Elements and the Periodic

Table
• Classification is arranging items into groups
or categories according to some criteria.
• The act of classifying creates a pattern that
helps you recognize and understand the
behavior of fish, chemicals, or any matter in
your surroundings.
• Classifying Matter
• Matter is usually defined as anything that has mass
and occupies space.
 Disorder
Order
Some space
Particles fixed
Particles closer
in position
together

Total disorder
Lots of empty space

Gas Liquid Solid

• Solids, Liquids, and Gases
– Gases have no defined shape or defined volume
• Low density
– Liquids flow and can be poured from one container to
another
• Indefinite shape and takes on the shape of the container.
– Solids have a definite volume
• Have a definite shape.
• Mixtures and Pure Substances
– A mixture has unlike parts and a composition that varies
from sample to sample
– A heterogeneous mixture has physically distinct parts
with different properties.
– A homogeneous mixture is the same throughout the
sample
– Pure substances are substances with a fixed composition
• A classification scheme for matter.
– A physical change is a change that does not alter the
identity of the matter.
– A chemical change is a change that does alter the
identity of the matter.
– A compound is a pure substance that can be decomposed
by a chemical change into simpler substances with a
fixed mass ratio
– An element is a pure substance which cannot be broken
down into anything simpler by either physical or
chemical means.
• Sugar (A) is a compound that can be easily
decomposed to simpler substances by heating. (B)
One of the simpler substances is the black element
carbon, which cannot be further decomposed by
chemical or physical means.
EXAMPLE
Isopropyl alcohol is a
A. heterogeneous mixture
B. homogeneous mixture
C. pure substance
D. Compound
E. pure substance and compound

E
• Elements
• Reconsidering the Fire Element
– The phlogiston theory viewed phlogiston as a
component of all matter.
– The burning of a material was considered to be the
escaping of phlogiston from the matter.
– If a material did not burn, it was considered to contain no
phlogiston.
• The phlogiston theory. (A) In this
theory, burning was considered to
be the escape of phlogiston into
the air. (B) Smelting combined
phlogiston-poor ore with
phlogiston from a fire to make a
metal. (C) Metal rusting was
considered to be the slow escape
of phlogiston from a metal into
the air.
• Discovery of Modern Elements
– Antoine Lavoisier suggested that burning was actually a
chemical combination with oxygen.
– Lavoisier realized that there needed to be a new concept
of elements, compounds, and chemical change.
– We now know that there are 89 naturally-occurring
elements and at least 23 short-lived and artificially
prepared.
• Priestley produced a gas (oxygen) by using sunlight to heat mercuric
oxide kept in a closed container. The oxygen forced some of the
mercury out of the jar as it was produced, increasing the volume about
five times.
• Lavoisier heated a measured amount of mercury to form the red oxide
of mercury. He measured the amount of oxygen removed from the jar
and the amount of red oxide formed. When the reaction was reversed,
he found the original amounts of mercury and oxygen.
• Names of Elements
– The first 103 elements have internationally accepted
names, which are derived from:
• The compound or substance in which the element was
discovered
• An unusual or identifying property of the element
• Places, cities, and countries
• Famous scientists
• Greek mythology
• Astronomical objects.
• Here are some of the symbols Dalton used for atoms
of elements and molecules of compounds. He
probably used a circle for each because, like the
ancient Greeks, he thought of atoms as tiny, round
hard spheres.
• The elements of aluminum, Iron, Oxygen, and Silicon make up about
88 percent of the earth's solid surface. Water on the surface and in the
air as clouds and fog is made up of hydrogen and oxygen. The air is
99 percent nitrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon make
up 97 percent of a person. Thus almost everything you see in this
picture us made up of just six elements.
Atomic theory
 Dalton’s Postulates
1. Every element is composed of tiny particles called atoms
2. All atoms of a given element are identical
1. Atoms of different elements have different properties
3. Atoms of an element are NOT changed into atoms of
another element by chemical processes
1. Matter can neither be created nor destroyed
4. Compounds are formed when atoms of more than one
element combine
 Dalton’s Laws
1. The Law of Constant Composition:
“Any given compound always consists of the same
atoms and the same ratio of atoms. For example, water
always consists of oxygen and hydrogen atoms, and
it is always 89 percent oxygen by mass and 11 percent
hydrogen by mass”

2. The Law of Conservation of Mass:

“The total mass of materials before and after a chemical
reaction must be the same. For example, if we combine
89 grams of oxygen with 11 grams of hydrogen under
the appropriate conditions, 100 grams of water will be
produced—no more and no less.”
 Dalton’s Laws
3. The Law of Multiple Proportions:
“If two elements combine to form more than one compound,
the masses of one of the elements that can combine with a given
mass of the other element are related by factors of small whole
numbers”

For example, water has an oxygen-to-hydrogen mass ratio of 7.9:1.

Hydrogen peroxide, another compound consisting of oxygen and
hydrogen, has an oxygen-to-hydrogen mass ratio of 15.8:1.
The ratio of these two ratios gives a small whole number.
MODERN ATOMIC THEORY
– Chemical Symbols
• There are about a dozen common elements that have s
single capitalized letter for their symbol
• The rest, that have permanent names have two letters.
– the first is capitalized and the second is lower case.
• Some elements have symbols from their Latin names.
• Ten of the elements have symbols from their Latin or
German names.
– Symbols and Atomic Structure
• A molecule is a particle that is composed of two or more atoms held
together by a chemical bond.
• Isotopes are atoms of an element with identical chemical properties,
but different masses due to a difference in the number of neutrons.
• The atomic mass of an element is the average of all the atomic
masses of the isotopes.
– an isotopes contribution is determined by its relative abundance.
• The mass of an element is the mass of the element compared to
an isotope of carbon Carbon 12.
– Carbon 12 is assigned an atomic mass of 12.00 g.
– 12.00 is one atomic mass unit
• The number of protons and neutrons in an atom is its mass
number.
• Atomic numbers are whole numbers
• Mass numbers are whole numbers
• The atomic mass is not a whole number.
Atomic Mass Charge
(if ion)

Symbol
Atomic Number
Hydrogen
Protons: 1
Neutrons: 0

H
1 Electrons: 1

1
Sodium Protons: 11
Neutrons: 12
Electrons: 11

Na
23

11
 Protons: 75
Rhenium
Neutrons: 111
Electrons: 75
186

75 Re
Rhenium isotope

187

75 Re
Protons: 75
Neutrons: 112
Electrons: 75
 EXAMPLE
How many protons, neutrons and electrons are found in an atom of

133
55 Cs
Atomic number = protons and electrons
There are 55 protons and 55 electrons

Mass number = sum of protons and neutrons

133 – 55 = 78
There are 78 neutrons
• The Periodic Law
• Dmitri Medeleev gave us a functional scheme with
which to classify elements.
– Mendeleev’s scheme was based on chemical properties
of the elements.
– It was noticed that the chemical properties of elements
increased in a periodic manner.
– The periodicity of the elements was demonstrated by
Medeleev when he used the table to predict to occurrence
and chemical properties of elements which had not yet
been discovered.
• Mendeleev left blank spaces in his
table when the properties of the
elements above and below did not
seem to match. The existence of
unknown elements was predicted by
Mendeleev on the basis of the blank
spaces. When the unknown
elements were discovered, it was
found that Mendeleev had closely
predicted the properties of the
elements as well as their discovery.
• The Periodic Law
– Similar physical and chemical properties recur
periodically when the elements are listed in order of
increasing atomic number.
• The Modern Periodic Table
• Introduction
– The periodic table is made up of rows of elements and
columns.
– An element is identified by its chemical symbol.
– The number above the symbol is the atomic number
– The number below the symbol is the rounded atomic
weight of the element.
– A row is called a period
– A column is called a group
• (A) Periods of the periodic table, and (B) groups of the periodic table.
• Periodic Patterns
– The chemical behavior of elements is determined by its
electron configuration
– Energy levels are quantized so roughly correspond to
layers of electrons around the nucleus.
– A shell is all the electrons with the same value of n.
• n is a row in the periodic table.
– Each period begins with a new outer electron shell
– Each period ends with a completely filled outer shell that has the
maximum number of electrons for that shell.
– The number identifying the A families identifies the number of
electrons in the outer shell, except helium
– The outer shell electrons are responsible for chemical reactions.
– Group A elements are called representative elements
– Group B elements are called transition elements.
• Chemical “Families”
– IA are called alkali metals because the react with water to from an
alkaline solution
– Group IIA are called the alkali earth metals because they are
reactive, but not as reactive as Group IA.
• They are also soft metals like Earth.
– Group VIIA are the halogens
• These need only one electron to fill their outer shell
• They are very reactive.
– Group VIIIA are the noble gases as they have completely filled
outer shells
• They are almost non reactive.
• Four chemical families of the
periodic table: the alkali metals
(IA), the alkaline earth metals
(IIA), halogens (VII), and the
noble gases (VIIIA).
 Metal: Elements that are usually solids at room
temperature.
Most elements are metals.
Non-Metal: Elements in the upper right corner of the
periodic
Table. Their chemical and physical properties are
different
from metals.
Metalloid: Elements that lie on a diagonal line between
the
Metals and non-metals. Their chemical and physical
properties are intermediate between the two.
– When an atom or molecule gain or loses an electron it
becomes an ion.
• A cation has lost an electron and therefore has a
positive charge
• An anion has gained an electron and therefore has a
negative charge.
– Elements with 1, 2, or 3 electrons in their outer shell tend to lose
electrons to fill their outer shell and become cations.
• These are the metals which always tend to lose electrons.
– Elements with 5 to 7 electrons in their outer shell tend to gain
electrons to fill their outer shell and become anions.
• These are the nonmetals which always tend to gain electrons.
– Semiconductors (metalloids) occur at the dividing line between
metals and nonmetals.
 EXAMPLE
What would the charge be on a sodium ion?

Since sodium in in Group IA it is a metal and so would lose an

electron

You can tell how many would be lost by the group number
Group 1A elements lose 1 electron

So the charge would be +1

Remember an electron is negatively charged. When you
lose
them atom becomes positively charged…

when you gain them it becomes negatively charged

 EXAMPLE
How would you right the symbol for the sodium
CATION?

+1

Na
How many outer electrons does sodium have before it loses
one?
It has 1…remember the group number!