Things to Remember

It is super important to balance the equation because the marking scheme awards 1
mark for it!

The period number is equal to the number of shells

The group number is the number of electrons in the last shell

To check the molecule which is most polar, consider the electronegativities, the
molecule with the biggest difference is the most polar.
1 dm3 is 1000 cm3
Relative atomic mass = ( m/z x relative abundance) + (m/z x r.a ) divide by 100
Mass spectrometry steps: VIADD
Concentration = amount / volume but concentration = mass/volume also can be used
1000 mg =1g
1000kg = 1 tonne
Density = mass / volume (gcm-3)
Ionic radius decreases as the number of protons increases (isoelectronic ions)
Francium has the largest ionic and atomic radius.
Cations have a smaller ionic radius than anions.
Empirical formula x n = molecular formula

Metal + acid → salt + Hydrogen

Metal oxide + acid → salt + water
Metal carbonate + acid → salt + water + carbon dioxide
Metal + alkali → salt + water

Take the molar mass of the molecular formula and the molar mass of the empirical formula
and subject n. Then multiply the empirical formula by n.

You draw the mass spectra by finding the sum of the mass numbers of the isotope, for
example, Cl - 35 + Cl - 35 = 70 , so you draw a peak at 70, the y axis is the relative
abundance.

- Polarising Power:
Cation - high charge - small size
Anion - high charge - large size

Uses of mass spectrometry

Drug testing in sports
Determining the age of fossil fuels
Quality check in pharmaceuticals
Short points : To Know
-Atom economy: Calculating how many atoms from the reactants end up in the desired
product.
-Carbon has the highest melting point (after Tungsten)
-Ionic compounds have high melting points. Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity.

- Polarising Power:
Cation - high charge - small size
Anion - high charge - large size
Cation is the one which polarises the anion. Therefore cation is the one which has the
polarising power (high charge, small size).
Anion is the one getting polarised.

-To determine the polarity of a covalent bond find the difference between the
electronegativity of the atoms.
-Electronegativity increases across a period and decreases down a group
- Oxidising agent - Ability to accept a pair of electrons
Short Points : To Memorize

First Ionization Energy:

The energy required to remove an electron from an atom in one mole of atoms in the
gaseous state.

Second Ionization energy:

The energy required to remove an electron from a positively charged ion in gaseous state

Substitution reactions of Alkanes

Homolytic Fission - each atom gets one electron from the covalent bond
Free Radical - A reactive species which possess an unpaired electron
Heterolytic Fission - one atom gets both electrons (they produce ions sometimes)

Initiation

Propagation
The Chlorine free radical are very reactive species so they react with other molecules and
remove a hydrogen from them, an example :

This new radical is also very reactive so it reacts with another Cl2 molecule

Termination
Two of the free radicals collide and form molecules.
Topic 03
Ionic Bonding

Ionic bonds are stronger than Covalent bonds.

Cations are always smaller than the neutral atom and anions are always larger

Ionic bonding is the strong electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions
in a chemical compound.

Ionic bonding is stronger and the melting points higher when the ions are smaller and/ or
have higher charges.

Anions are bigger than Cations

Positive ions are smaller compared to their atoms because it has one less shell of electrons,
and the ratio of protons to electrons has increased.

The negative ion has more electrons than the corresponding atom but the same number of
protons. So the pull of the nucleus is shared over more electrons,
and the attraction per electron is less, making the ion bigger.

Within a group, the size of the Ionic radii increases going down the group, because the
ions have more shells of electrons.

Physical properties of Ionic compounds:

- High Melting Points : A large amount of energy is required to break the electrostatic
attractions between the ions.
- Non conductor of Electricity : There are no delocalised electrons and the ions are
not free to move when a potential difference is added. (But conductors when
molten)
- Soluble
- Brittleness : If stress is applied, the layers of the ion may slide over one another,
when the ions of the same charge are side by side now, they repel each other,
breaking the crystal.

Evidence For the Existence of Ions

 - Electrolysis of molten NaCl : When you pass a direct current through the
molten NaCl,Sodium is formed at the negative electrode while Chlorine is
formed at the positive electrode.
- Movement of Ions in copper(II)chromate(IV) solution : When a direct
current is applied, the copper ions which are blue, migrate to the negative
electrode while the chromate ions in yellow migrate towards the positive
electrode.

Covalent Bonding

A covalent bond is caused by the electrostatic attraction between the bonding shared pair of
electrons and the two nuclei.

Bond length- The distance between the two nuclei of the atoms that are covalently bonded.

Effect of multiple bonds on bond strength and length.

Nuclei joined by multiple (i.e. double and triple) bonds have a greater electron density
between them. This causes a greater force of attraction between the nuclei and the
electrons between them, resulting in a shorter bond length and greater bond strength.

A Dative covalent bond forms when the shared pair of electrons in the covalent bond come
from only one of the bonding atoms.
Electronegativity
- The ability of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electron
Electronegativity is measured on a pauling scale.
The most electronegative element is Fluorine (4.0)

Electronegativity decreases down the group

Increases across a period
A compound containing elements of similar electronegativity will be covalent.
A compound containing elements of very different electronegativity will be ionic.

A polar covalent bond forms when the elements in the bond have different
electronegativities.

When a bond is a polar covalent bond it has an unequal distribution of electrons in the bond
and produces a charge separation, (dipole)

The element with the larger electronegativity in a polar compound will be the δ-

Shapes of Molecules

01) linear 2 bond 0 Lone 180

02) Trigonal Planar 3 bond 0 Lone 120
03) Tetrahedral 4 bond 0 Lone 109
04) Trigonal Pyramidal 3 bond 1 Lone 107
05) Trigonal Bipyramidal 5 bond 0 Lone 90, 120
06) Octahedral 6 bond 0 Lone 90
07) V-shaped 2 bond 2 lone 104

Metallic Bonding

The electrostatic attraction between the positive ions and the delocalised electrons.

Physical Properties:
01 ) High melting temperature : - The no. of delocalised electrons per cation
Charge to Radius ratio
Example : Mg has stronger metallic bonding than Na and hence a higher melting point. The
Metallic bonding gets stronger because in Mg there are more electrons in the outer shell that
are released to the sea of electrons. The Mg ion is also smaller and has one more proton.
 There is therefore a stronger electrostatic attraction between the positive metal ions and the
delocalised electrons and higher energy is needed to break bonds.

02) Electrical Conductivity - The delocalised move to the positive terminal when a potential
difference is applied, constituting an electric current

03) Thermal conductivity - The delocalised electrons pass the kinetic energy along the metal
The closely packed cations pass the kinetic energy from one-another.

04) Malleable ( can be hammered or pressed ) and Ductility ( can be drawn into wires ) :
When a stress is applied, the layers of cations slide over one another but since the
delocalised electrons are freely moving, they prevent strong forces of repulsion between the
layers of the cations.

Only use the words molecules and intermolecular forces when talking about simple
molecular substances.
Intermolecular forces of attraction are only present in simple molecular structures.

Property Giant Metallic Giant Ionic Giant Covalent Simple Molecular

Melting Temperature High High High Low

Electrical Conductivity Good Non conductor Non conductor Non conductor

when solid, good
when molten

Solubility Insoluble Generally Insoluble Insoluble

soluble

Converting Crude Oil into Fuels

01) Fractional Distillation - This is a physical process involving the splitting of weak London
forces between molecules. Basically, it is converting crude oil into a small number of
fractions ( different chain lengths - boiling temperatures). ( It is still a mixture of compounds
but with a defined range of boiling points )

Process: The mixture is vapourized and fed into the fractionating column.
The fractions condense at different heights
The separation depends on boiling points and the boiling points depend on the size
of the molecules
 The larger the molecule the larger the London forces
Similar molecules condense together
Small molecules condense at the top (with low temperatures)
And big molecules condense at the bottom at high temperatures.

02) Cracking: conversion of large hydrocarbons to smaller molecules by breakage of C-C

Bonds. ( Longer chains converted into shorter ones )
Reasons for cracking : Fewer uses with longer chains
Process : Hydrocarbons are passed through a heated catalyst (zeolite)
Or, high temperatures and pressures are used
An alkane and an alkene is usually formed.
03) Reforming : Turns straight chain alkanes into branched and cyclic alkanes
Process: Heated using a catalyst (platinum)
Reason : Burns more smoothly in the engine

Theory
A non-renewable resource is a natural resource that cannot be readily replaced
There are four major types of nonrenewable resources: oil, natural gas, coal, and nuclear
energy
Non-renewable means that it takes millions of years to produce or it will be used up faster
than it is made.