IB Biology HL Essay Questions
IB Biology HL Essay Questions
IB Biology HL Essay Questions
UNIT 3: GENETICS 16
3.1: GENES 16
3.2: CHROMOSOMES 16
3.3: MEIOSIS 17
3.4: INHERITANCE 17
UNIT 4: ECOLOGY 19
4.1: SPECIES, COMMUNITIES AND ECOSYSTEMS 19
4.2: ENERGY FLOW 19
4.3: CARBON CYCLING 20
4.4: GREENHOUSE EFFECT 20
Notes:
2
Unit 1: Cell Biology
1.1: Introduction to cells
skeletal muscle fibers are larger/have many nuclei/are not typical cells
fungal hyphae are (sometimes) not divided up into individual cells
unicellular organisms can be considered acellular
because they are larger than a typical cell/carry out all functions of life
some tissues/organs contain large amounts of extracellular material
e.g. vitreous humor of eye/ mineral deposits in bone/ xylem in trees/other
example
statement of cell theory/all living things/most tissues are composed entirely of true
cells
functions: 3 max
EITHER
OR
3. Explain how the surface are to volume ratio influences cell sizes. 3 marks
small cells have larger ratio (than larger cells)/ratio decreases as size increases
surface area/membrane must be large enough to absorb
nutrients/oxygen/substances needed
surface area/membrane must be large enough to excrete/pass out waste products
need for materials is determined by (cell) volume
cell size is limited (by SA/Volume ratio)/cells divide when they reach a certain size
reference to diffusion across/through membrane/surface area
3
example of a differentiated cell in a multicellular organism
cells have all genes/could develop in any way
some genes are switched on/expressed but not others
position/hormones/cell-to-cell signals/chemicals determine how a cell develops
a group of differentiated cells is a tissue
7. Draw a labelled diagram to show the organelles which are found in the
cytoplasm of plant cells. 6 marks
rough endoplasmic
reticulum
free ribosomes
Golgi apparatus
mitochondrion
chloroplast
vacuole
nucleus
lysosome
smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
4
8. Draw a labelled diagram showing the ultra-structure of a liver cell. 4 marks
Award 1 for each structure clearly drawn and correctly labelled. Whole cells not necessary.
Award 0 if plant cell is drawn. Award 2 max if any plant cell structure (e.g. cell wall) is
present.
5
10. Distinguish between the structure of plant and animal cells. 6 marks
plant cells
animal cells
11. Using a table, compare the structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. 5
marks
6
13. Explain how the structure and properties of phospholipids help to maintain
the structure of cell membranes. 9 marks
phospholipid structure
arrangement in membrane
14. Explain the role of vesicles in transportation of materials within cells. 8 marks
7
vesicle fuses with membrane;
(by joining of) phospholipid bilayers;
aided by the fluidity of the membrane;
material released/expelled from the cell;
membrane flattens;
name of example e.g. exocytosis of neurotransmitter / exocrine
secretion/endocrine secretion / hormone secretion / release of cortical granules;
outline of example: (in the presence of calcium), neurotransmitter vesicles release
their contents into the synapse / hormones released from one cell have an effect
on another cell etc.;
17. Outline the processes that occur in a cell during interphase, including those
needed to prepare for mitosis. 4 marks
DNA replication
DNA transcription
enzyme/ protein synthesis
biochemical reactions/ example of a biochemical reaction
cell respiration
growth
organelles replicated
8
Unit 2: Molecular Biology
2.1: Molecules to Metabolism
9
5. Draw a molecule of ribose. 1 mark.
2.2: Water
Award 4 max if thermal, cohesive and solvent properties are not all mentioned.
surface tension - allows some organisms (e.g. insects) to move on water's surface
polarity / capillarity / adhesion - helps plants transport water
(excellent) solvent - capable of dissolving substances for transport in organisms
(excellent) thermal properties (high heat of vaporization) - excellent coolant
ice floats - lakes / oceans do not freeze, allowing life under the ice
buoyancy - supports organisms
structure - turgor in plant cells / hydrostatic pressure
habitat - place for aquatic organisms to live
8. Describe the use of carbohydrates and lipids for energy storage in animals. 5
marks
Answers must discuss both carbohydrates and lipids to receive full marks
carbohydrates: 3 max
10
more soluble in water for easier transport
lipids: 3 max
2.4: Proteins
name of function and named protein must both be correct for the mark
11
2.5: Enzymes
12. Lactase is widely used in food processing. Explain three reasons for
converting lactose to glucose and galactose during food processing. 3 marks
13. Simple laboratory experiments show that when the enzyme lactase is mixed
with lactose, the initial rate of reaction is highest at 48 °C. In food
processing, lactase is used at a much lower temperature, often at 5 °C.
Suggest reasons for using lactase at relatively low temperatures. 2 marks
12
base, phosphate and deoxyribose (shown as pentagon) connected between the
correct carbons and labelled at least once;
backbone labelled as covalent bond between nucleotides correctly shown as 3 to 5
bond;
two base pairs linked by hydrogen bonds drawn as dotted lines and labelled;
two H bonds between A and T and three H bonds between C and G;
adenine to thymine and cytosine to guanine; do not accept initials of bases
antiparallel orientation shown;
19. Explain the structure of the DNA double helix, including its subunits and the
way in which they are bonded together. 8 marks
21. Explain briefly the advantages and disadvantages of the universality of the
genetic code to humans. 4 marks
23. Describe the roles of mRNA, tRNA and ribosomes in translation. 6 marks
13
ribosome with two sub-units
mRNA held by ribosome
start codon
two tRNA molecules attached with mRNA on ribosome
peptide bond between amino acids on tRNA
polypeptide forms
continues until a stop codon is reached
polypeptide is released
24. Explain the similarities and differences in anaerobic and aerobic cellular
respiration. 8 marks
Answers must include both similarities and differences to receive full marks.
similarities: 3 max
differences: 5 max
anaerobic:
25. Compare how pyruvate is used in human cells when oxygen is available and
when oxygen is not available. 5 marks
2.9: Photosynthesis
14
26. Outline the effect of temperature, light intensity and carbon dioxide
concentration on the rate of photosynthesis. 6 marks
light:
CO2:
temperature:
15
Unit 3: Genetics
3.1: Genes
the sequence of nucleotide bases in DNA codes for the sequence of amino acids in
proteins
DNA is transcribed into mRNA, which is translated into amino acids of protein
normal (ß chain) hemoglobin gene / DNA produces normal (ß chain) hemoglobin
protein / amino acids
substitution= the replacement of one (or more) nucleotide base with another
caused by a copying mistake during DNA replication
as a result of a mutagen / X-rays / chemical / UV radiation / other mutagen
mutation in normal (ß chain) hemoglobin gene alters the sequence of nucleotide
bases
normal nucleotide sequence = CTC altered to CAC
resulting in altered mRNA (GAG to GUG) during transcription
resulting in altered sequence of amino acids in (ß chain) hemoglobin protein
(glutamic acid to valine) during translation
causing red blood cells to change shape / sickle under low oxygen conditions
causing sickle cells anemia when two copies of the mutated gene are inherited
producing a sickle cell carrier when one copy of the mutated gene is inherited
sickle cells anemia reduces oxygen flow to organs, leading to their deterioration
3.2: Chromosomes
fetal cells obtained from amniotic fluid / amniocentesis / other named source
white blood cells obtained
cells encouraged to divide
cells accumulated / blocked in metaphase
prepare slide / chromosomes examined
16
3.3: Meiosis
3.4: Inheritance
multiple alleles means a gene has three or more alleles / more than two alleles
ABO blood groups / other named example of multiple alleles
ABO gene has three alleles / equivalent for other example
IA IB and i shown (at some point in the answer) / equivalent for other example
6. Describe the inheritance of ABO blood groups including an example of the possible
outcomes of a homozygous blood group A mother having a child with a blood
group O father. 5 marks
example of co-dominance
multiple alleles / 3 alleles
(phenotype) O has (genotype) ii
B can be IB IB or IB i
A can be IA IA or IA i
AB is IA IB
(P are) i i x IA IA
(gametes) i and IA
(F1 genotype) IA i
(F1 phenotype) blood group A
accept other notations if used consistently and if phenotype and genotype are clearly distinguished
17
7. Outline sex linkage. 5 marks
18
Unit 4: Ecology
4.1: Species, Communities and ecosystems
Explain the shape of the pyramids of energy that are constructed by ecologists to
represent energy flow in an ecosystem (4 max)
energy flows up from one trophic level to the next (in a community)
energy is lost at each stage by waste products/feces/incomplete consumption of
organism
most of the energy is lost through respiration/heat
each level on the pyramid is about 10%-20% of the one below it/80%-90% of
energy lost between levels.
19
Explain how the flow of energy in the food web differs from the movement of
nutrients (2 max)
State what carbon fluxes and carbon sinks are and describe how carbon fluxes
are measured (4 max)
a carbon flux is the rate of exchange of carbon between the various carbon sinks;
a carbon sink is a forest, ocean or other natural environment viewed in terms of its
ability to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere;
example of a carbon sink (lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere)
not possible to directly measure the size of carbon sinks and fluxes;
due to constant changes;
global carbon fluxes are very large and estimated in gigatonnes per year;
greenhouse effect is the earth’s ability to use its atmosphere to retain heat and
keep warm even when no sun is hitting the surface;
short wave radiation emitted by the sun;
pass through greenhouse gases;
long wave radiation emitted by earth;
absorbed by greenhouse gases and reflected back to
most significant greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide and water vapor;
methane not significant because of low concentration;
20
Unit 5: Evolution and Biodiversity
5.1: Evidence for evolution
Discuss the incompleteness of the fossil record and the resulting uncertainties
about human evolution. 4 marks
homologous structures are those that are similar in shape in different types of
organisms;
structural similarities imply a common ancestry / similar embryonic origin
homologues structures are used in different ways;
illustrate adaptive radiation since the same basic structure is adapted to different
niches
certain homologues structures in some species with no apparent function;
human appendix (homologues with functional appendix in herbivores)
example of homologues structure is pentadactyl limb in vertebrates (bat’s wing
and human hand)
21
4.2: Natural Selection
22
5.3: Classification of Biodiversity
Outline the international system used for naming species of living organisms. (4
max)
binomial system
devised by Linnaeus
the first name is the genus name
the second name is the species name
genus name can be abbreviated
genus consists of a group of (closely related) species
upper case for first letter of genus name and the rest of the binomial is lower case
Sequoia sempervirens / other example
first published name is the correct one
local / colloquial names can be very confusing / helps international communication
Outline the advantages to scientists of the binomial system for naming species.
(4 max)
international system
naming system decided upon by congress;
all scientists use the same names for species;
misunderstandings due to language differences can be avoided
double names are easy to remember and use
first name is genus name and shows which other species are closely related
Name the levels and the specific taxa in the hierarchy of classification using
humans as an example. (2 max)
(Kingdom) Animalia
(Phylum) Chordata
(Sub-phylum) Vertebrata
(Class) Mammalia
(Order) Primata
(Family) Hominidae
(Genus) Homo
(Species) sapiens
23
Outline the structural differences which characterize bryophytes, filicinophytes,
coniferophytes and angiospermophytes. 9 marks
24
Discuss how biochemical variations can be used as an evolutionary clock. 5 marks
25
Unit 6: Human Physiology
6.1: Structure of the Digestive
System
26
3. State the sources, substrate, product, and optimum pH conditions for the
enzyme amylase. 3 marks
lymph vessel
arteriole
venule
(central) lacteal
capillary network
epithelial layer/ lining/ epithelium
microvilli
goblet cells
27
6.2: The Blood System
7. Draw a labelled diagram to show the internal structure of the heart. 6 marks
Award one mark for each of the following structures clearly drawn and labelled correctly in
a diagram of the heart
Do not award marks for a diagram with only the ventricles or atria. However, it is not
necessary to show the cordae tendinae.
8. Draw a labelled diagram of the heart showing all four chambers, associated
blood vessels and valves. 5 marks
Award one mark for each structure clearly drawn and correctly labelled. Schematic
diagrams are acceptable.
right and left ventricles – not connected shown larger than atria;
right and left atrium – not connected, thinner walls than ventricles;
right ventricle has thinner walls than left ventricle / vice versa;
atrio-ventricular valves / tricuspid and bicuspid valves – shown between atria and
ventricles;
aorta and pulmonary artery – shown leaving the appropriate ventricle with
semilunar valves shown;
pulmonary vein and vena cava – shown entering appropriate atrium;
28
9. Outline the events that occur within the heart, which cause blood to move
around the body. 6 marks
10. Explain the relationship between the structure and function of arteries,
capillaries and veins. 9 marks
11. Blood is a liquid tissue containing glucose, urea, plasma proteins and other
components. List the other components of blood. 5 marks
plasma/water;
dissolved gases / CO2 / O2;
erythrocytes / red blood cells;
leucocytes / white blood cells;
lymphocytes and phagocytes;
platelets;
hormones / named hormone(s);
amino acids / albumin / antibodies;
salts / minerals / ions other named solute in plasma apart from glucose, urea and
plasma proteins;
29
6.3: Defense Against Infectious Diseases
12. Outline how the skin and mucous membranes prevent entry of pathogens into
the body. 5 marks
skin: 3 max
Benefits: 4 max
immunity results
can limit pandemics/epidemics/spread of (infectious) diseases;
diseases can be eradicated/smallpox eliminated;
reduces mortality/deaths due to disease;
can protect vulnerable groups/young/old/with other conditions;
decrease crippling effects of diseases (such as polio);decreased health care costs;
Dangers: 4 max
30
passive immunity - acquisition of antibodies from another organism / from
elsewhere6.4: Gas exchange
16. Draw a simple diagram of the gas exchange system in humans. 5 marks
For a diagram of the whole gas exchange system, award 1 mark for each of the following
structures clearly drawn and labeled correctly.
trachea
lungs
bronchi
bronchioles
lungs (2 must be shown)
intercostal muscles
between ribs
diaphragm
alveolus
bronchiole
consists of inhaling and exhaling air / exchanging stale air with fresh air (with the
environment)
external intercostal muscles contract moving the rib cage up/out
diaphragm contracts
increase volume of thorax / lowers lung pressure relative to air pressure / pulls air
in
diaphragm relaxes
abdominal muscles contract
internal intercostal muscles contract moving the rib cage down/in
force air out / decreases volume of thorax / raise lung pressure relative to air
pressure
(small) animals obtain oxygen (by diffusion) through skin / in humans (large)
animals skin is ineffective for ventilation
humans are large / have a small ratio of surface area:volume
so need ventilation system to increase surface area
to maintain a concentration gradient in alveoli
as oxygen is used in respiration (and carbon dioxide is produced)
gaseous exchange occurs between air in alveoli and blood capillaries
alveoli have high ratio of surface area:volume (to facilitate ventilation)
to bring in fresh air (and remove stale air)
19. Explain the need for, and mechanism of, ventilation of the lungs in humans. 8
marks
31
diaphragm contracts
(external) intercostal muscles contract
increased volume (of thorax / thoracic cavity)
decreasing air pressure in lungs
air rushes in down air pressure gradient
20. Many processes in living organisms, including ventilation and gas exchange,
involve moving materials. State the differences between ventilation and gas
exchange in humans. 4 marks
ventilation: 2 max
movement of air
movement in and out of the lungs
caused by muscles
an active process
involves mass flow / involves flow along air passages
cell body drawn and labelled with a nucleus shown inside (reject if cell body not
drawn at end of axon)
axon drawn at least three times as long as the diameter of the cell body and
labelled
Schwann cells / myelin sheath drawn and labelled
gaps in the myelin sheath drawn and labeled
at least five dendrites drawn leading to the cell body labelled
32
at least two motor end plates / buttons / synaptic knobs / synaptic terminals
drawn and labelled
23.
24. Explain how the nerve impulse passes along a neuron. 8 marks
in resting potential
sodium is pumped out by the active transport and potassium in
a concentration gradient builds up electrical potential / voltage
negative inside compared to outside
when impulse passes / action potential
must pass threshold level
sodium channels open and ions diffuse into neuron
membrane depolarized
potassium diffuse out across membrane through ion channels
active transport of ions once more
slower in un-myelinated neuron than in myelinated
an action potential in one part of the neuron causes the action potential to develop
in the next section
25. Explain how a non-myelinated neuron can maintain a resting potential and
undergo an action potential. 9 marks
33
active transport of ions across the membrane / pumps using ATP
positively charged sodium ions / Na+ are pumped out
fewer K+ are pumped in / 2 K+ compared to 3 Na+
neuron contains negatively charged organic ions
membrane allows little / no diffusion of ions
to create action potential sodium ion channels open
sodium ions move into the neuron
therefore there is depolarization / membrane polarization is reversed
this causes similar changes further on along the neuron
reference to diffusion of ions / local currents
potassium ion channels open after the sodium ion channels
potassium diffuses out causing some repolarization
impulse reaches the motor end plates / synaptic knobs / buttons / synaptic
terminals
synaptic vesicles contain neurotransmitter / acetylcholine
calcium enters through the presynaptic membrane
calcium causes the vesicle to move to and fuse with the membrane / causes
exocytosis
neurotransmitter / acetylcholine released into the synaptic cleft
postsynaptic membrane
binds to receptor sites
causes depolarization of the muscle fiber membrane / postsynaptic membrane
by opening sodium gates
threshold of stimulation must be reached / all or nothing effect
enzyme / acetylcholinesterase breaks down the neurotransmitter / acetylcholine
depolarization causes sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium ions
calcium ions cause / enable muscle contraction
34
Cl- passing to the outside of the post-synaptic neuron (usually) causes
hyperpolarization
(some) neurotransmitters are destroyed by enzymes
homeostasis maintains the internal blood glucose levels between narrow limits
70-110 mg glucose per 100 ml blood
blood glucose level is maintained by negative feedback
islets in pancreas monitor blood glucose levels
after meal blood glucose increases
high blood glucose stimulates release of insulin
(release of insulin) by pancreatic islets/ by ß-cells
causes muscles/ adipose tissue and liver to store glycogen
glucose stored in the form of glycogen (in muscle/ liver)
storage lowers blood glucose levels
if blood glucose levels drops glucagon secreted
secrete glucagon by pancreatic islets/ by å-cells
this causes liver to break down glycogen (to glucose)
glycogen breakdown causes blood glucose level increase
32. Describe how pancreatic cells directly affect blood glucose levels. 5 marks
35
Do not accept answers implying that insulin or glucagon catalyze glucose-glycogen
conversions directly. Award 3 max if the response suggests that the hypothalamus has a
role in regulation of blood glucose.
33. Describe the response of the human body to low external temperatures. 4
marks
Ovaries
Oviduct/Fallopian tubes
Cervix / Cervical cavity
Uterus / Uterine cavity
Labium minora
Labium majora
Vagina
35. Explain the functions of the parts of the female reproductive system. 4 marks
36
36. Label the male reproductive system. 8 marks.
Glans penis
Urethra
Prostate Gland
Scrotum
Testis
Epididymis
Ductus deferens
Seminal gland
Vas deferens
Urinary bladder
37. Explain the functions of the male parts of the reproductive system. 5 marks
37
Testis: Sperm and testerone production
Prostate gland: Produces an alkaline fluid, rich in proteins which, together with
seminal vesicles’ secretion and sperm, makes semen;
38. Explain the role of hormones in the regulation of the menstrual cycle. 8 marks
38
Unit 7: Nucleic Acids
7.1 DNA Structure and Replication
o contain histones
o eight histone molecules form a cluster in a nucleosome
o DNA strand is wound around the histones
o wound around twice in each nucleosome
o (another) histone molecule holds the nucleosome(s) together
o
Award 1 for each pair of statements in a table, and 1 for any statement below the
table.
39
Accept any of the points above shown on an annotated diagram.
5. State a role for each of four different named enzymes in DNA replication. 6
marks
o helicase
o DNA polymerase / DNA polymerase III
o RNA primase
o DNA polymerase I
o (DNA) ligase
Award 1 mark for one function for each of the named enzymes.
helicase
(RNA) primase
(DNA) polymerase I
(DNA) ligase
40
41
e7.1: Transcription and Gene Expression
7.3: Translation
Accept any of the points above if clearly explained using a suitably labelled
diagram
42
9. Outline the structure of a ribosome. 4 marks
o both in 5` to 3` direction
o both require ATP
o DNA is transcribed and mRNA is translated
o transcription produces RNA and translation produces polypeptides/ protein
o RNA polymerase for transcription and ribosomes for translation/ ribosomes
in translation only
o transcription in the nucleus (of eukaryotes) and translation in the
cytoplasm/ at ER
o tRNA needed for translation but not transcription
43
Unit 8: Metabolism, cell respiration and
photosynthesis
8.1: Metabolism
1. Compare the induced fit model of enzyme activity with the lock and key
model. 4 marks
44
competitive inhibitor has similar shape/structure to the substrate
therefore it fits to the active site
no reaction is catalyzed so the inhibitor remains bound
substrate cannot bind as long as the inhibitor remains bound
only one active site per enzyme molecule
substrate and inhibitor compete for the active site
therefore high substrate concentrations can overcome the inhibition
as substrate is used up ratio of inhibitor to substrate rises
named example of inhibitor plus inhibited enzyme / process / substrate
occurs in cytoplasm;
hexose is phosphorylated using ATP;
hexose phosphate is split into two triose phosphates;
oxidation by removal of hydrogen; (do not accept hydrogen ions/protons)
conversion of NAD to NADH (+H+);
net gain of two ATP / two ATP used and four ATP produced;
pyruvate produced at the end of glycolysis;
Award 1 mark for each of the following structures clearly drawn and labelled correctly.
outer membrane
intermembrane space / outer compartment
inner membrane
matrix
cristae
ribosome
naked / circular DNA
45
ATP synthase
7. Explain how the structure of the mitochondrion allows it to carry out its
function efficiently. 8 marks
8. Explain the reactions that occur in the matrix of the mitochondrion that are
part of aerobic respiration. 8 marks
46
by glycolysis, glucose is broken down into pyruvate (two molecules) in the
cytoplasm
with a small yield of ATP/ net yield of 2 ATP
and NADH + H+/ NADH
aerobic respiration in the presence of oxygen
pyruvate converted to acetyl CoA
by oxidative decarboxylation / NADH and CO2 formed
fatty acids / lipids converted to acetyl CoA
acetyl groups enter the Krebs cycle (accept acetyl CoA)
Krebs cycle yields a small amount of ATP/ one ATP per cycle
and FADH2/ FADH + H+/ NADH /NADH + H+/ reduced compounds/ electron
collecting molecules
these molecules pass electrons to electron transport chain (reject donates H+)
oxygen is final electron acceptor/ water produced
electron transport chain linked to creation of an electrochemical gradient
electrochemical gradient/ chemiosmosis powers creation of ATP
through ATPase/synthase/synthetase
10. Outline the role of oxygen in providing cells with energy. 6 marks
needed for aerobic (but not anaerobic) resp./simple equation for aerobic resp.
used in oxidative phosphorylation
oxygen accepts electrons at the end of the ETC
also accepts protons to form water / water formed using oxygen
allows more electrons along the ETC
allows NAD to be regenerated / reduced NAD to be oxidized
allows ATP production
allows a high yield of ATP from glucose in respiration / 32-38 instead of 2
12. Describe the central role of acetyl (ethanoyl) CoA in carbohydrate and fat
metabolism. 5 marks
47
8.3: Photosynthesis
13. Explain the effect of light intensity and temperature on the rate of
photosynthesis. 8 marks
light:
temperature:
48
16. Explain the reactions involving the use of light energy that occur in the
thylakoids of the chloroplast. 8 marks
Accept any of the above points if clearly drawn and correctly labelled in a diagram.
49
flow of electrons causes pumping of protons into thylakoid membrane
electrons are passed to NADP/NADP+
NADPH produced in the light dependent reactions
similarities:
chloroplast:
site of photosynthesis
third membrane system / thylakoid membranes
photosynthetic pigments/chlorophyll to absorb light
light generated ATP production
H+ gradient across thylakoid membrane
mitochondrion:
site of respiration
ATP production by oxidation of organic molecules / fats / amino acids
H+ gradient across inner membrane
Award [1] for each of the following clearly drawn and correctly labelled. Label lines must
be unambiguous in terms of what they are indicating.
50
double/inner and outer
membrane/envelope – shown as
two concentric continuous lines
close together;
granum/grana – shown as a stack
of several disc-shaped subunits;
(intergranal) lamella – shown
continuous with thylakoid
membrane;
thylakoid – one of the flattened
sacs;
stroma;
(70S) ribosomes/(circular) DNA / lipid globules / starch granules / thylakoid space;
51
Unit 9: Plant Biology
9.1: Transport in the Xylem of Plants
The main parts of growing plants are roots, stems and leaves. Draw a plan
diagram to show the arrangement of tissues in the stem of a dicotyledonous
plant. 5 marks Award [1] for each of these structures clearly drawn and labeled.
epidermis shown on the outside with thickness less than 10 % of overall diameter;
cortex labeled between the outer layer of the stem and the vascular bundles;
xylem shown on the inner side of the vascular bundles;
phloem shown on outer side of the vascular bundles;
vascular bundle with some way of indicating the entire structure;
pith shown in center;
cambium shown between xylem and phloem;
Award 1 for each structure clearly drawn and correctly labeled. Accept a plan diagram
without individual cells.
52
Explain the functions of the different tissues of a leaf. 8 marks
Outline the adaptations of plant roots for absorption of mineral ions from the
soil. 5 marks
53
can enter cell wall space / be drawn through cell walls / apoplastic pathway
selective / only specific ions absorbed
Explain how abiotic factors affect the rate of transpiration in a terrestrial plant. 8
marks
List three abiotic factors which affect the rate of transpiration in a typical
mesophytic plant. 3 marks
light
temperature
wind
humidity
Explain how wind affects the rate of transpiration from a leaf. 5 marks
54
reduced leaves/spines to prevent water loss (by transpiration);
rolled leaves to prevent water loss / stomata on the inside / sunken stomata;
thick waxy cuticle/hairs on leaves to prevent water loss (by transpiration);
reduced stomata to prevent water loss (by transpiration) / stomata on one side of
leaf;
deep/widespread roots to obtain more water;
special tissue for storing water;
take in carbon dioxide at night / CAM plant to prevent water loss;
Outline the role of the phloem in the active translocation of biochemicals. 5 marks
living tissue
composed of companion cells / sieve tube members
companion cells involved in ATP production
sucrose / amino acids / assimilate / products of photosynthesis transported
bi-directional transport
source / leaves to sink / fruits / roots /storage organs / named storage organ
pressure flow hypothesis / movement of water into phloem causes transport
Award 1 for each of the following structures clearly drawn and labelled correctly.
petals
sepal
stigma
style
ovary
stamen / anther and
filament
receptacle / nectary
55
Explain the conditions needed for seed germination. 4 marks
water needed
water causes swelling which bursts the testa / seed coat / water softens the testa /
seed coat
water mobilizes soluble food reserves / enzymes / medium for metabolic processes
water rehydrates cells / tissues
water transports hydrolyzed food reserves
water transports growth promoters / hormones
water dilutes / washes out growth inhibitors
oxygen needed
oxygen required for (aerobic) respiration
which provides ATP for metabolic activity
56
Unit 10: Genetics and Evolution
10.1: Meiosis
Prophase II
o Spindle microtubules stretch out from each pole
o Nuclear membrane breaks down.
o No crossing over
Metaphase II
o Chromosomes in each cell line up at the equator
o Spindle microtubules attach to the centromere of each chromosome
Anaphase II
o Sister chromatids pulled to opposite poles in both cells.
Telophase II
o Nuclear membrane reforms around four sets of daughter chromosomes
non-disjunction;
chromosomes/chromatids do not separate / go to same pole;
non-separation of (homologous) chromosomes during anaphase I;
57
due to incorrect spindle attachment;
non-separation of chromatids during anaphase II;
due to centromeres not dividing;
occurs during gamete/sperm/egg formation;
less common in sperm than egg formation / function of parents' age;
Down syndrome due to extra chromosome 21;
sperm/egg/gamete receives two chromosomes of same type;
zygote/offspring with three chromosomes of same type / trisomy / total 47
chromosomes;
10.2: Inheritance
58
Identify which of the offspring in dihybrid crosses are recombinants
Recombination = the reassortment of alleles into combinations different from those of the
parents as a result of independent assortment, crossing over and fertilization.
Both allopatric and sympatric speciation must be mentioned. 3 max if only one mentioned.
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Discuss the theory that evolution occurs by punctuated equilibrium. 3 marks
Polyploidy
Contribution to speciation
polyploids cannot reproduce with original species / meiosis fails / chromosomes cannot pair;
creates reproductive barrier;
but can self-fertilize / reproduce with similar individuals;
thus forming a new species;
new species formed by sympatric speciation;
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Unit 11: Animal Physiology
11.1: Antibody Production and Vaccination
Explain why antibiotics are used to treat bacterial but not viral diseases. 2 marks
No credit for answers that state antibiotic means against life nor for the statement that
viruses are not alive.
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soluble substance that can be converted to insoluble substance
converted to fibrin (in cuts)
helps to form a clot
to seal a cut / prevent more blood loss / prevent entry of infection
cells/tissue is damaged/cut/bruised;
damaged cells/platelets release clotting factors;
(clotting factors cause the) production of thrombin;
blood plasma contains soluble fibrinogen;
fibrinogen converted into fibrin;
by thrombin;
forms a net of fibers trapping blood cells;
forming a clot / prevents blood loss / entry of bacteria/pathogens;
cascade of reactions/series of stages prevent accidental clotting/speed up clotting;
antibody production:
exposure to antigen
leads to activation of (helper) T-cells
leads to clonal selection / activation of specific type of B-cell
production of plasma cells
specific antibody produced
memory cells produced which provide long lasting immunity
principle of vaccination:
Polio is a viral disease which affects the nervous system. Describe the different
ways in which the body could acquire immunity to this disease. 6 marks
the answer must include at least one reference to cause, transmission, and social
implications in order to receive full marks
cause:
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retrovirus/ RNA to DNA
enters (and lowers number of) T-helper cells
less antibodies produced/ immune system disabled/ weakened
body vulnerable to pathogens (opportunistic infections)
transmission
transmission through body fluids/ does not live long outside the body
through sexual intercourse
sharing of infected needles
mother to fetus/ across placenta
blood transfusions
blood products/ factor VIII used to treat hemophiliacs
social implications
Tuberculosis is a disease of the ventilation system. Explain how white blood cells
attack the pathogens that cause this disease. 8 marks
11.2: Movement
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Draw a labelled diagram to show the structure of a sarcomere. 8 marks
Award [1] for each structure clearly drawn and correctly labelled.
Muscles are made up of myofibrils which contain repeating units called sarcomeres
Sarcomeres contain actin filaments and myosin filaments
Actin fibers are thin and myosin fibers are thick;
Arriving action potential causes release of Ca2+ from sarcoplasmic
Ca2+ binds to troponin causing tropomyosin to be released
Exposing binding sites on actin
ATP binds to myosin heads releasing them
ATP hydrolysed and is split into ADP + Pi
ATP causes myosin heads to change shape
Myosin heads bind to exposed actin binding sites
Myosin heads move actin (releasing ADP + Pi)
Myosin filaments move actin filaments towards center of sarcomere
Sliding of actin and myosin filaments shortens the sarcomere, contracting the
muscle
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Hydrolysis of ATP / conversion of ATP to ADP causes myosin heads to move
Myosin heads reattach to actin further along
Myosin pushes actin / actin pushed towards the centre of the sarcomere /
shortening of sarcomere
Cortex;
Renal Pelvis;
Medulla;
Renal Artery;
Renal Vein;
Ureter;
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Vasa Recta: Blood network that reabsorbs components from the filtrate
Distinguish between the composition of the blood of the renal artery and the
blood of the renal vein. 3 marks.
blood (in the glomerulus) under high pressure caused by difference in diameter of
(afferent and efferent) arterioles;
fluid plasma and small molecules forced into kidney tubule/Bowman’s capsule/
through fenestrations/basal membrane;
which prevent larger molecules/blood cells from passing through;
Explain how the structure of the nephron and its associated blood vessels enable
the kidney to carry out its functions. 8 marks.
Osmoregulation takes place in the Loop of Henle and the collecting duct;
In the medulla;
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Loop of Henle
Collecting duct
Explain why diabetes could be detected through the analysis of urine. 8 marks.
Award [1] for each structure clearly drawn and correctly labelled.
Follicle cells
Zona pellucida
1st polar body
nucleus
nucleolus
cytoplasm
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Label the structures of the mature sperm. 4 marks.
Acrosome
Head
Nucleus
Midpiece (motor)
with mitochondria
Flagellum
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Explain the process of spermatogenesis in the testes. 6 marks.
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Compare spermatogenesis and oogenesis. 8 marks.
Spermatogenesis Oogenesis
sperm are attracted by a chemical signal and swim up the oviduct to reach the
egg;
fertilization is only successful if many sperm reach the egg;
the first sperm to break through the layers of follicle cells binds to the zona
pellucida;
this triggers the acrosomal reaction;
the content of the acrosome are released by the separation of the acrosomal cap
from the sperm;
hydrolytic enzymes from the acrosome digest a route for the sperm through the
zona pellucida;
this allows sperm to reach the plasma membrane of the egg;
small vesicles called cortical granules fuse to the plasma membrane of the egg;
cortical granules release their contents into the egg by exocytosis;
enzymes from the cortical granules cause the cross-linking of glycoproteins in the
zona pellucida;
this leads to the hardening of the zona pellucida which prevents polyspermy;
the nuclei of the sperm and egg carry out mitosis to produce a two-cell embryo;
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Outline the process of birth. 8 marks.
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