Atoms, Molecules, and Ions: Visualizing Concepts
Atoms, Molecules, and Ions: Visualizing Concepts
Atoms, Molecules, and Ions: Visualizing Concepts
2 Molecules,
and Ions
Visualizing Concepts
2.1 (a) Like charges repel and opposite charges attract, so the sign of the electrical charge
on the particle is negative.
(b) The greater the magnitude of the charges, the greater the electrostatic repulsion
or attraction. As the charge on the plates is increased, the bending will increase.
(c) As the mass of the particle increases and speed stays the same, linear momentum
(mv) of the particle increases and bending decreases. (See A Closer Look: The
Mass Spectrometer.)
20 total particles
12
% abundance 293 N v 100 60%
20
8
% abundance 295 N v 100 40%
20
2.3 In general, metals occupy the left side of the chart, and nonmetals the right side.
21
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
2.4 Because the number of electrons (negatively charged particles) does not equal the
number of protons (positively charged particles), the particle is an ion. The charge on
the ion is 2–.
2.5 In a solid, particles are close together and their relative positions are fixed. In a liquid,
particles are close but moving relative to each other. In a gas, particles are far apart and
moving. Most ionic compounds are solids because of the strong forces among charged
particles. Molecular compounds can exist in any state: solid, liquid, or gas.
Because the molecules in ii are far apart, ii must be a molecular compound. The
particles in i are near each other and exist in a regular, ordered arrangement, so i is
likely to be an ionic compound.
Because the compound is composed of elements that are all nonmetals, it is molecular.
2.7 See Figure 2.17. yellow box: 1+ (group 1A); blue box: 2+ (group 2A)
black box: 3+ (a metal in Group 3A); red box: 2– (a nonmetal in group 6A);
2.8 Cations (red spheres) have positive charges; anions (blue spheres) have negative
charges. There are twice as many anions as cations, so the formula has the general form
CA 2 . Only Ca(NO 3 ) 2 , calcium nitrate, is consistent with the diagram.
2.9 These two compounds are isomers. They have the same chemical formula, C4H9Cl, but
different arrangements of atoms. That is, they have different chemical structures. In the
first isomer, the Cl atom is bound to the second C atom from the left. In the second
isomer, the Cl atom is bound to the right-most C atom.
2.10 (a) In the absence of an electric field, there is no electrostatic interaction between the
oil drops and the apparatus, so the rate of fall of the oil drops is determined
solely by the force of gravity. In the presence of an electric field, there is
electrostatic attraction between the negatively charged oil drops and the
positively charged plate, as well as electrostatic repulsion between the negatively
charged oil drops and the negative plate. These electrostatic forces oppose the
force of gravity and change the rate of fall of the drops.
(b) Each individual drop has a different number of electrons associated with it. The
greater the accumulated negative charge on the drop, the greater the electrostatic
forces between the oil drop and the plates. If the combined electrostatic forces are
greater than the force of gravity, the drop moves up.
22
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
The Atomic Theory of Matter and the Discovery of Atomic Structure
(Sections 2.1 and 2.2)
0.727 g O
2.11 (a) ratio ofm asses 2.663 2.66
0.273 g C
0.571 g O
(b) ratio of m asses 1.331 1.33
0.429 g C
(c) The two mass ratios are related by a factor of 2. In the first compound, CO 2 , twice
as much O is bound to one gram of C as in the second compound. The empirical
formula of the second compound is then CO.
2.12 (a) 1:2 is the mass ratios of oxygen in sodium oxide and sodium peroxide.
(b) Multiple proportions.
(b) These masses of oxygen per one gram nitrogen are in the ratio of 1:2:4:5 and thus
obey the law of multiple proportions. Multiple proportions arise because atoms are
the indivisible entities combining, as stated in Dalton’s theory. Because atoms are
indivisible, they must combine in ratios of small whole numbers.
3.56 g fluorine
2.14 (a) 1: 0.749 g fluorine/1 g iodine
4.75 g iodine
3.43 g fluorine
2: 0.449 g fluorine/1 g iodine
7.64 g iodine
9.86 g fluorine
3: 1.05 g fluorine/1 g iodine
9.41 g iodine
(b) To look for integer relationships among these values, divide each one by the
smallest. If the quotients aren’t all integers, multiply by a common factor to obtain
all integers.
1: 0.749/0.449 = 1.67; 1.67 3 = 5
2: 0.449/0.449 = 1.00; 1.00 3 = 3
3: 1.05/0.449 = 2.34; 2.34 3 = 7
The ratio of g fluorine to g iodine in the three compounds is 5:3:7. These are in the
ratio of small whole numbers and, therefore, obey the law of multiple proportions.
This integer ratio indicates that the combining fluorine “units” (atoms) are
indivisible entities.
23
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
2.15 Neutrons were the most difficult to be discovered because they do not carry any charge.
2.16 (a) Beta rays have the mass and charge of an electron. If the unknown particle is a
proton, it will be deflected in the opposite direction as a beta ray because protons
and beta rays have opposite electrical charges.
(b) In an electric field, lighter particles are deflected by a greater amount than
heavier ones. Protons have larger mass than beta rays (electrons) so they would
be deflected by a smaller amount.
2.17 Analyze. We are given the diameters of a gold atom and its nucleus, and a gold foil that
is two atoms thick. What fraction of alpha particles in Rutherford’s experiment are
deflected at large angles?
Plan. In order to be deflected at a large angle, an alpha particle must directly strike a
gold nucleus. Assume that the gold atoms in a single row touch. Consider the cross-
sectional area of the gold foil exposed to the beam of alpha particles. Calculate the
percentage of this area occupied by the nucleus. But, there are two rows of gold
particles, offset relative to one another (Figure 2.9). Assume each alpha particle has two
chances to hit a gold nucleus, so the fraction deflected at large angles is twice the ratio
of areas. [This approach ignores empty space in the arrangement of gold atoms, which
is about 9% of the total cross-sectional area.]
Solve.
area of A u nucleus
fraction of alpha particles deflected atlarge angles 2
area of A u atom
The cross-sectional area of a spherical atom is a circle. Area = r 2
[r(nucleus)]2
fraction deflected at large angles= 2
[r(atom )]2
(1.0 102 pm) 2
fraction deflected at large angles 2
2 2.7 109
(270 pm )
That is, 1 out of approximately 365 million alpha particles is deflected at a large angle.
2.18 (a) The droplets carry different total charges because there may be 1, 2, 3, or more
electrons on the droplet.
(b) The electronic charge is likely to be the lowest common factor in all the observed
charges.
(c) Assuming this is so, we calculate the apparent electronic charge from each drop
as follows:
A: 1.60 10 – 19 / 1 = 1.60 10 – 19 C
B: 3.15 10 – 19 / 2 = 1.58 10 – 19 C
C: 4.81 10 – 19 / 3 = 1.60 10 – 19 C
D: 6.31 10 – 19 / 4 = 1.58 10 – 19 C
The reported value is the average of these four values. Because each calculated
charge has three significant figures, the average will also have three significant
figures.
(1.60 10–19 C + 1.58 10–19 C + 1.60 10–19 C + 1.58 10–19 C) / 4 = 1.59 10–19 C
24
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
The Modern View of Atomic Structure; Atomic Weights (Sections 2.3 and 2.4)
2.19 (a) 0.21nm, 2.10 102 pm
(b) Aligned W atoms have diameters touching. d = 2r = 2.10 10–10 m 2
= 4.20 10–10 m
1 103 m 1 W atom
2.0 mm 4.76 106 W atoms
1 mm 4.20 1010
1 103 m 1Å
2.20 (a) 1.4 107 mm, 1.4 107 mm 1.4 Å
1 mm 1 1010 m
1 103 m 1 Cu atom
5.0 mm 10
1.79 107 Cu atoms
1 mm 2.80 10
(c) The neutron is most massive. (The neutron and proton have very similar masses.)
(d) The electron is least massive.
2.22 (a) False. The nucleus has most of the mass but occupies very little of the volume of
an atom.
(b) True.
(c) False. The number of electrons in a neutral atom is equal to the number of
protons in the atom.
(d) True.
(c) 33P
(b) [58Ni]2+
(c) 61Ni
25
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
2.25 (a) Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Mass number is
the total number of nuclear particles, protons plus neutrons, in an atom.
(b) The mass number can vary without changing the identity of the atom, but the
atomic number of every atom of a given element is the same.
106
2.26 (a) 46 Xand 107
46 X are isotopes of the same element, because they have identical
atomic numbers.
(b) These are isotopes of the element Palladium, Pd, atomic number = 46.
(a) 84Kr; 36p, 48n, 36e (b) 200Hg; 80p, 120n, 80e
(c) 59Co; 27p, 32n, 27e (d) 55Mn; 25p, 30n, 25e
(e) 239U; 92p, 147n, 92e (f) 181Ta; 73p, 108n, 73e
2.28 (a) samarium-153 has 62p, 91n (b) lutetium-177 has 71p, 106n
(c) bismuth-213 has 83p, 130n (d) molybdenum-99 has 42p, 57n
(e) lead-212 has 82p, 130 n (f) caesium-131 has 55p, 76n
2.29
Symbol 159 Tb 63 Cu 95 Mo 79 Se 85 Rb
26
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
2.30
Symbol 89 Y 195 Pt 204 Tl 119 Sn 227 Ac
2.32 Because the two nuclides are atoms of the same element, by definition they have the
same number of protons, 54. They differ in mass number (and mass) because they have
different numbers of neutrons. 129 Xe has 75 neutrons and 130 Xe has 76 neutrons.
2.33 (a) C
(b) Atomic weights are really average atomic masses, the sum of the mass of each
naturally occurring isotope of an element times its fractional abundance. Each B
atom will have the mass of one of the naturally occurring isotopes, whereas the
“atomic weight” is an average value. The naturally occurring isotopes of B, their
atomic masses, and relative abundances are:
1 0 B, 10.012937, 19.9 %; 1 1 B, 11.009305, 80.1 %.
2.35 Atomic weight (average atomic mass) = fractional abundance mass of isotope
Atomic weight = (5.85 × 53.9396 + 91.75 × 55.9349 + 2.12 × 56.9354) / 99.72 = 55.84 u
2.36 Atomic weight (average atomic mass) = fractional abundance mass of isotope
Atomic weight = 0.5069(78.9183) + 0.4931(80.9163) = 79.9035 = 79.90 u
(The result has 2 decimal places and 4 sig figs because each term in the sum has 4 sig
figs and 2 decimal places.)
2.37 (a) In Thomson’s cathode ray tube, the charged particles are electrons. In a mass
spectrometer, the charged particles are positively charged ions (cations).
(b) The x-axis label (independent variable) is atomic mass (or particle mass) and the
y-axis label (dependent variable) is signal intensity.
(c) The Cl2 + ion will be deflected more. The greater the charge on the positive ion,
the larger its interaction with the electric and magnetic fields. (For this reason, the
x-axis label of a mass spectrum is usually mass-to-charge ratio of the particles.)
27
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
2.38 (a) True.
(b) False. The height of each peak in the mass spectrum is directly proportional to the
relative abundance of the isotope.
(c) True.
The Periodic Table, Molecules and Molecular Compounds, and Ions and
Ionic Compounds (Sections 2.5, 2.6, and 2.7)
2.41 (a) Rn, 86 (nonmetal) (b) Te, 52 (metalloid) (c) Cd, 48 (metal)
(d) Cr, 24 (metal) (e) Ba, 56 (metal) (f) Se, 34, (nonmetal)
(g) S, 16, (nonmetal)
28
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
2.42 (a) mercury, 80 (metal) (b) Astatine, 85 (nonmetal)
(c) molybdenum, 42 (metal) (d) tungsten, 74 (metal)
(e) tin, 50 (metal) (f) vanadium, 23 (metal)
(g) potassium, 19 (metal)
2.43 (a) Po, chalcogens (metal) (b) Sr, alkaline earth metals (metal)
(c) Ne, noble gases (nonmetal) (d) Rb, alkaline metals (metal)
(e) Br, halogens (nonmetal)
2.44 C, carbon, nonmetal; Si, silicon, metalloid; Ge, germanium, metalloid; Sn, tin, metal;
Pb, lead, metal
2.45 (a) C 4 H 10 is the molecular formula for both compounds. For the molecular formula,
count the total number of each kind of atom in the structural formula.
(b) C 2 H 5 . Starting with the molecular formula, divide subscripts by any common
factors to determine the simplest ratio of atom types in the molecule. In this
example the common factor for both molecules is 2.
(c) Structural. In this example, the molecules are structural isomers and only the
structural formulas allow us to determine that the molecules are different.
2.46 (a) Benzene, C 6 H 6 ; acetylene, C 2 H 2 . For the molecular formula, count the total
number of each kind of atom in the ball and stick representations.
(b) Benzene, CH; acetylene, CH. Starting with the molecular formula, divide
subscripts by any common factors to determine the simplest ratio of atom types
in the molecule. In this example the common factor for benzene is 6 and for
acetylene is 2.
2.47 From left to right, the molecular and empirical formulas are: N 2 H 4 , N H 2 ; N 2 H 2 , NH;
N H 3 , NH 3
2.48 No. Two substances with the same molecular and empirical formulas can be isomers.
They are not necessarily the same compound.
29
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
(c) C H 2C l2 (d) N H 2O H
2.55
2.56
2.61 (a) Fe(OH) 3 (b) CsNO 3 (c) V(CH 3 COO) 2 (d) Li 3 PO 4 (e) In 2 O 3
2.62 (a) Cr(CN) 3 (b) Mn(ClO 4 ) 2 (c) Na 2 Cr 2 O 7 (d) CdCO 3 (e) TiO 2
2.63
Ion K+ N H 4+ M g 2+ F e 3+
O 2– Na 2 O CaO FeO Al 2 O 3
NO 3 – NaNO 3 Ca(NO 3 ) 2 Fe(NO 3 ) 2 Al(NO 3 ) 3
2.65 Molecular:
(a) HClO4 (b) CH3OCH3 (d) H2S (g) PCl5 (h) P(OH)3
Ionic:
(c) Mg(NO3)2 (e) TiCl4 (f) K2O2
2.66 Molecular:
(a) BI3 (b) N(CH3)3 (d) N2H4 (f) H2SO4 (h) IOH
Ionic:
(c) Zr(NO3)2 (e) OsCO3 (g) HgS
2.75 (a) bromic acid (b) hydrobromic acid (c) phosphoric acid
(d) HClO (e) HIO 3 (f) H 2 SO 3
2.77 (a) sulfur hexafluoride (b) iodine pentafluoride (c) xenon trioxide
(d) N2O4 (e) HCN (f) P 4 S 6
2.78 (a) dinitrogen monoxide (b) nitrogen monoxide (c) nitrogen dioxide
(d) dinitrogen pentoxide (e) dinitrogen tetroxide
32
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
2.81 (a) A hydrocarbon is a compound composed of the elements hydrogen and carbon
only.
(b)
2.82 (a) Isomers are molecules with the same molecular formula, but different structural
formulas. Isomers have the same number and kinds of atoms, but these atoms are
arranged in different ways.
(b) Butane and pentane are both capable of existing in isomeric forms. There is more
than one way to arrange the four C atoms and ten H atoms of butane, and more
than one way to arrange the five C atoms and twelve H atoms of pentane. There
is only one way to arrange the two C atoms and six H atoms of ethane and only
one way to arrange the three C atoms and eight H atoms of propane.
2.83 (a) A functional group is a group of specific atoms that are constant (arranged the
same way) from one molecule to the next.
(b) The characteristic alcohol functional group is an –OH. Another way to say this is
that whenever a molecule is called an alcohol, it contains the –OH group.
(c)
2.85 (a)
33
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
2.86
Additional Exercises
2.87 (a) Droplet D would fall most slowly. It carries the most negative charge, so it would
be most strongly attracted to the upper (+) plate and most strongly repelled by
the lower (–) plate. These electrostatic forces would provide the greatest
opposition to gravity.
(b) Calculate the lowest common factor.
A: 3.84 10 – 8 / 2.88 10 – 8 = 1.33; 1.33 3 = 4
The total charge on the drops is in the ratio of 4:5:3:9. Divide the total charge on
each drop by the appropriate integer and average the four values to get the
charge of an electron in warmombs.
A: 3.84 10 – 8 / 4 = 9.60 10 – 9 wa
B: 4.80 10 – 8 / 5 = 9.60 10 – 9 wa
C: 2.88 10 – 8 / 3 = 9.60 10 – 9 wa
D: 8.64 10 – 8 / 9 = 9.60 10 – 9 wa
The charge on an electron is 9.60 10 – 9 wa
(c) The number of electrons on each drop are the integers calculated in part (b). A
has 4 e – , B has 5 e – , C has 3 e – and D has 9 e – .
34
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
3
2.88 (a) He has 2 protons, 1 neutron, and 2 electrons.
3
(b) H has 1 proton, 2 neutrons, and 1 electron.
3
He: 2(1.672621673 10 – 24 g) + 1.674927211 10 – 24 g + 2(9.10938215 10 – 28 g)
= 5.021992 10 – 24 g
3
H: 1.672621673 10 – 24 g + 2(1.674927211 10 – 24 g) + 9.10938215 10 – 28 g
= 5.023387 10 – 24 g
Tritium, 3 H, is more massive.
(c) The masses of the two particles differ by 0.0014 10 – 24 g. Each particle loses
1 electron to form the +1 ion, so the difference in the masses of the ions is still
1.4 10 – 27. A mass spectrometer would need precision to 1 10 – 27 g to
differentiate 3 He + and 3 H.
2.89 (a) Calculate the mass of a single gold atom, then divide the mass of the cube by the
mass of the gold atom.
197.0 am u 1g
3.2713 1022 3.271 1022 g/gold atom
gold atom 6.022 1023 am u
19.3 g 1gold atom
5.90 1022 A u atom s in the cube
cube 3.271 1022 g
(b) The shape of atoms is spherical; spheres cannot be arranged into a cube so that
there is no empty space. The question is, how much empty space is there? We can
calculate the two limiting cases, no empty space and maximum empty space. The
true diameter will be somewhere in this range.
1.7 1023 cm 3
Maximum empty space: Assume atoms are arranged in rows in all three
directions so they are touching across their diameters. That is, each atom
occupies the volume of a cube, with the atomic diameter as the length of the side
of the cube. The number of atoms along one edge of the gold cube is then
(5.90 10 2 2) 1 /3 = 3.893 10 7 = 3.89 10 7 atoms/1.0 cm.
The diameter of a single atom is 1.0 cm/3.89 10 7 atoms = 2.569 10 – 8
= 2.6 10 – 8 cm.
The diameter of a gold atom is between 2.6 10 – 8 cm and 3.2 10 – 8 cm
(2.6 – 3.2 Å).
35
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
(c) Some atomic arrangement must be assumed, because none is specified. The solid
state is characterized by an orderly arrangement of particles, so it isn’t surprising
that atomic arrangement is required to calculate the density of a solid. A more
detailed discussion of solid-state structure and density appears in Chapter 11.
2.90 (a) In arrangement A, the number of atoms in 1 cm 2 is just the square of the number
that fit linearly in 1 cm.
1 atom 1 1012 pm 1m
1.0 cm 2.02 107 2.0 107 atoms/cm
495 pm 1m 100 cm
The result is a right triangle with two known side lengths. The length of the
unknown side (the angle bisector) is 2h, two times the vertical distance occupied
by a row of atoms. Solve for h, the “height” of one row of atoms.
(2h) 2 + d 2 = (2d) 2 ; 4h 2 = 4d 2 – d 2 = 3d 2 ; h 2 = 3d 2 /4
h = (3d 2 /4) 1 /2 = 3 (1/2) (1/2) 495 pm = 429 pm
The number of rows of atoms in 1 cm is then
1 row 1 1012 pm 1m
1.0 cm 2.333 107 2.3 107
428.68 pm 1m 100 cm
The number of atoms in a 1.0 cm 2 square area is then
2.020 107 atom s
2.333 107 row s 4.713 1014 4.7 1014 atom s
1row
Note that we have ignored the loss of “1/2” atom at the end of each horizontal
row. Out of 2.0 10 7 atoms per row, one atom is not significant.
(c) The ratio of atoms in arrangement B to arrangement A is then 4.713 10 1 4
atoms/4.081 10 1 4 = 1.155 = 1.2:1. Clearly, arrangement B results in less empty
space per unit area or volume. If extended to three dimensions, arrangement B
would lead to a greater density for Rb metal.
36
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
2.91 (a) diameter of nucleus = 1 10 – 4 Å; diameter of atom = 1 Å
V = 4/3 r 3 ; r = d/2; r n = 0.5 10 – 4 Å; r a = 0.5 Å
volume of nucleus = 4/3 (0.5 10 – 4) 3 Å 3
volume of atom = 4/3 (0.5) 3 Å 3
volum e of nucleus 4/3 (0.5 104 )3 Å 3
volum e fraction of nucleus 1 1012
volum e of atom 4/3 (0.5)3 Å 3
2.92 The integer on the lower left of a nuclide is the atomic number; it is the number of
protons in any atom of the element and gives the element’s identity. The number of
neutrons is the mass number (upper left) minus atomic number.
(a) B, 5 protons and 6 neutrons
(b) As, 33 protons and 42 neutrons
(c) Kr, 36 protons and 50 neutrons
(d) Zn, 30 protons and 37 neutrons
6
2.93 (a) Li, 3 protons, 3 neutrons; 7Li, 3 protons, 4 neutrons
(b) All isotopes are atoms of the same element, argon, with the same atomic number,
18 protons in the nucleus and 18 electrons. We expect their electron arrangements
to be the same and their chemical properties to be very similar. Each has a
different number of neutrons, a different mass number, and a different atomic
mass.
37
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
2.95 Atomic weight (average atomic mass) = fractional abundance mass of isotope
Atomic weight = 0.043(49.9460) + 0.838(51.9405) + 0.095(52.9407) + 0.024(53.9389)
= 51.9977 = 52.00 u
2.96 (a) The 62.9296 u isotope has a mass number of 63, with 29 protons, 34 neutrons and
the 63
29 Cu symbol The 64.9278 u isotope has a mass number of 65, 29 protons, 36
65
neutrons, and 29 Cu symbol (All Cu atoms have 29 protons.)
(b) The average mass of a Cu atom is 63.55 u. Let x = abundance of the lighter
isotope, 1 – x = abundance of the heavier isotope. Then x 62.9296 + (1 – x)
64.9278 = 63.55; x (64.9278 − 62.9296) = 64.9278 − 63.55; x = 0.6895 = 0.690; 63
29 Cu :
69.0 %, 65
29 Cu : 31.0 %.
51 74
2.97 (a) There are 24 known isotopes of Ni, from Ni to Ni.
(b,c) The five most abundant isotopes (b) and their natural abundances (c) are
58
Ni, 57.935346 amu, 68.077%
60
Ni, 59.930788 amu, 26.223%
62
Ni, 61.928346 amu, 3.634%
61
Ni, 60.931058 amu, 1.140%
64
Ni, 63.927968 amu, 0.926%
Data from Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 74th edition [Data may differ
slightly in other editions.]
2.98 (a) A Br 2 molecule could consist of two atoms of the same isotope or one atom of
each of the two different isotopes. This second possibility is twice as likely as the
first. Therefore, the second peak (twice as large as peaks 1 and 3) represents a Br 2
molecule containing different isotopes. The mass numbers of the two isotopes are
determined from the masses of the two smaller peaks. Because 157.836 158, the
first peak represents a 7 9Br— 7 9Br molecule. Peak 3, 161.832 162, represents a
81
Br— 8 1Br molecule. Peak 2 then contains one atom of each isotope, 7 9Br— 8 1Br,
with an approximate mass of 160 amu.
(b) The mass of the lighter isotope is 157.836 amu/2 atoms, or 78.918 amu/atom. For
the heavier one, 161.832 amu/2 atoms = 80.916 amu/atom.
(c) The relative size of the three peaks in the mass spectrum of Br 2 indicates their
relative abundance. The average mass of a Br 2 molecule is
(Each product has four significant figures and two decimal places, so the answer
has two decimal places.)
38
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
159.79 am u 1Br2 m olecule
(d) 79.895 am u
avg.Br2 m olecule 2 Bratom s
(e) Let x = the abundance of 7 9Br, 1 – x = abundance of 8 1Br. From (b), the masses of
the two isotopes are 78.918 amu and 80.916 amu, respectively. From (d), the mass
of an average Br atom is 79.895 amu.
x(78.918) + (1 – x)(80.916) = 79.895, x = 0.5110
79 81
Br = 51.10%, Br = 48.90%
2.99 (a) Five significant figures. 1 H + is a bare proton with mass 1.0073 amu. 1 H is a
hydrogen atom, with 1 proton and 1 electron. The mass of the electron is
5.486 10 – 4 or 0.0005486 amu. Thus the mass of the electron is significant in the
fourth decimal place or fifth significant figure in the mass of 1 H.
(b) Mass of 1 H = 1.0073 amu (proton)
0.0005486 amu (electron)
1.0078 amu (We have not rounded up to 1.0079 because
49 < 50 in the final sum.)
m ass of e 5.486 104 am u
M ass % of electron= 100 100 0.05444%
m ass of 1H 1.0078 am u
2.100 (a) an alkali metal: Li (b) an alkaline earth metal: Mg (c) a noble gas: Xe
(d) a halogen: Cl (e) a metalloid in group 14: Si
(f) a non-metal listed in group: 14C
(g) a metal that forms a 3+ ion: Tl (h) a nonmetal that forms a 2− ion: Se
(i) an element that is used as radiation shielding: Pb
2.102 Strontium is an alkaline earth metal, similar in chemical properties to calcium and
magnesium. Calcium is ubiquitous in biological organisms, humans included. It is a
vital nutrient required for formation and maintenance of healthy bones and teeth. As
such, there are efficient pathways for calcium uptake and distribution in the body,
pathways that are also available to chemically similar strontium. Harmful strontium
imitates calcium and then behaves badly when the body tries to use it as it uses calcium.
2.103 Calculate the volume of the penny, use density to calculate mass and price to calculate
the value of copper in the penny.
V = r 2h; d = 19 mm, r = d/2 = 9.5 mm; h = 1.5 mm
3
1cm
V (9.5 m m )2 1.5 m m 0.4253 0.43 cm 3
(10)3 m m 3
39
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
That is, the copper in each penny is worth two pennies!
2.104 Calculate the volume of the coin, use density to calculate mass and price to calculate the
value of silver in the coin.
V = r 2h ; d = 41 mm, r = d/2 = 20.5 mm; h = 2.5 mm
3
1cm
V (20.5 m m )2 2.5 m m 3.3006 3.3 cm 3
(10)3 m m 3
10.5 g $0.51
3.3006 cm 3 $17.675 $18
cm 3 g
Wow! The silver in each Silver Eagle dollar coin is worth $18.
2.105 (a) chlorine gas, Cl2: ii (b) propane, C3H8: v (c) nitrate ion, NO 3– : i
(d) sulfur trioxide, SO3: iii (e) methylchloride, CH3Cl: iv
2.107
Cation Anion Formula Name
40
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Solutions to Exercises
2.110 Carbonic acid: H 2 CO 3 ; the cation is H + because it is an acid; the anion is carbonate
because the acid reacts with lithium hydroxide to form lithium carbonate.
Lithium hydroxide: LiOH; lithium carbonate: Li 2 CO 3
2.111 (a) sodium chloride (b) sodium bicarbonate (or sodium hydrogen carbonate)
(c) sodium hypochlorite (d) sodium hydroxide
(e) ammonium carbonate (f) calcium sulfate
2.112 (a) potassium nitrate (b) sodium carbonate (c) calcium oxide
(d) hydrochloric acid (e) magnesium sulfate (f) magnesium hydroxide
41
Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.