SITHCCC018 - Prepare Food To Meet Special Dietary Requirements

Prepare food to meet
special dietary
requirements
SITHCCC018
Prepare food to meet special dietary requirements
Application
This unit describes the performance outcomes, skills and knowledge required to
prepare dishes for people who have special dietary needs for health, lifestyle or
cultural reasons. It requires the ability to confirm the dietary requirements of
customers, use special recipes, select special ingredients and produce food to
satisfy special requirements.
This unit does not include menu planning for special diets which is covered in the
unit SITHKOP004 Develop menus for special dietary requirements.
The unit applies to cooks and patissiers working in hospitality and catering
organisations. This could include restaurants, educational institutions, health
establishments, defence forces, cafeterias, kiosks, cafes, residential caterers, in
flight and other transport caterers, and event and function caterers.
It applies to individuals who work under the guidance of more senior chefs. They
demonstrate autonomy and judgement to complete routine activities and take
limited responsibility in known and stable contexts within established parameters.
No occupational licensing, certification or specific legislative requirements apply

to this unit at the time of publication.
Pre-requisite Unit
SITXFSA001 Use hygienic practices for food safety
Competency Field
Commercial Cookery and Catering
Unit Sector
Hospitality
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Elements and Performance Criteria

ELEMENTS PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
(Describe the (Performance criteria describe the performance needed to demonstrate
essential achievement of the element)
outcomes)
1.1. Confirm dietary and cultural food requirements of the customer.
1.2. Liaise with others to clarify requirements.
1. Confirm special 1.3. Recognise potential health consequences of overlooking special

dietary dietary requirements of customers.
requirements
1.4. Access special dietary recipes and select specialised ingredients.
and select
ingredients. 1.5. Identify from recipes and packaging, ingredients that may cause
health consequences due to food allergies or intolerance.
1.6. Exclude ingredients from dishes as requested by the customer.
2.1. Follow recipes to produce dishes for those with special dietary
requirements.
2.2. Modify menu items to meet different dietary requests by excluding or
substituting ingredients while maintaining equivalent nutritional value.
2. Prepare foods 2.3. Communicate specific dietary requirements for food preparation
to satisfy to other team members.
nutritional and 2.4. Select appropriate ingredients to ensure optimum nutritional quality of
special dietary dishes.
requirements.
2.5. Use appropriate equipment and cooking techniques for specific diets.
2.6. Employ suitable preparation and cooking techniques to retain

optimum nutritional values.
3.1. Present nutritionally balanced food in an appetising and attractive
manner.
3.2. Visually evaluate dish and adjust presentation as required.
3. Present 3.3. Store dishes in appropriate environmental conditions.

prepared food.
3.4. Minimise waste to maximise profitability of food items prepared.
3.5. Clean work area, and dispose of or store surplus and re-usable by-
products according to organisational procedures, environmental
considerations, and cost-reduction initiatives.
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Table of Contents
1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1
2 Food groups .................................................................................................... 2
2.1 Grains .............................................................................................................................. 2
2.1.1 Wholegrain cereals ...........................................................................................................2
2.1.2 Refined grain cereal .........................................................................................................3
2.1.3 Recommended intake of grain ......................................................................................3
2.1.4 Health benefits of grains ...................................................................................................4
2.2 Vegetables and legumes........................................................................................... 4

2.2.1 Recommended intake of vegetables and legumes ..................................................5
2.2.2 Health benefits of vegetables and legumes ................................................................6
2.3 Fruit .................................................................................................................................. 6

2.3.1 Recommended intake of fruits .......................................................................................8
2.3.2 Health benefits of fruits .....................................................................................................8
2.4 Lean meat, poultry, fish, eggs, tofu, nuts and seeds and legumes/beans...... 9
2.4.1 Recommended intake of foods from this group ...................................................... 10
2.4.2 Health benefits of foods from this group .................................................................... 11
2.5 Milk, yoghurt, cheese and/or their alternatives ................................................... 11

2.5.1 Recommended intake of foods from this group ...................................................... 12
2.5.2 Health benefits of foods from this group .................................................................... 13
3 Nutrition .......................................................................................................... 17
3.1 Macronutrients ............................................................................................................ 17
3.1.1 Carbohydrate.................................................................................................................. 17
3.1.2 Protein ............................................................................................................................... 18
3.1.3 Fat ...................................................................................................................................... 19
3.2 Micronutrients.............................................................................................................. 19
3.2.1 Vitamins ............................................................................................................................ 19
3.2.2 Minerals ............................................................................................................................. 21
3.3 Water ............................................................................................................................ 22

3.4 Dietary fiber ................................................................................................................. 23
3.5 Principles of nutrition .................................................................................................. 24
3.6 Australian dietary guidelines.................................................................................... 24
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3.7 Nutrition loss ................................................................................................................. 25
4 Selecting ingredients ................................................................................... 27

4.1 Menu planning ........................................................................................................... 27
4.2 Selecting quality ingredients.................................................................................... 28
4.2.1 Appearance .................................................................................................................... 28
4.2.2 Smell .................................................................................................................................. 28
4.2.3 Taste .................................................................................................................................. 28
4.2.4 Texture ............................................................................................................................... 28
4.3 Standardized Recipe Cards..................................................................................... 29

4.4 Cooking methods ...................................................................................................... 30
4.4.1 Dry heat cookery methods ........................................................................................... 31
4.4.2 Moist heat methods ....................................................................................................... 37
4.4.3 Modern cooking techniques ........................................................................................ 42
4.5 Plan and organize work requirements ................................................................... 44

4.5.1 Work schedule ................................................................................................................. 44
4.5.2 Brigade – Kitchen Staff ................................................................................................... 44
4.5.3 Communicate with team members ........................................................................... 45
4.6 Portion size and cooking .......................................................................................... 46

4.7 Portion size and food cost ........................................................................................ 46
4.8 Safe food handling .................................................................................................... 47
4.9 Cross contamination ................................................................................................. 48
4.10 Food storage ........................................................................................................... 55
4.11 Safe food disposal .................................................................................................. 57
5 Special diets .................................................................................................. 58

5.1 Food allergies .............................................................................................................. 58
5.2 Food intolerance ........................................................................................................ 59
5.2.1 Diets for food allergies and intolerance ..................................................................... 59
5.3 Food drug interaction ............................................................................................... 61

5.4 Therapeutic diet ......................................................................................................... 62
5.4.1 Digestive disorders .......................................................................................................... 62
5.4.2 Diabetes ........................................................................................................................... 63
5.4.3 Renal disorders ................................................................................................................ 65
5.4.4 Heart disorders ................................................................................................................. 65
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5.4.5 Coeliac condition ........................................................................................................... 67
5.4.6 Texture modified diets .................................................................................................... 67
5.4.7 Obesity .............................................................................................................................. 68
5.4.8 Geriatrics .......................................................................................................................... 70
5.5 Nutrients and sources ................................................................................................ 71

5.6 Religious or cultural diet ............................................................................................ 73
5.7 Vegetarian diets ......................................................................................................... 74
5.8 Vegan diet................................................................................................................... 75
5.9 Contemporary diets .................................................................................................. 75
5.9.1 Atkins diet ......................................................................................................................... 75
5.9.2 Cabbage soup diet ....................................................................................................... 76
5.9.3 Dukan diet ........................................................................................................................ 76
5.9.4 Lemon detox diet ........................................................................................................... 77
5.9.5 Zone diet........................................................................................................................... 77
5.9.6 Ketogenic diet ................................................................................................................. 77
5.9.7 Paleo diet ......................................................................................................................... 78
5.9.8 Baby food diet................................................................................................................. 78
6 Equipment care, safety and hygiene ....................................................... 79

7 References .................................................................................................... 83
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1 Introduction
Healthy and balanced diets supplies energy gives warmth to body and repairs cells
during illness and infections to provide quality in life. The most vital role of food for
body is to grow. Food along with oxygen is our life support. Food can either warm up
or cool down the body as per the requirement. Food can be eaten to cheer up or
to simply enjoy the company of family and friends.
Food being so important, it need to be prepared safe to eat, nutritious and healthy.
It must also have good taste and appeal.
The foods provide a range of nutrients: vitamins, minerals, water, fat, carbohydrates,
fibre, and protein. These nutrients are used as building materials to construct the
tissues and organs, and as the components of the molecular machinery that keeps
our cells work appropriately.
Nutrients in food are categorized as macro nutrients and micro nutrients. Macro
nutrients include carbohydrates, proteins and fats; whereas micro nutrients include
vitamins and minerals. A balanced diet provides accurate amount of nutrients as
per the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of the person.
Recommended dietary allowance (RDA) is the average daily intake adequate

enough to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all (97%-98%) healthy people.
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2 Food groups
Foods are grouped together as they provide similar amount of key nutrients. All
foods are categorized into five food groups:
2.1 Grains
Grain foods are typically made from wheat, oats, rice, rye, barley, millet, quinoa and
corn. The grains can be cooked and eaten whole, ground into flour to prepare
variety of foods like bread, pasta and noodles, or prepared into ready-to-eat
breakfast cereals.
Grains can be further divided into four sub-groups:
• Breads: Wholemeal, wholegrain, white, rye, pita, lavash, naan, focaccia,

crispbreads, damper.
• Breakfast Cereals: Ready to eat, high fibre (wholegrain) oats, porridge, muesli,
whole-wheat biscuits.
• Grains: Rice, barley, corn, polenta, buckwheat, spelt, millet, sorghum, triticale,
rye, quinoa, semolina.
• Other products: Pasta, noodles, muffin, crumpet, rice cakes, couscous, bulgur,
popcorn, flour.
2.1.1 Wholegrain cereals
Wholegrain cereals comprise three layers of the grain and are rich in fibre, vitamins,
minerals and antioxidants. Most of the vital nutrients are present in the outer layer of
the grain. Whole grain cereals are considered the rich source of iron and zinc,
especially for vegetarians. Wholegrains are crushed to finer texture to prepare
wholemeal foods. Both wholegrain and wholemeal foods are equally nutritious.
Examples: Multi-grain bread, muesli, brown rice, wholemeal pasta, oatmeal,

sorghum, buckwheat etc.
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2.1.2 Refined grain cereal
Refined grains are the wholegrains whose bran and germ layers are removed by
milling. Milling results in loss of fibre, vitamins, minerals and phytochemicals. The fibre,
vitamins and minerals can be added back but phytochemicals cannot be added
back.
White flour is most widely used refined grain in preparing the processed foods such
as cakes and biscuits. Processed foods are not recommended because of relatively
large amounts of added fats, sugars and/or salt in the process of preparation.
Examples: White flour, de-germed cornmeal, white rice, white bread, noodles, pitas,
grits, macaroni etc.
Check label on the food to know whether it is a whole grain or refined product.
2.1.3 Recommended intake of grain
At least 4-6 serves of grain (cereal) foods per day is recommended for Australian
adults, while the amount recommended for children and adolescents depends on
their age and sex. Additional services of grains, especially whole grains can be
added as per the energy needs.
Majority of the Australians consume less than half the recommended quantity of
wholegrain foods, and too much of refined grain food. As a standard, at least two
thirds of grain foods must be from wholegrain.
The service sizes as per the Australian Dietary Guidelines are:
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2.1.4 Health benefits of grains
The major nutrients provided by grains are carbohydrates, protein, fiber, vitamins (B
Vitamins such as folate, thiamine, riboflavin and niacin) and minerals (iron, zinc,
magnesium and phosphorus).
Cereals, majorly wholegrain foods reduce the risk of developing some diseases such
as coronary heart disease, colon cancer, diabetes etc. The high fiber content aids in
maintenance of digestive system, prevents constipation, gives feeling of fullness thus
helps to reduce obesity.
Wholegrains are low in saturated fats and are rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids
which aids in brain development and cell growth. The phytochemicals present in
grains, helps stop the formation of cancer-causing substances known as
carcinogens.
2.2 Vegetables and legumes
Vegetables and legumes/beans are low in kilojoules, dense in nutrients such as

vitamins (vitamin C and folate), minerals (magnesium), dietary fibre and
phytochemicals (carotenoids).
Vegetables are the different parts of the plant such as leaves, roots, tubers, flowers,
stems, seeds and shoots. Legumes are the seeds of the plant that are eaten in
immature form (green peas and beans) and in mature form (dried peas, beans,
lentils and chickpeas).
Colour Pigment Health benefit Examples

Green Chlorophyll, Supports vision, protect Green beans,
lutein cells from damage spinach, lettuce
Yellow/Orange Carotenoid Required for eye sight, Sweet potatoes,
healthy skin, mucous pumpkin, carrot
membrane, immune
function
Purple/Blue Anthocyanin Maintains health of Purple cabbage,
heart, support memory purple asparagus
function, protect cells
from damage
Red Betalain Protect LDL (Low Red pepper, red
density lipoprotein – onions, red radish
bad cholesterol) from
oxidation
White Anthoxanthin Maintains the health of Cauliflower, onion,
heart garlic
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Selecting different coloured vegetables increases the variety of nutrients, which in

turn enhances the health. The more the vibrantly coloured, the more the nutrition.
Vegetables and legumes are further categorized into four sub-groups:
• Dark green or cruciferous/brassica: Broccoli, brussels sprouts, bok choy,

cabbages, cauliflower, kale, Lettuce, silverbeet, spinach, snow peas.
• Root/tubular/bulb vegetables: Potato, cassava, sweet potato, taro, carrots,
beetroot, onions, shallots, garlic, bamboo shoots, swede, turnip.
• Legumes/beans: Red kidney beans, soybeans, lima beans, cannellini beans,
chickpeas, lentils, split peas, tofu.
• Other vegetables: Tomato, celery, sprouts, zucchini, squash, avocado,
capsicum, eggplant, mushrooms, cucumber, okra, pumpkin, green peas, green
beans.
2.2.1 Recommended intake of vegetables and legumes
Majority of adults must eat at least 5 serves per day from the vegetable and legume
group. Most of the Australians eat only about half the recommended quantity of
vegetables per day.
Starchy vegetables (sweet potato, taro, cassava or sweet corn) must form only one
part of the daily vegetable intake as they are high in energy when compared with
other vegetables. Potatoes eaten as hot chips and crisps are considered as a
restricted food rather than as a serve of vegetable as they are high in kilojoules with
added fat and salt.
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2.2.2 Health benefits of vegetables and legumes
Vegetables are rich in vitamin C which acts as an antioxidant thereby reducing the
risk of cancers, reduction of tiredness and fatigue, improved absorption of iron and
keeps teeth and gums healthy.
Vegetables and legumes are rich source of folate which is essential for normal blood
formation. Legumes are the rich source of proteins and thus act as building blocks.
The food group being high in fiber, acts as a laxative and also gives the feeling of
fullness thereby reduces the quantity of food eaten.
2.3 Fruit
A wide variety of fruits are grown and available throughout the year in Australia.
Selection of fruits as per the season offers better value, better quality and variety to
the diet. Selecting different coloured fruits increases the variety of nutrients, which in
turn enhances the health. The more the vibrantly coloured, the more the nutrition.
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Colour Pigment Health benefit Examples

Green Chlorophyll, Supports vision, protect Guava, green
lutein cells from damage apple
Yellow/Orange Carotenoid Required for eye sight, Yellow apples,
healthy skin, mucous avocado, kiwi,
membrane, immune pistachio nuts
function
Purple/Blue Anthocyanin Maintains health of Purple grapes,
heart, support memory blueberries, plums,
function, protect cells prunes
from damage
Red Betalain Protect LDL (Low
Red grapes, red
density lipoprotein – apples,
bad cholesterol) from strawberries,
oxidation pomegranate,
water melon
White Anthoxanthin Maintains the health of Banana, white
heart nectarines, white
peaches
Fruits are further categorized as:
• Pomes: Apples, pears, quinces, loquats, cherries, peaches, nectarines, plums.

• Citrus fruit: Lemons, limes, oranges, mandarins, tangerines, limequats, pummelo.
• Vine: Red and green grapes, passionfruit, kiwifruit, tamarillos, melons,
cantaloupe.
• Hard shell: Almonds, cashews, pistachios, peanuts, hazelnuts, chestnuts, walnuts,
pecans, Brazil nuts, candlenuts, coconuts, macadamia, pine nuts.
• Exotic/tropical fruit: Bananas, pineapple, carambola (starfruit), custard apple,
durian, guava, eggfruit, jackfruit, papaya, lychee, pomegranate, pitaya (red
and yellow dragon fruit).
• Berries: Blueberries, strawberries, raspberries, gooseberries, red and black
currents, cranberries, mulberries.
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2.3.1 Recommended intake of fruits
Majority of adults must eat at least 5 serves per day from the fruit group. Most of the
Australians eat only about half the recommended quantity of fruits per day.
However, many drinks too much of fruit juice. Fruit juices are high in energy, low
in dietary fibre and can even damage the teeth. Hence, whole fruits are always a
better choice than the juices.
2.3.2 Health benefits of fruits
Fruits are the effective and efficient food item in reducing the risk of cancer than
specific vitamin and mineral supplements. Risk factor contributing for cancer growth
can be avoided by eating fruits, especially during childhood and early adult life.
Most of the fruits are low in energy and high in fibre and water, thus giving the
feeling of fullness. This aids in weight loss.
Fruits are rich in vitamins, minerals and phytochemicals which reduce the risk of heart
diseases. Fruits rich in potassium and magnesium lower the blood pressure.
Different coloured fruits, especially orange, red and yellow fruit, contain carotenes
(Vitamin A) which improves vision and immune function.
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2.4 Lean meat, poultry, fish, eggs, tofu, nuts and seeds and
legumes/beans
Earlier, the foods from this group are considered to be protein rich and so,
Australians had enough protein each day. This group also provides a variety of
nutrients such as iodine, iron, zinc, vitamins (especially B12) and essential fatty acids.
Lean red meats are rich source of iron, zinc and B12 with easy absorption. Iron is a
vital nutrient during infancy, adolescent girls, pregnant women, menstruating
women and athletes.
The iron and zinc in animal foods is easily absorbed than the plant foods (nuts, seeds
and legumes/beans). However, the vitamin C present in fruit and vegetables aid in
absorption of iron and zinc obtained from non-animal foods.
Legumes provide many of the nutrients that are provided by lean meats, poultry, fish
and eggs. Hence, legumes are placed in this group as well as the vegetable group.
Legumes play a vital role in providing the essential nutrients (that are obtained from
animal foods) for vegetarians and vegan eating groups.
This food group is categorized into 6 sub-groups:
• Lean meats: Beef, lamb, veal, pork, kangaroo, lean (lower salt) sausages.
• Poultry: Chicken, turkey, duck, emu, goose, bush birds.
• Fish and seafood: - Fish, prawns, crab, lobster, mussels, oysters, scallops, clams.
• Eggs: Chicken eggs, duck eggs.
• Nuts and seeds: - Almonds, pine nuts, walnut, macadamia, hazelnut, cashew,
peanut, nut spreads, pumpkin seeds, sesame seeds, sunflower seeds, brazil nuts.
• Legumes/beans: - All beans, lentils, chickpeas, split peas, tofu.
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2.4.1 Recommended intake of foods from this group
As per the recommended dietary guidelines, 1-3 serves of foods from this food group
are to be consumed per day, depending on the age. During pregnancy, 3-4 serves
per day are recommended.
Many adults eat larger amounts than the recommended serve sizes. However, it is
not a problem if an average weekly consumption is in line with the total
recommended serve sizes for a week. For example, instead of eating 100g cooked
fish twice per week, one can have 200g once per week.
About half the serves from this food group must be lean meat, to meet the
requirement of iron and zinc. As an alternative for animal foods, plant foods such as
nuts, seeds, legumes (including tofu) can be taken. Vitamin B12 is present only in
animal products and hence, a supplement is a must for vegetarian and vegan
eating groups.
Smoked, salted and preserved foods (ham, bacon, salami) from this food group are
high in saturated fat and salt which results in increased health risks. Hence,
consumption of these foods is limited.
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2.4.2 Health benefits of foods from this group
Meat, poultry, fish, dry beans, peas, eggs, nuts and seeds provide many nutrients
such as protein, B vitamins (niacin, thiamine, riboflavin, B12 and B6), vitamin E, iron,
zinc, and magnesium.
Proteins function as building blocks for bones, muscles, cartilage, skin, and blood.
They are also building blocks for enzymes, hormones, and vitamins. B vitamins help
the body to release energy, aids in proper function of the nervous system, formation
of red blood cells, and help build tissues.
Animal products are rich in iron which is used to carry oxygen in the blood. Vitamin C
rich foods aid in proper absorption of iron from foods. Magnesium is used in building
bones and in releasing energy from muscles. Zinc is necessary for proper function of
immune system. biochemical reactions and helps the immune system function
properly.
Sea foods are rich in omega-3 fatty acids. Consumption of 2 serves of fish per week
reduces the risk of developing dementia in older adults, cardiovascular disease,
stroke and age-related macular degeneration in the eyes.
Nuts reduce the risk of heart disease. Small portions of nuts must be consumed as
they are rich in kilojoules. Always select unsalted nuts to reduce the sodium intake.
2.5 Milk, yoghurt, cheese and/or their alternatives
Low or reduced fat milk, yoghurt and cheese are recommended for most people
above two years of age. Children below two years of age need higher energy for
growth and hence reduced fat varieties of milks are not advisable.
Infants under 12 months of age must be breast fed or must be fed with specially
prepared infant formula. Avoid cow’s milk for infants below 12 months of age.
A variety of milk and yoghurt products are available with different levels of fat. Milk
can be fresh, dried, evaporated, or processed through Ultra-high temperature (for
longer shelf life). Cheese is usually high in kilojoules, saturated fat and salt and
hence, limits the cheese intake to 2-3 times a week. Examples of milk, yoghurt,
cheese and/or alternatives include:
• Milks: Reduced fat or full cream milks, plain and flavoured, long life milks,
powdered milk, evaporated milk, fortified soy beverages.
• Yoghurt: Reduced fat or full cream yoghurt, plain and flavoured, fortified soy
yoghurt.
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• Cheese: Hard cheeses, reduced or full fat cheese such as cheddar, red
leicester, gloucester, edam, fortified soy cheeses.
2.5.1 Recommended intake of foods from this group
Most people require at least 2-3 serves per day; however, the recommended intake
will vary as per the age, sex and life stage. Women over 51 years need more of
calcium, hence 4 serves per day are recommended.
Most Australians consume only about half the recommended quantity of milk
products or alternatives, but eat too many full fat varieties, which in turn increases
the kilojoules.
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2.5.2 Health benefits of foods from this group
Milk, cheese and yoghurt contain calcium in convenient form which is readily
absorbable. The foods are also a good source of other nutrients such as protein,
iodine, vitamin A, vitamin D, riboflavin, vitamin B12 and zinc.
Calcium is essential for normal teeth and bone structure, protein contributes to
muscle growth and iodine contributes to cognitive function. Milk and milk products
reduce heart diseases, stroke, hypertension and type 2 diabetes.
People with allergies or intolerances to lactose (the natural sugar in milk), must take
suitable alternative choices or supplements.
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Source: www.eatforhealth.gov.au
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Source: www.eatforhealth.gov.au
Food pyramid
Food pyramid is the diagram that represents the number of servings to be eaten
every day from the different food groups to maintain good health.
The foundation layer of the pyramid contains vegetables, fruits, legumes and grains.
This layer makes the largest portion of the diet – around 70% of the diet. Older
children, teenagers and adults must have at least 2 serves of fruits and 5 serves
of vegetables or legumes each day.
The middle layer includes milk, yoghurt, cheese and alternatives and lean meat,
poultry, fish, eggs, nuts, seeds, legumes food groups. This layer forms the main source
of protein, calcium, vitamins and minerals.
The top layer refers to healthy fats as they are required in smaller amounts. Avoid
saturated and trans fats. This layer support heart health and brain function.
The Australian new food pyramid excludes all sugary foods considering the health of
the nation. The junk foods earlier referred as ‘extras’ or ‘eat least’ are eliminated
from the new pyramid.
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3 Nutrition
The way we select the foods plays an important role in our health. Health problems
such as heart disease, type 2 diabetes and some cancers are linked with poor
dietary habits. Hence, selecting healthy and nutritious foods impose burden on
individuals, families and society as a whole. Nutrition is the study of relationship
between diet, health and disease.
Nutrients are the substances that allow the body to make energy, build and
maintain tissues, and regulate normal body functions. The nutrients are classified as
macro and micro nutrients.
3.1 Macronutrients
Macronutrients also called as macros are the energy providing substances usually
required in larger quantities. Macronutrients play a vital role in humans as they are
needed for everything from growth and development to sustaining circulation and
providing enough energy to brain for proper cognitive functioning, weight
management and harmone balance.
3.1.1 Carbohydrate
Carbohydrate is required by the body’s tissues for energy. Each gram of

carbohydrate provides 4 kilojoules. Carbohydrates in the body are broken down to
glucose which is used as energy or saved in muscles and fat stores for later use.
The breakdown of carbohydrates depends on the amount of fiber, protein and fat it
contains. Half the energy in our diets must be from carbohydrate, most preferably as
starchy carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates from vegetables, whole fruit, grains and legumes releases glucose
into the blood stream slowly which results in better supply of energy to the cells. The
refined and processed carbohydrates release glucose into the blood stream rapidly
which results in lower energy levels, craving, over eating, weight gain and diabetes.
There are two main types of carbohydrates: sugars and starch. Both sugars and
starch provide energy.
Sugars are subdivided into intrinsic and extrinsic sugars. Intrinsic sugars are a part of
cellular structure of foods (example: sugars in fruits and vegetables). Extrinsic sugars
are not a part of cellular structure (example: lactose in dairy products, or honey, fruit
juices and confectionary.
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Complex carbohydrates include starch and non-starch polysaccharides. Starch is

found in potatoes, bread, rice and pasta and non-starch polysaccharides are found
in fruits, vegetables, legumes and whole-grain cereals.
Fibre is also a type of carbohydrate found only in plants. Fibre cannot be digested to
produce energy but is required for a healthy digestive system as it enhances the
bowel movement.
3.1.2 Protein
Proteins are required by the body for growth and repair. Protein also acts as a
source of energy when the diet is low in carbohydrate. Proteins also provide 4
kilojoules per gram. Proteins are made of amino acids which are known as building
blocks of the body. There are approximately 20 different amino acids found in foods.
Amino acids are categorized into 2 groups: essential and non-essential. Essential
amino acids are provided by the diet as our body cannot make them on their own.
The essential amino acids are leucine, isoleucine, valine, threonine, methionine,
phenylalanine, tryptophan and lysine. Histidine is an essential amino acid required
for children and not for adults as children cannot produce enough histidine to meet
their needs.
Non-essential amino acids are those which can be made by human body itself. The
essential amino acids are broken down to form non-essential amino acids such as
alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine,
glycine, proline, serine and tyrosine.
Different foods contain different amounts and combinations of amino acids. Amino
acids aids to form and maintain the muscle mass, build the vital organs (heart, lungs,
DNA etc.), proper heart beat etc.
More protein is needed during the growth and development stages. Young children
require about 1–1.5 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight, while older
children and adults need around 0.8–0.95 grams of protein per kilogram of body
weight. Protein requirement also increases during pregnancy for the developing
fetus (about 1.1–1.3 grams of protein per kilogram of pre-pregnancy weight).
Protein is found in variety of foods such as meat, fish, eggs, dairy, cereals, nuts and
pulses. Vegans and vegetarians can get the required protein from combination of
plant sources such as pulses and cereals.
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3.1.3 Fat
Fats are required by the body for energy, for providing essential fatty acids, and for
carrying and absorbing fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K). Fats are the energy rich
macronutrient which provides nine kilojoules per gram. Fat content must not exceed
more than one third of a human’s energy intake. Fats don’t make one fat.
Fats are defined as either saturated or unsaturated based on the amounts of fatty
acids present. Butter is defined as a saturated fat as it has more saturated fatty acids
than unsaturated fatty acids. Olive oil is defined as an unsaturated fat as it has more
mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids than saturated. Unsaturated fats might
convert into saturated fatty acids by hydrogenation.
Healthy fats (monosaturated and polyunsaturated) that come from nuts, seeds,
vegetable oils and fish play a major role to protect the vital organs, regulate
harmone production, regulate body temperature, proper absorption of fat soluble
vitamins, supply fuel to brain, protect from depression and anxiety etc.
Bad fats (saturated fats and trans fatty acids) are found in processed and animal
foods. These fats raise the cholesterol levels and so must be limited in the diet.
Fats can also be categorized as essential fatty acids (EFAs) and non-essential fatty
acids. EFAs are provided by the diet as our body cannot make them on their own.
The essential fatty acids are alpha linolenic acid, linoleic acid, arachidonic acid,
eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid.
The human body synthesise different fatty acids from the essential fatty acids and
are called as non-essential fatty acids. The non-essential fatty acids are acetic acid,
butyric acid, caprylic acid, caproic acid, lauric acid, myristic acid, stearic acid,
palmitic acid, arachidic acid and behenic acid.
3.2 Micronutrients
Micronutrients are the essential elements required by the human body in smaller
amounts (generally less than 100 milligrams per day). Vitamins and minerals are the
two types of micronutrients. Micronutrients are required to perform the physiological
functions throughout the life such as regulation of metabolism, heartbeat, cellular pH
and bone density.
3.2.1 Vitamins
Vitamins are nutrients that are needed by the body in very small amounts. Different
foods supply different amounts of vitamins. All vitamins must be provided by the diet
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except vitamin D, as the body cannot prepare them. Vitamin D is produced by the
action of sunlight on the skin.
Each vitamin is required in different amounts to perform a number of different

processes in the human body. The amount of each vitamin required by the body
changes during a lifetime.
Vitamins are available in two forms: water-soluble and fat-soluble. Water-soluble

vitamins are easily lost through bodily fluids and hence, they must be replaced each
day. Water-soluble vitamins are B-complex vitamins and vitamin C.
B-complex vitamins include B1 (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin), B3 (niacin), B5

(pantothenic acid), B6 (pyridoxine), biotin, folic acid and B12 (cobalamins). Among
B-complex vitamins, B6 and B12 are not lost through body fluids as easily as their
counterparts. These vitamins help in formation of red blood cells, proper brain
functioning, immune system functioning etc. fruits, vegetables, cereals and legumes
are the rich sources of B vitamins.
Vitamin C is also called as ascorbic acid. Vitamin C is required for the biosynthesis of
collagen and certain neuro transmitters. It also protects immune system, reduce the
risk of heart diseases and skin wrinkling. Fruits and vegetables are the best sources of
vitamin C.
Fat-soluble vitamins are A, D, E and K. These tend to accumulate within the body
and are not required on a daily basis.
Vitamin A is a collection of compounds known as retinoids. Vitamin A is obtained

from red coloured fruits and vegetables, liver of animals, fish liver oil, butter etc.
Vitamin A supports vision and immune system.
Vitamin D is naturally produced in human body when skin is exposed to sun. vitamin
D aids in bone health and development. Two types of vitamin D are vitamin D2
(found in plants) and D3 (found in animals). Once vitamin D is absorbed into the
bloodstream, the liver and kidneys change calciferol into calcitriol, the biologically
active form of vitamin D. vitamin D is also obtained from fortified dairy products.
Vitamin E acts as an antioxidant that helps the body to destroy free radicals. Free
radicals are the unstable atoms that may result in the formation of cancer cells.
Vitamin E is of two kinds: tocopherols and tocotrienols. Rich sources of vitamin E are
wheat germ oil, hazelnuts and almonds.
Vitamin K helps the body to form blood clots, thus preventing over-bleeding. The two
vitamin K forms are Vitamin K1 and K2. Vitamin K helps reduce the risk of heart
disease, bone health and reduce the accumulation of calcium in blood. Rich
sources of vitamin K are parsley, liver, butter, egg yolks etc.
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3.2.2 Minerals
Minerals are nutrients that are needed by the body for a variety of functions such as
formation of bones and teeth, essential constituent of body fluids and tissues, proper
nerve function and components of enzyme systems.
Minerals needed by the body are calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, sodium,

potassium, chloride, iron, zinc, iodine, fluoride, selenium, copper, chromium and
manganese. Different foods supply different amounts of minerals.
Each mineral is required in different amounts to perform different functions in the

human body. Some are required in large amounts (calcium, phosphorus,
magnesium, sodium, potassium and chloride) and some in smaller amounts
(iron, zinc, iodine, fluoride, selenium and copper). The amount of each mineral
needed changes during a person’s lifetime.
Calcium: Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body. It is the major
component of bones and teeth, also required for muscle contraction, neuro
transmission, cellular metabolism and blood clotting. The half the requirement of
calcium is met from dairy foods. The other good sources are Chinese cabbage,
turnip, spinach, sardines.
Phosphorus: Phosphorus is the second most abundant mineral in the body. It is also
the major component of bones and teeth, and is found in every cell of the body. It
plays a vital role in how body uses carbohydrates, proteins and fats for growth,
maintenance and repair of cells and tissues.
Magnesium: Magnesium assists enzymes in more than 300 chemical reactions. It is

also a component of bones, participates in muscle contraction, aids in blood
clotting and supports cell activity. Rich sources of magnesium are leafy vegetables,
potato, grains, nuts, seeds and legumes.
Sodium: Sodium is the electrolyte mineral that conducts electricity when dissolved. It
plays a vital role in proper functioning of nerves and muscles, and to maintain the
balance of body fluids. Most of the sodium consumed is from sodium chloride i.e.
salt. Almost all foods contain sodium.
Potassium: Potassium is also an electrolyte mineral. It is important for cellular and

electrical functioning. The rich source of potassium is fruits and vegetables with less
sodium. The other good sources of potassium are grains, seeds, nuts, fish and meat
but with higher sodium.
Chloride: Chloride is found as a chloride anion in the body. Chloride is an electrolyte

mineral that works with sodium and water and helps in the distribution of body fluids
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and also aids in maintaining acid-base balance. Chloride is primarily obtained from
salt and is present in almost all foods.
Iron: Iron carries oxygen through blood to entire body. It assists in energy
metabolism; enzyme related chemical reactions, development of brain and nervous
system, produce neurotransmitters and supports immune function. Iron is of two
types – heme and non-heme. Heme iron is found in animal foods (beef, liver, clams,
oyesters etc.) and non-heme iron is found in plant foods (spinach, raisins, tofu,
legumes etc). Heme iron is more absorbed when compared to non-heme iron.
Zinc: Zinc is the vital mineral for normal growth and sexual maturation. It is also
important for immune system functioning and protect cells from damage. Oyesters,
beef and clams are the richest sources of zinc. Zinc is less absorbed from the foods.
Iodine: Iodine is the essential component of thyroid hormones. These hormones

regulate metabolic rate and body temperature. Rich sources of iodine are liver,
legumes, potatoes, saltwater fish, iodized salt and dairy foods. Excess iodine will
result in enlargement of thyroid gland called as goitre.
Fluoride: Fluoride prevents dental caries. 99% of the body fluoride resides in the
bones and teeth. Fluoride is less available through foods; the only good source is the
municipal water supply added with fluoride. Excess fluoride discolours the teeth and
result in teeth damage.
Selenium: Selenium is also essential for thyroid hormones, immune functioning and
protect cell membrane from damage. Brazil nuts are the richest source of selenium;
other good sources are organ meat, sea food and whole grains.
Copper: The important function of copper is to assist the transport of iron. Rich
sources of copper are legumes, nuts, seeds, liver and shellfish.
Visit Nutrient Reference Values for Australia and New Zealand to know the
recommended dietary allowance of vitamins and minerals.
3.3 Water
Water is one of the important needs for humans. Water accounts for about 55-60% of
the body mass. The organs and tissues are rich in water.
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Benefits of water:
• Proper functioning of cells

• For many chemical and metabolic reactions
• Supplies the nutrients to cells and tissues
• Remove the waste/toxins form the body as urine
• Regulates body temperature through sweating
• Excellent solvent
• Acts as a lubricant
• Increases energy
• Improves skin complexion
• Boosts immune system
3.4 Dietary fiber
Dietary fiber is found in cereals, fruits and vegetables. Fiber is the plant compound
that keeps the digestive system healthy. Most of the Australians do not consume
enough fiber. On average, Australians consume 20-25 g of fiber, where as the
recommended intake is 25-30 g.
Children aged 4-8 years must consume 18 g of fibre per day. Girls aged 9-13 and 14-
18 years need 20 g and 22 g per day respectively. Boys aged 9-13 and 14-18 years
need 24 g and 28 g per day respectively.
Dietary fiber is of two types:
Soluble fiber: Soluble fiber dissolves in water to form gel. This helps in reducing
cholesterol and glucose. Soluble fiber sources are oats, peas, beans, apple, citrus
fruits, carrots, barley etc.
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Insoluble fiber: As the name specifies it is insoluble and helps in the movement of
material through digestive system. Insoluble fiber sources are wheat bran, whole
wheat flour, nuts, beans, vegetables etc.
The dietary fiber normalizes bowel movements, maintains bowel health, reduces
cholesterol levels, reduces blood glucose levels and also helps in maintaining
healthy weight.
3.5 Principles of nutrition
The basic principles of nutrition that need to be followed to have better life and
health are:
1. Balance kilojoules to manage weight. Kilojoule intake must be considered with

respect to the physical activity during each stage of life.
2. Reduce certain foods. Limit foods that contain refined products. Reduce the
kilojoules that obtain from fats (<10% from saturated fats) and sugars. Limit the
consumption of sodium to 2300 mg per day or even lesser.
3. Increase the intake of certain foods. The intake of fruits and vegetables must be
increased. Consume half the quantity of grains as whole grains. Increase the
consumption of free-fat or low-fat milk or milk products. Always select different
varieties of proteins such as seafood, lean meat, poultry eggs, beans etc. select
foods that are high in potassium, fiber, calcium and vitamin D. Use oils instead of
solid fats.
4. Build healthy eating patterns. Develop healthy eating patterns in order to meet

the recommended nutritional needs.
5. Make a habit to read food labels. Always check the food label to know the
service size and also to know the nutrient composition of the food packed. This
aids in knowing the recommended daily intake of other foods.
3.6 Australian dietary guidelines
A healthy diet improves quality of life and wellbeing, and protects against chronic
diseases. For infants and children, good nutrition is essential for normal growth.
Unfortunately, diet-related chronic diseases are currently a major cause of death

and disability among Australians. To ensure that Australians can make healthy food
choices, The Australian Dietary Guidelines and the Australian Guide to Healthy
Eating have been developed using the latest evidence and expert opinion. These
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guidelines will therefore help in the prevention of diet-related chronic diseases, and
will improve the health and wellbeing of the Australian community.
The Australian Dietary Guidelines have information about the types and amounts of
foods, food groups and dietary patterns that aim to:
• promote health and wellbeing;

• reduce the risk of diet-related conditions, such as high cholesterol, high blood
pressure and obesity; and
• reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular
disease and some types of cancers.
The Australian Dietary Guidelines are for use by health professionals, policy makers,
educators, food manufacturers, food retailers and researchers, so they can find
ways to help Australians eat healthy diets.
Visit Australian Dietary Guidelines to improve the quality of life
Visit Australian Guide to Healthy Eating to know the food groups that are
recommended for consumption every day.
3.7 Nutrition loss
Nutritional loss will start at the farm itself. Processes that expose foods to high levels of
heat, light or oxygen also result in nutrient loss. The nutritional loss can be by different
means:
• Intentional losses that occur when cereals are milled, vegetables are peeled or
when individual nutrients are extracted from raw materials.
• Predictable processing losses that result from blanching, sterilizing, cooking and
drying foods.
• Accidental losses due to ineffective processing or storage systems.
Examples of nutrient loss:
• Vitamin A leaches into oil when foods are fried.

• Vitamin B being water soluble, drains from rice when soaked, washed and when
extra water used for cooking is thrown after boiling the rice. Cooking soda also
destroys vitamin B.
• Vitamin C is lost when vegetables and fruits are washed after cutting and when
cut fruits and vegetables are exposed to air for long time. It is also lost when
extra water used for cooking is thrown after cooking.
• Excess heating results in loss of moisture from protein and thus becomes dry and
rubbery. The protein thus dried is difficult to digest.
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• Nutrients are lost when edible leaves of carrot, beetroot and outer layer of
cabbage are discarded.
• When excess skin of fruits and vegetables is peeled off.
• Processes such as dehydration results in loss of vitamin C and A.
Ways to prevent nutrition loss:
• Do not peel the skins when possible

• Avoid reheating of food
• Use appropriate amount of cooking liquid
• Steaming is always preferable than boiling
• Use microwave when possible
• Use pressure cooker when possible
• Avoid baking soda
• Cut vegetables into large chunks to reduce surface area
• Always wash fruits and vegetables before cutting
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4 Selecting ingredients
4.1 Menu planning
Menu planning is the first step in planning and preparation of any dish. Daily
activities and scheduling variations may complicate the menu planning process.
Effective menu planning is satisfying in terms of time and money, especially given
how little effort it takes.
The factors involved in planning a menu are:
a) Availability of foods: A menu is primarily based on what can be bought in the

market. Always consider food in season. Think of available ingredients as
substitutes for that off-season. Availability is the basis for planning specific
appetizers.
b) Food habits of customers: This considers the culture and health of people living in
that vicinity (their customs, traditions, religion etc.). People will utilize a food
business where their needs and desires, as well as their beliefs and practices are
not violated in the food they eat.
c) Amount of money available: A food establishment has a definite budget

proposed for food preparation. Control in expenses and by operating within a
given budget allows the food manager to predict cost and at the same time
predict profit.
d) Amount of the time available: Food preparations must meet deadlines.

Customers have their own meal schedule to meet. Quick service is one important
asset of the ideal business. Food orders must be prepared in the shortest time
possible.
e) Type of customers: The customer factors that need to be considered are age,
sex, occupation, socio-economic status and nutritional needs (malnourished,
deficiencies like scurvy, diabetes etc.).
f) Environmental conditions: Specific dishes offered in food businesses must

consider the environmental temperatures. These are called the seasonal
offerings. Including local and seasonal products in the menu will reflect the time
and place of the event.
g) Occasions: Special occasions like festivals, birthdays, anniversaries etc. needs

special appetizers.
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h) Types of business: This includes the type of food establishments such as luxurious
hotels, restaurants, canteens, coffee shops etc.
i) Personnel and facilities available: This include the number of employees needed
to work in different areas such as in preparation, cooking and serving. This also
includes the type of equipment available, kitchen facilities and kitchen layouts.
4.2 Selecting quality ingredients
Selection of quality ingredients will improve the quality of the final product and also
attract customers. Poor quality ingredients may not only reduce the quality of the
final product but also may be dangerous.
4.2.1 Appearance
• Check the use-by and best-before dates on package.

• Check the dry ingredients for impurities such as evidence of insect invasion, dirt,
pieces of packaging etc.
• Check the packaging to ensure that it is not torn or broken which allows the
foreign material to get into the package.
• Check for mould, excessive moisture or unusual clumping of dry goods.
• Check to ensure that eggs are not cracked.
4.2.2 Smell
Always check the aroma of the ingredients such as dairy products and eggs before
use. Any unpleasant smell in the ingredients must be discarded.
4.2.3 Taste
The ingredients used in the preparation must taste as per their basic nature. The poor
quality ingredients might taste stale, have a sharp acidic or ‘off’ flavour, or no longer
have any flavour. Discard such ingredients.
4.2.4 Texture
• Always check the texture of the ingredients such as dry, crumbly or runny.
• Check whether the dairy products are separated into liquids and solids.
• Large lumps in dry ingredients such as flour and sugar indicates moisture in the
storage container.
• Check eggs when they are cracked. Very liquid whites and flat yolks indicates an
old egg, whereas firm whites and high, rounded yolks indicates freshness.
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4.3 Standardized Recipe Cards
Standardized recipes are a key part of a well-managed food business. A

standardized recipe particularly explains the precise, measurable amount of
ingredients and the method of preparation needed to consistently produce a high-
quality product. The exact procedures, the type of equipment, and the quantity
and quality of ingredients are listed in the standardized recipe.
Standard Recipe Cards are used throughout the retail food service industry and they
make good sense for canteens too.
Benefits of Standardized Recipes:
• Product Quality - Provide consistent high-quality food items that have been
systematically tested and evaluated.
• Projected Portions and Yield - Precisely calculate the number of portions from
each recipe and clearly define serving size. Reduce unnecessary leftovers or
replacements because required quantity was prepared.
• Cost Control - Better management of purchasing and storage due to precise
amount of ingredients specified.
• Creativity - Standardized recipes encourages creativity in cooking. Chefs must
be encouraged to continuously develop new recipes. All modifications must to
be recorded so they can be repeated the next time the recipe is used.
A Standard Recipe Card (SRC) provides the information needed for food orders. An
SRC has the quantities and method that must be used to attain a certain volume
and quantity of food. The card also gives the cost of a standard prepared amount.
Portion numbers will vary depending on the type of business using the cards.
Knowing the price of each food portion is essential to decide the selling price of the
product.
Standard Recipe Cards:
• Eliminate guessing ingredients, quantities and cost.

• Eliminate wastage of commodities and labour.
• Preserve standards in ingredients, work methods/techniques, garnishing,
presentation and quality.
• Economical through accurate measurement of products.
• Maintain correct costing and pricing.
• Support staff in giving precise instructions.
• Helps in staff training.
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Sample SRC
4.4 Cooking methods
Different foods need different cooking methods. While some foods are flexible
enough to be cooked by a variety of methods, the flavour and texture of many
foods make them select a particular cooking method. Selecting the suitable
cooking method for each food and applying the accurate principles to each
method are primary skills essential for all professional cooks.
The method of cooking selected depends on the following factors:
• Type of food
• Time available
• Type of fuel
• Equipment available
• Personal taste and preference
• Number of people to be catered for
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• Cost
• Skill of personnel
• Culture and religion
• Desired effect
• Dietary needs
The commonly used cooking methods are divided into two groups: dry heat cookery
methods and moist heat cookery methods. This division is based on the type of heat
used.
4.4.1 Dry heat cookery methods
4.4.1.1 Baking
Baking is the transfer of dry heat to food in a closed environment mostly in an oven.
The dryness of the heat may be altered by steam formed by the water content of
the food intended for baked. The most common baked products are breads and
cakes. The baking temperature varies from 130°C to 235°C.
The principles of baking
Pre-heating the oven: The oven must be pre-heated to the required temperature
before loading with food. All ovens are not the same, and hence they need
different time spans to get heated. So, ensure that the food handler is trained in
using that oven.
Temperature: The temperature for baking varies from 130 to 235°C, depending on
what is being baked. Check and monitor the oven temperature during the entire
cooking process.
Even cooking: Small baked items such as biscuits must be scattered evenly on the
baking tray. This helps in circulating the hot air evenly across the trays. Consistent
browning can be achieved by rotating the tray from time to time during cooking
process.
Bottom heat: To avoid excess browning of some items, silicon or baking paper can
be spread on the baking tray before placing the food. Another simple method is to
place an empty tray on a lower shelf of the oven which acts as a heat protect
shield. For even cooking and browning of large and heavy cakes, layers of silicon or
baking papers must be placed all-round the tin.
Added moisture: Few baked products need steam to enhance volume and to add
crispness. Most of the ovens are fitted with steam mist injectors to add the needed
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steam. If not, a simple method is to place a tray or pan of water on the lower shelf of
the oven to create moisture or humidity.
Bain-marie: Some foods, such as custards, are placed in containers or moulds and
then placed in a bain-marie or water bath for baking. This water slows down the
cooking process and offers even circulation of heat.
En papillote: Some items are placed into a folded pouch or parcel and then baked.
The parcel or pouch holds the moisture to steam the food. A pocket is made with
layers of parcel to seal the food.
4.4.1.2 Grilling
Grilling is the transmission of radiated heat to food from below or above or both
directions. The source of heat may be gas, electric or charcoal. Grilling is one of the
most widely used methods of cooking due to its speed. The taste of the food is
improved by the smoke and flavours generated from the grill.
Broiling is similar and reverse to grilling. Broiled foods are placed on a preheated
metal grate and the heat above cooks the meat while the grill below marks it
The principles of grilling
Portions sizes: Foods that need to be grilled must be small or of single portion size.
Larger items get charred or burnt on the outside before the inside food gets at least
cooked.
Quality: Superior quality and tender foods (such as meat, poultry and fish) must be
selected for grilling as the poor-quality foods will be too tough to eat.
Temperature: The equipment used must be preheated to required high temperature

to seal the food at the start. Once the food is sealed, the temperature can be
reduced as per the requirement. If there are two grill panels, it is wise to set one on
full heat to seal the food, and the other on a medium heat to cook the food.
Preparation: Food items must be brushed with oil and seasoned to avoid sticking
and to reduce dryness.
Grilling surface: Grilling surfaces must always be clean and oiled to avoid food from
sticking to the surface and to stop burnt food particles sticking to the food. Avoid
brushing too much of oil as the grill bars may blaze and catch on fire.
Cooking utensils: Avoid using forks to turn the food as they may puncture the surface
and lead to escape of juices. Always use tongs and flat spatulas.
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4.4.1.3 Roasting
Roasting is one of the easiest ways to cook anything. Some recipes allow to roast the
entire meal at a time. Roasting enhances flavour through caramelisation on the
surface of the food. Roasting is done at high heat.
Barbecuing is the process of food roasted slowly under low flame. Barbecuing is
usually done outdoors by smoking the meat with wood or charcoal. Barbecuing
emits much smoke when compared to roasting.
The principles of roasting
Sealing in the juices: Roasting must be started at high heat to seal in the juices. The
heat can be reduced once the sealing process is complete. Generally, meats are
sealed prior to roasting. The food items must be drained well before serving.
Meat quality and preparation: The food items that need to be roasted must be of
high quality in terms of tenderness; else they will become tough and chewy while
cooking.
Trivet: In order to avoid the lower part of the meat from shallow frying, the meat must
be raised from bottom by placing it on a raised rack or by placing the meat on a
mirepoix of vegetables and bones. This is named a ‘trivet’. The trivet adds flavour
and colour to the product.
Seasoning: Foods to be roasted must be seasoned with pepper, salt, herbs and
spices prior to be sealed. The food that needs to be roasted must be basted
periodically with juices in order to keep the food moist and to assist with the
browning process.
Trussing: Whole birds and boned out joints of meats must be trussed i.e. tied into a
neat bundle during the roasting process. This helps to hold their shape, cook evenly
and present well once they are cooked.
Spacing: Food items must not be crowded while roasting. Good spacing permits the
hot air to circulate evenly, thus allowing even cooking and colouring. Roasted food
must not be covered to avoid steaming.
Temperature probes: Current equipment’s are tailored with meat thermometers or

probes in order to indicate the degree of doneness.
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Resting meat: Roasted meats must be rested for 10–15 minutes before they are
carved in order to allow hot juices to settle and consistently scatter throughout the
meat. The meat carved without resting will result in dryness and discoloured food.
4.4.1.4 Sautéing
Sautéing is the method to cook food quickly with small amount of oil or fat in a
shallow pan over relatively high heat. The foods that need to be sauté are cut into
small pieces to facilitate rapid cooking. The foods need to be sauté must not be
stirred and can only be flipped over each side for even cooking and browning.
The principles of sautéing
Size: Food that needs to be sautéed must be cut to a uniform thickness and size to
ensure even cooking. Meat must be of portion-sized and vegetables of bite-sized.
Heat the pan: Heat the pan over medium-high heat for few minutes so that the food
placed in the pan will cook properly. Low heat will result in steaming rather than
sautéing.
Add fat: Fats such as butter, oil, or bacon fat are coated to the food to prevent it
from sticking to the pan. The fats added will help in browning and add flavour. Allow
the fat to spread all over the pan and then add food.
Don't overcrowd: Only one layer of food must be cooked in a pan at a time. There
must be at least a half-inch space between the pieces in the pan so that the steam
released from the food has enough space to escape. Hence always sauté the food
in smaller batches.
Toss and turn: The foods that need to sautéed must be stirred occasionally to
promote even browning and cooking. Dense vegetables must be stirred for every
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few minutes. Portion-sized cuts of meat must be turned only once ensuring enough
time to form a nice crust, and also avoids meat from sticking to the pan.
4.4.1.5 Shallow frying
Shallow frying is the transfer of heat to food through conduction with small amount
of fat or oil in a pan. It is a quick and versatile method of cooking. The four methods
of frying using shallow amount of fat or oil are shallow frying, sauté, griddle and stir
fry.
Principles of shallow frying
Portions sizes: Food that needs to be shallow fried must be of portion size for even
cooking and colouring. The food must be of good quality.
Seasoning: Food must be seasoned with pepper, salt, herbs and spices before
shallow frying.
Sealing in juices: Shallow frying must be done at high heat to seal in the juices. The
pan must be heated prior to the addition of food. The sealing of juice prevents the
absorption of fat. Generally, meats are sealed prior to shallow frying.
Heat control: The heat can be reduced once the sealing process is complete. This
helps in even cooking and colouring. High heat results in over-colour and low heat
results in absorption of oil into the food, thus making the product pale and soggy.
Presentation: The best side of the food item should be cooked first in the clean oil.
This way, when the food is turned over half way through the cooking process, the
best side will be ready for presentation.
Coating: Some foods may need dry or wet coating prior to shallow frying. Wet
coatings include seasoned fat, batters, flour and water batters, beer batter, yeast
batter, cornmeal batter etc. Dry coatings include bread crumbs, cornmeal crust,
panko (Japanese bread crumbs) etc.
Cooking medium: The amount of fat or oil used for cooking depends on the item
and quantity being cooked. When using butter, choose clarified butter. Properly
drain the fats after cooking.
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4.4.1.6 Deep frying
Deep-frying is the transfer of heat to food by totally immersing food in hot fat or oil.
Almost all foods need prior coating to seal in the juices and protect food from the
fat or oil used.
Deep frying is the rapid cooking method and, in most cases, cooking is done within
3-4 minutes. Deep frying is most commonly used in fast food centers.
The principles of deep frying
Fat selection: Use clean fat to retain the natural taste and flavour of the food. The fat
or oil used must be strained after each use to remove any crumbs or food particles
of the previous dish.
Fat coverage: At least two-thirds of the frying pan must be filled with fat or oil before
turning the deep fryer on. This ensures the total immersion of the food that need to
be deep fried.
Cooking temperature: The temperature of the fat or oil must be maintained

between 175°C and 195°C for deep frying. These high temperatures seal the food
and avoid the fat or oil penetration into the food.
Draining: Food that needs to be deep fried must be drained of excess moisture as
water damages the fat or oil. Thin consistent batters and doughs are an exception.
Cooking quantities: Never overcrowd the frying pan as this will reduce the fat
temperature or the deep fryer may overflow. Allow some time for heat recovery
between two batches.
Seasoning: Almost all foods need to be seasoned and coated before frying except
the raw or blanched potatoes and vegetables. Ensure to drain excess coating
before frying.
Drain cooked food well: Always drain the cooked food on clean kitchen towel to
remove excess fat or oil. Always keep a frying basket and spider handy to remove
the food from the fryer quickly when fat starts to rise or bubble extremely.
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4.4.2 Moist heat methods
4.4.2.1 Boiling
Boiling is the transfer of heat to food that is completely immersed in liquid such as
water, milk, sugar syrup, stock, etc. at 100°C. The state of boiling is indicated by rapid
bubbling movement of the liquid molecules.
Boiling is a common cooking method by its own or when preparing foods for further
processing such as cooking pasta and rice. Double boiling is the cooking method
used to prepare delicate foods.
Principles of boiling
Liquid temperature: Foods are boiled by placing them into rapidly boiling liquid for
specific time as per the food item that needs to be boiled. In order to retain the
flavour, colour and nutrients after boiling, the liquid must be rapidly cooled.
Liquid cover: The food that needs to be boiled must be completely immersed in the
boiling liquid throughout the cooking process. As the boiling liquid evaporates, it
must be topped up.
Salted and pickled meat: Salted and pickled meat such as pickled ox tongue must
be immersed in cold water and then brought to the boil. This ensures the removal of
the excess salt. The cooking liquid can be added with herb, spices and vegetables
to enhance the flavour.
Root vegetables: The roots must be immersed in cold salted water to remove the soil
taste and to enhance the flavour of the food boiled.
Impurities: The scum, froth or fat that rises to the top during boiling must be skimmed
as soon as possible the cooking process as soon as possible. This stops it re-entry into
the boiling liquid and spoiling the quality and clouding of the liquid.
Pot size: The size of the pot must match with the food boiled. The foods that swell on
boiling need plenty of space for free movement.
Simmering
Simmering is a cooking method of boiling foods at low temperatures of 95°C to 98°C.

A slow and mild bubbling movement in the liquid specifies the simmering process.
Boiling make some vegetables break into pieces of allow the thicker sauces and
soups to stick to the bottom of the pan. Hence, simmering is the alternative method.
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Principles of simmering
All principles applicable to boiling are applicable to simmering except the

temperature.
Temperature control: Always boil the liquid before adding the food. Once the liquid
attains boiling temperature, lower the temperature until it simmers. This ensures the
better control of the liquid temperature.
Blanching
Blanching is the partial cooking method wherein food is placed in rapidly boiling
water for a short time. The food is then placed in ice water to stop the cooking
process. Blanching is generally done for further cooking methods like sautéing or
braising. Some foods need blanching to peel the skin or to remove the excess blood.
Principles of blanching
Time: Ensure that the food immersed is for short period for perfect blanching. The rule
of blanching is to use ten parts of boiling liquid to one part of food.
Cold water starts: Prior immersion of food into cold water helps the cells in the food
to open and thus allows the salt, blood and other impurities to dissolve. As the liquid
gets boiled, the cells close, thus avoiding colour and flavour loss.
Boiling water starts: Green vegetables are blanched with boiling water. This closes
the food cells, thus retaining the colours, flavours and natural juices in vegetables by
destroying the enzymes.
Blanching in oil: Hot oil blanching is done at a low temperature and later crisped in
the deep fryer (raw potatoes for chips).
4.4.2.2 Stewing
Stewing is the cooking methods where bite-sized cut food pieces are exposed to
slow heat. The food is immersed in adequate liquid or sauce. The food along with
the liquid is served as a complete dish.
Earlier stewing was majorly used in hospitals but now-a-days because of the
increased awareness of the customers on healthy diet, stewed foods are commonly
found on most menus. Stewed foods are famous for their colours and flavours.
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Principles of stewing
Cutting food: Food must be chopped or sliced or diced into even bite-sized pieces
approximately 3cm cubes or smaller. Fish is generally cut into larger because of its
tendency to shrink and break-up.
Liquid content: Adequate amount of liquid must be used to cover and combine the
ingredients. The flavour increases with cooking. So, only add salt later if required.
Ingredients: All the items added to the stew during cooking are served as a
complete dish except the bouquet garni or herb sachet which will be removed as a
whole.
Time: The stewing process must be slow to enhance the flavour and tenderness of
the food as much as possible.
Blanching: Red meats especially used for white stews must be blanched first to
remove excess blood that would result in discolouration of the stew.
Sealing meat: For preparing some stews, meat must be sealed in a hot pan with a
little amount of oil to trap the juices inside to get rich dark colour to the stew. The
foods that are sedimented can be deglazed. Deglazing is the cooking method to
remove and dissolve browned food residue from a pan to flavour sauces, soups,
and gravies.
Adding ingredients: Sometimes additional ingredients such as vegetables can be

added throughout the cooking time to prevent overcooking or over softening.
Marinating: Meat is usually marinated for many hours for added flavour before being
drained, sealed and stewed.
4.4.2.3 Steaming
Steaming is one of the healthiest cooking methods to transfer heat by means of

steam under pressure, either at atmospheric or high pressure. The food is suspended
above the liquid that generates steam while the liquid is placed in an enclosed
cooking vessel.
Steaming helps to retain the natural flavours and colours of the food. As the food is
not dissolved in the liquid, the nutrients are not dissolved. Fats and oils are also not
used in the cooking process.
The steamer used must be preheated to enable rapid cooking and to prevent loss of
flavour, colour and nutrients.
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The pressure of the steam differs depending on the equipment used. Around 0.16kg
per square cm of pressure will generate steam temperature of 106°C to121°C.
Principles of steaming
Enclose the food: The food must be enclosed to ensure even penetration of steam
into the food.
Cooking speed: Pay attention during the cooking time as steam is hotter than water.
The vapour particles penetrate quickly into the food and may result in over cooking.
Protect against steam burns: Utmost care must be taken while opening the steamer.
The steam is immensely hotter and can penetrate the skin easily even through the
kitchen cloths and results in burns.
Protect from condensed steam: Protect foods such as puddings from direct contact
with condensed steam by using a greaseproof paper around the food.
Steam run off: The steamed foods must be placed on perforated trays to allow the
steam to escape.
Steaming in oven: Steaming can also be done in the oven by sealing the food in a
container with a liquid. This method is named en papillote.
4.4.2.4 Poaching
Poaching is the gentle cooking method used for delicate and tender foods where
heat is transferred to food by immersing in a liquid such as water, milk or stock at
93°C to 95°C. There must not be any visible sign of liquid movement. Poaching is
generally done on top of the stove or in the oven.
Principles of poaching
Liquid cover: The food being poached must be completely covered by the
poaching liquid during the cooking process.
Temperature control: The poaching liquid is at first brought to the boil and then the
heat is adjusted to ensure there is no movement in the water.
Cold water starts: Foods such as whole fish is at first immersed into cold liquid and
then brought to the boil and then accustomed to poaching temperature. This
ensures the penetration of heat into deeper layers of food before the outside food
becomes overcooked.
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Adding a sauce: Most of the poached foods become dry. Hence, they need a
sauce to make them more appealing. Poaching liquid can also be used to prepare
a sauce for poached item.
Oven poaching: Poaching is started on top of the stove before placing it in the
oven.
4.4.2.5 Braising
Braising is the cooking method where food is half covered with a suitable liquid and
cooked in a sealed container in the oven. Braising is used to tenderize tough meats.
The liquid used will transfer the heat slowly to the food. The liquid must be strained
after cooking.
Principles of braising
Presentation: A single large meat piece must be braised and carved before serving.
Sealing: The meat must be sealed in hot oil to hold the natural juices and to offer
colour prior to braising. Vegetables that are braised must be blanched to remove
strong flavours.
Liquid content: The food that needs to be braised must be half covered with a
suitable liquid.
Cooking vessel size: The braising pan size must be appropriate with the food
braised. Small vessel will overcrowd the food and larger vessel needs more liquid
thus diluting the flavour. The vessel used must be tightly lidded during the cooking
process.
Braising liquid: The liquid used for braising can be added with root vegetables and
herbs to enhance the flavour. The liquid can be later strained and can be used as a
sauce for finished product. Vegetable braises are not used as sauces as they have
strong flavours which dominate the actual food.
Cooking temperature: Braising is done mostly in the oven as it delivers even heat to
the food. As an alternative, braising can also be done on top of the stove. The
braising temperature for meat is 180°C to 200°C and for vegetables, it is 140°C to
160°C.
Sauce consistency: Sauce consistency can be balanced by adding liquid if the

sauce is too thin and by adding more stock if the sauce is too thick.
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Meat preparation: Meats must be marinated for many hours before braising to
enhance flavours. Drier cuts of meat or poultry can be added during the cooking
process to add extra moisture or flavour.
4.4.3 Modern cooking techniques
It is a prerequisite for the restaurants to figure out modern cooking techniques to

remain competitive and be successful. In order to meet the expectations of the
customers, many chefs have taken it upon to step away from traditional cooking
methods and focused on modern cooking techniques such as sous-vide, flash frozen
and engastration.
4.4.3.1 Sous-Vide
It is also termed as “under the Vacuum”. The food is submerged in a temperature-

controlled water bath (typically around 55°C to 60°C) or steaming environment for a
prolonged period of time (generally 1 to 7 hours, up to 48 hours or more in some
foods). This ensures the even tenderness of the food prepared both inside and
outside. The most common foods prepared are fillet steak, lamb, pork, fish, and liver.
Benefits of Sous-vide cooking method:
Consistency: As food is cooked to a precise temperature for a precise amount of

time, consistent results can be obtained.
Taste: The food is cooked in its juices throughout the cooking time. This helps the
food to be moist, juicy and tender.
Waste reduction: Traditionally prepared foods dries out more when compared to this
method.
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Flexibility: As this cooking method brings food to exact temperature and holds it,
one doesn’t require constant attention and there is no worry about under or over
cooking.
4.4.3.2 Flash Frozen
The foods such as fruits and vegetables are immediately frozen using liquid nitrogen.
The immediate freezing allows to retain the water content in the food without the
formation of ice crystals. Flash frozen techniques helps to retain the original colour of
the food.
The commercial flash freeze temperature is around -51°C. Flash frozen method holds
the shape and flavour of the food over time. These foods can be thawed in a
refrigerator or a microwave, never at room temperature or can be placed in a
freezer bag in a bowl of cool water. The flash frozen foods cannot be thawed in
warm water as the cooking process starts and can make the food tough and
overdone.
4.4.3.3 Engastration
Engastration is the method of cooking in a spit or in an oven, where one food is kept
inside other food and cooked. The most common dish prepared using this technique
is turducken, which comprises placing chicken meat within a duck carcass within a
turkey. Some foods cooked using this technique have stuffing between each layer.
The carcasses are generally deboned before placing together.
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4.5 Plan and organize work requirements
To increase productivity, every business needs a better production plan. Effective

planning is an intricate process that includes a wide variety of activities to
guarantee that materials, equipment and human resources are available when and
where they are needed.
4.5.1 Work schedule
Work schedule is the time table that lists the general tasks to be completed, when
they are to be completed and by whom. Work schedule helps to complete the tasks
in efficient and logical sequence in the shortest amount of time.
The business develops work schedules for different sections of the kitchen, different
service periods, and production cycles. Work schedules must be monitored regularly
and updated as per the business needs. The work allotted to the staff depends on:
• Number of staff working

• Their roles and responsibilities
• Their skills and abilities
• Their experience and management abilities
4.5.2 Brigade – Kitchen Staff
The classic kitchen brigade was founded by Georges August Escoffier, a great chef
who defined French cuisine during 18th century. The brigade helps define or
organize a kitchen with every department.
Executive chef / Chef de Cuisine – responsible for overall management of kitchen:

Menu management oversees the budget, serves as mentor, staff kitchens properly.
Sous chef – Receives orders directly from the executive chef for the management of
the kitchen, scheduling personnel, replacing and running any open stations.
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Aboyeur / Expediter - Calling out orders to stations, prepares dishes for plate
presentations. Communicates between the kitchen and front-of-house.
Station chef / Chef de partie - Responsible for managing a given station in the
kitchen, specializing in preparing particular dishes there.
Cuisinier / cook – prepares specific dishes in a station.
Saucier – Prepare sauces, completes meat dishes, and in smaller restaurants, may
work on fish dishes and prepare deep-fried items.
Poissoner – Prepares and oversees all fish and seafood dishes.
Grillardini – Responsible for grilled meats.
Friturier – Takes care of all frying specifically deep-frying.
Rotisseur – Responsible for roasting and braising of meats.
Potager – Prepares all soups.
Legumier – Focuses on hot preparation of vegetables.
Garde-Manger – Responsible for cold preparations.
Patisse – Prepares desserts, sweets and pasta.
Commis / Assistant cooks – A commis is a junior member of staff that works under a
chef de partie in order to learn the ins and outs of a specific station.
Plongeur / Escuelerie – Dishwashers.
4.5.3 Communicate with team members
This is the dynamic step when planning for a better preparation and service period.
Vibrant communication, distribution of information and a desire to accomplish
common goals lead to a well-organized and efficient kitchen. The points to be
communicated to the team members by an executive chef are:
• Menu requirements such as changes to the regular menu, daily specials,

shortages in ingredients, known dietary requirements or any other customer
requests.
• Bookings and production requirement.
• Number of portions to be prepared for menu items.
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• Allocation of job to each team member.
The benefits of communicating with the team are:
• Increased productivity.
• Improved efficiency.
• Better customer service.
• Increased confidence and motivation.
• Increased profits.
4.6 Portion size and cooking
Portion size is the amount of food or drink one actually consumes in one sitting.
Generally, the serving size and portion size are confused. Serving size is the measured
amount of food one intended to be eaten in one sitting.
Portion of food differs from the type of event you’re having. Portion size also ensures
that guests will obtain uniformity when they order their favourite food. Irrespective of
the number of guests and type of food selected, sufficient amounts must be
prepared to satisfy the customers.
The achievement of big restaurant chains lies mostly in control of portion sizes. Each
portion should be the same size and weight. In this way, one can properly track food
costs and make practically perfect calculation when making final prices and profits.
Portion control in restaurants helps in controlling food costs, reduce waste and
maintain consistency. Portion control can be achieved by standard recipes, right
plating, right measurement, staff training and buying right.
4.7 Portion size and food cost
It is always very easy to just put a cost on the menu. However, it is not a decent idea
to just blindly put a cost on that menu. It is good to calculate the jeopardise and
lower the cost, because both restaurant benefits and the cost satisfaction of the
target group are equally important.
The food costs will disturb the restaurant business entirely. Hence, it is vital to start
costing task from the start of the business.
How to calculate the cost of item prepared:
a) Write down the ingredients and their quantities used in preparing a particular
dish.
b) Fill the prices for all ingredients used in that dish.
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c) Add it all together.
Considerations for costing a dish for a guest:
a) Direct costs: This comprises of what you pay directly for procuring food, the
portion size, and wastage
b) Indirect costs: This is the ‘value’ you are providing to your patrons. This broadly
includes things like hygiene, lighting, and ambiance
c) Overheads: These are the major frills you need to spend on including marketing,
social media, promotions, etc.
d) Labour expenses: An example of this would be a food item that involves more
time and skill to be cooked
e) Service costs: This will depend on the kind of restaurant you have
4.8 Safe food handling
• Serving safe food is vibrant to your businesses success.

• When food is handled safely, its quality is conserved. Safe food handling will help
preserve the appearance, flavour, texture, consistency, and nutritional value of
food.
• Food that is stored, prepared, and served appropriately is more likely to deliver
the quality your customers deserve and demand.
• Safe food handling can also aid to minimise food charges due to less waste.
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4.9 Cross contamination
As the special diets are prepared with utmost care based on the health condition of
the individual, strictly avoid cross contamination as this will deteriorate the health
condition. Never mix one diet ingredients with other diet ingredients.
Cross contamination also takes place when pathogens are transported from any
object that you use in the kitchen such as dirty kitchen clothes, unclean utensils,
pests, raw food storage, uncleaned equipment, poor personal hygiene. Cross
contamination can occur in all functional areas of hospitality.
Vulnerable group:
Although everyone is susceptible, few people are more at risk of getting food
poisoning than others. This group includes infants, young children, pregnant women,
elders, and people with immune systems weekend by disease or medical treatment
and people with chronic illness. One must take special care when buying, storing
and preparing food for these people.
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Effect of food poisoning on business:
One critical case of food poisoning can shut-down the business. The following
penalties can be incurred on food poisoning:
• Legal action by council resulting in substantial fines.

• Private legal action by affected customers.
• Loss of business through dissatisfied customers.
• Loss of business through bad publicity.
• Closure of business.
• Loss of jobs.
How to prevent food poisoning?
There are different ways to prevent the chain of events that lead to food poisoning:
Wash your hands
It only takes few seconds to wash your hands properly. Make sure your hands are
washed with soap and hot water. If you are away from home, then hand sanitizer
and hand wipes can be an excellent substitute. Dry your hands using a clean towel
or air dry.
One must make sure to wash hands before and after handling raw foods like meat,
fish, vegetables and eggs. Washing hands is a mandate when you come in contact
with dustbin, go to the toilet, changing diapers or cleaning up a child who has used
a toilet, blow your nose, before and after caring for someone who is sick, before and
after treating a cut wound and even when you touch your pets.
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Wash worktops
Make sure to wash your worktops before and after you prepare food with hot soapy
water, especially after they have been touched by food products like raw eggs,
vegetables, and fish.
Use separate chopping boards
Use a separate chopping board to prepare raw food, such as meat and fish. This
helps to avoid contaminating ready-to-eat foods with harmful bacteria that can be
present in raw food.
Wash dish cloths
Make sure you wash dishcloths, tea towels, sponges and mops regularly. The reason
being, dirty and damp clothes become a perfect place for germs to breed.
Keep raw meat separate
Make sure you always cover raw meat and store it in the bottom shelf of the fridge
or the freezer. It would be really efficient if the bottom shelf of your fridge itself is the
freezer. This way, the meat would not touch any other food products or drip onto
them.
Store raw meat on the bottom shelf
Always cover raw meat and store it on the bottom shelf of the fridge, where it can't
be touched or dripped onto other foods.
Cook food thoroughly
Protect young children, pregnant women and people with weakened immune
systems from harmful bugs and bacteria by cooking food thoroughly. The most
important foods to cook thoroughly are raw meats and sea foods. These have to
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reach a critical temperature to kill off any dangerous bacteria and other
microorganisms. Cooking thermometer can be used to see if the insides have
reached the critical temperature.
Safe cooking temperature
Different meats require different cooking temperatures to destroy harmful bacteria.

This can be achieved by simply cooking minced meat, sausages and poultry right
through to the center.
Refrigerate food properly
Always keep the fridge temperature below 5°C and fridge thermometer can be
used to check it. This temperature prevents harmful microbes from growing and
multiplying. Avoid overfilling the fridge which can affect the overall temperature.
Cool leftovers quickly
Cover leftovers and store them in the fridge as early as possible, generally within 90
minutes. The refrigerated or freeze food can be used for 2 days. If you reheat
cooked food from the fridge, make sure it is thoroughly steamed to kill any
microorganisms that have multiplied during storage.
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Respect use-by or best before dates
Don't eat foods after the end of its use-by or best before date on the label, even if it
looks and smells fine. Use-by dates are based on scientific examinations that show
how quickly harmful germs can develop in the packaged food.
Cleaning and sanitizing
Cleaning and sanitizing are the important ways to prevent harmful microbes or other
things contaminating food and making it unsafe to eat. Cleaning is removing
general dirt, grease and food waste while sanitizing destroys microorganisms. All
items must be cleaned before sanitizing.
Under Standard 3.2.2 - Food Safety Practices and General Requirements, food
businesses must keep their premises, fixtures, fittings, equipment and food transport
vehicles clean and sanitary. This means:
• Things like food scraps, garbage, dirt, grease etc. should not be left to
accumulate.
• Utensils and surfaces that come in contact with food should be clean and
sanitary.
Cleaning:
• Pre-clean utensils by scraping or wiping food scraps off surfaces and rinse with
water.
• Wash with hot water and detergent to remove grease and food residue.
• Rinse off the detergent.
Factors for the success of cleaning measures are:
• Chemical energy – depends on the nature and concentration of the detergents

used in the cleaning process.
• Mechanical energy – this come in the form of brushes, water jets, and turbulent
flow (flow rate of 2 meters per second) in pipes.
• Thermal energy – this is usually in the form of hot water or stream.
• Time – the time required for cleaning can vary depending on the method
applied.
Special cleaning technologies in food industry are:
• Cleaning-off-place (COP) – either manually or by using machines – for fittings,

clamps, product handling utensils, tank vents, pump rotors, impellers, casings,
hoses, etc.
o Pressure cleaning
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o Foam cleaning
o Dry ice cleaning
• Cleaning-in-place (CIP) – for interior cleaning of pipes, vessels, tankers, heat
exchanges, filters and other enclosed process systems.
• Open CIP systems (OCIP) cleaning – for storage tanks.
• Washing-in-place (WIP) – for reusable bottles and barrels.
Sanitizing:
• Soak items in very hot water (77°C for 30 sec) or in diluted bleach, or
• Saturate items with 70% alcohol, or
• Use a commercial sanitizer and follow the manufacturer’s instructions, or
• Use a dishwasher that can sanitize (usually the longest hottest setting).
• Air-drying is best
• Remove parts like stab mixer sticks and slicer blades where ever possible to
sanitize.
Special sanitizing technologies in food industry are:
• Thermal sanitization – by steam and hot water

• Chemical sanitization – by chemical sanitizers
• Combination of thermal and chemical sanitization
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Validation of cleaning procedures
In the context of cleaning, validation is proof that the permitted cleaning procedure
is capable of producing safe food within the criteria set for specific hazards. Once a
cleaning procedure has been established it is important that it is validated. The
method of validating a cleaning procedure is as follows:
• Document the cleaning procedure as it actually exists.

• Classify the general and specific hazards of concern, e.g. pathogens, allergens,
etc.
• Recognize the monitoring program. This will include the standard to be attained
and specific sampling points based on an assessment of risk.
• Conduct the cleaning program as documented and follow up with the
monitoring checks.
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• Make sure that the procedure as documented is capable of meeting the

monitoring criteria.
• If the procedure is not capable, modify or correct the cleaning method.
• Reiterate the above process until the documented cleaning procedure is
confirmed as capable of meeting the standard and approve the procedure.
• Conduct training of employees against the procedure and implement the
monitoring program.
• Retain full records of the above data and process including your conclusions.
4.10 Food storage
All stuffs used in the hospitality businesses such as food, beverage, linen, uniforms,
paper goods, chemicals, stationery, crockery, glassware, cutlery, etc. must be stored
appropriately to sustain quality, avoid damage and prevent cross contamination.
Improper storage of non-food items such as straws, paper packaging and linen can
also result in either food specific hygiene hazards or general workplace hygiene
hazards.
The three main principles of safe food storage are:
a) Temperature control
Temperature control is important for perishable foods. Temperature control measures

are to:
• Confirm refrigeration units function at or below 5°C.
• Transfer the high-risk foods, e.g. meat, poultry, seafood and dairy goods to cold
storage as early as possible.
• Frozen foods must be kept frozen at –18°C or even low.
• Do not overload storage areas and ensure preferable air circulation.
• Restrict the amount of time refrigerator doors are left open.
• Refrigeration units must be well maintained and calibrated.
• Do not place scorching foods directly in the cool room.
• Measure temperatures with a thermometer.
• Do not re-freeze foods that have already thawed or partially thawed.
b) Time control
Time control measures are to:
• First-in-first-out and make sure all food is used before its use-by date.
• Improper storage conditions will diminish the shelf life of food and beverages.
Shelf life is the period from the time of manufacture until the time the food item is
no longer fit for human consumption.
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• If food is removed from the original packaging, certify that the use-by date is
recorded on new packaging or container.
c) Prevention of contamination
The measures related to this principle are to:
• Wrap or cover, label and date all foods. It may be suitable to write the number of
serves on prepared foods.
• Do not store food on the floor in storerooms, cool rooms or freezers.
• Store raw foods, cooked foods and prepared raw foods separately. Never store
raw foods above cooked or prepared raw foods as they may contaminate it.
• Store open foods in closed containers.
• Control pests.
• Clean storage areas regularly, including cool rooms and freezers.
FIFO (First In, First Out)
FIFO is “first in first out” and simply means you need to label your food with the dates
you store them and put the older foods in front or on top so that you use them first. It
is a stock rotation system used for food storage. This system allows finding the food
quicker and using them more efficiently.
FIFO is especially helpful when there are numerous items of the same product and
aids in maintaining freshness and quality.
The benefits of the FIFO are:
• Reduced wastage
• Safer food storage
• Helps comply with HACCP
• Customer satisfaction
• Easier to reduce products near their use-by dates
• Efficient work flow
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Minimise the waste
Waste management plays a vital role in hospitality business. When waste is not
managed properly, it leads to pollution and have devastating effects on the
environment. Waste that can be reused or recycled must not be disposed.
Implementing the waste management hierarchy in the workplace ensures that you
reduce environmental risks and increases the opportunities to improve business and
environmental performance.
Defrosting
As foods defrost, the temperature increases and ultimately will reach the danger
zone. Foods must be defrosted in the refrigerator or cool room and not at room
temperature. This is to ensure that they don’t reach the danger zone temperatures.
As it takes longer time to defrost in cool temperatures, the foods from the freezer
must be removed well in advance. In short of time, use a microwave oven or place
food in a strainer under cold running water.
The measures to ensure safe defrosting of foods are:
• Place foods on a rack, with a tray or dish underneath to catch drip that is
released on thawing. This prevents cross contamination.
• Foods must be thoroughly defrosted before cooking as they may not cook
through in the center, allowing bacteria to grow to hazardous levels. Label and
date the food once removed from the freezer.
• Defrosted foods must be consumed or discarded within 24 hours.
• Do not refreeze any foods that have partially or fully thawed.
• Some processed foods can be cooked from a frozen state (e.g. frozen
vegetables, chips, chicken nuggets) so leave them frozen until you are ready to
use them.
4.11 Safe food disposal
• Dispose of food items as early as possible.

• Ensure food to be disposed is not exposed to or stored with uncontaminated
food.
• Place food items in the appropriate lined rubbish bin or disposal area such as a
food recycling container for later composting, food disposal units or incinerators.
• Remove any packaging which may tear bin liners, hurt staff when removing
rubbish bags or cannot be processed by the designated disposal method.
• Dispose food waste in such a way that it does not attract dogs, cats, birds,
rodents and flies. Always cover the garbage bins properly.
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5 Special diets
A special diet is the diet that cannot be selected freely from the existing main
choices. This may be due to an allergy, intolerance or other medical condition; or
because people are following a religious or cultural diet; or a vegetarian or vegan
diet.
5.1 Food allergies
Food allergies occur when the body’s immune system reacts unusually to a specific
food by causing symptoms. The most common food allergies in children are to milk,
eggs, peanuts, treenuts (walnuts and pecans), cow’s milk, wheat, soya. The
common food allergies in adults are shellfish, peanuts, treenuts and fish. While there
is no cure for food allergies, some children outgrow their allergy as the age
advances.
Symptoms of food allergies include itching in the mouth, throat or ears, a raised itchy
red rash (hives), swelling of the face, around the eyes, lips, tongue and roof of the
mouth and vomiting. In some cases, a serious allergic reaction (anaphylaxis) can be
life threatening. Anaphylaxis includes breathing difficulties, light headedness and
fainting.
As there is no cure for food allergies, people with allergies must avoid foods to which
they are allergic. People with severe allergies must be trained and advised to carry
an autoinjector pen with a specified dose of adrenaline that need to be used in
emergencies. The best ways to prevent allergic reactions are:
• Ensure to read food labels carefully before consumption

• When unable to communicate, wear a medical alert bracelet or necklace or
wrist band that allows others to know about your allergy.
• Talk to your doctor to know about the dosage of adrenaline that can be carried
to inject during emergency conditions.
• Always be careful while eating or drinking outside the home. Ensure that your
server know your allergy.
• It is always advisable to plan meals and snacks before leaving home.
Food additives are commonly added to commercially prepared foods to increase

the appeal and to retain the nutritional qualities. Most common food additives used
are food colours, flavour enhancers, preservatives and antioxidants.
Most of the food additives results in allergic reactions. As per the Australian law, the
food additives and their quantity used in the preparation of that specific product
must be clearly mentioned on the packaging.
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5.2 Food intolerance
Food intolerances also called as food sensitivity is different from food allergies. Food
allergies involve the immune system, whereas food intolerance involves the digestive
system. Symptoms appear more slowly, usually several hours after eating the food.
Symptoms can often include diarrhoea, bloating, migraine, cough and stomach
cramps, but are not life threatening.
The causes of food intolerance are absence of enzyme to digest foods (absence of
lactase that breaks down milk sugar), chemicals present in foods (caffeine in
coffee), toxins present in foods (alfatoxins in uncooked beans), naturally present
histamine in some foods (fish), salicylates present in some foods (plant-based foods
such as herbs, tea and spices).
Common types of food intolerance are lactose, wheat, gluten, caffeine, histamine
and additives such as artificial sweeteners, colouring and flavouring agents. The
other common foods to which people are intolerant are aspartame, eggs, MSG,
yeast, sugar alcohols etc.
5.2.1 Diets for food allergies and intolerance
There is no perfect diet for people with food allergies and intolerance. Each
individual is unique and have different specifications for how much to eat, what to
eat and when to eat. Hence elimination diet is an excellent approach that is useful
for people with allergies and intolerance.
Elimination diet will eliminate gluten, dairy, soy, refined or added sugar, peanuts,
corn, alcohol, eggs, packed and processed foods, nightshades (tomato, eggplant,
potato, bell pepper etc.)
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Elimination diet is the diet which eliminates certain foods (which cause allergy or
digestive problems) for certain period of time, generally for 3 or 4 weeks. Then slowly
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the foods are reintroduced one at a time in order to investigate which foods are
and which are not tolerated.
The eliminated foods must be stopped for about three weeks and the person must
ensure that the listed foods are avoided completely. Then each food group at a
time is reintroduced. The suspicious food must be eaten for 1 to 2 weeks and any
symptoms noticed must be recorded. The symptoms between the elimination and
the reintroduction phase must be checked. If the symptoms return, then the food
must be stopped and this confirms that the specific food is the trigger. This is a trial
and error method.
Sample symptoms card:
5.3 Food drug interaction
A food-drug interaction occurs when food and medicine interfere each other. Not
all medicines are affected by food, but some medicines must be taken with food
and some must not be taken with certain types of food.
The food that is consumed along with medicine can alter the effectiveness of the
medicine by lowering the absorption of the medicine and sometimes may even
increase the side effects. The most common food-drug interactions are:
• Green leafy vegetables, which are high in vitamin K, will reduce the functioning
of blood-thinning drugs such as aspirin, Coumadin etc.
• Grapefruit juice alters the metabolism of the drugs resulting in either increase or
decrease in the absorption of the drug. It increases the absorption of statins
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(cholesterol-lowering drugs) in the blood and alters the breakdown of calcium

channel blockers (prescribed for high blood pressure), thereby resulting in high
levels of the drug in the blood which increases the risk of side effects.
• Natural black licorice (glycyrrhiza) increases the retention of sodium and thereby
reducing the potassium levels in the body. Low potassium levels increases the
absorption of digoxin (used to treat heart failure) which results in improper
heartbeat. Glycyrrhiza also reduces the effectiveness of high blood pressure
medicines.
• High fibre foods will reduce the absorption of digoxin. Digoxin is used to
strengthen the contraction of heart muscle, reduce the heart rate and promotes
the elimination of fluid from body tissues.
• Dairy products such as milk, yogurt and cheese reduces the absorption of
antibiotics such as tetracycline, doxycycline, and ciprofloxacin. The calcium
binds the antibiotics and make them unavailable to the body.
• Pickled, cured and fermented foods are rich in tyramine, an amino acid that is
associated with dangerous increase in blood pressure in patients taking
monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAIOs) and certain medications for Parkinson’s
disease.
• Alcohol affects insulin or oral diabetic pills. It prolongs the effect of diabetic
drug, thereby reducing the blood sugar. Alcohol must not be consumed while
having moderate pain reliever drugs, as it will increase the chance of severe
liver damage.
5.4 Therapeutic diet
Therapeutic diet is the selection of foods and cooking methods in order to treat
certain medical conditions. Therapeutic diets are generally planned by physician or
dietician. Some of the therapeutic diets are gluten-free diet, clear liquid-diet, full
liquid diet, diabetic diet, renal diet, low fat diet, high fiber diet, etc. A therapeutic
diet may change over the time period as per the person’s reaction and
improvement. Depending on the health condition, therapeutic diets may be
temporary or permanent.
5.4.1 Digestive disorders
The common digestive disorders are:
Gastroesophageal reflux disease: Stomach acid backs up into esophagus.
Hernia: Abnormal exit of the bowel through the wall of the cavity.
Ulcerative colitis: Inflammation in large intestine.
Diarrhea: Abnormal bowel movement.
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Constipation: Irregular or difficult bowel movement.
Gastritis: Inflammation of the stomach lining.

Irritable bowel syndrome: Abdominal pain with change in bowel movements.
Flatulence: Accumulation of gas in the alimentary canal.
Ulcers: Painful sores in the stomach lining.
Colon cancer: Development of cancer from colon or rectum.
The digestive disorders obstruct the nutrients that are to be absorbed into the body.
For example, when fat soluble vitamins and obstructed from absorption, liver gets
inflames thus resulting in hepatitis and jaundice.
Diet specifications:
• Include high fiber foods such as brown rice, wholemeal bread, fruits, vegetables,
beans, oats.
• Reduce fat content. Fatty foods such as chips, burgers and fried foods are hard
to digest.
• Use less spices. Avoid scorching spices. Milder and flavourful foods like onion and
garlic can be used.
• Avoid acidic foods. Acidic foods such as tomatoes, salad dressings, frizzy drinks
and sometimes citrus fruits trigger the symptoms.
• Always drink herbal teas, milk and plain water. Drinks such as caffeine, colas, tea
and frizzy drinks boost acids in stomach.
• Yoghurt contains friendly bacteria known as probiotics which heals many of the
digestive disorders.
5.4.2 Diabetes
Diabetes mellitus commonly called as diabetes is a metabolic disorder wherein the

blood glucose/sugar raises either because insulin production is inadequate or
because body cells do not respond to insulin or even both. The common symptoms
of diabetes are polyuria (frequent urination), polydipsia (increased thrust) and
polyphagia (increased hunger).
Glycemic index (GI) is a figure that represents the relative ability of a carbohydrate
food to increase the level of glucose in the blood. GI is categorized as low (55 or less
GI), moderate (56-69 GI) and high (70 or more GI).
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Carbohydrates with low GI are slowly digested, absorbed, metabolized, and thus
resulting in slow rise in blood sugar/glucose. People with diabetes are
recommended to have a low GI food at each meal.
Types of diabetes:
Type 1 diabetes: Also called as insulin dependent diabetes. Human body does not
produce insulin and hence, the patients need to take insulin substitutes throughout
the life. Patients need to check their blood sugars regularly.
Type 2 diabetes: Also called as non-insulin dependent diabetes. Human body

produces enough insulin, but the cells do not react to insulin. Almost 90% of the
cases if diabetes is type 2. Healthy diet and regular exercise will help the patients in
controlling the blood sugars.
Gestational diabetes: Diabetes during pregnancy which is normally controlled by

diet and exercise. High sugars raise the risk of complications during child birth. Few
women get back to their normal condition after delivery.
• Choose healthy fats from nuts, olive oil, fish oils, flax seeds, or avocados.
• Select fresh and colourful fruits and vegetables. Always prefer whole fruit than
juices.
• Always use whole grains rich in fiber.
• Pick fish, shellfish, organic chicken or turkey.
• Select high-quality protein such as eggs, beans, low-fat dairy, and unsweetened
yogurt.
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• Avoid deep fried foods, processed foods, processed meat and meat products.
• Avoid alcohol as it interferes with diabetes medication and insulin.
5.4.3 Renal disorders
Kidneys filter waste products from the body. The other functions are to regulate
blood pressure, electrolyte balance, maintains creatinine (waste molecule
generated from muscle metabolism) and red blood cell production. Sensors in the
kidney regulate the amount of water that need to be excreted as urine, along with
what concentration of electrolytes.
Kidney failure results in accumulation of waste products and excess fluids in the
body which results in shortness of breath, weakness, lethargy, swelling and confusion.
The common renal disorders are:
Glomerulonephritis: Inflammation of filters in kidneys
Kidney stones: Sediments of mineral accumulated on the inner lining of kidneys

which block the urinary tract.
Polycystic kidney disease: Inherited disorder where cysts are formed in the kidneys
which gradually damage the functioning of kidneys.
Nephropathy: Damage of the kidney that results in kidney failure.
Diabetic nephropathy: Kidney failure in patients with diabetes mellitus.
Urinary tract infections: Infections in the bladder and urethra.
• Limit high protein foods such as meat, poultry, fish, eggs, beans and nuts.
• Limit potassium rich foods such as avocado, dried fruits, potato, orange, banana
and salt substitutes.
• Limit phosphorus rich foods such as dairy products, nuts, liver, beans and soft
drinks.
• Limit the level of sodium in the diet.
• Avoid processed foods.
5.4.4 Heart disorders
Heart disorders are the issues or deformities in the heart. Different types of heart
diseases affect different parts of organs.
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Congenital heart disease: Deformities of heart since birth such as septal defects
(hole between the chambers), obstruction defects (blood flow between the
chambers is partially or totally blocked) and cyanotic heart disease (defect in heart
that results in shortage of oxygen in the body).
Arrhythmia: Irregular heart beat. Tachycardia (fast heart beat), bradycardia (slow
heart beat), fibrillation (irregular heart beat).
Coronary artery disease: Coronary arteries that supply nutrients and oxygen to heart
are damaged by deposition of plaques that contain cholesterol.
Dilated cardiomyopathy: Heart chambers are dilated which weakness the heart
muscles to pump blood.
Myocardial infarction: Also called as heart attack, cardiac infarction or coronary

thrombosis. The interrupted blood flow caused by blood clots in one of the coronary
arteries.
Heart failure: Also called as congestive heart failure which means failure of heart to
pump blood throughout the body efficiently.
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: The left ventricle wall thickens thus making the blood
harder to pump out of the heart.
Pulmonary stenosis: Pulmonary valve becomes tight and so, it becomes hard for the
heart to pump blood from right ventricle into the pulmonary artery.
The symptoms vary as per the type of the heart disease. These include chest pain,
shortness of breath, pain/numbness/weakness in legs or arms, light-headedness,
dizziness, fainting, etc.
• Select whole grains with high fiber.

• Limit unhealthy fats such as butter, cheese, margarine, beef or pork fat etc.
• Eat more fruits and vegetables.
• Choose low fat protein sources such as skim milk, skinless chicken, fish etc. Select
legumes as much as possible as a protein source.
• Reduce sodium in the food.
• Select vitamin E rich foods such as avocado, green leafy vegetables, whole
grain products, vegetable oils.
• Use garlic wherever possible. Allicin in garlic reduces the blood cholesterol.
• Have a check on portion size.
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5.4.5 Coeliac condition
Coeliac disorder is the long-term autoimmune disorder that primarily affects the
small intestine. Coeliac disorder is caused by a reaction to gluten (proteins found in
wheat, barley, rye, oats etc). Gluten triggers the immune system in small intestine
and damages the intestine lining which obstructs the absorption of nutrients.
The symptoms of coeliac disease are diarrhea, constipation, vomiting, nausea,

weight loss, hair loss, anemia (iron deficiency), B12 or folic acid deficiency,
depression, osteoporosis and nerve problems. As there is no cure for coeliac disease,
strict gluten-free diet must be followed.
• Strictly avoid wheat, barley, rye and oats.

• Select gluten free food groups such as fruits, vegetables, meat and poultry,
seafood, dairy, beans, legumes and nuts.
• Most of the processed foods contain gluten. Hence, try to avoid the processed
foods or check labels when they are selected.
• Always select real cheese as it is gluten free. Processed cheese contains gluten.
• Always select healthy fats and avoid sugars.
• Alcoholic drinks and juices are mostly gluten-free. Ensure to check the labels
before purchasing.
5.4.6 Texture modified diets
The texture modified diets are usually recommended for those with dysphagia
(difficulty in chewing and/or swallowing food). Dysphagia is the result of a disease
process and is caused by either a mechanical, neurological or psychological
problems such as:
• oesophageal stricture
• Head, neck or oesophageal cancer
• Severe mouth or throat infections
• Maxillo-facial surgery
• Brain injury or stroke
• Degenerative diseases such as motor neurone disease, Parkinson’s, Huntington’s,
multiple sclerosis etc
• Learning disabilities
• When person is on lot of medication
Elderly people also need texture modified diets because of chewing difficulties,
inadequate saliva and poor tongue control.
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Care must be taken while modifying the food texture because inappropriate
consistency increases the risk of food or fluid entering into the lungs, resulting in chest
infection, lung abscesses, aspiration etc.
Avoid peas, sweetcorn, fruits and vegetables with skin, dry crumbly foods, dry meats,
raw fruits and vegetables in large pieces, hard nuts, hard fruits such as apples or
pears etc.
Australian standards for texture modified diets are:
5.4.7 Obesity
Obesity is the medical condition where excess fat is accumulated in the body which
negatively affects the health. Obesity may be due to the combination of excess
food intake, sedentary life style, lack of enough sleep, lack of physical activity and
genetic susceptibility.
Obesity is the leading cause of death worldwide. Obesity can lead to chronic
illnesses such as diabetes, high blood pressure, coronary artery disease, heart attack,
stroke and even cancer.
The level of obesity is based on the body mass index (BMI). BMI is one way to access
the healthy weight range. The BMI combines the individual’s height and weight to
help predict the level of obesity. The BMI equation is:
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BMI is used only for adults and must not be used as an indicator of healthy weight for
children or adolescents. In children, the calculated BMI is compared with relevant
age and sex of the child/adolescent.
Visit BMI for children and adolescents to know the classification of overweight and
obesity for children and adolescents.
• Always select whole grains and whole legumes.

• Avoid red meat and opt for lean meat.
• Consume whole fruit instead of juice.
• Avoid unhealthy fats.
• Restrict the intake of sodium and sugar.
• Always have an eye on portion size.
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• Avoid all processed foods.

• Select foods with low glycemic index.
• Add as much dietary fiber as possible in each meal to give feeling of fullness.
Low kilojoule diet
Low kilojoule diet is the diet that defines the total kilojoule intake each day. Low
kilojoule diet also known as kilojoule-restricted diet plays a major role in weight loss.
Low kilojoule diet supplies less kilojoules to the body, thereby aids the body to break
down the fat to cover the lessened kilojoules.
Low kilojoule diet can be of different types based on the state of health and
underlying conditions of the person. Low carbohydrate and low fat diet also comes
under low kilojoule diet. Low kilojoule diets must be designed to achieve weight loss
over a longer time. A low kilojoule diet must be planned under the guidance of a
doctor or dietician.
The estimated daily energy requirements can be calculated using Eat for Health
online calculator.
Refer Estimated energy requirements for further information.
5.4.8 Geriatrics
As people grow older, the body functions alter and so the nutritional requirements
also change. Some elderly people also have health problems, which make them
even more difficult to meet their daily nutritional requirements. Hence, the diet must
be planned in such a way that it is easily consumable and meet all the physical,
psychological and nutritional requirements.
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Elderly people need less kilojoules due to reduced metabolism and muscle mass.
Hence, the nutrient requirement is similar with fewer kilojoule requirement.
• Include a carbohydrate food (bread, rice, pasta, potato, or cereal) in each

meal.
• Plan five servings of fruits & vegetables each day.
• Foods rich in protein help in the formation of new cells and keep the muscles
healthy.
• Plan three servings of low-fat dairy foods (milk, yoghurt, or cheese) each day to
maintain good bone health.
• Select healthy fats. Avoid saturated fats and trans fats.
• Avoid sweets and junk foods.
• Always balance food intake with physical.
• Elderly people who are home bound or institutionalized need more of vitamin D
as they are not exposed to sunlight.
5.5 Nutrients and sources
Nutrient Levels in Food source

food
Whole milk, cream, sweets, butter, margarine,
High fried foods, gravies, sauces, ice cream, all milk
products, cheese, cookies, meat, poultry etc.
Energy/Kilojoule
Vegetables, fruits, mushroom, fish, air popped
Low popcorn, apple, skinless chicken, leaf beef,
oatmeal, lentils, egg whites etc.
Whole meal bread, wild rice, sweet potatoes,
yams, whole meal pasta, most vegetables, fruits,
High oat meal, sugar-free dark chocolate, most
breakfast cereals, sugar drinks, candy, sweets
etc.
Carbohydrate
Lean meat, cheddar cheese, eggs, almonds,
cashews, walnuts, asparagus, broccoli,
Low cabbage, carrot, cucumber, mushroom, barley,
brown rice, bread, fruits, butter, coconut oil,
margarine, etc.
Greek yoghurt, cottage cheese, eggs, steaks,
chicken breast, turkey breast, tuna, peanut
High
butter, quinoa, mixed nuts, green peas, wheat
Protein
germ etc.
Avacado, asparagus, tree nuts, spinach, brown
Low
rice, bread, fruits, marshmallows, hard candy
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etc.
Fatty meats, fish, cheese, butter, walnuts,
High chocolate, avocado, peanut butter, coconut
oil, ground flaxseed, salmon, almonds etc.
Lettuce, carrot, tomato, spinach, strawberries,
Fat
egg whites, baked potato, chicken breasts,
Low grapes, watermelon, tuna fish, green peas,
wheat bread, beans, 1% reduced fat and skim
milk etc.
Processed meats, hot dogs, whole milk, cream
cheese, butter, lard, bacon fat, pastries, egg
High noodles, coconut, vegetables prepared in
butter, ice cream, chocolate, potato chips,
buttered popcorn etc.
Cholesterol
Lean cuts of meat, chicken and turkey without
skin, fish, egg whites, low-fat yoghurt, low-fat
Low dairy products, corn oil, olive oil, canola oil,
whole grain breads, whole grain rice, plain
baked potato, fruits etc.
Whole cereals, vegetables, fruits, sprouts, brown
High bread, split peas, avocado, lentils, coconut,
oats, almonds etc.
Fibre All milk products, vegetable and fruit juice
without pulp, beans, potatoes without skin,
Low
carrot, tomato, meat, poultry, seafood, eggs,
cheese, all oils, margarine, butter etc.
Instant cereals, normal bread, butter, margarine,
normal desserts, fruits, meat and vegetables
High
prepared with salt, peanut butter, pickles, salted
condiments etc.
Milk, unsalted fruit juices, coffee, tea, bread
Sodium
without baking soda and baking powder,
cooked cereal without salt, shredded wheat,
Low
unsalted butter, unsalted margarine, desserts
without salt/baking soda/baking powder,
unsalted fruits, meat cooked without salt etc.
Greek yoghurt, cottage cheese, eggs, steaks,
chicken breast, turkey breast, tuna, peanut
High
butter, quinoa, mixed nuts, green peas, wheat
Potassium germ, banana, coconut water etc.
Green beans, onions, eggplant, broccoli, carrot,
Low corn, cabbage, lettuce, cucumber, canned
fruits and vegetables, popcorn, etc.
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Visit Australian Dietary Guidelines for further information.
5.6 Religious or cultural diet
In order to understand the details for nutritional and dietary customs in any religion,
a brief orientation of the basis for such practices and laws is required. Many religious
customs and laws are traced to early concerns for health and safety in consuming
foods or liquids. Religious leaders developed rules about the consumption of foods
and drinks, and religious practices, restrictions, and laws evolved.
The lack of devices to refrigerate or preserve foods led to certain rituals, such as the
draining of blood from slaughtered animals, while restrictions on the eating of foods
known to spoil easily, such as eggs, dairy products, and meats, were devised for
safety reasons.
Though not all religions have specific direction regarding food, here are some of the
major religions and a brief look at how they impact eating habits:
Religion Practice or restriction Rationale

Buddhism • Refrain from meat, vegetarian • Natural foods of the earth are
diet is desirable. considered most pure.
• Moderation in all foods. • Monks avoid all solid food after
• Fasting required of monks. noon.
Eastern • Restrictions on Meat and Fish. • Observance of Holy Days
Orthodox • Fasting Selectively. includes fasting and restrictions
Christianity to increase spiritual progress.
Hinduism • Beef prohibited. • Cow is sacred and can’t be
• All other meat and fish eaten, but products of the
restricted or avoided. “sacred” cow are pure and
• Alcohol avoided. desirable.
• Numerous fasting days. • Fasting promotes spiritual
growth.
Islam • Pork and certain birds • Eating is for good health.
prohibited. • Failure to eat correctly
• Alcohol prohibited. minimises spiritual awareness.
• Coffee/tea/stimulants • Fasting has a cleansing effect
avoided. of evil elements.
• Fasting from all food and drink
during specific periods.
Judaism • Pork and shellfish prohibited. • Land animals that do not have
• Meat and dairy at same meal cloven hooves and that do not
prohibited. chew their cud are forbidden
• Fasting practiced. as unclean (e.g., hare, pig,
camel).
• Kosher process is based upon
the Torah.
Mormonism • Alcohol and beverages • Caffeine is addictive and leads
containing caffeine to poor physical and
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prohibited. emotional health.

• Moderation in all foods Fasting • Fasting is the discipline of self-
practiced. control and honouring to God.
Protestantism • Few restrictions of food or • God made all animal and
fasting observations. natural products for human
• Moderation in eating, drinking, enjoyment.
and exercise is promoted. • Gluttony and drunkenness are
sins to be controlled.
Rastafarianism • Meat and fish restricted. • Pigs and shellfish are
• Vegetarian diets only, with scavengers and are unclean.
salts, preservatives, and • Foods grown with chemicals
condiments prohibited. are unnatural and prohibited.
• Herbal drinks permitted; • Biblical texts support use of
alcohol, coffee, and soft drinks herbs (marijuana and other
prohibited. herbs).
• Marijuana used extensively for
religious and medicinal
purposes.
Roman • Meat restricted on certain • Restrictions are consistent with
Catholicism days. specified days of the church
• Fasting practiced. year.
Seventh-day • Pork prohibited and meat and • Diet satisfies practice to
Adventist fish avoided. “honour and glorify God”.
• Vegetarian diet is
encouraged.
• Alcohol, coffee, and tea
prohibited.
5.7 Vegetarian diets
Vegetarian diet is the diet that focuses on plants for food. Various types of
vegetarian diets are lacto-vegetarian (dairy), fruitarian vegetarian (fruits), lacto-ovo
(dairy and eggs) vegetarian, ovo-vegetarian (eggs), pesco-vegetarian (no red
meat or poultry but seafood is allowed), and semi-vegetarian (no red meat but
poultry and sea foods are allowed).
Lacto-vegetarian: Diet includes dairy products and excludes eggs, beef, pork,
poultry, fish, shellfish or animal flesh of any kind of meat.
Fruitarian vegetarian: Diet primarily includes fruits and possibly nuts and seeds and
excludes all animal products.
Lacto-ovo vegetarian: Diet includes eggs and dairy products and excludes beef,
pork, poultry, fish, shellfish or animal flesh of any kind of meat.
Ovo-vegetarian: Diet includes eggs and excludes dairy products, beef, pork, poultry,
fish, shellfish or animal flesh of any kind of meat.
Pesco-vegetarian: Diet includes dairy products and seafoods and excludes beef,
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pork, poultry or animal flesh of any kind of meat.
Semi-vegetarian: Diet includes eggs, dairy products, poultry, fish and shellfish and
excludes red meat.
5.8 Vegan diet
Vegan diet is a diet for vegan group who does not eat anything that is animal-
based, including eggs, dairy, and honey. Vegans do not usually adopt veganism just
for health reasons, but also for environmental, ethical, and compassionate reasons.
Whole-food vegan diet: Diet includes a wide variety of whole plant foods such as
fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes, nuts and seeds.
Raw-food vegan diet: Diet includes raw fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds or plant foods
cooked at temperatures below 48°C.
80/10/10: Diet includes raw fruits and soft greens and excludes fat-rich plants such as
nuts and avocados. This diet is always referred as the low-fat or raw-food vegan
diet.
The starch solution: Diet includes cooked starches like potatoes, rice and corn and
excludes fruits. This is also a low-fat, high-carb diet similar to the 80/10/10.
Raw till 4: Diet includes all raw foods and only up to 4 p.m. The diet has an option of
a cooked plant-based meal for dinner as per the need of an individual.
The thrive diet: Diet includes plant-based and whole foods that are raw or minimally
cooked at low temperatures.
5.9 Contemporary diets
5.9.1 Atkins diet
Atkins diet is the low carbohydrate fad diet that is referred for those who aim for
weight loss. Food that can included are meat, poultry, sea foods, eggs, butter, oils
and cheese. The foods that must be excluded are bread, pasta, potatoes, chips,
cookies and candies.
Atkins diet is classified into 4 phases.
Phase 1: This is the first stage wherein the body will be switched from burning
carbohydrates to fat. This process is called ketosis. Weight loss can be markedly
noticed in this phase. 20 grams of carbohydrates are eaten per day.
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Phase 2: Foods are added back to the diet gradually adding carbohydrates.
Nutritionist will specify the amount of carbohydrates to be consumed while still losing
weight.
Phase 3: This phase starts when just 10 pounds are left to lose. This phase aids to
maintain weight loss and to lose the last few pounds.
Phase 4: This phase is continued for the rest of the to ensure that the lost weight is not
gained back.
5.9.2 Cabbage soup diet
Cabbage soup diet is a fad diet that includes large amount of cabbage soup for
seven days. It is a good way to lose few pounds quickly as it drastically limits the
kilojoules. The lost weight is a combination of water and fat and sometimes even
muscle.
As the cabbage soup diet is low in complex carbohydrates, protein, vitamins and
minerals, one must not be on this diet for more than a week at a time. The large
amounts of cabbage may prone to flatulence and may rise sodium in the diet.
In the seven-day diet, only homemade cabbage soup will be consumed for every
meal, with just two food exceptions i.e. on day one a piece of fruit and on day five a
small portion of beef is allowed. A seven-day diet can be repeated again with a
gap of at least two weeks.
The main disadvantage of this diet is that the lost weight is gained back quickly, as it
is just the water loss.
5.9.3 Dukan diet
Dukan diet is the diet wherein one can eat as much as they want (foods on the
Dukan diet list) and can still lose weight. The Dukan food list comprises of 100 foods;
72 from animal sources and 28 from plant sources. The diet is categorized into four
phases.
Attack Phase: Can lose two to three kilos eating nothing but protein.
Cruise Phase: Vegetables are included in the diet to reduce weight gradually.
Consolidation Phase: Few pieces of fruit are included in the diet and the focus is to
maintain the new weight.
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Stabilisation Phase: It is the long-term part of the diet where a person will go back to
regular eating habits but focus on keeping your weight stable by including one all-
protein day a week, eating three tablespoons of oat bran each day, walking 20
minutes daily and always using the stairs (never the elevators or escalators).
5.9.4 Lemon detox diet
The lemon detox diet focusses less on diet and more on fast for up to 14 days. All
meals and drinks are replaced with a mixture of water, lemon juice, cayenne
pepper and madal bal syrup, which must be drunk for every two hours to prevent
the body from entering starvation mode. Saltwater mix and laxative teas are also
consumed.
Lemon detox diet will cleanse the body from toxins thereby it stops the body from
craving sugar. The diet also has a significant number of critics who claim that many
participants pile weight on after stopping as the diet slows your metabolism. One
Google search is enough to show exactly how many expert publications and
nutritionists are against the lemon detox diet. The main disadvantage of this diet is
that the lost weight is gained back quickly.
5.9.5 Zone diet
It is the low-carbohydrate diet with specific recommendations on the amount of

carbohydrates and protein consumed per day. Zone diet inspires the person to eat
five smaller meals rather than three regular-sized meals to give the person a feeling
of fullness for the entire day.
Zone diet insists the person to balance the plate at each meal with one third protein,
two thirds colourful fruit and vegetable carbohydrates and a dash of fat. Vitamins
and omega supplements must be taken along with physical exercise. Zone diet aids
to reduce diet-induced inflammation that results in weight gain, sickness and
ageing.
5.9.6 Ketogenic diet
This diet targets the body to trigger ketosis, a state where the body does not have
sugar fuel to burn and so it burns fat instead, thus resulting in weight loss. Keto diet is
a very, very low-carbohydrate (not more than 50 grams), high-fat diet.
It is similar to that of the Atkins diet and the key difference is that a ketogenic diet
limits the daily protein intake to 15–25%, which is not restricted in the Atkins diet.
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5.9.7 Paleo diet
Paleo diet resembles the diet what human hunter-gatherer ancestors ate thousands
of years ago. The belief is that their diet consisted of whole foods. This diet was
believed to lower the rates of lifestyle diseases such as obesity, diabetes and heart
disease.
The paleo diet is the diet that strictly avoids processed foods like breads, sugar, dairy,
vegetable oils, trans fats, artificial sweeteners, grains and legumes. The paleo diet is
the diet that restrict vegetable consumption to 15% or lower and encourages 35–
45% of the diet to be non-starchy vegetables.
Whole unprocessed foods like meat, seafood, eggs, veggies, fruits, potatoes, nuts,
healthy fats and spices can be consumed. If possible, select grass-fed and organic
products.
5.9.8 Baby food diet
Baby food diet is the diet that replaces two meals, preferably breakfast and lunch
with baby food. Dinner must be a balanced meal that concentrate on vegetables
and avoid high fat meat.
Baby food is generally low in fat, salt, sugar and sneaky additives. Baby food Diet
rely on the fact that baby food is presented in small amounts, which will help people
to monitor the amount they eat i.e. controlling the portions.
There are no specific rules to specify how much of baby food can be eaten
throughout the day. Few rely on baby food throughout the day and few add
healthy meal for dinner.
78
6 Equipment care, safety and hygiene
Success in the kitchen partially depends on the capability to select the right
equipment for a specific task and assemble and operate the equipment correctly
and safely. The staff must be trained before using the specific equipment. Cost and
usage factors must be considered while purchasing an equipment.
Businesses need to take a close look at equipment design in order to meet the food
safety. Properly-designed processing and packaging equipment is one of the most
efficient ways to avoid cost and safety related issues.
Different types of equipment include cutting equipment, knives, food processor,

graters, pots and pans, baking tins and trays, stirring utensils, colanders and strainers,
fryer baskets and spiders, stove top burners, grills, pressure steamer, deep fryer,
ovens, service equipment, tongs, ladles, piping bag and nozzles, platters, bowls etc.
The food equipment’s used must comply the below principles:
a) Cleanable to a microbiological level
Food equipment must be engineered to guarantee effective and efficient cleaning

of the equipment during its life span. The equipment must be designed to prevent
bacterial access, survival, growth and reproduction on the contact surfaces of the
equipment.
79
b) Made of compatible materials
Building materials used for equipment must be fully compatible with the product,
environment, cleaning and sanitizing chemicals and the methods of cleaning and
sanitation.
c) Reachable for inspection, maintenance, cleaning and sanitation
All parts of the equipment must be readily available for inspection, maintenance,
cleaning and sanitation without the use of tools.
d) No product or liquid collection
Equipment must be self-draining to guarantee that liquid, which can dock and
encourage the growth of bacteria, does not accumulate on the equipment.
e) Hollow areas must be sealed
Hollow areas of equipment such as frames and rollers must be removed whenever
possible or permanently sealed. Bolts, studs, mounting plates, brackets, junction
boxes, nameplates, end caps, sleeves and other such items must be welded to the
surface.
f) No indentations
Equipment parts must be free of indentations such as pits, cracks, corrosion,

recesses, open seams, gaps, lap seams, protruding ledges, inside threads, bolt rivets
and dead ends.
g) Sanitary working performance
During normal works, the equipment must not contribute to insanitary conditions or
the harbourage and growth of bacteria.
h) Hygienic design of maintenance enclosures
Maintenance enclosures such as push buttons, valve handles, switches and touch-
screens must be designed to ensure that the product does not penetrate or
accumulate.
i) Hygienic compatibility with other systems
Equipment design must ensure hygienic compatibility with other equipment and
systems, such as electrical, hydraulics, steam, air and water.
80
j) Validate cleaning and sanitizing procedures
Procedures for cleaning and sanitation must be clearly written, designed and
proven effective and efficient. Chemicals suggested for cleaning and sanitation
must be well-matched with the equipment.
Equipment – Safety
Working with equipment can be risky because moving equipment can cause
damages in many ways:
• Individuals can be hit and injured by moving parts of equipment or ejected

material. Body parts can also be trapped between rollers, belts and pulley drives.
• Pointed edges can cause cuts and injuries, sharp-pointed parts can stab or
puncture the skin, and rough surface parts can cause scratch or abrasion.
• Individuals can be crushed between the equipment parts moving.
• Parts of the machine, materials and releases (such as steam or water) can be hot
or cold enough to cause burns or blisters and electricity can cause electrical
shock and burns.
• Damages can also happen due to equipment becoming unreliable and
developing faults due to poor or no maintenance or improper use through
inexperience or lack of training.
81
Do’s and Don’ts for equipment safety:
Check that the equipment is well maintained and fit to be used.

Use the equipment appropriately and in agreement with the business’s
instructions;
Make sure employees are wearing the suitable protective material
Do’s
required for that equipment, such as safety glasses, hearing protection
and safety shoes.
Ensure that those who use equipment are trained to use it safely. For
some equipment’s, a formal prerequisite is a must.
Use an equipment that has a danger sign or tag attached to it.
Remove any protections, even if their presence seems to make the job
tougher.
Don’ts
Wear hanging chains, loose clothing, and rings or have loose long hair
that could get caught up in moving parts.
Confuse people who are using equipment.
82
7 References
https://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/food-essentials/five-food-groups
http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5740e/y5740e08.htm#TopOfPage
http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/consumer/labelling/panels/Pages/default.aspx
https://www.healthknowledge.org.uk/public-health-textbook/disease-causation-
diagnostic/2e-health-social-behaviour/principles-nutrition
https://daa.asn.au/smart-eating-for-you/smart-eating-fast-facts/healthy-eating/the-
australian-dietary-guidelines/
* All images are taken from google and clipart
83

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What are the main elements and performance criteria for preparing foods to meet special dietary requirements?

What are the main elements and performance criteria for preparing foods to meet special dietary requirements?

What are some safety considerations when working with equipment?

What are some safety considerations when working with equipment?

Prepare food to meet

No occupational licensing, certification or specific legislative requirements apply

Elements and Performance Criteria

1.1. Confirm dietary and cultural food requirements of the customer.

1.2. Liaise with others to clarify requirements.

1. Confirm special 1.3. Recognise potential health consequences of overlooking special

1.6. Exclude ingredients from dishes as requested by the customer.

2.6. Employ suitable preparation and cooking techniques to retain

3.2. Visually evaluate dish and adjust presentation as required.

3. Present 3.3. Store dishes in appropriate environmental conditions.

2.1.2 Refined grain cereal .........................................................................................................3

2.1.3 Recommended intake of grain ......................................................................................3

2.1.4 Health benefits of grains ...................................................................................................4

2.2 Vegetables and legumes........................................................................................... 4

2.2.2 Health benefits of vegetables and legumes ................................................................6

2.3 Fruit .................................................................................................................................. 6

2.3.2 Health benefits of fruits .....................................................................................................8

2.4.2 Health benefits of foods from this group .................................................................... 11

2.5 Milk, yoghurt, cheese and/or their alternatives ................................................... 11

2.5.2 Health benefits of foods from this group .................................................................... 13

3.1.2 Protein ............................................................................................................................... 18

3.1.3 Fat ...................................................................................................................................... 19

3.2.2 Minerals ............................................................................................................................. 21

3.3 Water ............................................................................................................................ 22

3.7 Nutrition loss ................................................................................................................. 25

4 Selecting ingredients ................................................................................... 27

4.2.2 Smell .................................................................................................................................. 28

4.2.3 Taste .................................................................................................................................. 28

4.2.4 Texture ............................................................................................................................... 28

4.3 Standardized Recipe Cards..................................................................................... 29

4.4.2 Moist heat methods ....................................................................................................... 37

4.4.3 Modern cooking techniques ........................................................................................ 42

4.5 Plan and organize work requirements ................................................................... 44

4.5.2 Brigade – Kitchen Staff ................................................................................................... 44

4.5.3 Communicate with team members ........................................................................... 45

4.6 Portion size and cooking .......................................................................................... 46

5 Special diets .................................................................................................. 58

5.3 Food drug interaction ............................................................................................... 61

5.4.2 Diabetes ........................................................................................................................... 63

5.4.3 Renal disorders ................................................................................................................ 65

5.4.4 Heart disorders ................................................................................................................. 65

5.4.5 Coeliac condition ........................................................................................................... 67

5.4.6 Texture modified diets .................................................................................................... 67

5.4.7 Obesity .............................................................................................................................. 68

5.4.8 Geriatrics .......................................................................................................................... 70

5.5 Nutrients and sources ................................................................................................ 71

5.9.2 Cabbage soup diet ....................................................................................................... 76

5.9.3 Dukan diet ........................................................................................................................ 76

5.9.4 Lemon detox diet ........................................................................................................... 77

5.9.5 Zone diet........................................................................................................................... 77

5.9.6 Ketogenic diet ................................................................................................................. 77

5.9.7 Paleo diet ......................................................................................................................... 78

5.9.8 Baby food diet................................................................................................................. 78

6 Equipment care, safety and hygiene ....................................................... 79

Recommended dietary allowance (RDA) is the average daily intake adequate

4. Build healthy eating patterns. Develop healthy eating patterns in order to meet