, the doers (meaning, you) are accountable for their
(your) actions. You are accountable for your actions because they are
imputed to you as its principal cause and, therefore, you deserve either
reward or punishment depending on the nature of your actions.

THE SUBJECT OF HUMAN ACTS

The subject of a human act is any person who is capable of acting

intelligently and freely. So, who are these intelligible and free that are
capable of performing any action? Of course, it’s you, since you are old and
mature enough to understand and make a willful decision. So, as a subject of
the human act, a person is accountable for his decisions and actuations.
Accountability may result in either reward or punishment. 
Business organizations, institutions, associations, or unions that are
constituted by law as juridical persons are also subject to human acts.

Rewards, PENALTIES, and Punishment in relation to actions 

Every action has its corresponding consequence. Good actions

deserve a reward, the rewards may be in the form of appreciation, praise, or
just a simple, yet meaningful words of thanks or maybe material things as a
gift. 
 In the same manner, those actions that are against the rights of a
lawful person have a corresponding penalty or punishment depends on the
weight of the crimes committed. That’s why the penal law of the country
provides a system of punishment for wrongdoings. This punishment is
ranging from fines to imprisonment. Capital punishment is reserved for
“heinous crimes”. Here, we are talking about moral and criminal acts. That
the moral one deserves a reward, while in the criminal acts the doer would
suffer the punishment to recompense his unjust actions toward others.   

However, everything has its own limitations, so as the law of the land.
That’s why until now there is a punishment imposed on immoral acts unless
they are prohibited by the law. However, immoral acts carry with them the
burdens of guilt, remorse, and shame. The scriptures speak of death as the
punishment for sins. It means both physical and spiritual death. 

Medical science traces many illnesses to immoralities and spiritual

disorientation. Evil acts and habits cause suffering and unhappiness, not only
to the victims but to the perpetrator and his relatives. The shamefulness of
such actions is shared by all members of the family of the guilt. And there is
the risk of being ostracized, losing a job, or being abandoned by loved ones.

THE MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACT

As we discussed above, voluntary action is under the control of the

intellect and the will of the person. However, there are some factors that may
influence the intellect and the will of the doer that would result in actions
that are not perfectly voluntary. 
 These factors are called modifiers of human acts. Because they
interfere with the application of the intellect and will, they either reduce or
increase the accountability of the person. The moral axiom is: The greater
the knowledge and freedom, the greater the voluntariness and, therefore, the
greater the accountability.

The following are the modifiers of human acts: (1) ignorance, (2)
passions, (3) fear, (4) violence, and (5) habit.

1. Ignorance

Ignorance is the absence of knowledge that a person ought to possess.

This means that when you reach the age of reason it’s your responsibility to
know the basic law or the moral standards of the society, or simply the
norms of the society. 
That’s why, a lawyer is expected to know the law; the doctor to cure
illnesses; and the manager, his business operations. In the realm of morality,
every normal people who have attained the age of reasons, approximately
seven (7) years old, is expected to know the general norms of proper conduct
and behavior.   
There are three forms of Ignorance namely; the Vincible, the
Invincible, and the Affected ignorance. 
Vincible ignorance is a form of ignorance which can easily be
corrected through ordinary diligence. Here are some examples in this type of
ignorance, such as, when you do not know the time, or you do not know the
name of your neighbors, or you do not know how to cook chicken adobo. In
this manner you are in the state of Vincible ignorance, so now, how are
 going to correct it? Just by simply asking or checking the time, asking the
name, and ask someone to teach you how to cook chicken adobo.     
  
Invincible Ignorance is a form of ignorance that cannot be easily
alleviated, fix, or resolve. Why? Because the person himself who is in this
state of ignorance is either not aware that he is ignorant, or, maybe he aware
that he ignorant, yet he does not have the means to rectify or correct it.
Consider the following examples, the waiter who serves contaminated foods,
the police officer who do not know the committer of the crime, and a seller
who sells hazardous beauty products. In this manner, they are in the state of
invincible ignorance, because they themselves do know the situation.
An Affected ignorance is a form of ignorance that is intentionally kept
in order to escape responsibility and accountability. Actually, this type of
ignorance is derived from Vincible ignorance. Here are some examples, an
employee acts with affected ignorance when he/she refuses to heed the
instructions of his supervisor. A driver who says he does not know the traffic
rules, and a student who says I do not know that there is an assignment.  
You might familiar with this moral axiom that states “Ignorance of the
law excuses no one.” This statement bears two meanings, 1. It means that
one or you should not act in a state of ignorance. And 2. The one who has
done wrong may not claim ignorance as a defense. 
 
Here are the guiding PRINCIPLES on ignorance as it modifies the human acts,

1. The Vincible ignorance does not rescind or destroy voluntariness, however,

the voluntariness of the act here is decreases, so the corresponding
accountability over the act. Once a person becomes aware of his state of
 ignorance, he should make an effort to correct it. To act of being sure of the
relevant facts is to act imprudently. A doctor may be guilty of gross
negligence when he prescribes the wrong medicine to a patient. 

2. Invincible ignorance renders an act involuntary. A person is not morally

liable if he is not aware of his state of ignorance. The Person in this situation
is said to be “acting in good faith”, and their wrongdoings are regardless of
“honest mistakes”. A concrete example is my own experienced (to be
narrated in the class) 

3. Affected ignorance, though it decreases voluntariness, it increases the

accountability of an act. Because affected ignorance interferes with the
intellect, it decreases voluntariness. But because it is maliciously kept, it
increases accountability. A person who prefers to remain ignorant in order to
escape responsibility does not deserve kindness.
 
2. Passion
Passion is a psychic or emotional response to any given circumstance.
It is your positive and negative emotions about things. Meaning passion is
either your tendencies towards what is desirable (it could be a person, object,
or a situation or place). And, or it is your tendencies to go away from what is
an undesirable one. 
A passion that leads you to desirable things is considered a positive
emotion, such as love, desire, happiness, hope, and courage. In the same
manner that passion that leads you away to what is undesirable is considered
negative emotions, such as hatred, fear, sadness, despair, and anger.
 In relation to actions, passions are either antecedent or consequent. An
Antecedent passion comes as a natural reaction to an object without being
stimulated intentionally. It comes first to any act, that’s why it is called
“antecedent”. A consequent passion, on the other hand, is the result of an act
that is intentionally aroused and kept. 
In themselves, passions are not evil. However, since they influence a
person to act, they need to be subjected to the control of reason. 
 
 
PRINCIPLES:

1. Antecedent passions do not always destroy voluntariness, but they diminish

accountability over an act. Antecedent passion weakens will power without
completely blocking it. Thus, the so-called “crimes of passion” are
voluntary.

2. Consequent passions do not lessen voluntariness, and may even increase

accountability. This is because consequent passions are the direct result of
the will consenting to them, instead of subordinating them to the control of
reason. 

3,. Fear
    
Fear is the disturbance of the mind of a person who is confronted by a
danger to himself or loved ones.

There is a difference between acting with fear and acting out of fear.
Some actions which are difficult or dangerous are done with fear. New
experiences such as embarking on a long trip, being left alone in the dark, or
 speaking in front of a crowd, make some people nervous and fearful. These
actions are done out of fear. It is acting out of fear when fear causes a person
to act, like to jump from the top floor of a burning building.

PRINCIPLES:

1. An Act done with fear are voluntary and are accountable.

2. An Act done out of fear, however great, is simply voluntary, although it is
also conditionally voluntary. It is simply voluntary because the person
remains in control of his faculties. It is, however, conditionally voluntary,
because if it were not the presence of danger, the person would not have
acted it. 
Intimidating or threatening a person with harm is an unjust act.
Legally and morally speaking, actions are done out of fear because an unjust
situation is invalid acts. Thus, contracts entered into by a party because of
fear are null and void.
 
4,. Violence 
    
Violence is any form of physical force exerted to a person by a free
agent for the purpose of compelling the said person to act against his will.
Torture, isolation, starvation, and mutilation are examples of violence. 
 
PRINCIPLES:

1. External, or commanded act, performed by a person is subjected to violence,

to which reasonable resistance has been offered, are involuntary, and not
accountable. 
2. The elicited act or those done by the will alone, are not subject to violence
and are therefore voluntary. 
 Active resistance should always be exerted toward any unjust
aggressor. However, if resistance is impossible, or if there are serious threats
to one’s life, a person confronted by violence can always offer internal
resistance by withholding consent. This is enough to save one’s moral
integrity. 
The human will is a spiritual faculty of a person. Hence, it is not
within the reach of violence. There are thousands of martyrs who had
suffered death instead of surrendering their will to their tormentors. We may
not be too harsh on those whom we consider villains or weaklings, those
who succumbed to the vile wishes of their oppressors. 
The violence of force in any instance, if bound up with the refined
cruelty of present-day methods of psychological torture, can constitute a
serious temptation and often also contribute towards a notable decrease of
inner freedom. 

4. Habits

Habit is the readiness, born of frequently repeated acts, for acting in

certain. Habits are acquired through the repetition of an act over a period of
time. They are either good or bad. Habits become like second nature, moving
one to do something with relative ease without much reflection. They are
difficult to overcome. 

Principle:
Actions done by a force of habit are voluntary in cause unless a
reasonable effort is made to counteract the inclination. 
 Habits are voluntary in a cause because they the result of previously
willed acts done repeatedly over a period of time. Thus, every action
resulting from habit partakes of the voluntariness of those previous repeated
acts. However, when a person exerts consistent efforts to counteract the
habit, the actions resulting from such habit are regarded as acts of man and,
therefore, not accountable. 
Those are the five modifiers of human acts that may increase or
decreases the accountability of the doer depending on the nature of his
action. But the best thing to do for you not to be sanctioned of any form of
penalties or punishment is to do the right and moral things. Remember that
moral perfection comes from within.