PHY 3216: MICROWAVES AND FIBRE OPTICS

Course Objectives
By the end of the course you should be able to:
1. Apply the principles of generation, transmission and application of microwaves;
2. Relate these principles to the telecommunication systems in the country;
3. Explore the optical communication systems techniques and compare with other methods
of transmission.
Course Outline
Chapter 1 Microwave Physics: Review of electromagnetic theory; Transmission lines;
Electromagnetic resonators; Microwave generators; Applications of microwaves.

Chapter 2 Fibre Optics: Basic theory of light guiding; TE and TM modes; Propagation
characteristics and focusing effect of an optical wave guide; dispersion and attenuation of light in
optical fibers; single mode waveguide.

Chapter 3 Optical communication systems: Optical sources for fibre communication, types of
optical sources; Modulation, demodulation, and optical integrated circuits; Optical fibre
transmission lines, transmission loss of optical fibres, jointing, connecting and cabling. Optical
communication systems and applications, transmission distance with optical fibres; Examples of
optical transmission techniques
Reading List
1. An introduction to microwave theory and techniques by A. J. Baden Fuller
2. Fibre Optic Communication Devices by N. Grote and H. Venghaus.
3. Optoelectronics and Photonics by S. O. Kasap
4. Introduction to fibre optics by Ajoy Ghatak & K. Thyagavajah
Modes of Assessment
(i) Continuous assessment – 30 % (At least two assignments -12% & two tests – 18 %)
(ii) End of semester exam – 70 %

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 Chapter 1 Microwave Physics

1.0 Introduction
Have you ever wondered?
a) How you talk to someone half way across the globe-by mobile phone Or
b) How you cook without fire using a microwave

Global communication:

Microwave oven:

By now you might have heard all about radio waves. What about microwaves?
 The word Microwave means very short wave. Microwaves are a type of radio waves.
 The difference is they have a shorter wavelength than other types of radio waves (that
is 1 mm to 1 m wavelength). Signals with wavelengths on the order of millimeters are
often referred to as millimeter waves).

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 Obviously they have very high frequency, f ( 300 MHZ – 300 GHz)
 These waves are travelling through us/in our environment throughout the time at the
speed of (wave length 𝜆 = 𝑐 ⁄𝑓 ). Note, frequency: 1 MHz = 106 Hz, 1 GHz = 109 Hz.
 Below is electromagnetic spectrum indicating position of microwaves

E is perpendicular to B

Microwaves travel in air

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 Microwave frequencies are subdivided into frequency bands. A student of microwave engineering
should understand the frequencies that are there in each band.

Microwave Frequency Application

band
UHF 300 -1 GHz Terrestrial TV broadcasting
L 1-2 GHz Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), Marine
satellite (ships, yach, etc)
S 2-4 GHz Weather and sea surface radar, microwave oven, Zeeg Bee,
Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, etc
C 4-8 GHz Satellite communications (SC), Radar systems
X 8-12 GHz Educational purpose (lab. Expts), SC
Ku 12-18 GHz Satellite TV and VSAT satellite system
K 18-27 GHz Radar, armature satellite, Infrared Astronomy
Ka 27-40 GHz Satellite communication, High resolution and low range radar,
military aeroplane
V 40-75 GHz High capacity terrestrial millimeter wave communication
W 75 -110 GHz Millimeter wave radar, Research e.g NASA
mm 110 – 300 GHz Millimeter wave radar, satellite communication
Hint: 1 MHz = 106 Hz, GHz = 109 Hz

In this microwave course, we will focus primarily on electrical circuits operating at frequencies
of 1 GHz and higher rather than low frequency. In terms of band designations, we will be
working with circuits above UHF
The main difference between high and low frequency signals is as follows:
High frequency (RF) signal Low frequency signal
1. Deals with electric field and magnetic field 1. Deals with current and voltage (I, V)
(E, H) 2. Wave frequency is 50 Hz
2. Wave frequency band 1GHz - 300 GHz

RF, microwave and millimeter wave circuits design and construction is far more complicated than
low frequency work. Since the dimensions of the circuit components become comparable to the
signal wavelength and the assumption that the current through a component and voltage across the
parallel branches vary as one moves along the circuit, won’t hold any more. So why do it?

Just as the high frequencies and short wavelengths of microwave energy make for difficulties in
the analysis and design of microwave devices and systems, these same aspects provide unique
opportunities for the application of microwave systems. The properties, advantages and limitations
of microwaves are presented in the ensuing sections.

Properties of microwaves

All electromagnetic waves (including microwaves) propagate at the speed of light and transport
energy, without loss in a vacuum but with loss in a dielectric material. They show the same effects
as light, namely, diffraction, interference, refraction, reflection and polarization. Which of these

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effects occurs depends on the wavelength and molecular structure. Microwaves are observed to
have the following properties:

1. Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with short wavelength

2. High directivity property. Microwave signals travel predominantly by line of sight (LOS).
Microwaves can be focused in a specified direction (Just as the focusing of light rays with
lenses or reflectors)
3. They can be reflected by conducting surfaces just like optical waves since they travel in
straight line.
4. Microwave currents flow through a thin outer layer of an ordinary cable.
5. They are not reflected by the ionsphere (top layer of the atmosphere) which facilitates space
communication (Earth – to – space and space – to – Earth).
6. Microwaves are easily attenuated (diminish) within short distances.
7. Affected greatly by environmental constraints, including rain fade
8. Have very limited penetration capabilities through obstacles such as hills, buildings and
trees
9. They pass through ceramic, glass and porcelain.
10. They are absorbed by organic materials
11. They are not an ionizing radiation, neither mutagenic (mutations causing) nor carcinogenic
(cancer causing)

Advantages and limitations of microwaves

1. Increased (large) bandwidth availability. One advantage of mmicrowaves is that they have
a large bandwidth compared to the common bands like short waves (SW), ultrahigh
frequency (UHF) waves, etc. Therefore a 1% bandwidth, for example, provides more
frequency range at microwave frequencies.
2. Improved directive property. Microwave signals travel predominantly by line of sight and
are not bent (reflected off) by the ionosphere as are lower frequency signals like RF signal.
Consequently, communication links with very high capacities between (and among)
satellite and terrestrial (Earth’s stations) are possible, with frequency reuse at slightly
distant locations. This forms the second advantage of microwaves.
3. Ionosphere is transparent to microwaves. Microwave frequency band ranging from 300
MHz – 10 GHz are capable of freely propagating through the atmosphere and not reflected
off by the ionosphere (top layer of the atmosphere). The presence of such a transparent
window in a microwave band facilitates the study of microwave radiation from the sun and
stars in radio astronomical research of space.
4. Fading is less in microwaves. Due to the Line of Sight (LOS) propagation and high
frequencies, there is less fading effect and hence microwave communication is more
reliable. Besides, the scattering due to reflection from layers of the atmosphere is less.
Hence, there is much less background noise at microwave frequencies than at RF.
5. Beam distance is narrow. Because beam distance is narrow we can use microwave for long
distance communication such as satellites.
6. It is used for long distance communications.
7. Circuit size is small. Therefore one can construct high gain antennas at microwave
frequencies that are physically small (example digital broad casting systems-DBS)
8. Power requirements are low. Transmitter / receiver power requirements are pretty low at
microwave frequencies compared to that at short wave band.

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 9. The effective reflection area (radar cross section) of a radar target is usually proportional
to the target’s electrical size. This fact, coupled with the frequency characteristics of
antenna gain, generally makes microwave frequencies preferred for radar systems.
10. Has a variety of unique applications in the areas of basic science, remote sensing, medical
diagnostics and treatment, and heating methods. Because, at microwave frequencies, the
electromagnetic properties of many materials are changing with frequency, this is due to
molecular, atomic and nuclear resonances. This behaviour creates opportunity for the
above applications.

Applications of microwave
Microwaves have modern technology applications in,
1. Telecommunication: Intercontinental Telephone and TV, space communication (Earth – to
– space and space – to – Earth), telemetry communication link for railways etc without the
need for copper/optical fibre lines.
2. Radar Surveillance systems- (Identifying objects or personnel by non – contact method):
detect aircraft, track / guide supersonic missiles, observe and track weather patterns, air
traffic control (ATC), burglar alarms, garage door openers, police speed detectors etc.
3. Electronic warfare: E.g electronic countermeasure (ECM)-electrical or electronic device
designed to trick or deceive radar or other detection systems, like infrared (IR) or lasers.
Electronic counter-countermeasures (ECCM)-electronic warfare which attempt to reduce
or eliminate the effect of ECM aboard vehicles, ships and aircraft and weapons such
as missiles.
4. Satellite communication (communications between satellites and base stations) and GPS
positioning system known as car navigation system.
5. Radio telescope for astronomy.
6. As backbone carriers for cellular systems
7. In short range indoor communications
8. Power transmission.
Heating is another application of microwave. The commercial and industrial applications
include:
9. Microwave oven-for cooking food
10. Drying machines – textile, food and paper industry for drying clothes, potato chips, printed
matters etc. Drying inks / drying textiles, drying / sterilizing grains, drying / sterilizing
pharmaceuticals, leather, tobacco
11. Food process industry – Precooling / cooking, pasteurization / sterility, hat frozen /
refrigerated precooled meats, roasting of food grains / beans.
12. Rubber industry / plastics / chemical / forest product industries
13. Mining / public works, breaking rocks, tunnel boring, drying / breaking up concrete,
breaking up coal seams, curing of cement.
14. Biomedical Applications (diagnostic / therapeutic) – diathermy for localized superficial
heating, deep electromagnetic heating for treatment of cancer, hyperthermia (local,
regional or whole body for cancer therapy).
Examples of commercial products involving microwave circuits include wireless data networks
(bluetooth, WiFi, WiMax, ZigBee), GPS, cellular phones, etc. Can you think of some others?

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Difficulties with microwaves
Microwave circuits are much more difficult to analyze than low frequency ones. Why?

1. Voltage is not well defined if the distance between the two points is not electrically small.
At microwave frequencies, “electrically large” distances may be just a few millimeters!
Moving the probe leads around will also likely affect voltage measurements.

2. One must carefully choose lumped elements (L, C, R, diodes, transistors, etc.) for use in
the microwave region. Typical low frequency components do not behave as expected.

3. To “transport” electrical signals from one position to another, one must use special
“wires.” It is more common to speak of “guiding” signals at these frequencies.

Effects of microwaves in human body

The microwave radiation is considered in the context of adverse biological effects.
Microwave energy is non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation. Ionizing radiation messes up
molecules, non-ionizing radiation merely heats them. In general, it does not have sufficient energy
to kick an electron off an atom thus producing charged particle in a body and cause biological
damage. The only proven harmful effect from exposure to microwave (or RF) radiation is thermal.
RF radiation can enter deep into the body and heat human organs. The blood vessels are dilating
and the blood flow increases substantially as the thermoregulatory mechanism is activated in order
to keep the body temperature constant. With rising body temperature the metabolic rate rises,
which may lead to Stress-Adaptation-Fatigue Syndrome.
Effect produced by the electromagnetic radiation at different frequency/energy levels:
Frequency Wavelength Effect
Above 10 GHz ≤ 3 cm Heating occurs mainly in the outer skin surface.
3-10 GHz 3 – 10 cm Higher heating & deeper penetration
150MHz – 1 GHz 25 – 200 cm penetration is even deeper and because of high
absorption, deep body heating can occur

Effect of a given microwave energy:

Power level Long-term effect on Remarks
(MW /cm2) human body
0.01 Nothing
0.1 Nothing
1 Nothing
5 Nothing Accepted standard for microwave oven leakage
10 Nothing Accepted standard for maximum continuous
exposure to radiated emissions (cell phones, etc.)

30 You can feel heat

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 100 Cataracts can be Summer sunlight is at this level
produced
1000 Pain is induced Applied in military to repel human enemy
through inflicting pain.

Do you know YOUR Brain can be FRIED???

What do Microwave Ovens, Cell Phones and Cordless Phones have in common?
They all emit... Dangerous Microwave Radiation!
The GOOD NEWS is... with Microwave radiation you can...
 Boil water
 Cook meat
 Fry eggs
The BAD NEWS is... with Microwave radiation you can... Fry Your Brain
Your head and brain heat up significantly when you talk on your cell phone or cordless phone.
Want proof? After 15 minutes of using a cell phone, your head temperature rises and most heat is
generated in your ear canal, which is directly connected to YOUR BRAIN. This heat may cause
negative health effects.

Some scientists estimate that you are now exposed daily to 100 million times the electromagnetic
frequency (Micro wave) radiation of your grandparents.
So…. AVOID FREQUENT (PROLONGED) USE OF CELL PHONES!!!

Please, find out what frequency is your,

a) Wireless network and do you know the effect? (Would you approve use of wireless within
family dwelling house)
b) Mobile phone
c) TV antennae
d) Security detector at offices and airport
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1.1 Review of Electromagnetic Theory

Microwave engineering can be considered applied electromagnetic engineering. Therefore, to be

a competent microwave engineer, one needs to understand the basic electromagnetic wave theory
described by Maxwell's equations and the underlying assumptions and approximations in the
analysis tools for microwave circuits.

Electricity is an electromagnetic (EM) phenomenon involving forces produced by stationary and

moving charge. Low frequency circuits are generally very, very small with respect to the smallest
EM wavelength present in the circuit. Because of this, simple lumped element circuit models can
be used to describe the EM effects of resistors, inductors, capacitors, voltage and current sources,
etc.
Conversely, at microwave frequencies the circuits may not be electrically small. This requires
a shift in our approach to the EM analysis. Nevertheless, the electrical signals remain the
outcome of EM phenomenon.

This section will outline the fundamental concepts of electromagnetic wave theory, which is built
upon a group of differential equations, called Maxwell's equations.

The general form of time-varying Maxwell's equations can be written in integral form as follows:

𝜕
1. ∮𝐶 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = − 𝜕𝑡 ∮𝐶 𝐵
⃗ . 𝑑𝑠
⃗
𝜕𝐷
2. ⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = ∫ 𝐽. 𝑑𝑆 + ∫
∮𝐶 𝐻 . 𝑑𝑆
𝑆 𝑆 𝜕𝑡
3. ∫𝑉 ∇. 𝐷 ⃗ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ ρ𝑑𝑣
𝑉
4. ∮ 𝐵 ⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 = 0
and can be converted to differential form by using the divergence and Stokes' theorems, as
⃗
𝜕𝐵
1. ∇ × 𝐸⃗ = − (Faraday-Maxwell Law)
𝜕𝑡
⃗
2. ∇ × 𝐻⃗ = 𝐽 + 𝜕𝐷 (Generalized Ampere’s law)
𝜕𝑡
⃗ =𝜌
3. ∇. 𝐷 (Gauss’s law)
⃗ =0
4. ∇. 𝐵 (Law of conservation of magnetic flux)

The following material relations are important:

For a linear and isotropic medium, and 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸⃗ , similarly for the magnetostatic case

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Perhaps the two most important of the Maxwell equations are

Differential form: Integral form:

Faraday’s Law 𝜕𝐵⃗ 𝜕
∮𝐶 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = − 𝜕𝑡 ∮ 𝐵 ⃗ . 𝑑𝑠
∇ × 𝐸⃗ = − 𝐶
𝜕𝑡
Ampere’s Law 𝜕𝐷 ⃗ ⃗
𝜕𝐷
∇×𝐻 ⃗ =𝐽+ ⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = ∫ 𝐽. 𝑑𝑆 + ∫
∮ 𝐻 . 𝑑𝑆
𝜕𝑡 𝐶 𝑆 𝑆 𝜕𝑡

Much of our work in this course will be in the sinusoidal steady state. With an assumed (and
suppressed) 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 time convention, these curl equations become:
Differential form: Integral form:
Faraday’s Law ⃗
∇ × 𝐸 = −𝑗𝜔𝐵 ⃗ ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = −𝑗𝜔 ∮ 𝐵 ⃗ . 𝑑𝑠
𝐶 𝑆
Ampere’s Law ⃗ = 𝐽 + 𝑗𝜔𝐷
∇×𝐻 ⃗
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐼 + 𝑗𝜔 ∮ 𝐷
∮ 𝐻 ⃗ . 𝑑𝑠
𝐶 𝑆

where 𝐸⃗ , 𝐵
⃗ ,𝐷
⃗ ,𝐻
⃗ , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐽, 𝜌 are electric field intensity, magnetic flux density, electric flux density,
magnetic field intensity, electric current density and electric charge density, respectively; and all
are vector phasors. Of course, both the differential and integral forms are equally valid. Which of
these to use depends on the problem:

 To derive equations to solve for 𝐸⃗ and 𝐻 ⃗ , the differential forms are better
 For circuit approximations of devices (or other physical interpretations), the integral forms
are often more useful.
Rather than using the full-blown Maxwell’s equations in microwave circuit design,
approximations are often made to simplify the solutions. Transmission line theory, to be discussed
next, is one of these. We will not explicitly be seeing much of Maxwell’s equations in this course.

1.2 Microwave Generators (Sources)

Low microwave frequencies can be produced by some solid state devices such as

• Transistor (e.g Field-effect transistor)- is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch

electronic signals and electrical power. These very small power amplifier can be used for
high frequencies.
• Tunnel diode - is a semiconductor diode that exhibits negative resistance, meaning the
current decreases with an increase in voltage. The tunnel diode is capable of fast operation
and can function well into the microwave radio frequency band

High and very high microwave frequencies microwave are produced by

• Magnetron (used in microwave ovens)- is a high-powered vacuum tube, that works as

self-excited microwave oscillator.
• Klystron- a specialized linear-beam vacuum tube which is used as an amplifier for high
radio frequencies, from UHF up into the microwave range.

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 • Traveling-wave tube (TWT)- is a high-gain, low-noise, wide-bandwidth microwave
amplifier.

1.2.1Magnetron

A magnetron is a metallic vacuum tube, consisting of a cathode and an anode, which is

surrounded by a permanent magnet frame.

The operating principle of the magnetron is that a high voltage is applied to a heated rod (cathode)
to emit electrons. This electrons are drawn into circular path by the applied magnetic field. These
electrons hit the outer wall of the tube (anode), which is cut at regular intervals radially to the
chamber (resonator). Within these incisions (cavities) the polarity of the electric field reverses with
the desired frequency and produces microwaves. These are emitted via an antenna.
Note that the magnetron is a self-contained oscillator that operates differently from the linear beam
tubes, such as the travelling wave tube (TWT) and klystron.
1.2.2 Tunnel Diode oscillator
Is a semiconductor, P-n Junction whose size is 10 nm wide

It is forward bias with V (external potential) and tunnels electrons through the depletion region

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 • Has negative resistance-meaning current decreases with increasing voltage
• Tunnel diode has current-voltage (I-V) curve shown below

A tunnel diode which is biased at the center point of the negative –resistance range (point B) and
coupled to a tuned circuit or cavity, produces a very stable oscillator. The oscillation frequency is
the same as the tuned circuit or cavity frequency.Tunnel diode oscillators that are designed to
operate at microwave frequencies generally use some form of transmission lines as a tuned circuit.
Suitable tuned circuits can be built from coaxial lines, transmission lines and waveguides.
An example of a highly stable tunnel diode oscillator is shown below.

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A tunnel diode is loosely coupled to a high-Q tunable cavity. Loose coupling is achieved by using
a short, antenna feed probe placed off-center in the cavity. Loose coupling is used to increase the
stability of the oscillations and the output power over a wider bandwidth. The output power
produced is in the range of a few hundred microwatts, sufficient for many microwave applications.
The frequency at which the oscillator operates is determined by the physical positioning of the
tuner screw in the cavity. Changing the output frequency by this method is called mechanical
tuning. In addition to mechanical tuning, tunnel diode oscillators maybe tuned electronically. One
method is called bias tuning and involves nothing more than changing the bias voltage to change
the bias point on the characteristic curve of the tunnel.
Microwave generator spectral output:
The Q-factor (or quality factor) of a resonant cavity circuit is defined by
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓𝑜
𝑄= 𝑜𝑟 =
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓−𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑓2 −𝑓1

where fo is the resonance frequency, and f1 and f2 are the half-power cut-off frequencies

The importance of the above relationship becomes apparent when related to the spectral output of
common sources of microwave power. Microwave generators operate within a band of output
frequencies depending on the type of power supply it utilizes. Noting that most industrial
generators use magnetrons for high frequency oscillation, their output spectral bandwidth typically
ranges from 5MHz or more for high ripple power sources to less than 100 kHz for low ripple
sources.

1.3 Application of microwaves

1.3.1 Microwave Oven
The microwave oven was a by-product of another technology. It was during a radar related research
project in 1946, when Dr Percy was testing a new vacuum tube called a magnetron that he
discovered that the candy/chocolate bar in his pocket had melted.

Generally, electromagnetic wave's forces act on charges, pushing positive charges (+) one way
and negative charges (-) the opposite way. The EM wave causes the molecules containing the

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charges to oscillating thereby causing friction with neighbouring molecules leading to generation
of heat which cooks the food/water.
Microwave absorption. In the absorption of electromagnetic energy by a material, there are in
general two mechanism possible. The first case occurs with materials which have pronounced
dipoles e.g water, acids, solvents. In the rapidly changing electric field, the molecules try to
orient themselves in the direction of the field lines. This sets them in rotation-vibration. The
energy absorption from the microwave field is more intensive the closer the resonance frequency
of the molecules is to the frequency of the microwave.
The second case occurs when there are free ions, e.g in electrolytes, glassy materials and ceramic
materials.
Principle of operation of microwave oven
A magnetron is used to produce microwave energy which is directed into the cooking chamber
where the food is placed to be heated. Water molecules in the food have electrically charged ends
(dipoles) and in the presence of the microwave radiation, these water molecules find themselves
twisted back and forth very rapidly. As they twist, they rub against one another and the vibration
causes friction and heat is produced. The heat which is produced by friction is conducted to the
center to finish cooking the food without heating the oven or food container.
Advantage of microwave:
(i) Cooks food in a fraction of time needed to cook with conventional ovens such as gas
stoves, etc.
(ii) Unlike conventional methods, microwave cooks food without applying external heat
(provides clean cooking).
Note:
a) Food that doesn’t contain water (e.g salt or oil) will not get hot, neither will food in
which water molecules cannot turn (like ice or frozen food). That is why it’s difficult
to defrost food in a microwave.
b) The microwave readily passes through some many materials such as glass, most
plastics, paper and china with little or no effect. Generally, these materials make
excellent utensils for cooking (wrapping or carrying food) in a microwave oven.
c) Some other materials such as metal and foil (or conductors), tend to reflect microwave
energy and should be avoided for the following reasons:
(i) Metal utensils do not allow complete penetration of the food by the microwaves, so
cooking efficiency is greatly reduced
(ii) If the cooking load is not large enough to absorb the microwave energy, the oven
could be damaged by an arc between the metal utensils and the cavity interior or
door assembly.
(iii)The life of the magnetron tube can be shortened by extended periods of back-
feeding microwave energy, which raises the magnetron tube’s filament
temperature.

Components of a microwave oven

 A power relay that allows the controller to turn on and off the microwave source

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  A power rectifier that converts the a.c from the transformer into d.c needed by the
magnetron
 A capacitor that smoothens out ripples in the d.c leaving the rectifier
 A magnetron that uses the high d.c voltage to produce an intense beam of microwaves
 A waveguide that transports the microwaves from the magnetron to the cooking
chamber
 Cooking chamber in which the food absorbs the microwaves and becomes hotter

Some other applications of microwave

As the food industry began to recognize the potential and versatility of the microwave oven,
its usefulness was put to new test. Industries began to use to dry potato chips and roast coffee
beans and peanuts (groundnuts). Meat could be defrosted, precooked and tempered (softened).
Oysters could easily be shelled (shucked) using microwaves. In time microwaves were being
used to dry cork, ceramics, paper, leather, tobacco, textiles, pencils, flowers, wet books and
match heads.

1.4 Electromagnetic Resonators

1.4.1 Resonant cavity. A resonant cavity is a space completely enclosed by conducting (metal)
walls that can contain oscillating electromagnetic fields and possesses resonance properties. The
cavity has many advantages and uses at microwave frequency. Resonant frequencies have very
high Q-factor (quality factor) and can be built to handle relatively large amounts of power. The
Q is defined as
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓𝑜
𝑄= 𝑜𝑟 =
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓−𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑓2 −𝑓1

where fo is the resonance frequency, and f1 and f2 are the half-power cut-off frequencies.

Cavities with a Q-value greater than 30,000 are not uncommon. The high q gives these devices a
narrow band pass and allows very accurate tuning. Simple rugged construction is an additional
advantage.

Although cavity resonators, built for different frequency ranges and applications, have a variety of
shapes, the basic principles of operation are the same for all. A resonant cavity is an energy storage
device. At specific frequencies there exists resonance where energy is exchanged between the
electric and magnetic fields. The situation is analogous to a pendulum where there is an energy
balance between the kinetic and potential energy and the oscillation frequency is dependent upon
the pendulum specifications. In a cavity the lowest frequency for which resonance occurs is
defined to be fundamental. Higher order resonance can occur and each has a specific field structure
within the cavity. There is an infinite number of discrete resonant frequencies, however, only those
excited by the frequency generating source will be present for heating purposes.

The cavity fields are closely linked with currents on the inside material of the cavity walls and the
presence of any material enclosed within the volume. A particular resonant frequency will have its

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bandwidth broadened and depending on the extent to which losses are present in the walls and
filling material.

14.2 Rectangular cavity resonator. One example of a cavity resonator is a rectangular box (see
figure 1.0 a). It may be thought of as a section of a rectangular wave guide closed at both ends by
conducting plates. The frequency at which the resonant mode occurs is a half of the distance
between the end plates. The rectangular cavity is one of many cavity devices that are useful as
high frequency resonators. Figure 1.0 b shows a cylindrical resonant cavity with a diameter of λ/2
at the resonance frequency.

Figure 1.0 (a) Rectangular waveguide cavity resonator (b) Cylindrical resonant cavity

1 𝑚 2 𝑛 2 𝑝𝑐\ 2
The resonance frequency f is given by fλ = c, where 𝜆2 = (2𝑎) + (2𝑏) + ( 2𝑑 )

𝑚𝑐 2 𝑛𝑐 2 𝑝𝑐 2
or 𝑓 2 = ( 2𝑎 ) + (2𝑏) + (2𝑑)

Here there are m half-wavelength loops along x direction, n half-wavelength loops along y
direction and p half-loops along z direction. It is possible for just one only of the loop number m,
n and p to take on the value zero. The spacings of the walls are: a along x, b along y and d along
z. We see that there are many modes of rectangular cavity. For example suppose that a microwave
oven cavity has the dimensions 0.36 m by 0.33 m by 0.23 m, then assuming that it is empty, the
three lowest resonant frequencies are given by three sets of integers (m, n, p) = (1,0,0), (0,1,0),
(0,0,1). They are:
𝑐 3×108
(1,0,0): 𝑓 = ( ) = ( ) = 416.7 𝑀𝐻𝑧
2𝑑 2(0.36)
𝑐 3×108
(0,1,0): 𝑓 = ( ) = ( ) = 454.54 𝑀𝐻𝑧
2𝑏 2(0.33)
𝑐 3×108
(0,0,1): 𝑓 = ( ) = ( ) = 652.17𝑀𝐻𝑧
2𝑎 2(0.23)

Clearly, a cavity can be many other shapes than rectangular. The field theory for calculating the
modes of arbitrary shaped cavities is straightforward, but often numerical methods are needed as
there are no analytical solutions. Often, cylindrical cavities are used. It is possible to use more
than one mode in a cavity filter, with tuning screws and stubs to convert energy from one mode
to another.

16
Any equipped box will have microwaves resonant frequencies, often in the range around 1 GHz.
This poses problems for the engineer faced with electromagnetic capability (EMC) and inference
problems, if there is any source of signal within the box having spectral frequency components
somewhere near the box modes.

If you transmit in a screened enclosure, all the energy from the transmitter is concentrated in
your body, which is very lossy to microwave energy. A dielectric is lossy when it dissipates
energy in the course of polarization process or when it is slightly conducting.

17
1.5 Transmission Lines
The communication link for electromagnetic (EM) waves from one point to another is formed by
transmission lines and waveguides.

Why transmission lines (TLs)?

Imagine two integrated circuits (ICs) are connected together as shown below.

When the voltage at A changes state, it does not instantaneously appear at B. If these two points
are seperated by a large electrical distance, there will be a propagation delay as the change in state
(electrical signal) travels to B (no instantaaneous effect). In microwave circuits, even distances as
small as an inch may be “far” and the propagtion delay for a voltage to appear at another IC may
be significant. This propagation of voltage signal is modeled as a “transmission line” (TL). We
will see that voltage and current can propagate along a TL as waves.Transmission line model can
be used to solve many ptypes of high frequency problems.

It is necessary to understand the general properties of transmissin lines for use at any frequency
before proceeding to consideration of microwave transmission lines.

Transmission lines are also termed transmission media. Transmission lines and microwave circuits
can be found in a number of applications.

18
 Examples: Automotive radar, wirless communication including in mobile phones, infrastructure
such as circuit boards (for example radio frequency (RF) Beamformer for Basestations for 5G
wireless communication in future, see diagram below)

A transmission line consists of any system of conductors that can be used to transmit electrical
energy between two or more points.

Generally, largest circuit elements are wires but in electromagnetics we call wires “transmission
lines”. The difference between a wire and a transmission line in electromagnetics is that a
transmission line has

 Symmetry
 Consistency (maintains constant cross-section throughout its length)
 Two conductor seperated by an insulator
When a voltage generator is connected to the input of a long transmission line, the potential
difference on the line can not rise instantaneously to that of the generator.

Time is needed for the transfer of energy corresponding to the potential difference between the
lines. An instanteneous change of potential along the whole length of line is deemed impossible
by the special theory of relativity. No signal can be transmitted at a speed greater than that of light.

Hence,Time is taken for the charge to travel along a transmission line. It takes time for any
information , usually in form of electrical signal to travel along a transmission line. For an a.c
signal , there will appear to be a continual flow of energy into a transmission line under staedy

19
state conditions and the signal on the line at any distance from the source will be out of phase with
that of the source.

Before we design transmission line circuits we have to understand the basic transmission line
theory. A basic transmission line is represented by a set of coupled (joined) wires. It can take many
forms such as coaxial cable or two-wire (conductor) line connected to a source.
We will start by considering the simplest line which is the two-conductor transmission line.
Two-conductor transmission Line

The diagram above shows a typical two-wire transmission line of infinite length. The line
maintains constant cross-section throughout its length.

At any frequency, potential difference (V) applied to the line by the source will cause some current
(I) to flow into the line, because even if there is no leakage conductance between the two
conductors, there is capacitance between them which will provide path for alternating current.

The current flow gives the line an equivalent impedance which is called the characteristic
impedance of the line. It is given by the relationship,
𝑉
𝑍𝑜 = ……………………………… (1)
𝐼

where 𝑍𝑜 , 𝑉, 𝐼 are phasor quantities.

For this two-conductor line which has no losses (lossless), it is found that the current (I) and
potential difference (V) between the conductors are in phase and the characteristic impedance is a
resistive quantity. This is considered true for all lossless transmission lines. We will also assume
that along the two-wire line only transverse magnetic waves (TEM) will be transmitted, see
diagram below,

1.5.1 Transmission Line Equation

On a TL, the voltage and current vary along the structure in time (t) and distance (z), indicated as
I(z,t) and V(z,t). There are no instantaneous effects. However, in the proceeding discussion,
variation with distance is considered (i.e I(z) and V(z)).

20
Now, suppose that we want to know the current and voltage along this transmission line. We
consider a basic transmission line along z-axis.

We can solve for current and voltage using two approaches:

a) To use electromagnetic theory (Maxwell)
b) To use Kirchhoff’s Law
In this course we shall use Kirchhoff’s law. But a transmission line can be several wavelength
long (line length is sometimes expressed in λ) while Kirchhoff’s laws are applied on lumped
elements in equivalent circuits. In order to apply Kirchhoff’s law, the following procedure will
be applied:

First, to consider a short piece of transmission line ∆𝑧 (<< 𝜆) which is much smaller than the
wavelength.

The short piece of length is then modelled by Kirchhoff’s law by first defining an equivalent
circuit to the short piece of transmission line. Below is the lumped-element circuit model.

For a low frequency two-wire transmission line, the equivalent circuit consists of primary line
constants (R, L, C and G) which are impedance properties which can be measured. They are:

21
  Series resistance of the line R, ohm/meter (Ω/m)-which accounts for conduction losses in
the wire
 Leakage conductance (shunt conductance) of the line G, siemens/meter (S/m)-which is
related to losses which might occur in the dielectric material (insulator) which can be
found between the wires
 Series inductance (inductance) of the line L, henry/meter (H/m)-which accounts for
inductance along the wire
 Capacitance (short capacitor) of the line C, farad/meter (F/m)-which accounts for
capacitance between the two wires
This is a general model: it applies to any TL regardless of its cross sectional shape. However, the
parameter values of R, L, C and G change depending on the specific geometry (whether it is two-
wire, coaxial or other geometry) provided the actual electromagnetic field is Transverse, Electric
and Magnetic (TEM) wave. TLs are used to model the voltage and current waves on any structures
supporting only TEM waves. Below are some common lines with formulas for parameters.

A finite length of TL can be constructed by cascading many of these subsections along the total
length of the TL i.e TL can be represented as a chain of these circuits (see figure below).

22
Now that we have equivalent circuit, we apply Kirchhoff’s law to find the solution for voltage
and current.

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law i.e if we walk around the circuit the total voltage should be
zero

𝑉(𝑧) − 𝐼(𝑧)𝑅∆𝑧 − 𝐼(𝑧)𝑗𝜔𝐿∆𝑧 − 𝑉(𝑧 + ∆𝑧) = 0 ………………….. (2)

Voltage at input - voltage at series resistor - Voltage at inductor - voltage at output = 0

And applying Kirchhoff’s current law:

𝐼(𝑧) − 𝑉(𝑧 + ∆𝑧)𝐺∆𝑧 − 𝑉(𝑧 + ∆𝑧)𝑗𝜔𝐶∆𝑧 − 𝐼(𝑧 + ∆𝑧) = 0 …….. (3)

(Current at input) – (current through shunt conductance) – (current through shunt capacitor) –
(current leaving the circuit) = 0
We now have two sets of equations.
Re-arranging (2), (3):
{𝑉(𝑧) − 𝑉(𝑧 + ∆𝑧)} − 𝐼(𝑧)𝑅∆𝑧 − 𝐼(𝑧)𝑗𝜔𝐿∆𝑧 = 0 …… (4)
{𝐼(𝑧) − 𝐼(𝑧 + ∆𝑧)} − 𝑉(𝑧 + ∆𝑧)𝐺∆𝑧 − 𝑉(𝑧 + ∆𝑧)𝑗𝜔𝐶∆𝑧 = 0 ….. (5)

Dividing (4) and (5) by ∆𝑧 and take limit ∆𝑧 → 0

𝜕𝑉(𝑧)
= − (𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)𝐼(𝑧)
𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝐼(𝑧)
= − (𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶)𝑉(𝑧)
𝜕𝑧

After differentiating each we obtain

𝜕2 𝑉(𝑧) 𝜕𝐼(𝑧)
= − (𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧

𝜕2 𝐼(𝑧) 𝜕𝑉(𝑧)
= − (𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶)
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝐼(𝑧) 𝜕𝑉(𝑧)
Substituting for and gives
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧

𝜕2 𝑉(𝑧)
= (𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)(𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶)𝑉(𝑧)
𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕2 𝐼(𝑧)
= (𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶)(𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)𝐼(𝑧)
𝜕𝑧 2

Re-rewriting each as
𝜕2 𝑉(𝑧)
= 𝛾 2 𝑉(𝑧) …………………… (6)
𝜕𝑧 2

23
𝜕2 𝐼(𝑧)
= 𝛾 2 𝐼(𝑧) ………………….. (7)
𝜕𝑧 2

𝛾 = √(𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)(𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶) ………………. (x)

Eqns (6), (7) and (x) are called transmission line equations for two-wire transmission line

We now can try to find solutions to the equations 6 and 7. The general solution to this type of
equations are exponential functions,

𝑉(𝑧) = 𝑉0+ 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝑉0− 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 …………. (8)

𝐼(𝑧) = 𝐼0+ 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝐼0− 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 …………..(9)

𝑉(𝑧) has two components, Voltage propagating in + Z direction with amplitude 𝑉0+ (incident
wave voltage) and voltage propagating in the – Z direction with amplitude 𝑉0− (reflected wave
voltage). Similarly definitions are made for current.
Where propagation constant 𝛾 can be written in terms of real part and imaginary part.

𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 = √(𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)(𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶)

𝛼 = Attenuation constant of the wave

2𝜋
𝛽 = Phase constant and is related to wavelength by the expression 𝛽 = 𝜆

The characteristic impedance,

𝑽(𝒛) 𝑽+ 𝑹+𝒋𝝎𝑳
𝒁𝟎 = = 𝟎
= (Expresses relationship with line constants R, L) … (10)
𝑰(𝒛) 𝑰+
𝟎 𝜸

Illustration:

1.5.2 Simple applications of transmission line theory

Determination of reflection coefficient, 𝛤.
Adding termination to TL produces reflections so that the total voltage and current anywhere on
the TL are sums of forward and reverse propagating waves as shown in eqns 11 and 12.
24
We consider terminated lossless transmission line (α = 0) and 𝛾 = 0 + 𝑗𝛽 ; hence, 𝛾 = 𝑗𝛽

New transmission line solutions (8) and (9) become

𝑉(𝑧) = 𝑉0+ 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 + 𝑉0− 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 ………………… (11)

𝑉0+ 𝑉−
𝐼(𝑧) = 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 − 𝒁0 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 ………………… (12)
𝒁𝟎 𝟎

The minus sign in the second term has to do with direction of reflected wave of the current.
The load we have introduced ZL sets the relationship between the voltage and the currents at the
termination, at center 0.
𝑉𝐿
And the relation ZL is given by voltage divided by current, 𝑍𝐿 = 𝐼𝐿

The “lumped load” ZL that terminates the TL is considered a boundary condition for the voltage
𝑉(𝑧=0)
and current in eqns 11 and 12. So at Z = 0, 𝑍0 = 𝐼 ↔ 𝑉(0) = 𝐼(𝑜)𝑍0
(𝑧=0)

Therefore, we can solve for voltage and current by applying this boundary condition to eqns 11
and 12 as
𝑉(0) = 𝑉0+ + 𝑉0−
𝑉0+ 𝑉−
𝐼(0) = − 𝒁0
𝒁𝟎 𝟎

Then, we can find the relation between ZL and the characteristic impedance Z0 as
𝑉𝐿 𝑉(0) 𝑉0+ +𝑉0− 𝑉0+ +𝑉0−
𝑍𝐿 = = = 𝑉+ − = 𝑧0
𝐼𝐿 𝐼(0) 0 −𝑉0 𝑉0+ −𝑉0−
𝒁𝟎 𝒁𝟎
𝑉 + +𝑉 −
𝑍𝐿 = 𝑉0+−𝑉0− 𝑧0 ……………………. (13)
0 0
Using this relation (13) we can rewrite it to give us the relationship between the voltage of the
reflected and incident waves. From that we can define the reflection coefficient, Γ which is the
ratio of the amplitude of the reflected wave to the amplitude of the incident wave.
By rewriting (13) as

25
 𝑍 −𝑍 𝑉−
𝑉0− = 𝑍𝐿+𝑍0 𝑉0+ , the ratio 𝑉0+ defines the voltage reflection coefficient at the load Z=0.
𝐿 0 0

𝑉− 𝑍 −𝑍 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
Γ = 𝑉0+ = 𝑍𝐿+𝑍0 = (Reflection coefficient at the load z = 0) ... (14)
0 𝐿 0 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

Therefor Γ depends only on the characteristic impedance 𝑍0 and load impedance 𝑍𝐿 . Note that, in
general, Γ is a complex number since 𝑍𝐿 is complx.
So the reflection coefficient is an important parameter in a lot of microwave circuits and it’s often
expressed in dB.

Examples
Find the reflection coefficient for termination of transmission line with
1. Short circuited (ZL = 0)
2. open circuited (ZL = ∞)
3. Load (ZL= Z0)-line terminated in matched load
Solutions:

1. Short circuited (ZL = 0)

𝑍𝐿 −𝑍0 0−𝑍
Γ=
𝑍𝐿 +𝑍0
= 0+𝑍0 = −1
0

2. Open Circuited (ZL = ∞)

𝑍 −𝑍 ∞−𝑍
Γ = 𝑍𝐿 +𝑍0 = ∞+𝑍0 = 1
𝐿 0 0

3. Load/ line terminated in matched load (ZL= Z0)

𝑍𝐿 −𝑍0 𝑍 −𝑍
Γ=
𝑍𝐿 +𝑍0
= 𝑍0+𝑍0 = 0
0 0

Note,
 Reflection coefficient of -1 means everything is reflected with a phase of 180 degrees

26
  Reflection coefficient of 1 means everything is reflected with a phase of 0 degrees
 Reflection coefficient of 0 nothing is reflected and this is seen as the best situation but it’s
not practical
Summary
1. Z0, the characteristic impedance, is the input impedance of an infinitely long uniform
transmission line
2. The input impedance of a short line terminated in Z0 is Z0
3. The characteristic impedance of a short line can be measured because it is geometric
mean of open – and short circuit impedances 𝑍0 = √𝑍𝑠𝑐 𝑍𝑜𝑐 ; (sc-short circuit, oc-Open
circuit)
4. Transmission line analysis:

R, L, G, C are primary line constants

5. The transmission line equations are:

𝜕2 𝑉(𝑧)
= 𝛾 2 𝑉(𝑧)
𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕2 𝐼(𝑧)
= 𝛾 2 𝐼(𝑧)
𝜕𝑧 2
6. Propagation constant 𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 = √(𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)(𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶)
2𝜋
where 𝛽 = 𝜆 (Phase constant) and α is attenuation,
7. Reflection coefficient for terminated lossless line (𝛼 = 0 and Z = 0)

27
 𝑉− 𝑍 −𝑍 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
Γ = 𝑉0+ = 𝑍𝐿+𝑍0 =
0 𝐿 0 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

8. When a line is terminated in a matched load (𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍0 ), then Γ = 0

9. Transmission line is mismatched when 𝑍𝐿 ≠ 𝑍0
10. As follows:
 Transmission line is characterized by 𝑍0 and 𝛽
 𝑍0 and 𝛽 are determined from L, C and 𝜔
 Two waves propagating on a transmission line are characterized by two complex
constants 𝑉0+ and 𝑉0− .
 Transmission line transfers energy from source to the load. Where the load is
𝑉𝐿
defined as the ratio of voltage to current (𝑍𝐿 = )
𝐼𝐿
 For lossless transmission line Kirchoff’s laws apply i.e both ends equated.

𝑉𝐿
 what is the current and voltage at each end of the line 𝑍𝐿 = 𝐼𝐿
𝑉(0)
 For no loss 𝑉(𝑧 = 0) = 𝑉(𝑧 = 𝐿) and 𝑉(𝑧 = 0) = 𝑉(0), then 𝑍𝐿 = = 𝑍𝑜
𝐼(0)

28
 Revision Questions 1.0 -1.5 Microwaves, generators (source) and
Transmission Lines

Part A –Introduction to Microwaves

1-1. The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum which falls between 1,000 and 100,000
megahertz is referred to as which of the following regions?

1. X-ray
2. Infrared
3. Microwave
4. Ultra-violet

1-2. Microwave theory is based on the action of which of the following fields?

1. Electric field only

2. Magnetic field only
3. Electromagnetic field

1-3. Coaxial lines are more efficient than two-wire lines at microwave frequencies for which of
the following reasons?

1. Because electromagnetic fields are completely confined in coaxial lines

2. Because electromagnetic fields are not completely confined in coaxial lines
3. Because coaxial lines have less resistance to current flow than two-wire transmission lines
4. Each of the above

1-4. The most efficient transfer of electromagnetic energy can be provided by which of the
following mediums?

1. Waveguides
2. Twin-lead flat lines
3. Single-conductor lines
4. Coaxial transmission lines

29
Part B
1. Define the term microwaves, illustrating your answer with reference to electromagnetic
spectrum (EMS)
2. What type of radio wave is a microwave?
3. What is meant by millimeter wave as applied to radio waves?
4. Explain the need for division of the microwave range of frequencies into bands. Tabulate the
letter designations (major bands) together with their respective frequencies and wavelength.
5. State the practical application of each band of the microwave frequency.
6. State the advantages and disadvantages of microwaves to justify their wide applications
7. Outline at least four applications of microwave frequencies
8. Mention the likely applications for each of the following microwave frequencies: above 10
GHz, 3 – 10 GHz, 150MHz – 1 GHz. Discuss the level of heating caused by each in a human
body and explain whether the exposure is safe or not. Hence, Justify why microwave systems
should be located in faraway sites from crowded human settlements such as rocks, highlands,
mountain tops, etc.
9. Discuss the negative effect of human body exposure to microwaves? Suggest any mitigation
measures related to use and location of microwave sources.

Part C: Multiple choice (with answers) –Transmission Line

1. Any length of transmission line may be made to appear as an infinitely long line
by:
a. shorting the line at the end
b. leaving the line open at the end
c. terminating the line in its characteristic impedance
d. increasing the standing wave ratio above unity
e. ========= Answer is c =========

2. The characteristic impedance of a transmission line is determined by the:

a. length of the line
b. load placed on the line
c. physical dimensions and relative positions of the conductors
d. frequency at which the line is operated
e. ========= Answer is c =========

3. To obtain efficient transfer of power from a transmitter to an antenna, it is

important that there is a:
a. high load impedance
b. low load impedance
c. correct impedance match between transmitter and antenna
d. high standing wave ratio
e. ========= Answer is c =========

30
4. A coaxial feedline is constructed from:
a. a single conductor
b. two parallel conductors separated by spacers
c. braid and insulation around a central conductor
d. braid and insulation twisted together
e. ========= Answer is c =========

5. An RF transmission line should be matched at the transmitter end to:

a. prevent frequency drift
b. overcome fading of the transmitted signal
c. ensure that the radiated signal has the intended polarization
d. transfer maximum power to the antenna
e. ========= Answer is d =========

6. A result of mismatch between the power amplifier of a transmitter and the

antenna is:
a. reduced antenna radiation
b. radiation of key clicks
c. lower modulation percentage
d. smaller DC current drain
e. ========= Answer is a =========

7. Losses occurring on a transmission line between a transmitter and antenna

result in:
a. less RF power being radiated
b. a SWR of 1:1
c. reflections occurring in the line
d. improved transfer of RF energy to the antenna
e. ========= Answer is a =========

8. If the characteristic impedance of a transmission line does not match the

antenna input impedance then:
a. Reflection coefficient is not zero and antenna radiates weak signal
b. heat is produced at the junction
c. the SWR drops to 1:1
d. the antenna will not radiate any signal
e. ========= Answer is a =========

31
Part D (with answers): Multiple Choice-Transmission Line constants/ Parameters”.
1. Which of the following parameters is not a primary parameter?
a) Resistance
b) Attenuation constant
c) Capacitance
d) Conductance
Answer: b
Explanation: The primary parameters of a transmission line are the resistance, inductance,
capacitance and conductance. The attenuation, phase and propagation constant are secondary
parameters. Thus the odd one out is the attenuation constant.

2. The networks in which the R, L, C parameters are individually concentrated or lumped at

discrete points in the circuit are called
a) Lumped
b) Distributed
c) Parallel
d) Paired
Answer: a
Explanation: The networks in which the R, L, C parameters are individually concentrated or
lumped at discrete points in the circuit are called lumped networks. These networks can be
identified definitely as representing a particular parameter. An example is the filters.

3. The lines having R, L, C distributed along the circuit are called

a) Lumped
b) Distributed
c) Parallel
d) Paired
Answer: b
Explanation: In distributed lines, the primary parameters are distributed along the circuit with
each elemental length having its own values and the concentration of the individual parameters
is not possible. An example is the transmission of power.

4. Which primary parameter is uniformly distributed along the length of the conductor?
a) G
b) C
c) L
d) R

32
Answer: d
Explanation: The resistance is a primary parameter that is uniformly distributed along the
length of the conductor. It depends on the cross section area and the length of the conductor.

5. The primary parameter that is associated with the magnetic flux linkage is
a) R
b) L
c) C
d) G
Answer: b
Explanation: When the conductors carry current, the conductor will be surrounded and linked
by magnetic flux. The flux linkages per ampere of current gives rise to the effect of inductance.
It is denoted by L.
6. The primary parameter that is associated with the electric charges is
a) G
b) R
c) C
d) L
Answer: c
Explanation: Conductors separated by insulating dielectrics in order to store electric charges,
gives rise to the capacitance effect. The capacitance is distributed in the whole conductor
length.

7. The leakage current in the transmission lines is referred to as the

a) Resistance
b) Radiation
c) Conductance
d) Polarisation
Answer: c
Explanation: The dielectrics or insulators of the open wire line may not be perfect and a leakage
current will flow. This leakage conductance exists between the conductors.

8. Find the receiving impedance of a transmission line having a voltage of 24V and a conduction
current of 1.2A is
a) 25.2
b) 22.8
c) 28.8

33
d) 20
Answer: d
Explanation: By Ohm’s law, the impedance is the ratio of the voltage to the current. On
substituting for V = 24 and I = 1.2, we get Z = V/I = 24/1.2 = 20 units.

9. When a transmission line has a load impedance same as that of the characteristic impedance,
the line is said to be
a) Parallel
b) Perpendicular
c) Polarized
d) Matched
Answer: d
Explanation: When a transmission line load impedance is same as that of the characteristic
impedance, the line is said to be matched. In such cases, full transmission of power will occur,
with minimal losses.
10 .What is meant by termination of transmission line? - electrical termination is the practice
of ending a transmission line with a device that matches the characteristic impedance of
the line. This is intended to prevent signals from reflecting off the end of the transmission
line.

Part E (1): Multiple choice- Transmission lines

1. Which of the following is correct when the transmission line is terminated by a characteristic
Impedance?

(A) There is no reflection of the incident wave. (B) The reflection is maximum due to
termination. (C) There are a large number of maximum and minimum on the line. (D) The
incident current is zero for any applied signal.

2. Find the value of reflection co efficient if the line has Zo = 300Ω and ZL = 150Ω?
(A) 3, (B) 0.5, (C) 0.3, (D) ∞

3. Find which of the given ratio defines voltage reflection coefficient?

A. Incident wave to reflected wave, B. Reflected wave to incident wave, C. Incident wave to
absorbed wave, D. Absorbed wave to incident wave

4. Which of the following statement is correct, when the characteristic impedance of the line is
equal to the load impedance?(A) all the energy will pass to the earth(B) all the energy will be
lost in transmission losses(C) the system will resonate badly(D) all the energy sent will be
absorbed by the load.

34
5. Which of the following condition is suitable for a properly terminated line?
(A) ZL=ZO, (B) ZL > ZO, (C) ZL < ZO, (D) ZL= ZO = 0.

6. What is the equation for a characteristic impedance Zo in terms of open & short circuited
line?

7. Find the characteristic impedance of the line If Zoc = 120Ω and Zsc = 30 Ω?
30 Ω, 60 Ω, 120 Ω, 150 Ω

8. What is the value of the reflection coefficient of a transmission line with a short-circuited
load? 1, 0, -1

9. At what condition the reflection coefficient of a line is equal to −1?

Open circuited, Short circuited, Terminated in Zo, Of infinite length.

10. For a transmission line, open circuit and short circuit impedances are 20Ω and 5Ω. The
characteristic impedance of the line is100 Ω, 50 Ω, 25 Ω, 10 Ω.

11. When the reflection take place in the line?

ZL = 0, ZL = ∞, ZL = 0 and ZL =Zo

12. What is the value of the reflection coefficient when the line is properly terminated with Z 0?
1, -1 , 0

13. What is the value of the reflection coefficient of a transmission line with a open-circuited
load? 0, -1, 0

14. At what condition the reflection coefficient of a line is equal to 1?

Open circuited. Short circuited. Terminated in Zo Of infinite length.

15. What is the range of reflection coefficient ? (a) 0 to 1

(b) 1 to infinity(c) 0 to infinity(d) -1 to +1

Part E(2): Multiple Choice

1
The time it takes a signal applied at one end of a transmission line to appear at the
other end of the line is called

signal time
A)

time constant
B)

35
 transit time
C)

transmission delay
D)

2
Which of the following is not an important transmission line specification?

impedance
A)

attenuation
B)

inside diameter
C)

velocity factor
D)

3
Energy that is reflected from the end of an improperly terminated line back up the line
towards the generator is called a

harmonic
A)

stranded wave
B)

standing wave
C)

reflected signal
D)

4
When the load impedance does not exactly match the line impedance and the load has
reactive components in addition to its resistance, the line is said to be

Open
A)

shorted
B)

reactive
C)

resonant
D)

36
Part F: Calculation Problems-Transmission Lines
1a. Given the following transmission line in Figure 1 having a series inductance and
resistance, and a parallel capacitance and susceptance with the associated values.
Find the wave constant, output impedance (Zo), the velocity propagation (Vp, where
Vp = 1 / [LC]1/2 ), and the attenuation in dB/meter.

L = 200mH/meter; R = 0.25ohms/meter; C = 100pF/meter

G = 1uS/meter; f = 1MHz

37
Part G: Microwave generators and EM Resonators
1. Name two source of (i) High microwave frequencies (ii) Low microwave frequencies
2. What is a magnetron? Briefly describe its operation principle
3. State the main difference between a magnetron and travelling wave tube or klystron
4. Draw an I-V curve for a tunnel diode oscillator and clearly indicate: negative resistance region
and biasing voltage
5. Draw a well labelled diagram of a typical tunnel diode coupled with an oscillator
6. What determines the frequency of operation of the tunnel diode oscillator
Hence, explain
a) How loose coupling is achieved and its significance in a tunnel diode
b) The difference between mechanical & electronic/bias tuning in tunnel diode
7. Define Q-factor
8. Outline the major components of a microwave oven stating its function
9. Describe the process by which a microwave cooks food
10. Is it true that microwave cookery destroys all vitamins in food? How long should one cook
food in a microwave without losing nutrient value?
11. Explain the advantages and shortcomings of microwave oven for cooking food.
12. Why are metallic utensils/foils bad for cooking with microwave oven?
13. Give other applications of microwaves.
14. What is resonant cavity
15. Define Q-factor
16. An empty rectangular cavity has dimensions: 𝑎 = 36 𝑐𝑚, 𝑏 = 33 𝑐𝑚, 𝑑 = 23 𝑐𝑚.

Determine the three lowest resonance frequencies of the cavity

Part H: Transmission Lines
1. What is a transmission line?
2. What is the importance of transmission lines?
3. Distinguish between a wire and a transmission line in a circuit.
4. Draw a typical two-wire transmission line with infinite length
5. What is characteristic impedance? Express it in terms of input voltage and current
6. State two methods applicable for solving for current and voltage in a transmission line
7. Describe the procedure for solving transmission line circuit for current and voltage using
Kirchhoff’s laws.
8. State and explain the primary constants for a low-frequency two-wire transmission line
9. Draw a lumped-element circuit model for transmission line and use it to derive
transmission line equation and solutions. Hence deduce the expression for characteristic
impedance in terms of incident voltage and current waves as well as primary line
constants.
10. Derive the expression for reflection coefficient for terminated lossless line in terms of
characteristic impedance

38
1.6 Wave guides

We will now generalize the discussion of transmission lines by considering EM wave guides.

 At frequencies higher than 3 GHz, transmission of electromagnetic energy along the

transmission lines and cables becomes difficult.
 This is due to the losses that occur both in the solid dielectric needed to support the
conductor and in the conductors themselves.
 A metallic tube can be used to transmit electromagnetic wave at the above frequencies

Definition, a hollow metallic tube of uniform cross section for transmitting electromagnetic waves
by successive reflections from the inner walls of the tube is called waveguide. These are “pipes”
that guide EM waves. Example of wave guides include coaxial cables, hollow metal pipes and
fibre optical cables.

Basic features:

 Waveguides may be used to carry energy between pieces of equipment or over longer
distances to carry transmitter power to an antenna or microwave signals from an antenna
to a receiver
 Waveguides are made from copper, aluminum or brass. These metals are extruded into
long rectangular or circular pipes.
 An electromagnetic energy to be carried by a waveguide is injected into one end of the
waveguide.
 The electric and magnetic fields associated with the signal bounce off the inside walls
back and forth as it progresses down the waveguide.

Rectangular Waveguides

 Any shape of cross section of a waveguide can support electromagnetic waves of which
rectangular and circular waveguides have become more common.
 A waveguide having rectangular cross section is known as Rectangular waveguide

39
Dimensions of the waveguide which determines the operating frequency range:
 The size of the waveguide determines its operating frequency range.
 The frequency of operation is determined by the dimension ‘a’.
 This dimension is usually made equal to one – half the wavelength at the lowest
frequency of operation, this frequency is known as the waveguide cutoff frequency.
 At the cutoff frequency and below, the waveguide will not transmit energy. At
frequencies above the cutoff frequency, the waveguide will propagate energy

Wave paths in a waveguide at various frequencies:

At high frequency

At medium frequency

At low frequency

At cutoff frequency

Wave propagation:
 When a probe launches energy into the waveguide, the electromagnetic fields bounce off
the side walls of the waveguide as shown in the above diagram.
 The angles of incidence and reflection depend upon the operating frequency. At high
frequencies, the angles are large and therefore, the path between the opposite walls is
relatively long as shown in Figure above.
 At lower frequency, the angles decrease and the path between the sides shortens.
 When the operating frequency reaches the cutoff frequency of the waveguide, the signal
simply bounces back and forth directly between the side walls of the waveguide and has
no forward motion.
 At cut off frequency and below, no energy will propagate.

40
Cut off frequency:
 The exact size of the wave guide is selected based on the desired operating frequency.
 The size of the waveguide is chosen so that its rectangular width is greater than one – half
the wavelength but less than the one wavelength at the operating frequency.
 This gives a cutoff frequency that is below the operating frequency, thereby ensuring that
the signal will be propagated down the line.

Advantages of rectangular waveguide

Rectangular waveguides, as opposed to circular and elliptical waveguides, are by far the dominant
configuration for the installed base of waveguides for compact systems like radar and inside
equipment shelters. That is probably due to

 the generally greater rigidity of rectangular structures because the wall thickness can be
easily made thicker than with circular.
 It is also easier to route and mount in close quarters, and attaching penetrating objects like
probes and switches is much simpler.

1.6.1 TEM, TE and TM Modes for Waveguides

EM field configuration within the waveguide:
 In order to determine the EM field configuration within the waveguide, Maxwell’s
equations should be solved subject to appropriate boundary conditions at the walls of the
guide.
 Such solutions give rise to a number of field configurations. Each configuration is known
as a mode. The following are the different modes possible in a waveguide system

Components of Electric and Magnetic Field Intensities in an EM wave:

Electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular

and transverse to wave direction

Types of EM waves (modes)

We assume the wave is propagating in the z –direction.

1. Transverse Electro Magnetic (TEM) wave: Here both electric and magnetic fields are
directed components. (i.e.) E z = 0 and Hz = 0
2. Transverse Electric (TE) wave: Here only the electric field is purely transverse to the
direction of propagation and the magnetic field is not purely transverse. (i.e.) E z = 0, Hz
≠ 0. Consequently, all E components are transverse to the direction of propagation.
41
 3. Transverse Magnetic (TM) wave: Here only magnetic field is transverse to the direction
of propagation and the electric field is not purely transverse. (i.e.)E z ≠ 0, Hz = 0.
4. Hybrid (HE) wave: Here neither electric nor magnetic fields are purely transverse to the
direction of propagation. (i.e.)E z ≠ 0, Hz ≠ 0.

Representation of modes:
 The general symbol of representation will be TE m, n or TM m, n where the subscript m
indicates the number of half wave variations of the electric field intensity along the b
( wide) dimension of the waveguide.
 The second subscript n indicates the number of half wave variations of the electric field
in the a (narrow) dimension of the guide.
 The TE 1, 0 mode has the longest operating wavelength and is designated as the dominant
mode. It is the mode for the lowest frequency that can be propagated in a waveguide.

1.6.2 General Solutions for TE and TM Waves

In this section we will find general solutions to Maxwell’s equations for the specific cases of TE,
and TM wave propagation in Rectangular transmission lines or waveguides. The geometry of an
waveguide is shown in the figure below and is characterized by conductor boundaries that are
parallel to the z-axis. These structures are assumed to be uniform in shape and dimension in the z
direction and infinitely long. The conductors will initially be assumed to be perfectly conducting,
but attenuation can be found by a perturbation method.

Besides, it is assumed that the guide is filled with a material of permittivity 𝜀 and permeability µ.
It is standard convention to have the longest side of the waveguide along the x-axis, so that a > b.

42
We will assume the waveguide is invariant in the Z-direction and that the wave is propagating in
the Z –direction as 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 . (We could also have assumed propagation in – Z.)

We assume time-harmonic fields with an 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 dependence and wave propagation along the z-
axis. The electric and magnetic fields can then be written as

𝐸⃗ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = [𝑒(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑧̂ 𝑒𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦)]𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 (1)

𝐻 ⃗ (𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑧̂ ℎ𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦)]𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧

⃗ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = [ℎ (2)

where 𝑒(𝑥, 𝑦)and ℎ ⃗ (𝑥, 𝑦) represent the transverse (𝑥,

̂ 𝑦̂) electric and magnetic field components,
and ez and hz are the longitudinal electric and magnetic field components. In equations (1) and (2)
the wave is propagating in the +z direction; - z propagation can be obtained by replacing β with
−β. In addition, if conductor or dielectric loss is present, the propagation constant will be complex;
jβ should then be replaced with γ = α+ jβ. Assuming that the waveguide region is source free, we
can write Maxwell’s equations as

∇ × 𝐸⃗ = −𝑗𝜔𝜇𝐻
⃗ (3)

⃗ = 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝐸⃗
∇×𝐻 (4)

With an 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 z-dependence, the three components of each of these vector equations can be
reduced to equations (5) – (10).

43
 (5)

(6)

(7)

44
 (8)

(9)

(10)

These six equations (5 -10) can be solved for the four transverse field components in terms of Ez
and Hz [e.g., Hx can be derived by eliminating Ey from (5) and (9)] as follows:

From equation (5)

(9)

𝛽2 𝑗 𝜕𝐸𝑧 𝜕𝐻𝑧
𝐻𝑥 [1 − 2 ] = 2 [𝜔𝜀 −𝛽 ]
𝜔 𝜇𝜖 𝜔 𝜇𝜖 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝐸𝑧 𝜕𝐻𝑧
𝐻𝑥 [𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 − 𝛽 2 ] = 𝑗 [𝜔𝜀 −𝛽 ]
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝑗 𝜕𝐸𝑧 𝜕𝐻𝑧
𝐻𝑥 = [𝜔𝜀 − 𝛽 ]
𝜔 2 𝜇𝜖 − 𝛽 2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

45
 (11)

kc is defined as the cutoff wave number; the reason for this terminology will become clear later.

k = ω√µ𝜀 = 2π/λ is the wave number of the material filling the transmission line or waveguide
region.

If dielectric loss is present, 𝜀 can be made complex by using 𝜀 = 𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 (1 − 𝑗 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛿), where

tanδ is the loss tangent of the material.

Similarly, we can show that

(12)

(13)

(14)

Note, from (11) – (14), we can see that all transverse components of 𝐸⃗ and 𝐻
⃗ can be obtained
from only axial components Ez and Hz. It is this fact that allows the mode designations TEM, TE
and TM. Furthermore, we can use superposition to reduce the complexity of the solution by
considering each of these mode types separately, then adding the fields together at the end.

Equations (11)–(14) are general results that can be applied to a variety of waveguiding systems.
We will now specialize these results to specific wave types.

46
1.6.2.1 TE Waves

Transverse electric (TE) waves, (also referred to as H-waves) are characterized by Ez = 0 and
Hz ≠ 0 (to be found by solving wave equation (19) below. Consequently, all 𝐸⃗ components are
transverse to the direction of propagation. Equations (11)-(14) then reduce to (15) - (18). It’s
clear that all transverse components of 𝐸⃗ and 𝐻
⃗ are known once we find a solution for only Hz.

(15)

(16)
(17)

(18)
In this case 𝑘𝑐 ≠ 0 and the propagation constant 𝛽 = √𝑘 2 − 𝑘𝑐2 is generally a function of
frequency and geometry of the line or guide. To apply equations (15) – (18), one must first find
Hz from the Helmholtz wave equation,

∇2 𝐻 + 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖𝐻 = 0 (19)

𝜕2 𝐻𝑧 𝜕2 𝐻𝑧 𝜕2 𝐻𝑧
We have + + + 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖𝐻𝑧 = 0 (20)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
( 2 + 2 + 2 + 𝑘 2 ) 𝐻𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Since 𝐻𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = ℎ𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 , equation (20) is reduced to two dimensional wave for hz:

𝜕2 𝜕2
(𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝑘𝑐2 ) ℎ𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 (20a)

here 𝑘𝑐 = 𝑘 2 − 𝛽 2 (𝑘𝑐 is the cut off wave number). This equation must be solved subject to the
boundary conditions of the specific guide geometry.

The partial differential equation can be solved by the method of separation of variables by letting

ℎ𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑓1 (𝑥)𝑓2 (𝑦)

substituting into (20a) gives

47
 1 𝑑2 𝑓1 1 𝑑 2 𝑓2
+ + 𝑘𝑐2 = 0
𝑓1 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑓2 𝑑𝑦 2

Then, by the usual separation-of-variables argument, each of the terms in the equation must be
equal to a constant, so we define separation constants 𝑘𝑥 and 𝑘𝑦 such that

𝑑 2 𝑓1
+ 𝑘𝑥2 𝑓1 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑 2 𝑓2
+ 𝑘𝑦2 𝑓2 = 0
𝑑𝑦 2

and 𝑘𝑥2 + 𝑘𝑦2 = 𝑘𝑐2

The solutions to the above two differential equation can be written as

𝑓1 (𝑥) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 𝑥) + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 𝑥) and

𝑓2 (𝑦) = 𝐶𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑦 𝑦) + 𝐷𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑦 𝑦)

where A, B, C and D are constants.

Such that the general solution of hz can be written as

ℎ𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑓1 (𝑥)𝑓2 (𝑦) = (𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 𝑥) + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 𝑥)) (𝐶𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑦 𝑦) + 𝐷𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑦 𝑦))

To evaluate the constants A, B, C and D we must apply the boundary conditions on the electric
field components tangential to the waveguide walls. That is,

𝜕𝐻𝑧
= 0 at 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝐻𝑧
= 0 at 𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑏
𝜕𝑦

48
For x = 0:

𝜕𝑓1
= −𝑘𝑥 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 𝑥) + 𝑘𝑥 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 𝑥)
𝜕𝑥

Putting x = 0, 0 = −𝑘𝑥 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(0) + 𝑘𝑥 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠(0)

0 = 𝑘𝑥 𝐵

Therefore, 𝐵 = 0

So that 𝑓1 (𝑥) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 𝑥)

For x = a:

𝜕𝑓1
= −𝑘𝑥 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 𝑥) putting x = a,
𝜕𝑥

0 = −𝑘𝑥 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 𝑎)

𝑘𝑥 ≠ 0, implying 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 𝑎) = 0.

Therefore,

𝑚𝜋 = 𝑘𝑥 𝑎; 𝑚 = 0, 1,2 ….

𝑚𝜋
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑓1 (𝑥) = 𝐴 cos ( 𝑎
𝑥)

Similarly,

𝑛𝜋 = 𝑘𝑦 𝑏; 𝑛 = 0, 1,2 … ..

𝑛𝜋
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑓2 (𝑦) = 𝐶 cos ( 𝑏 𝑦)

Hence, ℎ𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑄𝑚𝑛 cos(𝑚𝜋

𝑎
𝑛𝜋
𝑥) cos( 𝑦), Hence
𝑏

𝐻𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = ℎ𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 = 𝐻0 cos(𝑚𝜋

𝑎
𝑛𝜋
𝑥) cos( 𝑦) 𝑒
𝑏
−𝑗𝛽𝑧
, (21)
where H0 is arbitrary amplitude 𝑄𝑚𝑛

For a rectangular waveguide, the solutions for Ex, Ey, Hx Hy (the transverse components of the
TEmn mode) can now be determined using equation (21) as follows:

𝑗𝛽𝐻0 𝑚𝜋 −𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝐻𝑥 = ( ) sin(𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑥) cos( 𝑦) 𝑒 (22a)
𝑘𝑐2 𝑎 𝑎 𝑏

49
 𝑗𝛽𝐻0 𝑛𝜋 −𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝐻𝑦 = ( 𝑏 ) cos(𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑥) sin( 𝑦) 𝑒 (22b)
𝑘𝑐2 𝑎 𝑏

𝑗𝜔𝜇𝐻0 𝑛𝜋 −𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝐸𝑥 = ( 𝑏 ) cos(𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑥) sin( 𝑦) 𝑒 (22c)
𝑘𝑐2 𝑎 𝑏

𝑗𝜔𝜇𝐻0 𝑚𝜋 −𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝐸𝑦 = − ( ) sin(𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑥) cos( 𝑦) 𝑒 (22d)
𝑘𝑐2 𝑎 𝑎 𝑏

𝐸𝑍 = 0

−𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝐻𝑧 = 𝐻𝑜 cos(𝑚𝜋
𝑎
𝑛𝜋
𝑥) cos( 𝑦) 𝑒
𝑏

Hence,

𝑚𝜋
𝑘𝑥 = 𝑚𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋 2
𝑎
𝑛𝜋 } so using 𝑘𝑐,2 = 𝑘𝑥2 + 𝑘𝑦2 , we get 𝑘𝑐 = √( 𝑎 ) + ( 𝑏 )
𝑘𝑦 = 𝑏

𝑚, 𝑛 = 0,1,2 … 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 = 𝑛 ≠ 0

These m and n indices indicate the only discrete solutions for the transverse wavenumber (kc) are
allowed. Physically, this occurs because we have bounded the system in the x and y directions. (A
vaguely similar situation occurs in atoms, leading to shell orbitals).

𝑚𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋 2
Therefore, propagation constant is 𝛽𝑚𝑛 = √𝑘 2 − 𝑘𝑐,𝑚𝑛
2 = √𝑘 2 − ( ) −(𝑏)
𝑎

Which is seen to be real corresponding to a propagating mode when,

𝑚𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋 2
𝑘 > 𝑘𝑐,𝑚𝑛 = √( ) +( )
𝑎 𝑏

Each mode (each combination of m and n) has a cutoff frequency 𝑓𝑐,𝑚𝑛 given by

𝑘 1 2 2
𝑓𝑐,𝑚𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑐,𝑚𝑛 = 2𝜋 √(𝑚𝜋) + (𝑛𝜋) ; 𝑚, 𝑛 = 0,1,2, … 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 = 𝑛 ≠ 0 (23)
𝜇𝜀 √ √ 𝜇𝜀 𝑎 𝑏

𝑘
Recall: 𝑓 = 2𝜋 ; 𝑘 2 = 𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
√𝜇𝜀

In other words, these are the frequencies where 𝛽𝑚𝑛 = 0 (Implying from 𝛽 = √𝑘 2 − 𝑘𝑐2 , at
cutoff frequency 𝑘 = 𝑘𝑐 and wave propagation begins when the frequency slightly exceeds𝑓𝑐,𝑚𝑛 .

50
Observe that the field expressions for 𝐸⃗ and 𝐻⃗ in (22) or (15) – (18) are all zero if both m = n = 0
(means that kc,00 = 0); there is no TE00 mode. . In equations (15) – (18), this implies infinite field
amplitudes, which is not a physical result. Consequently, the m = n = 0 TE or TEM modes are not
allowed.

One exception might occur is Ez = Hz = 0 since this leads to indeterminate forms in (15) – (18).
However, it can be shown that inside hollow metallic waveguides when both m = n = 0 and
Ez = Hz = 0, then 𝐸⃗ = 𝐻
⃗ = 0. This means there is no TEM mode.

Complete the table below of possible TEmn cutoff frequencies (let a = 1.5 cm, b = 0.8 cm)

TEmn cutoff frequencies

m N fc, mn (GHz)
1 0
0 1
1 1
1 2
2 1

𝑘 1 2
𝑓𝑐,10 = 2𝜋𝑐10𝜇𝜀 = 2𝜋 √(𝜋) = 1 = 𝑐 ; 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙: 𝑐 =
1
√ √ 𝜇𝜀 𝑎 2𝑎 𝜇𝜀
√ 2𝑎 √𝜇𝜀

𝑘𝑐01 1 𝜋 2 1 𝑐
𝑓𝑐,01 = = √( ) = = ;
2𝜋√𝜇𝜀 2𝜋√𝜇𝜀 𝑏 2𝑏√𝜇𝜀 2𝑏

𝑘𝑐,𝑚𝑛 𝑐 𝑚 2 𝑛 2
𝑓𝑐,𝑚𝑛 = = √( ) + ( )
2𝜋√𝜇𝜀 2 𝑎 𝑏

The mode with the lowest cutoff frequency is called the dominant mode; because we have
assumed a > b, the lowest cutoff frequency occurs for the TE10 (m = 1, n = 0) mode.

Thus the TE10 mode is the dominant TE mode and, as we will see, the overall dominant mode of
the rectangular waveguide.

Consequently, EM waves will propagate only when the frequency is “large enough” since there
is no TEM mode. Otherwise 𝛽 will be imaginary (𝛽 → +𝑗𝛼) leading to pure attenuation and no
propagation of the wave 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 → 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 .

This turns out to be a general result. That is, for a hollow conductor, EM waves will propagate
only when the frequency is large enough and exceeds some lower threshold (fcmn).

51
At a given operating frequency f only those modes having f > fc will propagate; modes with f < fc
will lead to an imaginary β (or real α), meaning that all field components will decay
exponentially away from the source of excitation. Such modes are referred to as cutoff modes, or
evanescent modes. If more than one mode is propagating, the waveguide is said to be overmoded.

2𝜋 2𝜋 1
The cut off wavelength 𝜆𝑐 = = 2 2
= 2 2
𝐾𝑐
√(𝑚𝜋) +(𝑛𝜋) √( 𝑚 ) +( 𝑛 )
𝑎 𝑏 2𝑎 2𝑏

2𝜋 2𝜋
For TE10, the dominant mode, 𝜆𝑐 = = 2
= 2𝑎
𝐾𝑐
√(𝜋)
𝑎

Microwave engineers desire that all standard rectangular wave guides should have a 2:1
(i.e a = 2b) ratio between its sides.

Example:

For an X-band rectangular wave guide, the cross-sectional dimensions are a = 2.286 cm and
b = 1.016. Using (23) to determine 𝑓𝑐 for possible values of m and n.

TEmn cut off frequencies

m n fc, mn (GHz)
1 0 6.562
2 0 13.123
0 1 14.764
1 2 16.156

The X-Band region frequency if f = (8.2 – 12.5 GHz), for propagation of these waves f > fc, mn.
Hence, from above table, f > fc, 10. Therefore, only the TE10 mode can propagate in the waveguide
regardless of how it is excited. (we will also see shortly that no TM mode with propagate either).
This is called single mode operation and is most often the preferred application for hollow
waveguides.

On the other hand, if the wave frequency is 15.5 GHz, then f > fc, 10, fc, 20, fc, 01, so that only TE10,
TE20, TE01 modes could exist and propagate inside the rectangular waveguide. Which combination
actually exists will depend on how the waveguide is excited.

Note that the TE11 mode (and all higher-ordered TE modes) couldn’t propagate. (We will also
see next that no TM modes will propagate at 15.5 GHz either)

52
 (24)

𝜂 = √𝜇 ⁄𝜀 is the intrinsic impedance of the material filling the waveguide. Note that ZTE is real
when β is real (a propagating mode) but is imaginary when β is imaginary (a cutoff mode).

1.6.2.2 TM (Modes) Waves

Unlike TE modes, Transverse magnetic (TM) waves (also referred to as E-waves) have Ez ≠ 0
and Hz = 0. Equations (11) – (14) then reduce to

(25)

(26)

(27)

(28)

The partial differential equation can be solved by the method of separation of variables by letting

53
 𝑒𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑓1 (𝑥)𝑓2 (𝑦)

substituting into (20a) gives

1 𝑑2 𝑓1 1 𝑑 2 𝑓2
+ + 𝑘𝑐2 = 0
𝑓1 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑓2 𝑑𝑦 2

Then, by the usual separation-of-variables argument, each of the terms in the equation must be
equal to a constant, so we define separation constants 𝑘𝑥 and 𝑘𝑦 such that

𝑑 2 𝑓1
+ 𝑘𝑥2 𝑓1 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑 2 𝑓2
+ 𝑘𝑦2 𝑓2 = 0
𝑑𝑦 2

and 𝑘𝑥2 + 𝑘𝑦2 = 𝑘𝑐2

The solutions to the above two differential equation can be written as

𝑓1 (𝑥) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 𝑥) + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 𝑥) and

𝑓2 (𝑦) = 𝐶𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑦 𝑦) + 𝐷𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑦 𝑦)

where A, B, C and D are constants.

Such that the general solution of ez can be written as

𝑒𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑓1 (𝑥)𝑓2 (𝑦) = (𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 𝑥) + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 𝑥)) (𝐶𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑦 𝑦) + 𝐷𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑦 𝑦))

To evaluate the constants A, B, C and D we must apply the boundary conditions on the electric
field components tangential to the waveguide walls. That is,

𝐸𝑧 = 𝑒𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 at 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑎

54
𝑒𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 at 𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑏

For x = 0:

0 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(0) + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛(0)

Therefore, 𝐴 = 0

So that 𝑓1 (𝑥) = 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 𝑥)

For x = a:

0 = 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 𝑎)

𝑚𝜋
𝑚𝜋 = 𝑘𝑥 𝑎; 𝑚 = 1,2 … . 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑓1 (𝑥) = 𝐵 sin ( 𝑎
𝑥)

Similarly,

𝑛𝜋 = 𝑘𝑦 𝑏; 𝑛 = 1, … . . 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑓2 (𝑦) = 𝐷 sin(𝑛𝜋

𝑏
𝑥)

𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝐸𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑒𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 = 𝐸𝑜 sin ( 𝑎
𝑥) sin ( 𝑦 ) 𝑒
𝑏
−𝑗𝛽𝑧

−𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝐸𝑧 = 𝐸𝑜 sin(𝑚𝜋
𝑎
𝑛𝜋
𝑥) sin( 𝑦 ) 𝑒
𝑏
where 𝐸𝑜 is the amplitude

The transverse field components of TMmn -Ex, Ey, Hx Hy can now be determined as follows:

𝑗𝛽𝐸0 𝑚𝜋 −𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝐸𝑥 = ( ) cos(𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑥) sin( 𝑦) 𝑒 (29a)
𝑘𝑐2 𝑎 𝑎 𝑏

𝑗𝛽𝐸0 𝑛𝜋 −𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝐸𝑦 = ( 𝑏 ) sin(𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑥 ) cos( 𝑦) 𝑒 (29b)
𝑘𝑐2 𝑎 𝑏

𝑗𝜔𝜀𝐸0 𝑛𝜋 −𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝐻𝑥 = ( ) sin(𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑥) cos( 𝑦) 𝑒 (29c)
𝑘𝑐2 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏

𝑗𝜔𝜀𝐸0 𝑚𝜋 −𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝐻𝑦 = − ( ) cos(𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑥) sin( 𝑦) 𝑒 (29d)
𝑘𝑐2 𝑎 𝑎 𝑏

𝐻𝑍 = 0

−𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝐸𝑧 = 𝐸𝑜 sin(𝑚𝜋
𝑎
𝑛𝜋
𝑥) sin( 𝑦) 𝑒
𝑏

As for TE modes, the propagation constant is,

55
 𝑚𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋 2
𝛽𝑚𝑛 = √𝑘 2 − 𝑘𝑐,𝑚𝑛
2 = √𝑘 2 − ( ) − ( )
𝑎 𝑏

and is real for propagating modes and imaginary for cutoff modes. The cutoff frequencies for the
TMmn modes are also the same as those of the TEmn modes, i.e

1 2 2
𝑓𝑐,𝑚𝑛 = 2𝜋 √(𝑚𝜋) + (𝑛𝜋) ; 𝑚, 𝑛 = 1,2, …
√ 𝜇𝜀 𝑎 𝑏

The guide wavelength and phase velocity for TM modes are also the same as those for TE
modes.

Observe that the field expressions for 𝐸⃗ and 𝐻

⃗ in (29) are identically zero if either m or n is zero.
This means that no TM modes with 𝑚 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0 are allowable in a rectangular waveguide.
Thus there is no TM00, TM01, or TM10 mode, and the lowest order TM mode to propagate (lowest
fc) is the TM11 mode, having a cutoff frequency of

𝑘𝑐11 1 𝜋 2 𝜋 2
𝑓𝑐,11 = = √( ) + ( )
2𝜋√𝜇𝜀 2𝜋√𝜇𝜀 𝑎 𝑏

Which is seen to be larger than 𝑓𝑐,10 , the cutoof frequency of the TE10 mode.

For an X-band waveguide seen earlier, cutoff frequencies are as follows:

56
TE (Transverse Electric) Mode TM (Transverse Magnetic)
Mode
The TE10 mode is the dominant mode of a rectangular waveguide
with a>b, since it has the lowest attenuation of all modes. Either For TM modes, m = 0 and n
m or n can be zero, but not both. = 0 are not possible, thus,
TM11 is the lowest possible
TM mode.

End View (TE10)

End View (TM11)

Side View (TE10)

Side View (TM11)

____ Electric field lines

_ _ _ Magnetic field lines

Top View (TE10)

____ Electric field lines

p _ _ _ Magnetic field lines

57
58
 1 1
𝑣= ; 𝑣0 = =c (for air)
√𝜇𝜀 √ 𝜇 0 𝜀0

The cutoff frequency is the operating frequency below which attenuation (no propagation)
occurs and above which propagation takes place.
The dominant mode is the mode with the lowest frequency (or longest cutoff wave length)

59
Example 1a
When 𝑎 = 0.3 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 0.15, find the lowest cutoff frequency for TE and TM –modes for
free space.
Solution
For TE and TM, cutoff frequency is given by

1 𝑚𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋 2
𝑓𝑐,𝑚𝑛 = √( ) +( )
2𝜋√𝜇𝜀 𝑎 𝑏

𝑣 𝑚 2 𝑛 2
= √( ) + ( )
2 𝑎 𝑏

𝑐 𝑚 2 𝑛 2
= √( ) + ( )
2 𝑎 𝑏

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒

Now, cut frequencies are as follow: fc10 TE and fc11 for TM
Mode Cutoff frequency Cutoff Allowable propagating frequency range (band)
wavelength
TE 𝑓𝑐10 = 500 MHz
TM 𝑓𝑐11 = 1118 MHz
Other
Higher cutoff freq.
TE 𝑓𝑐01 = 1000 MHz
TE 𝑓𝑐20 = 1000 MHz

It means that for frequencies lower than 500 MHz there are no TE waves that can propagate
through the waveguide. In the interval 500 𝑀𝐻𝑧 < 𝑓 < 1 𝐺𝐻𝑧 only the TE10 mode can
propagate. One has to be in this frequency span in order to transfer well defined signal.
The same can be said about TM waves, for frequencies lower than 1118 MHz there are no TM
waves that can propagate through the waveguide.
Complete the table for cutoff wavelength and allowable microwave frequency range, given that,
2
𝜆𝑐 = 2 2
and microwave frequency range is 300 MHz to 300 GHz (wavelength 1 m to 1
√(𝑚) +(𝑛)
𝑎 𝑏
mm)
Note, 12𝜆0 < 𝑎 < 𝜆0 and 𝜆𝑐 < 𝜆0, where 𝜆0 is the propagating wave (operating) wavelength.

60
Example 1b

Consider a length of Teflon-filled copper K-band rectangular waveguide having dimensions a =

𝑐
1.07 cm and b = 0.43 cm. Given that the wave propagation speed is in the medium is , find
√2.08
the cutoff frequencies of the first five propagating modes.

Solution

𝑣 𝑚 2 𝑛 2 𝑐 𝑚 2 𝑛 2
Using 𝑓𝑐,𝑚𝑛 = 2 √( 𝑎 ) + (𝑏 ) = 2√2.08 √( 𝑎 ) + (𝑏 )

Mode m n 𝒇𝒄 (GHz)
TE 1 0 9.72
TE 2 0 19.44
TE 0 1 24.19
TE, TM 1 1 26.07
TE, TM 2 1 31.03

Example 1c
A rectangular waveguide with dimensions a = 2.5 cm and b = 1 cm is to operate below 15.1 GHz.
How many TE and TM modes can the wave guide transmit if the guide is filled with a medium
characterized by 𝜎 = 0 𝜀 = 4𝜀0 , 𝜇𝑟 = 1? Calculate the cutoff frequency of the modes.
Solution
The cutoff frequency is given by

1 𝑚 2 𝑛 2
𝑓𝑐,𝑚𝑛 = √( ) + ( )
2√𝜇𝜀 𝑎 𝑏

1 𝑚 2 𝑛 2
= √( ) + ( )
2√𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 𝜀 𝑎 𝑏

1 𝑚 2 𝑛 2
= √( ) + ( )
2√𝜇0 4𝜀0 𝑎 𝑏

1 1 𝑎2
= √𝑚2 + 2 𝑛2
4√𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑎 𝑏

𝑐 𝑎2
= √𝑚 2 + 2 𝑛 2
4𝑎 𝑏
61
 3 × 108
= √𝑚2 + 6.25𝑛2
4(2.5 × 10−2 )

= 3√𝑚2 + 6.25𝑛2 𝐺𝐻𝑧

We are looking for 𝑓𝑐 𝑚𝑛 < 15.1 𝐺𝐻𝑧. A systematic way of doing this is to fix m or n and
increase the other until 𝑓𝑐 𝑚𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 15.1 𝐺𝐻𝑧. It is evident from above equation that
fixing m and increasing n will quickly give us an 𝑓𝑐 𝑚𝑛 that is greater than 15.1 GHz.
For TE01 mode (m = 0, n = 1), 𝑓𝑐 01 = 3(2.5) = 7.5𝐺𝐻𝑧
TE02 mode (m = 0, n = 2), 𝑓𝑐 02 = 3(3) = 15𝐺𝐻𝑧
TE03 mode (m = 0, n = 3), 𝑓𝑐 03 = 3(7.3) = 22.5𝐺𝐻𝑧
Thus for 𝑓𝑐 𝑚𝑛 < 15.1 𝐺𝐻𝑧, the maximum n = 2. We now fix n and increase m until for
𝑓𝑐 𝑚𝑛 > 15.1 𝐺𝐻𝑧
For TE10 mode (m = 1, n = 0), 𝑓𝑐 10 = 3 𝐺𝐻𝑧
TE20 mode (m = 2, n = 0), 𝑓𝑐 20 = 6 𝐺𝐻𝑧
TE30 mode (m = 3, n = 0), 𝑓𝑐 30 = 9 𝐺𝐻𝑧
TE40 mode (m = 4, n = 0), 𝑓𝑐 40 = 12 𝐺𝐻𝑧
TE50 mode (m = 5, n = 0), 𝑓𝑐 50 = 15 𝐺𝐻𝑧 (the same us for TE02)
That is, for 𝑓𝑐 𝑚𝑛 < 15.1 𝐺𝐻𝑧, the maximum n = 5. Now that we know the maximum m and n.
We try other possible combinations between these maximum values.

For TE11, TM11 (degenerate modes), 𝑓𝑐 11 = 3√7.25 = 8.078 𝐺𝐻𝑧

TE21, TM21 , 𝑓𝑐 21 = 3√10.25 = 9.6 𝐺𝐻𝑧
TE31, TM31 , 𝑓𝑐 31 = 3√15.25 = 11.72 𝐺𝐻𝑧

TE41, TM41 , 𝑓𝑐 41 = 3√22.25 = 14.14 𝐺𝐻𝑧

TE12, TM12 , 𝑓𝑐 12 = 3√26 = 15.3 𝐺𝐻𝑧
Those modes whose cutoff frequencies are less or equal to 15.1 GHz will be transmitted-that is.
11 TE modes and 4 TM modes (all of the above modes except TE12, TM12, TE60 and TE02). The
cutoff frequencies for the 15 modes are illustrated in the line diagram of figure 2.9 below.

62
Problem - 7

63
64
65
66
67
Example 1d
Write the general instantaneous field expression for TM and TE modes. Deduce those for TE01
and TM12 modes.
Solution
The instantaneous field expressions for the TM and TE are obtained from the phasor forms by
using

𝐸⃗ = 𝑅𝑒(𝐸𝑠 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 ) and 𝐻

⃗ = 𝑅𝑒(𝐻𝑠 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 )
−𝑗𝛽𝑧
Applying these to equations (22) and 𝐻𝑧 = 𝐻𝑜 cos(𝑚𝜋
𝑎
𝑛𝜋
𝑥) cos( 𝑦) 𝑒
𝑏
gives the following
field components for TE modes:

𝛽𝐻0 𝑚𝜋 𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝐻𝑥 = ( ) sin ( 𝑎 𝑥) cos ( 𝑏 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝛽𝑧
𝑘𝑐2 𝑎

𝛽𝐻0 𝑛𝜋 𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝐻𝑦 = 2
( ) cos ( 𝑎 𝑥) sin ( 𝑏 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝛽𝑧
𝑘𝑐 𝑏

𝜔𝜇𝐻0 𝑛𝜋 𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝐸𝑥 = 2
( ) cos ( 𝑎 𝑥) sin ( 𝑏 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝛽𝑧
𝑘𝑐 𝑏

𝜔𝜇𝐻0 𝑚𝜋 𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝐸𝑦 = − 2
( ) sin ( 𝑎 𝑥) cos ( 𝑏 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝛽𝑧
𝑘𝑐 𝑎

𝐸𝑍 = 0

Similarly for TM mode, equation (29) become

𝛽𝐸0 𝑚𝜋 𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝐸𝑥 = 2
( ) cos ( 𝑎 𝑥) sin ( 𝑏 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝛽𝑧
𝑘𝑐 𝑎

𝛽𝐸0 𝑛𝜋 𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝐸𝑦 = 2
( ) sin ( 𝑎 𝑥) cos ( 𝑏 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝛽𝑧
𝑘𝑐 𝑏

𝜔𝜀𝐸0 𝑛𝜋 𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝐻𝑥 = 2
( ) sin ( 𝑎 𝑥) cos ( 𝑏 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝛽𝑧
𝑘𝑐 𝑏

𝜔𝜀𝐸0 𝑚𝜋 𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝐻𝑦 = − ( ) cos ( 𝑎 𝑥) sin ( 𝑏 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝛽𝑧
𝑘𝑐2 𝑎

𝐻𝑍 = 0

For TE01 mode we set m = 0 and n = 1

68
𝐸𝑦 = 0 = 𝐸𝑧 = 𝐻𝑥

𝜔𝜇𝐻0 𝜋 𝜋
𝐸𝑥 = 2
( ) sin (𝑏 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝛽𝑧
𝑘𝑐 𝑏

𝛽𝐻0 𝜋 𝜋
𝐻𝑦 = 2
( ) sin (𝑏 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝛽𝑧
𝑘𝑐 𝑏

−𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝐻𝑧 = 𝐻𝑜 cos(𝑛𝜋
𝑏
𝑦) 𝑒

2𝜋 2𝜋 2 2𝜋 2
Where 𝑘𝑐 = √( ) = and, 𝑘 2 = 𝜔2 𝜇𝜀 𝛽 = √𝜔 2 𝜇𝜀 − ( )
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏

For TM12 mode we set m = 1 and n = 2

𝛽𝐸0 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
𝐸𝑥 = 2
( ) cos (𝑎 𝑥) sin ( 𝑏 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝛽𝑧
𝑘𝑐 𝑎

𝛽𝐸0 2𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
𝐸𝑦 = 2
( ) sin (𝑎 𝑥) cos ( 𝑏 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝛽𝑧
𝑘𝑐 𝑏

𝜋 2𝜋
𝐸𝑧 = 𝐻𝑜 sin (𝑎 𝑥) sin ( 𝑏 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧

𝜔𝜀𝐸0 2𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
𝐻𝑥 = 2
( ) sin (𝑎 𝑥) cos ( 𝑏 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝛽𝑧
𝑘𝑐 𝑏

𝜔𝜀𝐸0 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
𝐻𝑦 = − ( ) cos (𝑎 𝑥) sin ( 𝑏 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝛽𝑧
𝑘𝑐2 𝑎

𝐻𝑧 = 0

𝜋 2𝜋 2 2 𝜋 2
2𝜋 2
Where 𝑘𝑐 = √(𝑎 ) + ( 𝑏 ) and 𝛽 = √𝑘 2 − (𝑎 ) − ( 𝑏 )

Example 1e
An air field 5- by 2 – cm wave guide has 𝐸𝑧 = 20 sin(40𝜋𝑥) sin(50𝜋𝑦) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 V/M
at 15 GHz.
a) What mode is being propagated?
b) Find 𝛽
𝐸
c) Determine 𝐸𝑥
𝑦

69
Solution
(a) Comparing to 𝐸𝑧 = 20 sin(40𝜋𝑥) sin(50𝜋𝑦) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 with

−𝑗𝛽𝑧
𝐸𝑧 = 𝐸𝑜 sin(𝑚𝜋
𝑎
𝑛𝜋
𝑥) sin( 𝑦) 𝑒
𝑏

𝑚𝜋 100𝑚
= 40𝜋 ∴ = 40 ↔ 20𝑚 = 40; 𝑚 = 2
5 × 10−2 5
Similarly,
𝑛𝜋 100𝑛
−2
= 50𝜋 ↔ = 50; 𝑛 = 1
2 × 10 2
Hence, TM21 mode is propagated

2𝜋 1𝜋 2
(b) 𝛽 = √𝜔 2 𝜇0 𝜀0 − ( 𝑎 ) − ( 𝑏 )
2
1 2𝜋 2 𝜋 2 2𝜋. 15 × 109 2𝜋 2
𝜋 2
= √(2𝜋𝑓)2 − ( ) − ( ) = √( ) − ( ) − ( )
𝑐2 𝑎 𝑏 3 × 108 5 × 10−2 2 × 10−2
2
30 × 101 200 2 100 2
= 𝜋√( ) −( ) −( ) = 𝜋√(100)2 − (40)2 − (50)2
3 5 2
= 241.3 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚

𝛽𝐸0 𝑚𝜋 𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝛽𝐸0 𝑛𝜋 𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋
(𝑐) 𝐸𝑥 = 2
( ) cos ( 𝑎 𝑥) sin ( 𝑏 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝛽𝑧 ; 𝐸𝑦 = 2 ( ) sin ( 𝑎 𝑥) cos ( 𝑏 𝑦) 𝑒 −𝛽𝑧
𝑘𝑐 𝑎 𝑘𝑐 𝑏

𝐸𝑦 𝑛𝑎𝜋 𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋 5
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑥 = tan(40πx)𝐶𝑜𝑡(50𝜋𝑦)
𝐸𝑥 𝑏𝑚𝜋 4

70
Revision questions 1.6- Rectangular waveguide
10. What is a wave guide? Give at least two advantages of rectangular waveguides over circular and elliptical waveguides.
11. Name four types of electromagnetic waves and mention the distinctive features of each
12. Starting from basics obtain the solution of the transmission line equations for rectangular waveguides.
13. Derive expressions for cutoff wavelength and cutoff frequency for TM waves propagating through rectangular waveguides.
14. Define the following as applied to rectangular wave guides
i) The cutoff frequency
ii) The dominant mode. Hence, by writing the expressions for TE10 and TM11 identify the dominant mode and why?
15. What is the physical meaning of the coefficients m and n in the field components inside a rectangular wave guide in expressions
for Hz and fc.
16. What are the parameters that determine a cutoff frequency in a wave guide?
17. A signal consisting of frequencies in the vicinity of a frequency f1 and a signal consisting of frequencies in the vicinity of a
frequency f2, propagating unattenuated (freely) along a rectangular wave guide in the TE10 mode. If f1 < f2, which is faster?
18. What are propagating modes and evanescent modes in a wave guide?
19. What is the physical meaning of the dominant mode in a wave guide?
20. A signal consisting of frequencies in the vicinity of a frequency f1 propagating along a rectangular wave guide as a TE10 mode.
i) What happens if the bandwidth of the signal is relatively large?
ii) What happens to the signal if the waveguide is long?
21. Define in your own words the TE, TM and TEM. What does “mode” mean?
22. What is the phase and group velocity in a rectangular wave guide in these three cases
i) f < fc
ii) f = fc
iii) f > fc
23. Write the general instantaneous field expressions (Hx, Hy, Ex, Ey) for TE and TM modes. Deduce those for TE10 and TM12 mode.
24. Derive the wave impedance expressions for TE and TM modes
25. The wave impedance of a TEM wave is always real. Are the wave impedance of TE and TM always real? Explain
26. Write the instanteneous values of the TE10 wave in a rectangular waveguide
27. Determine the cutoff frequencies of an air-filled waveguide with a = 2.5 cm and b = 1.25 cm, for the following wave types: TE01,
TE10, TE11, TE21, TE12, and TE22

71
28. A rectangular waveguide with dimensions a = 2.5 cm and b = 1 cm is to operate at a frequency of 15 GHz. The wave guide is
filled with a medium characterized by 𝜀 = 4𝜀0 , 𝜇𝑟 = 1? Determine lowest cutoff frequencies for the TE and TM modes.
Besides, determine the wave constant , phase velocity and wave impendence for the above modes.
𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑚
Answers: TE10, 𝛽 = 615.6 , 𝑣 = 1.531 × 108 , 𝑍𝑇𝐸
𝑚 𝑠
𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑚
For TM11 𝛽 = 529.4 , 𝑣 = 1.78 × 108 , 𝑍𝑇𝑀
𝑚 𝑠

29. An air field 5- by 2 – cm wave guide has 𝐸𝑧 = 20 sin(40𝜋𝑥) sin(50𝜋𝑦) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 V/M. At 15 GHz,
d) What mode is being propagated?
e) Find 𝛽
𝐸
f) Determine 𝐸𝑥
𝑦

30. An air field 5- by 2 – cm wave guide has 𝐸𝑧 = 20 sin(40𝜋𝑥) sin(50𝜋𝑦) 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 V/M at 15 GHz. Determine the type of EM
wave, its mode, 𝛽 and find both the wave impedance and the intrinsic wave impedance. The wave guide be filled with air (free
space).
31.In a rectangular waveguide for which 𝑎 = 1.5 𝑐𝑚, 𝑏 = 0.8 𝑐𝑚, 𝜎 = 0, 𝜇 = 𝜇0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀 = 4𝜀0
𝐻𝑥 = 2 sin(𝜋𝑎𝑥) cos(3𝜋 𝑏
𝑦) 𝑒−𝛽𝑧 and transmitted frequency is 5 x 1010 Hz. Determine
a) The mode of operation
b) The cutoff frequency
c) The wave (phase) constant 𝛽
d) The wave impedance
32. Repeat question 26 if TE13 mode is assumed. Determine the other field components for this mode.
33. A standard air filled rectangular waveguide with dimensions 𝑎 = 8.636 𝑐𝑚, 𝑏 = 4.318 𝑐𝑚 is fed by a 4 –GHz carrier form a
coaxial cable. Determine if a TE10 mode will be propagated. If so calculate the phase velocity and the group velocity.
34. Repeat question 27 for TM11 mode.
35. Plot the mode impedances between 8 and 12 GHz for an air guide with a = 2.5 cm and b = 1.25 cm, for the following waves:
TE10 TE11, TE21, TE12 and TE22
36. Plot the wavelength along a rectangular waveguide with air as the dielectric, if the wave is of the TE10 type, for frequency 10
GHz. Is the wavelength shorter or longer than in air- filled.

72
 Chapter 2 Fibre Optics

Basic Theory of Light Guiding

(a) Definition
Fibre optic (optical fibre) Optical fiber is a long thin transparent dielectric material which carries
EM waves of visible and infrared (IR) frequencies from one end to the other end of the fiber by
means of total internal reflection (TIR). Its dimensions are similar to those of human hair
surrounded by a transparent cladding. It’s a dielectric waveguide of cylindrical geometry with core
and cladding of suitable material. Glass or plastic is used as dielectric material. The refractive
index (RI) of core is greater than the refractive index of cladding, normal standard values are 1.48
and 1.46, respectively. They are arranged in bundles called optical cables and used to transmit
signals over long distances. They can transmit large amounts of information at the speed of light
providing an ideal medium for the transport of information. Fibre is an integral part of modern
communications infrastructure and can be found along roads, in hospitals, in buildings and
machinery
A Model of "simple" fiber optic data link is shown below.

The illustration indicates the Source-User pair, Transmitter and Receiver. It also clearly shows the
fiber optic cable constituting the Transmission Medium as well as the connectors that provide the
interface of the Transmitter to the Transmission Medium and the Transmission Medium to the
Receiver. All of these are components of the simple fiber optic data link.
Light travels like an electromagnetic wave inside the waveguide. The dielectric waveguide is
different from a metallic waveguide which is used at microwave and millimeter wave frequencies.
In a metallic waveguide, there is complete shielding of electromagnetic radiation but in an optical
fibre the electromagnetic radiation is not just confined inside the fibre but also extends outside the
fibre.
Main motivation of fibre optics-to meet demand of increase in the telecommunication data
transmission. Optical fibers works as Wave guides in optical television signals, digital data to
transmit voice television signals, digital data to any desired distance from one end to the other
end of the fiber.

73
 (b) Structure of Optical Fibre Cable
Cross-section of Optical fibre- Optical fibre consists of three sections: core, cladding and
protective jacket
/ Jacket

Core
Cladding
Primary coating (optional label)
Outer Jacket

Core-it is an inner cylindrical material made up of glass or plastic

Cladding-It is a cylindrical shell of glass or plastic material in which core is inserted
Protective jacket-the cladding is enclosed in polyurethane jacket and it protects the fibre from
surroundings. The jacket does not have any optical properties that might affect the propagation
of light within the fiber optic cable.

There may be a strength membrane added to the fiber optic cable so that it can be pulled during
installation. This would be added just inside the jacket (i.e primary coating). There may be a
buffer between the strength membrane and the cladding. This protects the core and cladding
from damage and allows the fiber optic cable to be bundled with other fiber optic cables. This is
not shown in the diagram.
The structure is light and has a very low loss, making it ideal for transmission of information over
long distances.

74
For many years it has been appreciated that the use of optical (light) waves as a carrier wave
provides an enormous potential bandwidth. Optical carriers are in the region of 1013Hz to 1016 Hz
i.e three to six orders of magnitude higher than microwave frequencies.
When it comes to size, fiber optic cable sizes are usually expressed by first giving the core size
followed by the cladding size. Consequently, 50/125 indicates a core diameter of 50 microns and
a cladding diameter of 125 microns; 100/140 indicates a core diameter of 100 microns and a
cladding diameter of 140 microns. The larger the core the more light can be coupled into it from
external acceptance angle cone

However, larger diameter cores may actually allow too much light in and too much light may
cause Receiver saturation problems. In the diagram above, the 8/125 cable, is often found when a
fiber optic data link operates with single-mode propagation. The 62.5/125 cable, is often found in
a fiber optic data link that operates with multi-mode propagation.
When it comes to composition or material makeup fiber optic cables are of three types: glass,
plastic and Plastic Clad Silica (PCS). These three candidate types differ with respect to attenuation
and cost.
Glass (Silica) Fibers-Both core and cladding are of glass.
 Employed glass is very pure silicon
dioxide (SiO2) or fused quartz.  It’s by far, the most wide spread in
use in which installers have the most
 Has the lowest attenuation (loss), and experience.
comes at the highest cost

Plastic Fibers-Plastic core and plastic cladding.

 Flexible and Light.  Have a problem of flammability. Not
 Widely used in short distance appropriate for certain environments.
applications. Advantage-considered extremely
 Has the highest attenuation, but rugged with a tight bend radius and
comes at the lowest cost. the ability to withstand abuse.
 Quite thick. Typical dimensions are
480/500, 735/750 and 980/1000.

Plastic-clad Fibers-Glass as core and plastic as cladding.

75
  Has an attenuation that lies between glass and plastic and a cost that lies between their cost
as well.
 Disadvantage-It has considerable plasticity- making connector application difficult.
Which is better? (Plastic or Silica)
 Plastic less expensive, flexible,  Plastic is less efficient than Silica.
lighter.  Plastic has more attenuation, and less
 Plastic is larger in diameter, so easy bandwidth making it more suitable
to connect across joints. for shorter distances.

(c) Physical Principle (How does an optical fibre transmit light?)

Optical fiber works on the principle of total internal reflection (TIR). Once light ray enters into
core it propagates by means of multiple TIR’s at core-cladding interface.
Because the cladding does not absorb any light from the core, the light wave can travel great
distances.
However, some of the light signal degrades within the fiber, mostly due to impurities in the glass.
The extent that the signal degrades depends on the purity of the glass and the wavelength of the
transmitted light.

Multiple light signals can be

transmitted

76
Fiber optic data transmission systems send information over fiber by turning electronic signals
into light (light - portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is near to what is visible to the
human eye).
Both visible and near-infrared light are used as carriers to transmit information by optical fiber.
The carrier frequency is much higher in light waves systems than in microwave systems

(d) Properties of optical fibres

Advantages:
For communications, optical fibers offer extraordinary advantages over either free-space radio,
or coaxial cable as a transmission medium:
1. Low transmission loss or low attenuation i.e less signal degradation (fabricated with
losses as low as 0.2 dB/km)
2. Low security risk-difficult to tap into an optical line
3. Large bandwidth-large carrying capacity/extremely high data transfer rate (1.55 μm–1.3
μm = 250 nm > 30 THz)
4. Low weight(light), compact, flexible, small size (lighter and thinner than copper wires)
5. Isolated from the environment – No crosstalk from between fibers or microwave sources
6. Low sensitivity to environmental conditions – Can operate on the ocean floor – Immune
to electromagnetic interference (greater resistance to electromagnetic noise such as
radios, motors or other nearby cables)
7. Provides electrical isolation between terminals – No ground loops, damage cannot cause
sparking
8. Lower transmitter launching power
9. Distance-Signals can be transmitted further without needing to be “refreshed”or
strengthened (boosting)
10. Flexible use in mechanical and medical imaging systems
11. Maintenance-cost much less to maintain
12. Less costly per meter
Disadvantages:
1. Not wireless, installation is costly and slow
2. Hardware is expensive compared to mass-produced electronics. There are technical
difficulties associated with reliable and cheap connections and the development of an
optical circuit technology that can match the potential data –rates of the cables
3. Transmission limitations:
Transmission over fiber is limited by the attenuation and dispersion. Multimode fibers
may experience,
Multimode dispersion: The delayed rays cause pulse spreading
Chromatic dispersion: Individual wavelengths may travel at different speeds.
Dispersion creates an inherent operational limit defined as a bandwidth-distance product
(BDP).

77
(e) Areas of Applications
 Telecommunications  Internet Access
 Local Area Networks  Cable and Satellite Television
 Optical Fiber Sensors  Automotive and many other
 Fibre lasers industries
 Bio-medical  Decorative Light Source

78
79
 (f) Geometrical-Optics description

>
.
Light can be guided down the fiber optic cable if it enters at greater than the critical angle. This
angle is fixed by the indices of refraction of the core and cladding and is given by the formula:
𝜃𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (𝑛1 ⁄𝑛2 )
Of course, it must be noted that a light ray enters the core from the air outside, to the left of the
diagram. The refractive index of the air must be taken into account in order to assure that a light
ray in the core will be at an angle more than the critical angle. Then we can talk about acceptance
angle, 𝜃𝑚 .
𝜃𝑚 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ((𝑛1 ⁄𝑛0 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 )
Acceptance Angle, 𝜽𝒎
The maximum angle of incidence at the end face of an Optical fiber for which the light ray can
be propagated along Core-Cladding interface is known as maximum Acceptance angle. It is also
called Acceptance cone half angle.

Air no

80
Let 𝜃𝑐 = 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒, 𝜃𝑚 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Applying Snell’s law,

n0 sin  i  n1 sin  r .......... ....(1)

from the right angle triangle ABC
 r    900
 r  900  
n0 sin  i  n1 sin(900   )
n0 sin  i  n1 cos
n1
sin  i  cos .........( 2)
n0

when   critical angle( c )   i   m

n1
sin  m  cos c .......... ......( 3)
n0
according to law of refraction
n1 sin i  n2 sin r
i   c  r  900
n2
sin  c  sin 900
n1
n2
sin  c 
n1
n2 2
cos c  1  sin 2  c  1  ( )
n1

n1  n2
2 2

cos c  .......... ..( 4)

n1

substitute equation (4) in (3)

n1 n2
2 2
n1
sin m 
n0 n1

Which is required expression for Maximum Acceptance Angle in optical fibers.

81
Acceptance Cone
Rotating the Acceptance angle about the fiber axis describes the Acceptance Cone of the fiber.

Light launched at the fiber end within this Acceptance Cone alone will be accepted and
propagated to the other end of the fiber by total internal reflection.

Numerical Aperture, NA
The light-gathering capacity (power) of an optical fiber is known as Numerical Aperture and it is
proportional to Acceptance Angle. It is numerically equal to sine of maximum Acceptance
Angle. The ratio between the difference in RI’s of Core and Cladding to that of RI of core is
𝑛1 −𝑛2
called the fractional change, ∆= . Clearly, a higher NA is always better.
𝑛1

NA  sin  max
n1  n2
2 2

sin  max 
n0
NA  n1  n2
2 2

NA  (n1  n2 )(n1  n2 )
n1  n2

n1
NA  n1 (n1  n2 )
n1  n2
NA  n1 2
2

NA  n1 2

82
Example. Given n2 = 1.5, n1 = 1.4; then 𝑁𝐴 = √(1.52 − 1.42 ) = 0.54 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 320

The usefulness of this definition is that we can see how large the lens NA should be to efficiently
couple light into the fibre.

Thus, unless the incidence angle 𝜃 is greater than 𝜃𝑐 for TIR (total internal reflection), the ray
will escape into the cladding. Therefore, the launching angle has to be such that TIR is supported
within the fibre. It can be noted that the maximum value 𝜃𝑖 (= 𝜃𝑚 ) is that which results in 𝜃 =
𝜃𝑐

Total acceptance angle is 2𝜃𝑚 and depends on the NA of the fibre and the refractive index of the
launching medium.

83
To understand the general nature of light wave propagation in optical waveguides, we first
consider the planar dielectric slab-waveguide as shown below.

B n2

λ y
n1 d = 2a
A
k θ k1 x z
E β

C n2

Consider a plane wave type of light propagating in the dielectric waveguide (slab). The region of
higher refractive index (RI) n1 is the core and the cladding has n2 < n1.
Take electric field E to be along x-axis, parallel to the interface and perpendicular to Z.
The ray is guided in a zigzag fashion along z by reflections from the cladding.
The ray is reflected at B and then at C. The wave front at C overlaps that on A on the original
ray. It interferes with itself.
Only certain angle θ gives rise to constructive interference and hence only certain waves can
exist in the guide.
The phase difference between A and C correspond to an optical path AB+BC. Also we have two
identical internal reflections (TIR) at B and C and each introduces a further phase change ϕ.
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑘1 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑛1 , 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑘1 = 𝑘𝑛1 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘1 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
2𝜋𝑛1
𝑘1 = 𝑘𝑛1 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜆 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝜆
For constructive interference, the phase difference between A and C must be multiple of 2𝜋,
implying,
Δ𝜙(𝐴𝐶) = 𝑘1 (𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶) − 2𝜙 = 𝑚(2𝜋); 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚 = 0, 1, 2, … …
But from the diagram,
𝑑
𝐵𝐶 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 } 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐵𝐶[𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 1] 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠,
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐶𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃

84
 𝑑
𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 = [2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 1 + 1] = 2𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Thus for wave propagation along the guide we need constructive interference

𝑘1 [2𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃] − 2𝜙 = 2𝑚𝜋

For each m, there is one allowed angle θm and one corresponding ϕm so that the wave condition is
2𝜋𝑛1
⇒ .2. 2𝑎 cos 𝜃𝑚 − 2𝜙𝑚 = 2𝑚𝜋
𝜆
2𝜋𝑛1
⇒ . 2𝑎 cos 𝜃𝑚 − 𝜙𝑚 = 𝑚𝜋
𝜆
Definition, propagation constant 𝛽𝑚 = 𝑘1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑚
2𝜋𝑛1
𝛽𝑚 = ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑚
𝜆

Definition, transverse propagation constant 𝑘𝑚 = 𝑘1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑚

2𝜋𝑛1
𝑘𝑚 = ( ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑚
𝜆
If we consider the interference of many rays, the resultant wave has a standing electric field
pattern along y-direction and this field pattern travels along the guide, z-axis.
Consider two rays,

A n2

C a-y
θ π-2θ y
d/2 = a
A’ y x z
1
n1

The optical path difference between the two rays is 𝐴′ C-AC, plus the phase change ϕm, for ray 1.
The phase difference between rays 1 and 2 is Φ𝑚 = (𝑘1 𝐴𝐶 − 𝜙𝑚 ) − 𝑘1 𝐴′ 𝐶
Just before C, rays 1 and 2 have opposite k terms in their phase as they travel in the opposite
directions.

85
 The electric fields of rays 1 and 2 are then,
𝐸1 (𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐸0 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑚 𝑧 + 𝑘𝑚 𝑦 + Φ𝑚 )
𝐸2 (𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐸0 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑚 𝑧 − 𝑘𝑚 𝑦)
After interference, we get, 𝐸 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2
𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 = 2cos cos , then
2 2

1 1
E = 2𝐸0 cos(𝑘𝑚 𝑦 + 2Φ𝑚 )cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑚 𝑧 + 2Φ𝑚 )

The above equation shows a travelling wave along z, due to the term 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑚 𝑧), whose
amplitude along y is modulated by cos(𝑘𝑚 𝑦 + 12Φ𝑚 ) term. The term cos(𝑘𝑚 𝑦 + Φ𝑚 ) has no
time dependence and corresponds to a standing wave pattern along y.
Since each m gives a different km and Φ𝑚 , for each m we obtain a distinct field pattern.

A light wave propagating along the guide is of the form

𝐸(𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) = 2𝐸𝑚 (y)cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑚 𝑧)

where 𝐸𝑚 (y) is the field distribution along y for a given m i.e the distribution 𝐸𝑚 (y) across the
guide is travelling down the guide along z.
Figure showing the field patterns for varying m

n2 Cladding

E(y) m=0 m=1 m=2

2a
n1 core 𝐸(𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) =
𝐸(𝑦)cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑚 𝑧)

n2 Cladding

Each m leads to an allowed 𝜃𝑚 value that corresponds to a particular travelling wave in the z-
direction. Each of these travelling waves, with distinct field pattern 𝐸𝑚 (y), constitutes a mode of
propagation.

86
The integer m identifies these modes and is called the mode number.

Output pulse

Since 𝜃𝑚 is smaller for larger m, higher modes exhibit more reflections but they also penetrate
much more into the cladding.
For the most mode m = 0, which leads to 𝜃𝑚 being closest to 900, the wave is said to travel
axially.
If we launch a short-duration light pulse into the dielectric waveguide, the light emerging from
the other end will be a broadened light pulse because light energy would have been propagated at
different group velocities along the guide. The light pulse therefore spreads as it travels along the
guide.

Modes (Single and Multimode Waveguides)

The optical fibre supports a set of discrete modes. Qualitatively, these modes can be thought of
as different propagation angles.

2𝜋𝑛1
The wave condition . 2𝑎 cos 𝜃𝑚 − 𝜙𝑚 = 𝑚𝜋 specifies the allowed modes 𝜃𝑚
𝜆

87
Number of modes
2𝜋𝑎
The number of modes can be characterized by the normalized frequency, 𝑉 = √𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
𝜆
The optical fibre is single mode if 𝑉 < 2.405

For large normalized frequency the number of modes is approximately

4 𝑉2
Number of modes ≈ 𝜋2 𝑉 2 ≈ ; V >>1
2

Derivation of normalized frequency expression

2𝜋𝑛1
While the wave condition . 2𝑎 cos 𝜃𝑚 − 𝜙𝑚 = 𝑚𝜋 specifies the allowed modes 𝜃𝑚 , 𝜃𝑚
𝜆

must satisfy TIR i.e 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑚 > 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐

If we impose additionally the latter condition i.e 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑚 > 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 , we can have only a certain
number (maximum number) of modes being allowed in the guide.

2𝜋𝑛1
For . 2𝑎 cos 𝜃𝑚 − 𝜙𝑚 = 𝑚𝜋
𝜆

(𝑚𝜋 + 𝜙𝑚 )
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑚 =
2𝜋𝑛1(2𝑎)
𝜆
2 1⁄2
𝑚𝜋+𝜙𝑚
Using 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑚 = [1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑚 2 ]1⁄2 ; 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑚 = [1 − ( 2𝜋𝑛1 2𝑎 ) ]
𝜆

n2
𝑛
By Snell’s Law 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛2
1

θc n1

so imposing 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑚 > 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 we have

2
𝑚𝜋 + 𝜙𝑚 𝑛2 2
1−( ) > 2
2𝜋𝑛1 2𝑎 𝑛1
𝜆
2
2
𝑛2 𝑚𝜋 + 𝜙𝑚
1− >( )
𝑛1 2 2𝜋𝑛1 2𝑎
𝜆

88
 2
2 2
𝑛1 − 𝑛2 𝑚𝜋 + 𝜙𝑚
>( )
𝑛1 2 2𝜋𝑛1 2𝑎
𝜆
2 1⁄2
𝑚𝜋 + 𝜙𝑚 (𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 )
<
2𝜋𝑛1(2𝑎) 𝑛1
𝜆
2.2𝜋𝑎 2 1⁄2
𝑚𝜋 + 𝜙𝑚 < (𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 )
𝜆
2𝜋𝑎 2 1⁄2
𝐼𝑓 𝑤𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑉 = (𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 ) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝜆
𝑚𝜋 + 𝜙𝑚 < 2𝑉
(2𝑉 − 𝜙𝑚 )
𝑚<
𝜋
Definition: V is called the V-number or V-parameter or normalized thickness and normalized
frequency for optical fibre.
V is a convenient dimensionless parameter that combines some key fibre variables.

2𝜋𝑎
𝑉= √𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
𝜆

where a is the fibre radius and 𝜆 is the operating wavelength.

Most standard optical fibres are characterized by their numerical aperture and can be related to
NA by
2𝜋𝑎
𝑉= .NA.
𝜆

For planar waveguides, the term normalized thickness is more common but in optical fibres, the
V-number term is more usual.
For a given free space wave length 𝜆, the V-number depends on the waveguide geometry (2a)
and waveguide properties, n1 and n2. V-number is a characteristic parameter of the guide.
Suppose that for the lowest mode, propagation is due to a glazing incidence at 𝜃𝑚 → 900 and
𝜙→𝜋
(2𝑉−𝜙𝑚 )
From 𝑚≤ 𝜋

𝑚𝜋 + 𝜙 𝜋
𝑉≤ 𝑜𝑟
2 2

89
 𝜋
When 𝑉 < 2 , there is only one mode propagating which is the lowest mode 𝑚 = 0

From the expression for V and , 𝜙 ≤ 2𝑉 so that we have none negative m.

𝜋
When 𝑉 < , 𝑚 = 0 is the only possibility and the only fundamental mode propagating in the
2

dielectric slab waveguide which is then termed a single mode planar waveguide.
𝜋
The free-space wavelength 𝜆𝑐 that leads to 𝑉 = is called the cut-off wavelength. Above this
2

wavelength, only one mode, the fundamental mode will propagate.

Examples 1

(2𝑉−𝜙𝑚 )
Using the equation 𝑚 ≤ , estimate the number of modes that can be supported in a plannar
𝜋

dielectric waveguide that is 100 μm wide and has 𝑛1 = 1.490 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛2 = 1.470 at free space source
wavelength 𝜆, which is 1 μm. Compare your result with the one obtained by the formula

2𝑉
𝑀 = 𝑙𝑛𝑡 ( 𝜋 ) + 1 ;

where M = number of modes, 𝐼𝑛𝑡(𝑥) is the integer function. It drops the decimal fraction of x
(For all real numbers, x, the greatest integer function returns the largest integer less than or equal
to x).

Solution

𝜙
The phase change 𝜙 on TIR cannot be more than 𝜋 so is less than 1.
𝜋

𝜋
For multimode waveguide, (𝑉 > 2 ) > 1 so we can write

(2𝑉 − 𝜙) 2𝑉
𝑚≤ ≈
𝜋 𝜋

2𝜋𝑎 2 1⁄2
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑉 = (𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 ) ; 𝑏𝑢𝑡 2𝑎 = 100 × 10−6 , 𝜆 = 1.0 × 10−6
𝜆

2𝜋 × 50 × 10−6
𝑉 = ((1.490)2 − (1.470)2 )1⁄2 = 76.44
1.0 × 10−6

90
 (2×76.44)
Then the number of modes 𝑚 ≤ = 48.7 ⇒ 𝒎 ≤ 𝟒𝟖
𝜋

But since m = 0 is also a mode, we have 49 modes.

2×76.44
Using 𝑀 = 𝑙𝑛𝑡 ( ) + 1 = 𝟒𝟗
𝜋

Example 2
A step index fibre has a core diameter of 100 μm and refractive index of 1.48. The cladding has a
refractive index of 1.460. Calculate the numerical aperture of the fibre, acceptance angle from air
and the number of modes sustained when the source wavelength is 850 nm.

2 1⁄2
Solution 𝑁𝐴 = (𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 )

2𝑎 = 100 × 10−6 , 𝜆 = 850 × 10−9

((1.48)2 − (1.46)2 )1⁄2 = 0.2425

The acceptance angle:

NA 0.2425
sinθm = = ; θm = 14.080
n0 1

Total acceptance angle 2θm = 28.160

2𝜋𝑎 2𝜋×50
V –number, 𝑉 = 𝑁𝐴 = × 0.2425 = 89.6
𝜆 0.85

𝑉2
Number of modes, 𝑚 ≈ = 𝟒𝟎𝟏𝟔
2

Example 3

A typical mode optical fibre has a core of diameter 8 μm and n1 = 1.46. The normalized index
difference is 0.003. Calculate the numerical aperture and the acceptance angle of the fibre. What
is the single mode cut-off wave length λc of the fibre.

Solution
2 1⁄2 𝑛1 −𝑛2
Numerical aperture 𝑁𝐴 = (𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 ) , Given n1 = 1.46, 2a = 8 μm; ∆= = 0.003
𝑛1

𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛1 √2∆= 1.46(2 × 0.003)1⁄2 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟑

91
 NA 0.113
The acceptance angle, sinθm = = ; θm = 𝟔. 𝟓𝟎
n0 1

The condition for single mode propagation is 𝑉 ≤ 2.405 and corresponding λc is

2πa NA 2πa NA 2π (4 × 10−6 ) × 0.113
λ𝑐 = = = = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒎
V 2.405 2.405

TE and TM Modes
We have shown that for a particular mode, the variation of the field intensity along, 𝐸𝑚 (y) is
harmonic. The figure below considers two possibilities for the electric field direction of a wave
travelling toward the core-cladding boundary.
TE mode TM mode

For both TE and TM modes in the dielectric waveguide, they have Ez and Bz components
(longitudinal fields) which is not possible in free-space waveguides.
Types of Optical Fibres

92
On the basis of variation of refractive index (RI) of core, the optical fibers are mainly classified
into two types- Step Index fiber and Graded Index fiber

1. Step Index Fiber

For this type of fibre the refractive index of the core is constant (see fig.5). Since refractive
index profile looks like a pulse or step, this kind of fibre is called the STEP INDEX FIBRE.
This structure is useful for analysing propagation of light inside an optical fibre. Generally, it
is not used in practice because data transfer rates in this fibre is lowest.

The main disadvantage of this type of fibre is that the losses due to dispersion are high. So to
reduce dispersion losses, the refractive index at the cdnter should be maximum and it should
gradually decrease from the center to the core-cladding interface. Hence, the need for new fibre.

2. Graded Index Fibre

For this fibre the refractive index profile of the core is graded and consequently it is called
the GRADED INDEX FIBRE. The dispersion reduction compared to that for step index is
greater. Hence, the data rate of a typical graded index fibre typically 10 to 100 times higher
compared to a step index fibre.

93
 Figure (6): graded index profile

Based on Mode of propagation, the fibers are further divided into Single Mode and
Multi- Mode

94
Fiber optic cable functions as a "light guide," guiding the light introduced at one end of the cable
through to the other end. The light source can either be a light-emitting diode (LED)) or a laser.
Diagram below illustrates how light is guided in a single mode and multi-mode fibres

Single-mode fibre:

- Carries light pulses

along a single path
- uses laser light source

Multimode fibre:
-Many pulses of light
generated by LED travel
at different angles

Comparing Modes of Propagation

Multi-mode or single-mode provide different performance with respect to both attenuation (loss)
and time dispersion. The single-mode fiber optic cable provides the better performance, of
course at higher cost. These are illustrated in diagrams below.

Multi-mode fibre:

Step index fiber

Graded index fiber

Single mode fibre:

Step index fiber

95
From the illustration diagrams, note that there is no (little) attenuation and time dispersion for a
single mode. It should be noted that not all single-mode fibers use a step index profile. Some use
more complex profiles to optimize performance at a particular wavelength. While the first diagram
for multi-mode is obtained with step index fibre and the second with graded index fiber.

Single Mode optical fibres

Single-mode optical fiber is an optical fiber in which there is only one mode of transmission (i.e
only the lowest order bound mode can propagate at the wavelength of interest typically 1300 to
1320 nm). We have observed that single mode transmission is extensively used because
distortion and transmission losses are very less. The following are properties of single mode
fibres:
 The RI is constant for the core in this fiber. As we go radically from center of the core, the
RI undergoes a step change at core-cladding interface.
 There is only one path for light ray propagation. Hence it is called single mode step index
fiber.

 Bandwidth range is large. Carries higher bandwidth than multimode fibre (in the 50 to 100
GHz/ km range), but requires a light source with a narrow spectral width.
 Gives a higher transmission rate and up to 50 times more distance than multimode, but it
also costs more.

 All the multiple-mode (or multimode) effects are eliminated. Has a much smaller core than
multimode. The small core and single light-wave virtually eliminate any distortion that
could result from overlapping light pulses, providing the least signal attenuation and the
highest transmission speeds of any fiber cable type. The core diameter of this fiber is about
8 to 10µm and the outer diameter of cladding is 60 to 70µm. However, pulse spreading
remains a problem for it.

 It is attractive more for link lengths go all the way up to 100 km. Nonetheless, single-mode
fiber optic cable has been getting increased attention as Local Area Networks have been
extended to greater distances over corporate campuses.

Single mode propagation exists only above a certain specific wavelength called the cutoff
wavelength (Synonyms: mono-mode optical fiber, single-mode fiber, single-mode optical
waveguide, uni-mode fiber)

96
Meridional rays and Skew rays
For propagation of light inside the core there are two possibilities.

Simple ray model:

97
 Properties of Optical Fiber Transmission
As light propagates through an optical fibre, its strength becomes reduced by two broad
processes: attenuation (transmission loss) and dispersion.

Both attenuation and dispersion occur over distance travelled

DISTANCE TRAVELLED

Input Pulse Output pulse

1) Attenuation (or power loss) in optical fibres

Attenuation limits the optical power reaching the receiver. The power of the light at the output
end is found to be always less than the power launched at the input end. Lower attenuation mean
greater spacing and less cost of the communication system. Fiber optic transmission systems
became competitive with electrical transmission lines only when losses were reduced to allow
signal transmission over distances greater than 10 km Attenuation is found to be a function of

98
fiber material, wavelength of light and length of the fiber and it is measured in terms of the
decibel (dB).

If Pin power is launched into the fiber, the power remaining after propagating a length L within
the fiber Pout is

Pout  Pin exp  L 

α is the power attenuation coefficient per unit length

Definition, attenuation coefficient α is the fractional decease in the optical power per unit
1 𝑑𝑃
distance i.e 𝛼 = −
𝑝 𝑑𝑥

Derivation,
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟,
𝐿 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑒,
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟,
𝑃 = 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

1 𝑑𝑃
From 𝛼 = − 𝑝 𝑑𝑥

1
𝑑𝑝 = −𝛼𝑑𝑥
𝑃
𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐿
1
∫ 𝑑𝑝 = −𝛼 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑃 0
𝑝𝑖𝑛

𝑙𝑛𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑙𝑛𝑃𝑖𝑛 = −𝛼𝐿

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑙𝑛 ( ) = −𝛼𝐿
𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑒 −𝛼𝐿
1 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛼 = − 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝐿 𝑃𝑖𝑛
Attenuation is conveniently expressed in terms of decibels per unit length of the fibre (dB/km)

99
 P 
 dB km  
10
log10  out 
L  Pin 
10  P e L 
 log10  in 
L  Pin 

10
 L log10 e
L
 4.34

Example 1
A 3-km fiber optic system has an input of 2mW and a loss characteristic of 2 dB/Km. Deermine
the output power and comment on suitability of the fiber for transmission.

𝛼𝐿
10 𝑃 𝛼𝐿 𝑃 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
From 𝛼 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, 10 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 10−( 10 ) = . Therfore,
𝐿 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑖𝑛

𝛼𝐿 2(3)
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 10−( 10 ) = (2 × 10−3 )10− 10 = 0.5× 10−3 = 0.5 𝑚𝑊

(𝑃𝑖𝑛 −0.5) 2−0.5

Percentage of signal lost = × 100% = × 100% = 75%
𝑃𝑖𝑛 2

The percentage of signal lost is too high and so the fibre is not suitable for transporting the signal
over the 3 km distance.

Example 2
A communication system uses 10 km of fibre that has a 2.5-dB/km loss characteristic. Find the
output power if the input power is 400 mW.
𝛼𝐿 2.5(10)
Using 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 10−( 10 ) = (400 × 10−3 )10− 10 = 1.265× 10−3 = 1.265 𝑚𝑊

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Main causes (types) of attenuation
A. Intrinsic (by fibre itself)
i. Scattering losses due to interaction of photons (light) with medium-irregularities in the
core and at the boundary between the core and cladding. There are many kinds of
scattering but Rayleigh scattering is the most important
ii. Absorption losses (of UV and infrared) due to impurities in the material, the presence of
transition metals such as Fe and Cu, and also of water.

Absorption and Scattering Loss

Shape increase in attenuation coefficient at λ > 1.6 μm in the infrared region is due to
energy absorption by lattice vibrations of the constituent ions of the glass material.
The marked attenuation peaks centered at λ = 1.4 μm and λ = 1.24 μm arise from the
presence of hydroxyl ions in the glass structure as impurities.
There is background attenuation process that decrease with wavelength. This is due to
Rayleigh scattering of light by local variations in the refractive index.
Low loss windows: 1310 nm (1.31 μm) and 1550 nm (1.55 μm).

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 B. Extrinsic/external factors (also due to impurities of water and metal)
i. External losses. External factors can also lead to attenuation in the optical fibre. The most
important are microbending and macrobending losses. Other bending losses include:
radiation loss at bends in optical fibre, misalignment of core centers, tilt, air gaps, end
face reflections, mode mismatch.
Microbending loss is due to sharp local bending of fibres that changes the guide geometry
and the refractactive index profile locally, which leads to some of the light energy
radiating away from the guiding direction. Microbending loss αB increases rapidly with
increasing bend (sharpness) i.e with decreasing radius of curvature (bend) R.
Macrobending loss is due to small changes in the refractive index of the fibre due to
induced strains when it is bent during its use i.e when the cable is laid. The induced
strains change n1 and n2 and hence affect the mode field diameter (MFD) i.e the field
penetration into the cladding.
ii. There are also scattering and absorption losses which are extrinsic.

2) Dispersion
Dispersion causes temporal pulse spreading
– Pulse overlap results in indistinguishable data
– Inter symbol interference (ISI)
Dispersion is related to the velocity of the pulse
Types of Fiber Dispersion
1. Multimode group delay/dispersion is the variation in group velocity among the
propagation modes at a single frequency
2. Material Dispersion is due to variation in the refractive index of the core material as a
function of wavelength.
3. Waveguide dispersion depends upon the fiber design (dimensions of the waveguide). The
propagation constant which is the function of the ratio of fiber dimension (i.e. core
radius) to the wavelength.

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Pulse Spreading due to Dispersion is related to the dependence of index of refraction on
wavelength

Intermodal Dispersion
Pulses separate out
Overlapping
pulses 1 & 2 1
2
1 2

• Single-mode fiber has only one mode, so inter-modal dispersion is not an issue
• In multimode fiber, inter-modal dispersion is the dominant cause of dispersion.

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• Higher order modes have a longer path length
– Longer path length has a longer propagation time
– Temporal pulse separation
– vg is used as the propagation speed for the rays to take into account the material
dispersion
L
 
vg

104
 Revision Questions (Fibre Optics )

1. What is a fibre?
2. Explain optical fibre? Explain the physical principle of propagation of light in optical
fibres. Why must the refractive index of cladding always be lower than that of the core?
3. Give a block diagram showing the components of a simple model of fibre optic data link
4. Explain the main motivation for optical fibres
5. Discuss the structure of optical fibres and the functions of major components.
6. Explain how to protect optical fibre cable from damage and allow for bundling with other
fiber optic cables.
7. How are sizes of fiber optic cable expressed? State the advantage and disadvantage of a
larger core diameter.
8. Discuss the major material makeup of fiber optic cables. Which is the better material and
why?
9. Light is the preferred carrier frequency in optical fibres, explain why?
10. What are the advantages of fibre optics over either free-space radio, or coaxial cable as a
transmission medium? Outline any disadvantages of fibre optics.
11. Outline the applications of optical fibres
12. Compare and contrast the optical fibre communication with wireless communication.
Discuss how both technologies can be embraced in communication.
13. Explain the terminologies: total internal reflection, critical angle, acceptance angle and
numerical aperture
14. Derive an expression for critical angle, acceptance angle and numerical aperture in
optical fibre.
15. A light ray enters from air to fiber. The refractive index of air is 1.0. The fiber has
refractive index of core equal to 1.5 and that of cladding equal to 1.48. Find the critical
angle, fractional refractive index, acceptance angle and numerical aperture.
16. Calculate the refractive indices of the core and cladding material of a fiber from
following data. NA= 0.22 , Δ = 0.012
17. Calculate the NA and acceptance angle of an optical fiber with ncore=1.62 and nclad.=1.52.
18. Given the numerical aperture to be 0.2441 and the refractive index of the core to be 1.50,
calculate the refractive index of the cladding as well as the acceptance angle.
19. The numerical aperture of an optical fiber is 0.5 and core refractive index is 1.54. Find
(a) The refractive index of cladding
(b) The fractional refractive Index of the optical fiber.

20. Consider a plane wave type of light propagating in the dielectric waveguide (slab). Given
that the region of higher refractive index n1 is the core and the cladding has n2 < n1. Show
that for constructive interference 𝑘1 [2𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃] − 2𝜙 = 2𝑚𝜋. Hence, define propagation
constant and transverse propagation constant.

105
21. A light wave propagating down a guide along z of the form
𝐸(𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) = 2𝐸𝑚 (y)cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑚 𝑧)

where 𝐸𝑚 (y) is the field distribution along y for a given. Sketch the field patterns for
varying m = 0, 1, 2
2𝜋𝑛1
22. The wave condition . 2𝑎 cos 𝜃𝑚 − 𝜙𝑚 = 𝑚𝜋 specifies the allowed modes 𝜃𝑚 . Make
𝜆
a sketch of an optical fibre cable showing propagation modes expressed as different propagation
angles.
23. Use a ray path to illustrate higher modes, lower modes and fundamental mode (most
mode, m = 0) transmission in an optical fibre cable. Hence, illustrate the effect on the
intensity of light.
24. Define normalized frequency (V) and derive it. Use it to state conditions for single mode and
higher modes.
25. Consider a fibre with a core diameter of 8 μm, refractive index 1.468 and cladding of
refractive index 1.464. Calculate the V-number, numerical aperture. What is the single
mode cut-off wave length λc of the fibre.
26. Explain the types of optical fibers with diagrams (difference between a Step index and Graded
index fibre)
27. Using diagrams, distinguish between single mode and multimode fibres. outline the
characteristics of each.
28. Use ray paths to illustrate multimodes in step-index and graded index optical fibres and single
mode in step-index. Clearly show the effect of dimensions of the core on the intensity of input
light transmitted.
29. Explain why single mode transmission is preferred to multimode transmission.
30. Discuss the properties/advantages of single mode transmission in optical fibre.
31. With the aid of diagrams explain the difference between skey rays and meridional rays as applied
in optical fibre transmission.
32. Use diagrams to compare the effect of attenuation, dispersion and distance travelled on the
strength of light transmitted in optical fibre.
33. Define attenuation coefficient. Hence, derive the relation 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑒 −𝛼𝐿 and show that
attenuation coefficient (in dB/km) = 4.34α
34. What is attenuation in an optical fiber? Explain it. What are the factors responsible for
attenuation?
35. Sketch attenuation graphs for absorption and scattering Loss. Clearly indicate all
absorptions (UV, -OH, infrared), Rayleigh scattering and low loss windows
36. Explain Pulse Dispersion. What are its types?

END

106
 Chapter 3 Optical Fiber Communication systems

An efficient optical fiber communication system requires high information carrying capacity to
carry audio signals, video signals over long distances with a minimum number of repeaters.
A basic communication system consists of a transmitter, information channel (optical fibre) and
a receiver.

However, a complete optical fiber transmission link essentially consists of following parts:
1. Encoder 2. Transmitter 3.Wave guide or optical fiber
4. Receiver 5.Decoder

(Encoder)

(Decoder)

The information to be communicated is converted into electrical signal by transmitter and then
this undergoes modulation (analog-continuous carrier wave or digital-square carrier wave) and
then again gets converted into original form at the receiver.
The operation of a simple optical communication system (Light wave communication of wave in
optical fibers) is described below.

107
 Encoder

Decoder
Operation:
 Fibre optics deals with communication of audio as well as video signals that can be either
of analog or digital form.
 The transmitter unit consists of a suitable electronics circuit that converst audio or video
input into electrical signal.
 The electrical signal is amplified further and fed to the light source (LED, etc).
 The electrical signals are converted to an optical signal by varying the current flow
through the light source.
 The signal is then launched into the optical fibre depending on the wavelength of light
phases
 Due to attenuation and distortion a repeater is needed in transmission line to amplify and
reshape the signal. In repeater unit, receiver detects the optical signal and coverts it into
electrical signal which is amplified, reshaped and sent to transmitter which converts it
into electrical signal and sends it down the optical fibre waveguide
 At receiver, the attenuated, distorted modulated optical signal emerging from the optical
fibre and is detected by photodiode, then amplified and again get converted into the audio
or video signal received at the receiver station.

This is how communication process occurs in optical fibres.

The advantages of optical fibre communication are already mentioned in chapter 2 –Fibre Optics

Optical Sources for communication

Optical source is a device that converts an electrical signal into an optical signal (i.e. they
“convert” electrons (current) to photons (light)).
The two most commonly used optical sources are semiconductors i.e light-emitting diodes
(LEDs) and Laser diodes (LDs)

108
The LEDs and LDs generate a stable optical signal for the purpose of making optical
transmission loss measurements. The LEDs are inexpensive sources while LDs form expensive
optical sources.
Both LEDs and laser diodes are semiconductor optoelectronic devices that can be modulated at
high-speeds (laser diodes much more so than LEDs).
– For high-speed long distance links, laser diodes are used. These can be modulated directly or
externally. – Direct modulation is achieved by varying the drive current, external through
varying the optical power with an external device (a modulator).
Optical fibre sources should have the following properties:

 Compatibility for launching light into fibre. Be compatible in size to low-loss optical
fibres by having a small light emitting area capable of launching light into fibre.
 Linearity
 Emit light at wavelengths where fibre is low loss and has low dispersion.
 Wide modulation bandwidth (i.e. small rise time)
 Deliver sufficient optical power to overcome losses i.e launch sufficient optical power
into the optical fibre to overcome fibre attenuation and connection losses allowing for
signal detection at the receiver
 Should have a narrow spectral linewidth to minimise chromatic dispersion
 Maintain stable optical output against environmental changes and ageing. Maintain a
stable operation in changing environmental conditions (such as temperature)
 Be reliable, low cost and compatible with drive electronics
Operation wavelength (transmission windows)
Optical fiber transmission uses wavelengths that are in the near-infrared portion of the spectrum,
just above the visible, and thus undetectable to the unaided eye. Fibre optic communication
systems operate in the wavelengths windows- 850 nm, 1300 nm, and 1550 nm. LEDs and LDs
sources are designed to operate at wavelengths that minimize optical fibre absorption (from
impurities in the optical fibre such as hydroxyl ions OH-) and maximize system bandwidth. Lasers
(LDs) are usually used for 1300- or 1550-nm single-mode applications. LEDs are used for 850- or
1300-nm multimode applications. There are ranges of wavelengths at which the fiber operates best.
Each range is known as an operating window. Each window is centered on the typical operational
wavelength, as shown in the table and graph below:

109
Maximizing system bandwidth involves designing optical fibres and sources that minimize
chromatic and intermodal dispersion at the intended operational wavelength.

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)

A LED is a semiconductor device that emits incoherent light through spontaneous emission, when
a current is passed through it. Spontaneous emission of light in LEDs produces light waves that
lack a fixed-phase relationship and these light waves are referred to us incoherent light. LEDs are
the preferred optical source for multimode systems because they can launch sufficient power at a
lower cost than LDs. The use of LEDs in single mode transmission systems is severely limited
because they emit unfocused incoherent light. Even LEDs developed for single mode transmission
systems are unable to launch sufficient optical power into single mode fibres for many
applications.

Typical LEDs for 850 nm region are fabricated using GaAs and AlGaAs. LEDs for the 1300 nm
and 1550 nm regions are fabricated using InGaAsP and InP. The basic LED types used for fibre
optic communication systems are the surface-emitting LED (SLED), the edge-emitting LED
(ELED) and superluminescent diode (SLD).

Laser diodes (LDs)

LDs emit coherent light. They produce light waves with fixed-phase relationships (both spatial
and temporal) between points on the electromagnetic wave. Light waves having a fixed-phase
relationship are referred to as coherent light. Since LDs emit more focused light than LEDs, they
are able to launch optical power into both single mode and multimode optical fibres. However,
LDs are usually used only in single mode fibre transmission systems because they require more
complex driver circuitry and cost more than LEDs.

110
Note, optical power produced by optical sources can range from microwatts (μW) for LEDs to tens
of milliwatts (mW) for LDs. However, it is not possible to effectively couple all the available
optical power into the optical fibre for transmission.
Summary: Compatibility for launching into optical fibre,

111