SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 2 EXERCISE

SOLUTIONS

KELLER VANDEBOGERT

1. Problem 1

Assume 1 6= 0 in A. Let S be a multiplicative subset of A not

containing 0. Let p be a maximal elements in the set of ideals
whose intersection with S is empty. Show that p is prime.
Consider

Γ := {I ⊂ A | I ideal, I ∩ S 6= ∅}

Then, p is assumed to be maximal in the above set. Suppose fro sake

of contradiction that p is not prime, and choose x, y ∈ pc with xy ∈ p.
We see that p+Ax strictly contains p, so, by maximality p+Ax ∈
/ Γ,
whence

(p + Ax) ∩ S 6= ∅

implying there exists p ∈ p, a ∈ A such that

p + ax ∈ S

Similarly, there exists p0 ∈ p, a0 ∈ A such that

p 0 + a0 y ∈ S

We then see that the product

(p + ax)(p0 + a0 y) ∈ S

Date: January 14, 2020.

1
2 KELLER VANDEBOGERT

Expanding this,

pp0 + pa0 y + ap0 x + aa0 xy ∈ S

However, all of the terms in the above are elements of p, implying that

p ∩ S 6= ∅

which is a contradiction; whence the result follows.

2. Problem 2

Let f : A → A0 be a surjective homomorphism of rings, and

assume that A is local, A0 6= 0. Show that A0 is local.
Note that in a local ring, every x ∈
/ m must be a unit, since (x) = A.
By surjectivity, the image of m is an ideal. We want to show that it is
maximal.
Let a0 ∈
/ f (m). There exists a ∈ A such that f (a) = a0 . We see that
a∈
/ m, so that a is a unit. Letting b denote the inverse,

f (ab) = f (a)f (b) = 1

Implying that f (a) = a0 is also a unit, so that f (m) is also maximal.

3. Problem 3

Let p be a prime ideal of A. Show that Ap has a unique

maximal ideal.
Let Ap denote our localization. Then,
np
pAp = | p ∈ p, s ∈ pc }
s
is our maximal ideal, since if r/s ∈
/ pAp ,
r s
· =1
s r
so that r/s is a unit, implying pAp is our unique maximal ideal.
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 2 EXERCISE SOLUTIONS 3

4. Problem 4

Let A be a principal ideal domain and S a multiplicative

subset with 0 6∈ S. Show that S −1 A is principal.
Suppose that A is principal. Given any ideal I ⊂ S −1 A, the preimage
under the natural inclusion i : A → S −1 A will remain an ideal. Hence,
i−1 (I) = (a) for some a ∈ A. Since i : A ,→ S −1 A is injective,
a
−1
f ◦ f (I) = I =⇒ I =
1
whence I is also a principal ideal, implying S −1 A is a PID.

5. Problem 5

Let A be a unique factorization domain and S a multiplica-

tive subset with 0 6∈ S. Show that S −1 A is also a UFD, and that
the prime elements of S −1 A are of the form up with primes p
of A with that (p) ∩ S is empty, and units in S −1 A.
Suppose p ∈ Spec(A) is such that p ∩ S = ∅. If i : A → S −1 A
denotes the natural inclusion, we wish to show that i−1 (S −1 p) = p.
Certainly, p ⊂ i−1 (S −1 p) holds tautologically. For the reverse inclu-
sion, let a ∈ A be such that
a
∈ S −1 p
1
Then, there exists t ∈ S, s ∈ S, a0 ∈ p such that

t(sa − a0 ) = 0

As st ∈ S and S ∩ p = ∅, we deduce that a ∈ p. Hence, i−1 (S −1 p) = p.

Now, if p is prime and p ∩ S = ∅, then suppose
a b
· ∈ S −1 p
s s0
4 KELLER VANDEBOGERT

so that there exists t, t0 ∈ S and p ∈ p such that

t0 (tab − ss0 p) = 0

As p ∩ S = ∅ and tt0 ∈ S, we see that this forces ab ∈ p. But p is

prime, so

ab ∈ p =⇒ a or b ∈ p
a b
=⇒ or 0 ∈ S −1 p
s s
−1
=⇒ S p is prime

This then shows that the prime ideals of A disjoint from S are in
bijection with prime ideal in S −1 A. Hence, if p is prime and (p)∩S = ∅,
then i(p) = p/1 generates a prime ideal of S −1 A, so that p/1 is a prime
element in S −1 A.
Now let a/s ∈ S −1 A. As A is a UFD, we have a factorization of
a = up1 . . . pk with pi prime and u a unit. We have that 1/s is a unit,
and for each pi /1, if (pi ) ∩ S = ∅, then pi /1 is a prime in S −1 A by the
above.
If (pi ) ∩ S 6= ∅, then rpi ∈ S for some r ∈ A. This gives that pi /1 is
a unit, however, since

r pi
· =1
rpi 1

Thus, any prime pi with (pi ) ∩ S 6= ∅ becomes a unit in S −1 A. Com-

bining this with the above, we may factorize a/s in S −1 A; uniqueness
of this factorization follows by uniqueness of the factorization on a in
A, since if we had two distinct factorizations, every prime of S −1 A
corresponds to some prime of A by the above logic.
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 2 EXERCISE SOLUTIONS 5

6. Problem 6

Let A be a UFD and p a prime element. Show that the local

ring A(p) is principal.
By the previous problem, A(p) is a UFD with maximal ideal (p)A(p) .
Given any other prime p0 ∈ A, p0 is not a unit, so p0 ∈ (p) =⇒ p0 = up
for some unit. Then, every x is of the form x = upn , n ∈ N, u ∈ A× .
Now, let I ⊂ A be an ideal. Consider

min{n ∈ N | x = upn , x ∈ I}

Choose x ∈ I such that the minimum is achieved. The condition x ∈ I

ensures (x) ⊂ I.
For the reverse inclusion, let y ∈ I. Then, y = u0 pm for u0 ∈ A× ,
m > n. But,

y = u0 pm

= u−1 u0 pm−n · upn

= u−1 u0 pm−n x ∈ (x)

So that y ∈ (x), and we conclude (x) = I. As I was arbitrary, we see

that A is a PID.

7. Problem 7

Let A be a PID and a1 , . . . , an nonzero elements of A. Let

(a1 , . . . , an ) = (d). Show that d is the greatest common divisor
for the ai .
Suppose (a1 , . . . , an ) = (d). It is clear that d|ai for every i, as

(ai ) ⊂ (a1 , . . . , an ) = (d)

6 KELLER VANDEBOGERT

Suppose now that some other d0 divides each ai . By definition, (ai ) ⊂

(d0 ), so that

(d) = (a1 , . . . , an ) ⊂ (d0 )

=⇒ (d) ⊂ (d0 )

=⇒ d|d0

So that d is the greatest common divisor, by definition.

8. Problem 8

Let p be a prime number and let A be the ring Z/pr Z. Let G

be the group of units in A, i.e. the group of integers prime to
p, modulo pr . Show that G is cyclic, except in the case when
p = 2 and r > 3, in which case it is of type (2, 2r−1 ).
Consider first the case for p an odd prime. We see that
pn−1
X pn−1 
pn−1
(1 + p) = pk ≡ 1 mod pn
k=0
k

And,
pn−2
X pn−2 
pn−2
(1 + p) = pk
k=0
k
(pn−2 − 1) n−2
= 1 + pn−1 + pn + · · · + pp
2
≡ 1 + pn−1 mod p n

This implies that p + 1 has order pn−1 , since if (p + 1)m ≡ 1modpn for
some other m, then m|pn−1 . This gives that (1 + p)m ≡ 1 mod pn for
some k < n − 2.
n−2
However, taking successive powers of p, we see that (1 + p)p ≡ 1,
which has already shown to be impossible.
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 2 EXERCISE SOLUTIONS 7

Now, if P denotes our Sylow p subgroup, consider the map

(Z/pn )× → (Z/p)×

x + (pn ) 7→ x + (p)
The kernel of this map is precisely P , so,

(Z/pn )× /P ∼
= (Z/p)×

It suffices to show that (Z/p)× is cyclic. Suppose then that every

nonzero element has order strictly less than p − 1. Then, choose the
maximum of these orders, say, m. We see that

xm − 1 ≡ 0

has p−1 solutions mod p. But m < p−1, so this is impossible. Hence
(Z/p)× is cyclic, and the subgroup of order p − 1 in (Z/pn )× must also
be cyclic. Then,

(Z/pn )× ∼
= Z/pn−1 × Z/(p − 1)

is a cyclic group, as desired, generated by (p+1)x, where x is any order

p − 1 element.
Now we consider the p = 2 case. When r < 3, it is trivial that
(Z/2)× and (Z/4)× are cyclic. Suppose now that r > 3. Then,
r−2 
2X r−2

2 2r−2 2
(1 + 2 ) = 22k
k=0
k
≡1 mod 2r
And,
r−3 
2X r−3

2 2r−3 2
(1 + 2 ) = 22k
k=0
k
≡ 1 + 2r−1 mod 2r
8 KELLER VANDEBOGERT

So, 5 has order 2r−2 , and, we may consider the map

(Z/2r )× → (Z/4)×

x + (2r ) 7→ x + (4)
The kernel of this map is the subgroup generated by 5, so modding out
this subgroup, we see the rest is cyclic of order 2, and

(Z/2r )× ∼
= (Z/2r−2 ) × (Z/2)

which completes the problem.

9. Problem 9

Let i denote the imaginary unit. Show that the ring Z[i],
the Gaussian integers, is principal hence factorial. What are
the units?
We can say even more than the problem asks: Z[i] is a Euclidean
domain with norm N (a + ib) = a2 + b2 . This is a trivial checking of
definitions, where our Euclidean algorithm is computed by picking the
nearest lattice point upon division by any other element.
Then, given any ideal I ⊂ Z[i], the element of minimal norm will
generate the entirety of our ideal.
Since the norm is multiplicative, we also see that the only units will
have norm 1. Hence, our units are

{1, −1, i, −i}

10. Problem 10

Let D be an integer > 1 and let R be the set of all elements

√
a + b −D with a, b ∈ Z.

(1) Show that R is a ring.

 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 2 EXERCISE SOLUTIONS 9

(2) Using the fact that complex conjugation is an automor-

phism of C, show that compex conjugation induces an
automorphism of R.
(3) Show that if D > 2 then the only units of R are ±1.
√ √
(4) Show that 3, 2 + −5, 2 − −5 are irreducible elements
√
in Z[ −5].

(a). Let (x2 + D) denote the ideal generated by x2 + D. Then,

√ Z[x]
Z[ −D] = 2
(x + D)
As the quotient of a ring, this is itself clearly a ring.
√
(b). First note that conjugation is stable on Z[ −D], so this is well
defined. Since it is an automorphism of C, restricting yields an auto-
√
morphism of Z[ −D].

(c). Define our norm

√
N : Z[ −D] → Z>0
√
a + b −D 7→ a2 + Db2
√ √
Then, a + b −D is a unit if and only if N (a + b −D) = 1. If b > 1,
√
D > 2, then b2 D > 1, so b = 0 if N (a + b −D) = 1, implying a2 = 1,
so,
a = ±1

as asserted.

(d). Suppose that 3 is reducible. Observe that N (3) = 9, so it must

factor as the product of two elements with norm 3. However, no such
element can exist, so that 3 is irreducible.
√ √
Similarly, N (2 + −5) = N (2 − −5) = 9, so by the above these
are also irreducible.
10 KELLER VANDEBOGERT

11. Problem 11

Let R be the ring of trigonometric polynomials. Show that

R consists of all functions f on R which has an expression of
the form
n
X
f (x) = a0 + (am cos(mx) + bm sin(mx)
n=1

where a0 , am , bm are real numbers. Define the trigonometric

degree degtr (t) to be the maximum of the integers r and s such
that ar , bs 6= 0. Prove that

degtr (f g) = degtr (f ) + degtr (g)

Deduce from this that R has no 0 divisors, and also deduce

that the function sin(x) and 1 − cos(x) are irreducible elements
in that ring.
We may view R[sin(t), cos(t)] as a subring of C[eint ] (this is merely
by Euler’s formula). Hence we may find ci ∈ C such that for f (x) ∈
R[sin(t), cos(t)],
n
X
k
f (x) = ck eit
k=0
n
X
= ck cos(kt) + ick sin(kt)
k=0

Taking the real part, set ak := Re(ck ), bk := Re(ick ). Then,

n
X
f (x) = a0 + ak cos(kt) + bk sin(kt)
k=1

as desired. If we assume degtr (f ) = r, degtr (g) = s, then f and g

are polynomials of degree r and s, respectively, in C[eit ]. Hence, their
product is of degree r + s. Taking real parts, we deduce that

degtr (f g) = degtr (f ) + degtr (g)

 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 2 EXERCISE SOLUTIONS 11

Then, we see that sin(x) and 1 − cos(x) both have trigonometric degree
1. If these were to factor, it would be the product of a degree 0 and
degree 1 polynomial. The degree 0 polynomials are merely constants,
however, and all nonzero constants are units in R. Hence, these are
irreducible.

12. Problem 12

Let P be the set of positive integer and R the set of function

defined on P with values ina commutative ring K. Define the
sum in R to be the ordinary addition of function, and define
the convolution product by the formula
X
(f ∗ g)(m) = f (x)g(y)
xy=m

where the sum is taken over all pair (x, y) of positive integer
with xy = m.

(a) Show that R is a commutative ring whose unit element is

the function δ such that δ(1) = 1 and δ(x) = 0 for x 6= 1.
(b) A function f is said to be multiplicative if f (mn) = f (m)f (n)
whenever m and n are coprime. If f and g are multiplica-
tive, show that f ∗ g is multiplicative.
(c) Let µ denote the Möbius function such that µ(1) = 1,
µ(p1 . . . pr ) = (−1)r if p1 , . . . , pr are distinct primes. Show
that µ ∗ φ1 = δ, where φ1 denotes the constant function
having value 1.

(a). Commutativity is a tautology. Addition is trivially an abelian

group. It remains to show associativity and existence of identity. We
12 KELLER VANDEBOGERT

see:

X
f ∗ (g ∗ h)(m) = f (x) · (g ∗ h)(y)
xy=m
X X
= f (x) g(a)h(b)
xy=m ab=y
X
= f (x)g(a)h(b)
xab=m
X X
= h(b) f (x)g(a)
yb=m ax=y
X
= h(b)(f ∗ g)(y)
yb=m

= h ∗ (f ∗ g)(m)

= (f ∗ g) ∗ h(m)

Which yields associativity. Suppose now there is some identity δ(x).

Then,

X
f ∗ δ(m) = f (x)δ(y)
xy=m

= f (m)

Whence we deduce that δ(x) must satisfy

(
1, x = 1
δ(x) =
0, else

Hence, we have a commutative ring with identity.

 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 2 EXERCISE SOLUTIONS 13

(b). Let f and g be multiplicative. Choose m, n coprime; the convo-

lution has the equivalent form
X  mn 
(f ∗ g)(mn) = f (d)g
d
d|mn
X m n
= f (a)f (b)g g
a b
a|m,b|n
X m n
= f (a)g f (b)g
a b
a|m,b|n
X m X n
= f (a)g f (b)g
a b
a|m b|n

= (f ∗ g)(m) · (f ∗ g)(n)
So the convolution is also multiplicative.

(c). Suppose n > 1 (the n = 1 case is trivial). Let

n = pα1 1 · · · pαk k

We see:
X
(µ ∗ 1)(n) = µ(d)
d|n
k X
X
= µ(pm1 . . . pmi )
i=1
k
X X
= (−1)i
i=1 Size i subsets
k  
X k
= (−1)i
i=1
i
= (1 − 1)k = 0
P
As desired. Suppose now that f (n) = d|n g(d) = (φ1 ∗ g)(n). Con-
volving with our Möbius function,
(µ ∗ f )(n) = µ ∗ (φ1 ∗ g)(n)

= g(n)
Which yields the Möbius inversion formula.
14 KELLER VANDEBOGERT

13. Problem 13

Prove every ideal of a Dedekind domain is finitely gener-

ated.
Suppose ab = o. In particular, 1 ∈ o, so there exist ai ∈ a, bi ∈ b
with
X
ai bi = 1
i
Claim: a = (a1 , . . . , an ). To see this, let a ∈ a. Then,
a=a·1
X
=a· ai b i
i
X
= (abi )ai
i

Since abi ∈ o, we deduce that

a ∈ (o(a1 , . . . , an ) = (a1 , . . . , an )

Hence a = (a1 , . . . , an ), as asserted.

14. Problem 14

Every ideal has a factorization are a product of prime ideals,

uniquely determined up to permutation.
We consider the set Σ consisting of all ideals that cannot be written
as the product of prime ideals.
Assuming Σ is nonempty, let a ∈ Σ be a maximal element with
respect to inclusion. Such an element exists by the previous problem,
which shows that o is Noetherian. If a = m, the result follows trivially
since m is prime.
If a ⊂ m is properly contained, then a = mm−1 a, and m−1 a strictly
contains a (because m is proper).
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 2 EXERCISE SOLUTIONS 15

By assumption, a was maximal in Σ, so m−1 a ∈

/ Σ. By definition
this means that m−1 a = p1 p2 . . . pk for prime ideals pi . But then we
see that a = mp1 . . . pk is a prime factorization for a, contradicting the
definition of Σ.
It remains to show uniqueness of such a factorization. If

p1 . . . pk = q1 . . . qj

then without loss of generality we may assume p1 ⊃ q1 . However, by

symmetry the reverse containment also holds, and continuing induc-
tively we find that i = j and the ideals in both factorizations coincide.

15. Problem 15

/ p2 .
Suppose o has only one prime ideal p. Let t ∈ p and t ∈
Then p = (t) is principal.
(t) has a prime factorization by the previous problem. Hence, write
(t) = pn for some n. Since t ∈
/ p2 and pn ⊃ p2 for all n > 2, we deduce
that n = 1, so that (t) = p.
It remains to show that such a t must exist. If not, then p = p2 . But
this contradicts uniqueness of factorizations, so that p 6= p2 .

16. Problem 16

Let mf o be any Dedekind domain. Let p be a prime ideal.

Let op be the localization at p. Show that op is Dedekind and
has only one prime ideal.
We have already shown that op is local with maximal ideal pop . It
suffices to show that there are no proper prime ideals of pop . In fact,
we can show even stronger that pop is a PID.
16 KELLER VANDEBOGERT

2
By the previous exercise, we may find a t ∈ pop with t ∈
/ pop .
Then our maximal ideal is principal, in which case there are trivially
no proper prime ideals, since else (t) ⊂ q for some q ∈ Spec(op ).

17. Problem 17

As for the integers, we say that a | b if there exists an ideal

c such that b = ac. Prove:

(a) a | b if and only if b ⊂ a.

(b) Let a, b be ideals. Then a + b is their greatest common
divisor. In particular, show a and b are relatively prime if
and only if a + b = o.

(a). We prove the forward direction first. Since a is an ideal, ac ⊂ a;

hence

b = ac ⊂ a =⇒ a ⊃ b

Conversely, suppose that a ⊃ b. Then, b = aa−1 b, so we may take

c := a−1 b.

(b). Recall that a + b is the minimal ideal with respect to inclusion

containing both a and b. That is, if some other c divides both a and
b, this implies that c must contain a + b. That is, c|a + b, as desired.

18. Problem 18

Prove that every nonzero prime is maximal. In particular,

if p1 , . . . , pn are distinct primes, then the Chinese remainder
theorem applies to their power pr11 . . . prnn .
Let p be a nonzero prime ideal of our Dedekind domain.
 SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 2 EXERCISE SOLUTIONS 17

Claim: If p = ab, the p ⊃ a or p ⊃ b. To prove this claim, suppose

without loss of generality that p 6⊃ a. We may find a ∈ a, a ∈
/ p, and
for every b ∈ b,

ab ∈ p

Since a ∈
/ p, the definition of prime ideals gives that b ∈ p for every
b ∈ b; that is, p ⊃ b. Suppose now that p ⊂ a for some ideal a. Then,

p = a(a−1 p)

and by the above,

p ⊃ a =⇒ p = a, or

p ⊃ a−1 p =⇒ a = o
Whence p is maximal.

19. Problem 19

Let a and b be ideals. Show that there exists an element

c ∈ K (the quotient field of o) such that ca is an ideal relatively
prime to b. In particular, every ideal class in Pic(o) contains
representative ideals prime to a given ideal.
Define νp on the nonzero ideals I of o to be the exponent of the prime
ideal p in the factorization of I.
/ p2 . Then, (t) has p in
By Problem 16, we may find t ∈ p, t ∈
its prime factorization, and similarly, (tn ) must have pn in its prime
factorization.
Let p1 , . . . , pn be distinct primes. Given any tuple (α1 , . . . , αn ), find
xi such that (xi ) has pαi i as a prime factor. By the Chinese Remainder
theorem, we may choose x ∈ o wth x ≡ xi mod pαi i +1 .
18 KELLER VANDEBOGERT

Now, let a, b be given ideals. Find y as above so that νp ((y)) = νp (a)

for every p|a. Then, choose x satisfying

0, p|a

νp ((x)) = νp ((y)), p|(y), p 6 |a

0, p|b, p 6 |(y)

Then, xy a is coprime to b. To see this, merely note that by construction,

no prime containing b can contain xy a, since else p ⊃ a or p ⊃ xy . But
νp ((x)) = 0, so p ⊃ a.
Hence, xy a + b = o, and the proof is complete.