MODULE 1 LESSON 3

SOIL 1- Principles of Soil Science

Soil Physical Properties

Learning Objectives:

In this lesson, you will be able to:

 describe the concept of soil texture and its importance;

 identify the textural class of a sample of soil;
 describe soil permeability and related properties;
 describe structure and its formation and importance;
 explain other physical properties;
 discuss soil compaction and porosity.

Time Frame: 1 week (4th week of September)

INTRODUCTION
As you learnt in Lesson 1 of this course, soil physics is a branch of soil science

which deals with the study of soil physical conditions. It is necessary that persons

dealing with soil in any way should be acquainted with the physical nature of

different soils-such as moisture retention capacity, plasticity, ease of penetration by

roots or compaction. The knowledge of the physical concepts will enable the user of

soil to know how to alter these properties to an advantage. That is, knowing about

physical properties of soil will form a basis for much of what you learn about and do

with soils. This unit describes the key soil physical concepts and conditions in

relation to plant growth and development.

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ABSTRACTION
Soil Physical Properties
Soil Texture and Textural Composition
Soil texture could be defined as the relative proportion of particle size groupings in
the soil on percentage basis. It describes the sand, silt and clay composition of the
soil.
The smaller the particles in a soil, the larger the internal surface area. Similarly, the
smaller the particles in a soil the more water and nutrients the soil can retain.
In the field a soil is composed of a mixture of separates which are groups of soil
particles of a given size ranges (i.e. different size particles which together make up a
given soil).
Physical test for these three groups reveals that sandy soil is generally coarse, gritty,
non-sticky with low cohesion; silt is smooth like flour while clay is sticky and plastic
when wet but very hard when dry. A loam texture soil usually exhibits a
combination of the three properties.
A soil sample usually contains a combination of at least two separates thus there are
classes of soil texture. These combinations are therefore classified into twelve
different combinations called soil textural classes. Table 1 shows two schemes of
classification used for defining various separates in soils.

Table 3.1: Size Limits of Soil Separates in the USDA and ISSS Schemes.

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Definition of Soil Texture Classes
Apart from the modification of sandy textures with terms such as gravelly, coarse,
very fine, fine, etc. there are twelve basic soil textural classes recognized. In order of
increasing proportions of the fine separates, the classes include: sand, loamy sand,
loam, loam, silt, loam, sandy clay loam, clay loam, silty clay loam, sandy clay, silty
clay and clay.
The basic soil textural class names, in use presently, are defined in terms of particle-
size distribution as determined in the laboratory by a procedure termed Particle Size
Distribution Analysis or Mechanical Analysis or Gravometric Analysis. The
percentage of size fractions combined to determine the texture using a standard soil
textural triangle as shown in Fig.3.1.
In general, the twelve textural classes may be defined as follows:
Sand - Soil material that contain 85% or more of sand and a percentage of silt
plus 1 ½ times the percentages of clay not exceeding 15.
Loamy Sand- Soil material that contains at the upper limit 85 to 90% sand,
and the percentage of silt plus 1 ½ times the percentage of clay isnot less than
15; at the lower limit it contains not less than 70 to 85% sand, and the
percentage of silt plus twice the percentage of clay does not exceed 30.
Sandy Loam- Soil material that contains either 20% clay or less and the
percentage of silt plus twice the percentage of clay exceeds 30, and 52% or
more sand; or less than 7% clay, less than 50% silt, and between 43% and 52%
sand.
Loam- Soil material that contains 7 to 27% clay, 28 to 50% silt, and less than
52% sand.
Silt Loam- Soil material that contains 50% or more silt and 12 to 27% clay (or)
50 to 80 percent silt and less than 12% clay.
Silt - Soil material that contains 80% or more silt and less than 12% clay.
Sand Clay Loam – Soil material that contains 20 to 35% clay, less than 28% silt
and 45% or more sand.
Clay Loam- Soil material that contains 27 to 40% clay and 20 to 45% sand.
Silty Clay Loam – Soil material that contains 27 to 40% clay and less than 20%
sand.
Sandy Clay- Soil material that contains 35% or more clay and 45% or more
sand.
Silty Clay- Soil material that contains 40% or more clay and 40% or more silt.
Clay- Soil material that contains 40% or more clay, less than 45% sand, and
less than 40% silt.
In the field however, a method known as the “Feel Method” is used in assessing soil
texture. In this method, a sample of the soil usually moist or wet is rubbed between
the fingers and the texture assessed by the behavior of the soil particles using a

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knowledge of the behavior of the various quantities of the separates present in the
soil sample. In other words, the differing sizes of the constituent particles give each
soil a characteristic feel. Thus, a soil composed mainly of coarse sand particles feels
light and gritty; one composed mainly of clay feels heavy and sticky.
In general, the twelve textural class names already established, form a more or less
graduated sequence from soils that are coarse in texture and easy to handle to the
clays that are very fine and difficult to manage, while the loams are in between the
two extremes.

Why Study Soil Texture

Soil texture is studied because:
i. The rate at which water enters the soil (infiltration) and drains through
(percolation) depends on whether it is sandy, silt or clay soil.
ii. The rate of nutrient leaching also depends on rate of water infiltration e.g.
clay soils have the best holding ability for water and chemical nutrients.
iii. Soil texture influences the ease at which a soil can be worked; clay soils are
more difficult than sandy soils.
iv. The knowledge of soil texture and crop requirement of soil enable the
grower to select suitable soils/land for his crop.

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 v. Growers would be able to know management practices suitable for the soil
types especially in terms of fertilization, irrigation and organic materials
incorporation.

Soil Structure and Aggregates

Soil structure may be defined as the organization of sand, silt, clay and humus
particles into somewhat stable groupings (peds). It can also be defined as the
aggregation of primary soil particles (sand, silt and clay) into compound particles
termed peds or aggregates, which are separated by adjoining peds by lines of
weakness.
Three groups of characteristics are used to classify different kinds of structure:
i. Type which refers to the shape of the soil aggregate e.g. granular,
platty, crumb, etc.
ii. Class refers to the size of the peds e.g. fine, medium, coarse, etc.
iii. Grade describes how distinct and strong the peds are. It expresses the
differential between cohesion within aggregates and adhesion between
aggregates e.g. weak, moderate, and strong or structure less terms are used
for grade. A structure less condition exist when there is no observable degree
of aggregation.
Thus, the full description of the structure of a given ped could be strong, coarse,
prismatic structure; moderate fine granular structure; weak fine crumb structure or
structureless (massive) or structureless (singlegrained).
Soil structure is important in agriculture from the point of view that a well
aggregated soil is often well drained, has good permeability of water, air and roots.
Such a soil is also easily worked or tilled and thus serves to control erosion. All these
are made possible because of the numerous macrospore spaces created by the
existence of numerous lines of weakness between aggregates or peds.
Common agents of aggregation which are responsible for binding primary soil
particles into peds include the following:
i. Colloidal clay minerals which consist of the finer, more reactive part of clay
in soils.
ii. Colloidal oxides of iron, aluminum and manganese, which are collectively
termed sesquioxides. These are especially typical of tropical soils.
iii. Microbial gums; which are gums secreted by micro-organisms in soils.
iv. Organic compounds, especially humus which are also colloidal in nature.
v. Carbonates

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 Soil Consistence

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Soil consistence refers to the behavior of soil when pressure is applied, especially at
various moisture contents, usually when the soil is wet, moist, or dry.
The terms used to describe consistence include:
i. Wet Soil: Often described in terms of stickiness, as non-sticky, slightly sticky,
sticky, very sticky; and in terms of plasticity as non-plastic, slightly plastic, plastic,
and very plastic.
ii. Moist Soil: This is very important because it best describes the condition of soils
when they are tilled in the field. Consistence of a moist soil is described in the
following terms; going from the material with least coherence to that which adheres
so strongly as to resist crushing between the thumb and forefinger: loose, very
friable, friable, firm, very firm and extremely firm.
iii. Dry soil: Terms used to describe the degree of rigidity or brittleness to crushing
or manipulations include the following: loose, soft, slightly hard, hard, very hard
and extremely hard.
Cementation is also a type of consistence and is caused by cementing agents such as
calcium carbonate, silica or oxides of iron and aluminum. Cementation is little
affected by moisture content. The terms used to describe cementation include:
weakly cemented i.e. cemented units can be broken in the hand. Strongly cemented –
units cannot be broken in the hand but can be broken easily with a hammer.
Indurated – units breakable only with sharp blows of a hammer.

Cutans
Cutans may be defined as modifications of the fabric of natural surfaces in soil
materials due to concentration of particular solid constituents such as clay,
sesquioxides and organic materials notably humus.
The presence of cutans in subsoil horizons (B or C) of a soil profile is of specific
pedological significance. For instance, the presence of recognizable amounts of clay
cutans or clay skins on ped faces or in pores is a direct indication that an argillic
horizon (Bt) is present and that such a soil is mature. The presence of both Fe-
oxyhydroxide (sesquioxides) and humus (organic) in the B-horizon may indicate the
occurrence of a spodic horizon and the onset of the process of podzolization in a soil.

Soil Composition

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This is the natural packing of soil particles by natural force into a denser or closer
pack. The forces acting to compact soil are:
• Overburden weight of material above the soil.
• Implement traffic from mechanized agriculture
• Foot traffic
• Tillage pressure due to implement moved through the soil
• Micro-organism as in the ant-hills.
Over the years, the implements cause pressure on the lower layer of tillage soil.
There is thus a low infiltration rate on this layer of soil. That is, the porosity becomes
low and bulk density increases, other effects of compaction are:
• Reduced permeability, aeration and water infiltration
• Difficulty in root penetration
• Severe compaction inhibits production
Soil compaction is measured by the bulk density and the use of cone penetrometer.

Porosity and Pore Spaces

Pores are spaces or voids between solid soil materials. The occurrence or abundance
of pores in soils are of pedological significance because a soil with many coarse
pores will be much more aerated and better drained than one with few very fine
pores.
When describing pores in detail, a definite sequence of terms should be consistently
followed. The usual sequence is number (Few, common, many), size (very fine, fine,
medium, coarse), continuity (discontinuous, constricted, continuous), orientation
(vertical, horizontal, random, oblique), shape (vesicular, irregular, tabular) and
location (impede, exped).
The pores allow the soil to act as medium for air and water transport and it is within
the pores that physical, chemical and biological processes occur in the soil.
Pore Space could also be defined as the portion of given volume of soil which is not
filled with solid matter.
Porosity (pore space) refers to total pore space per volume of soil.
Mathematical expression is

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Macropores are the big pores which are mainly meant for aeration while micropores
(small pores) are meant to transmit water after wetting.
Pores are connected with one another in the soil and are usually described by their
retention of water and air. An ideal soil for agricultural purposes has fairly equal
proportion of macropores and micropores. This is usually put at 25% for each of the
two pore sizes.
Porosity also depends on both the texture and structure of the soil and on the shape
of the particles.

Soil Density and Permeability

The density of a soil is its weight per natural volume or bulk volume and it is related
to the amount of empty space in the soil. Soil density is expressed in two ways;
namely, particle and bulk density.
Particle Density
Is the mass per unit volume of soil solids. For example, one cubic centimeter of soil
solids weighing 2.0g, has particle density of 2.0g cm-3.
Mineral soils have particle density range of 2.60-2.75g cm-3 with an average value of
2.65gcm-3. Organic matter tends to lower particle density.

Soil Color

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Soil color is an important indicator of soil conditions. It reveals considerable
information about any given soil. The soil can take several shades of colors such as:
• Brown-Black where dark soils result from the level of organic matter contents
which is usually high in waterlogged soils.
• White-Light grey which indicate leaching of coloring materials such as organic
matter, or due to accumulation of lime or salts.
• Yellow-Red soils contain iron oxides in well-drained soils
• Mottling Color develops when the soil is waterlogged for part of the year. Patches
of different colors are shown.
Soil color is described by using the munsell system in a soil color chart.

CONCLUSION
Our understanding of soil physical properties is imperative to the proper
management of soils both for present use and future generations.
Physical properties of soils could adequately be harnessed for sustainable
agriculture through optimum utilization of the soil physical processes and water
resources.

SUMMARY
In this unit, we have learnt:
i. The meanings of important soil physical properties and processes in relation to
plant growth.
ii. The relationships and interactions among the soil physical properties especially
texture, structure and pore space
iii. The extent to which these physical properties could be modified by natural
events.
iv. The appropriate management strategies of soil physical properties for improved
productivity and sustainable agriculture.

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 ANALYSIS
Direction: Answer the questions concisely. The answers will be graded based in the
rubrics below:

In your own opinion, define and explain the following soil physical properties:
a. soil textural classes

b. soil aggregation/granulation

c. porosity

d. Bulk density

e. Soil tilth

APPLICATION

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Direction: Discuss the agricultural practices that could improve soil physical
Properties and enhance crop production in your area. (2-3 paragraphs)

Congratulations for completing this module 1 lesson 2. Great job!

REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS:

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Esu, I.E. (1999). Fundamentals of Pedology. Ibadan Nigeria: StirlingHorden
Publishers.
Millar, C.E and Turk, L.M. (2002). Fundamentals of Soil Science. New Delhi: Biotech
Books.
Obi, M.E. (1991). Physical Properties of Soils: Basic Principles. University of Nigeria.
Nsukka, Nigeria.
Plaster, E.J. (1992). Soil Science and Management. 2nd Edition. New York: Delmar
Publishers Inc.
Singer, M.J. and Munns, D.N. (1999). Soils: An Introduction. USA: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

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