Chapter 4:

PROPERTIES OF STEAM

1
• Perfect Gas: Which obeys Gas laws (Boyles, Charles and
Combined gas law)
• Air, N2, O2, H2 behaves as Perfect gas
• Gases remains in gaseous state (except extreme
pressure and temperature conditions)

• Vapor: Gaseous state of substance/ liquid, but near to its

boiling temperature
• It may have liquid particles in suspension, called as
vapors
• Vapor readily condenses when condenses or expanded
• Vapor do not follow any Gas laws.
• e.g. Steam (vapor phase of water), Ammonia, Freon etc.
2
 PURE SUBSTANCE
• Pure substance: A substance that has a fixed chemical
composition throughout. E.g. water, nitrogen, helium
• Air is a mixture of several gases, but it is considered to
be a pure substance because of uniform chemical
composition

Nitrogen and gaseous air are

pure substances.
A mixture of two or more phases is a pure substance. E.g mixture of ice and
water but not mixture of oil and water.

3
 PHASES OF A PURE
SUBSTANCE
The molecules
in a solid are
kept at their
positions by the
large springlike
inter-molecular
forces. In a solid, the attractive
and repulsive forces
between the molecules
tend to maintain them
at relatively constant
distances from each
other.

The arrangement of atoms in different phases: (a) molecules are at relatively fixed
positions in a solid, (b) groups of molecules move about each other in the liquid
phase, and (c) molecules move about at random in the gas phase. 4
 PHASES OF A PURE
SUBSTANCE
• There are many practical situations where two
phases of a pure substance coexist in equilibrium.

• Water exists as a mixture of liquid and vapor in the

boiler and condenser of a steam power plant.

• The refrigerant turns from liquid to vapor in the

freezer(evaporator) of a refrigerator.

5
• Define steam:
• Vapour form of water is called STEAM.

• Water in solid phase: We call it as ICE

• Water in liquid phase: We call it as WATER
• Water in gaseous phase: We call it as STEAM.

6
 Application of steam
Food processing industry.
Cooking: hotels, restaurants etc.
Used as a working fluid in steam engines
and steam turbines.
Used in industries for process heating.
Petrochemical industry.
Washing/drying/sterilizing in hospitals.
Health clinic / gym.

7
 PHASE-CHANGE PROCESSES OF PURE
SUBSTANCES
• Compressed liquid (subcooled liquid): A substance that it
is not about to vaporize.
• Saturated liquid: A liquid that is about to vaporize.

At 1 atm and 20°C,

water exists in the
liquid phase
(compressed liquid).

At 1 atm pressure
and 100°C, water
exists as a liquid
that is ready to
vaporize
(saturated liquid).
8
• Saturated liquid–vapor mixture: The state at which the
liquid and vapor phases coexist in equilibrium.
• Saturated vapor: A vapor that is about to condense.
• Superheated vapor: A vapor that is not about to condense
(i.e., not a saturated vapor).

As more heat is transferred, At 1 atm pressure, the As more heat is

part of the saturated liquid temperature remains transferred, the
vaporizes (saturated liquid– constant at 100°C until the temperature of the
vapor mixture). last drop of liquid is vaporized vapor starts to rise
(saturated vapor). 9
(superheated vapor).
If the entire process between state 1 and 5 described in the figure is
reversed by cooling the water while maintaining the pressure at the
same value, the water will go back to state 1, retracing the same path,
and in so doing, the amount of heat released will exactly match the
amount of heat added during the heating process.

T-v diagram for the

heating process of
water at constant
pressure.
10
 Saturation Temperature and Saturation Pressure
• The temperature at which water starts boiling depends on the pressure;
therefore, if the pressure is fixed, so is the boiling temperature.
• Water boils at 100C at 1 atm pressure.
• Saturation temperature Tsat: The temperature at which a pure substance
changes phase at a given pressure.
• Saturation pressure Psat: The pressure at which a pure substance changes
phase at a given temperature.

The liquid–
vapor
saturation
curve of a
pure
substance
(numerical
values are for
water).
11
• Latent heat: The amount of energy
absorbed or released during a phase-
change process.
• Latent heat of fusion: The amount of
energy absorbed during melting. It is
equivalent to the amount of energy
released during freezing.
• Latent heat of vaporization: The amount
of energy absorbed during vaporization
and it is equivalent to the energy released
during condensation.
• The magnitudes of the latent heats
depend on the temperature or pressure at
which the phase change occurs.
• At 1 atm pressure, the latent heat of
fusion of water is 333.7 kJ/kg and the
latent heat of vaporization is 2256.5 kJ/kg.
• The atmospheric pressure, and thus the
boiling temperature of water, decreases
with elevation.

12
 PROPERTY DIAGRAMS FOR PHASE-
CHANGE PROCESSES
• saturated liquid line
• saturated vapor line
• compressed liquid region
• superheated vapor region
• saturated liquid–vapor
mixture region (wet region)

T-v diagram of a pure substance.

Critical point: The point

at which the saturated
liquid and saturated vapor
states are identical.
13
Formation of steam experiment
• Consider 1 kg
of water at 0oC Cylinder
taken in a
cylinder fitted
Pressure
with a freely ‘P”
moving
frictionless
piston as 1 kg
water at
shown in fig. 0oC

14
 The initial condition of water at 0oC is
represented by the point A on the
temperature-enthalpy graph

Temperature
(T)oC

A Enthalpy
(h)
15
 A B C D

Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Fig. 4 Fig. 5

Temperature
(T)oC D
TSup

DOS
TSat B C

A hf hfg Enthalpy
AOS
(h)
Sensible heat Latent heat
16
T- H DIAGRAM FOR WATER
Definitions
• Sensible heat (hf) : It is defined as the
amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of water from 00C to
the saturation temperature Tsat °C at a
given constant pressure.
• Saturation temperature( Tsat): It is
defined as the temperature at which the
water begins to boil at the stated pressure

Dept. of Mech & Mfg. Engg. 17

18
Definitions
• Sensible heat (hf) : It is defined as the
amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of water from 00C to
the saturation temperature Tsat °C at a
given constant pressure.
• Saturation temperature( Tsat): It is
defined as the temperature at which the
water begins to boil at the stated pressure

19
• Latent heat of evaporation (hfg): It is
defined as the amount of heat required to
evaporate 1 kg of water at saturation
temperature to 1 kg of dry steam at the
same saturation temperature at given
constant pressure
• The temperature of the steam above the
saturation temperature at a given pressure
is called superheated temperature (Tsup)

20
• Amount of superheat (AOS) or enthalpy
of superheat: It is defined as the amount
of heat required to increase the
temperature of dry steam from its
saturation temperature to any desired
higher temperature at the given constant
pressure.

• Degree of superheat (DOS): It is the

difference between the superheated
temperature and the saturation
temperature.

21
 Different states of steam.
• The steam as it is being generated can
exist in three different states,
• 1. Wet steam
• 2. Dry saturated steam
• 3. Superheated steam.

22
 Wet Steam:
• A wet steam is defined as a two-phase
mixture of finely divided water particles
and dry steam in thermal equilibrium at the
saturation temperature corresponding to a
given pressure.

23
• The quality of the wet steam is specified by the dryness
fraction which indicates the amount of dry steam present
in the given quantity of wet steam and is denoted as x.
• The dryness fraction of a steam is defined as the ratio of
mass of the actual dry steam present in a known quantity
of wet steam to the total mass of the wet steam.
Mass of Dry Steam present in Wet Steam
Dryness fraction, x 
Total Mass of Wet Steam
• Let mg = Mass of dry steam present in the sample
quantity of wet steam
• mf = Mass of suspended water molecules in the sample
quantity of wet steam
• x = mg / mf+ mg

• The dryness fraction of the wet steam will be less

than 1 &for dry steam, =1
24
 • The Wetness fraction of a steam is defined as the ratio of
mass of the water particles present in a known quantity of
wet steam to the total mass of the wet steam.
• Let mg = Mass of dry steam present in the sample
quantity of wet steam
• mf = Mass of suspended water molecules in the sample
quantity of wet steam
• Wetness fraction = mf
• mf+mg
• = 1-x
• Priming : when wetness fraction is expressed in %, its
called Priming
Priming=100(1-x)

25
 Dry Saturated Steam:
• A saturated steam at the saturation
temperature corresponding to a given
pressure and having no water molecules
entrained in it.

26
 Superheated Steam:
• A superheated steam is defined as the
steam which is heated to temperature
higher than its saturated temperature at
the given pressure.

27
• Advantages of Superheated Steam:
• At a given pressure, the superheated steam possess
more heat energy compared to dry saturated steam or
wet steam at the same pressure, hence its capacity to do
the work will be higher.
• When superheating is done by the exhausting
combustion gases in a boiler, there will be a saving of
the energy of combustion which improves the thermal
efficiency of the boiler.
• While expanding in a steam turbine it reduces and in
extreme cases prevents the condensation, thus giving
better economy.
• Disadvantages of Superheated Steam:
– The high superheated temperatures poses problems
in the lubrication.
– Higher depreciation and initial cost.

28
Enthalpy equations for different states of
steam
a) Enthalpy of Dry saturated Steam:
hg = hf +hfg kJ/kg
Temperature

Tsu D
p
Degree of Superheat

B C
Ts

A Enthalp
hf hfg y
Sensible Latent
Heat Amount of
Heat
Superheat

29
b) Enthalpy of Wet Steam:

h = hf +x hfg kJ/kg

Temperature

Tsu D
p
Degree of Superheat

B C
Ts

A Enthalp
hf hfg y
Sensible Latent
Heat Amount of
Heat
Superheat

30
c) Enthalpy of Superheated Steam:

hsup = hf +hfg + Csup(Tsup - Tsat) kJ/kg

Temperature

Tsu D
p
Degree of Superheat

B C
Ts

A Enthalp
hf hfg y
Sensible Latent
Heat Amount of
Heat
Superheat

31
d) Degree of superheat (DOS):

DOS = (Tsup - Tsat)

Temperature

Tsu D
p
Degree of Superheat

B C
Ts

A Enthalp
hf hfg y
Sensible Latent
Heat Amount of
Heat
Superheat

32
e) Amount of superheat (AOS):

AOS = Csup (Tsup - Tsat)

Temperature

Tsup D
Degree of Superheat

B C
Ts

A Enthalpy
hf hfg
Sensible Latent Heat
Amount of
Heat
Superheat

33
 PROPERTY TABLES
• For most substances, the relationships among thermodynamic properties are
too complex to be expressed by simple equations.
• Therefore, properties are frequently presented in the form of tables.
• Some thermodynamic properties can be measured easily, but others cannot
and are calculated by using the relations between them and measurable
properties.
• The results of these measurements and calculations are presented in tables
in a convenient format.
Enthalpy—A Combination Property

u = Internal energy

The
combination
u + Pv is
frequently The product pressure 
encountered volume has energy units.
in the analysis
of control
volumes. 34
 Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor States
• Table A–4: Saturation properties of water under temperature.
• Table A–5: Saturation properties of water under pressure.

A partial list of Table A–4.

Enthalpy of vaporization, hfg (Latent heat

of vaporization): The amount of energy
needed to vaporize a unit mass of
saturated liquid at a given temperature or
pressure.

It decreases as the temperature or

pressure increases and becomes zero at
the critical point
35
36
Saturated liquid = 50 kg

Saturation temperature = 90 degree Celsius.

Saturation pressure = ?

Volume of the tank = ?

Which table? – Saturated water temperature table

37
38
39
40
 THE IDEAL-GAS EQUATION OF STATE
• Equation of state: Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature,
and specific volume of a substance.
• The simplest and best-known equation of state for substances in the gas
phase is the ideal-gas equation of state. This equation predicts the P-v-T
behavior of a gas quite accurately within some properly selected region.
Ideal gas equation
of state

R: gas constant
M: molar mass/molecular weight (kg/kmol)
Ru: universal gas constant

Different substances have different

gas constants.
41
Mass = Molar mass  Mole number Ideal gas equation at two
states for a fixed mass

Various
expressions
of ideal gas
equation

Real gases
behave as an ideal
gas at low
densities (i.e., low
pressure, high
temperature).

Properties per
unit mole are
denoted with a
bar on the top. 42
Is Water Vapor an Ideal Gas?
• At pressures below 10 kPa, water
vapor can be treated as an ideal
gas, regardless of its temperature,
with negligible error (less than 0.1
percent).
• At higher pressures, however, the
ideal gas assumption yields
unacceptable errors, particularly in
the vicinity of the critical point and
the saturated vapor line.
• In air-conditioning applications, the
water vapor in the air can be
treated as an ideal gas. Since the
pressure of the water vapor is very
low
• In steam power plant applications,
however, the pressures involved
are usually very high; therefore,
ideal-gas relations should not be
used.
Percentage of error ([|vtable - videal|/vtable] 100) involved in
assuming steam to be an ideal gas, and the region where steam
can be treated as an ideal gas with less than 1 percent error. 43
OTHER EQUATIONS
OF STATE
Several equations have been proposed to
represent the P-v-T behavior of substances
accurately over a larger region with no
limitations.

Van der Waals

Equation of State Critical isotherm
of a pure
substance has
an inflection
point at the
critical state.

This model includes two effects not considered

in the ideal-gas model: the intermolecular
attraction forces and the volume occupied by the
molecules themselves. The accuracy of the van
der Waals equation of state is often inadequate. 44
Summary
• Pure substance
• Phases of a pure substance
• Phase-change processes of pure substances
 Compressed liquid, Saturated liquid, Saturated vapor, Superheated vapor
 Saturation temperature and Saturation pressure
• Property diagrams for phase change processes
 The T-v diagram, The P-v diagram, The P-T diagram, The P-v-T surface
• Property tables
 Enthalpy
 Saturated liquid, saturated vapor, Saturated liquid vapor mixture,
Superheated vapor, compressed liquid
• The ideal gas equation of state
 Is water vapor an ideal gas?
• Other equations of state

45
• Liquid
hliquid= hf = cpw*(Tf - 0°) (@ given temp. and Pressure from steam table)
vliquid= vf (@ given temp. and Pressure from steam table)
uliquid= hf – p*vl

• Gas/ Dry saturated steam or vapor

hvapor= hg = hf+ hfg (@ given temp. and Pressure from steam table)
vvapor= vg (@ given temp. and Pressure from steam table)
uvapor= hg – p*vg

• Wet steam or vapor

hwet= hf + x* hfg
vwet= vf + x* vfg = x * vg
uwet= hw – p*vw
• Superheated vapor
hsup= hf + hfg + cps* (Tsup- Tsat) = hg + cps*(Tsup- Tsat)

uw= hsup – p*vsup 46

 THROTTLING
Throttling is a type of expansion where steam passes through a narrow
passage and expands with a fall of pressure without doing an external
work.
In this case, there is no interchange of heat similar to an adiabatic process.
The enthalpy remains constant during this operation. So Enthalpy before
throttling = Enthalpy after throttling

h1 = h 2
In this process, steam becomes drier and nearly saturated steam becomes,
superheated

Dept. of Mech & Mfg. Engg. 47

 Measurement of Dryness Fraction
Dryness fraction of a sample of steam may
be determined by means of steam
calorimeters.
Types of calorimeters:
1. Tank calorimeter.
2. Throttling calorimeter.
3. Separating calorimeter.
4. Combined calorimeter.
48
BUCKET(BARREL) CALORIMETER

49
 BUCKET(BARREL) CALORIMETER CALCULATION
The wet steam enters to bucket calorimeter having water initially inside it.
The wet steam condenses into the water and it increases the temperature of water and surface
of calorimeter.

From energy balance,

Amount of heat enter into calorimeter = Heat gain by water and calorimeter + Heat of steam
condensed into calorimeter

ms (hf1 + x hfg )= mw cpw (T2- T1) + mc cpc (T2- T1) + ms hf2

50
SEPARATING CALORIMETER

51
 SEPARATING CALORIMETER CALCULATION

Let mw = mass of water collected in the separating calorimeter

Let ms = mass of steam passed from the separating calorimeter into the
throttling calorimeter.

Therefore, mf + mg = total mass of steam entered into the separating

calorimeter,

So, Dryness fraction is,

x = ms /(mw + ms )

52
Limitations of Separating calorimeters:
• This type of calorimeter fails when the
steam is not superheated after
expansion.

Limitations of Separating calorimeters:

• Only an approximate dryness fraction is
measured, because the steam discharged
from the calorimeter is not absolutely dry.

53
THROTTLING CALORIMETER
THROTTLING CALORIMETER CALCULATION

After throttling process enthalpy remains same and

pressure drops down significantly,

At the end of throttling, wet steam entered converts into

superheated steam

hwet = hsuperheated

(hf+ x hfg )wet= (hg + cps (Tsup - Tsat)

COMBINED CALORIMETER

Dept. of Mech & Mfg. Engg. 56

 COMBINED CALORIMETER
Separating calorimeter does not give an
accurate result and the throttling
calorimeter fails if the steam is not
superheated after throttling.

A combination of separating and throttling

calorimeter is therefore found most
suitable for accurate measurement of
dryness of steam.
57
 COMBINED CALORIMETER
The steam first passes through a separating calorimeter
and then through a throttling calorimeter.

Let mf = mass of water collected in the separating

calorimeter
Let mg = mass of steam passed from the separating
calorimeter into the throttling calorimeter.

It is then finally condensed in a condenser.

58
COMBINED CALORIMETER
Therefore
mf + mg = total mass of steam
entered into the separating
calorimeter,
So, x2 = mg /(mf + mg )

59
Let x1 be the dryness fraction of wet steam
which enters into the throttling calorimeter. This
dryness fraction can be determined with the
help of equation:

60
This dryness fraction x1 can be
determined with the help of
equation: h f 1  x1h fg1  hg 2  c p  ts  t f 
Where,
x  dryness fraction of steam before throttling.
h f 1  liquid enthalpy of steam before throttling.
h fg 1  enthalpy of evaporation of steam before throttling.
h fg 2  enthalpy of dry steam after throttling
c p  specific heat of the superheated steam.
(taken as 2.01 kJ/kgK if not given)
t s  temperature of steam after throttling.
t f  saturation temperature of steam after throttling.
61
Now if x be the actual dryness fraction at
the steam main, then

Then x = x1 * x2

62
 Problems
Problem 1: 1.5 kg of steam at a pressure of 10 bar and
temperature of 250°C is expanded until the pressure
becomes 2.8 bar. The dryness fraction of steam is then 0.9.
Calculate change in internal energy.
Problem 2: Calculate the internal energy per kg of
superheated steam at 10 bar and a temperature of 300°C.
Find also change in internal energy if this steam is expanded to 1.4
bar and dryness fraction 0.8.
Problem 3: Calculate the total amount of heat required to produce 6
kg of steam at a pressure of 6 bar and temperature of 258°C from
the water at 30°C. Take specific heat of steam = 2.1 kJ/kg-K and the
specific heat of water = 4.187 kJ/kg-K

63
 Problems
Problem 4: Calculate mass of 0.2 m3 of steam at 10 bar pressure
having dryness fraction 0.7. Also calculate enthalpy, internal energy
and external work during evaporation of 2 m3 of the steam.
Problem 5: A sample of wet steam at a pressure of 25 bar absolute
has dryness fraction 0.80. Determine its enthalpy and internal
energy.
Problem 6: Combine separating and throttling calorimeter is used
to find out dryness fraction od steam. Following reading were taken:
Main Pressure: 12 bar absolute
Mass of water collected in separating calorimeter: 2 kg
Mass of steam condensed in throttling calorimeter: 20 kg
Temperature of steam after throttling= 110°C
Pressure of steam after throttling = 1 bar absolute
Assume Cp=2.1 kJ/kg-K and calculate dryness fraction. 64
 Problems
Problem 7: Determine the mass of 0.15 m3 of wet steam at a
pressure of 4 bar and dryness fraction 0.8. Also calculate the heat of
1 m3 of steam.
Problem 8: The following information available from test of
separating and throttling calorimeter.
Pressure of steam in steam main: 9 bar
Pressure of steam after throttling: 1 bar
Temperature of steam after throttling= 115°C
Mass of steam condensed in throttling calorimeter: 1.8 kg
Mass of water collected in the separator: 0.2 kg
Assume Cp=2.1 kJ/kg-K and calculate dryness fraction.
Problem 9: What amount of heat would be required to produce 5
kg of steam at a pressure of 5 bar and temperature of 250°C from
water at 30°C, take cps = 2.1 kJ/Kg-K. 65
 Problems
Problem 10: Determine the dryness fraction of steam supplied to a
separating and throttling calorimeter.
Steam discharge from throttling calorimeter: 7 kg
Water separated in separating calorimeter: 0.45 kg
Steam pressure in main pipe: 1.2 MPa
Barometer reading: 760 mm of hg
Manometer reading: 180 mm of hg
Temperature of steam after throttling= 140°C
Assume Cp=2.1 kJ/kg-K. (linear interpolation)
Problem 11: Determine the enthalpy and internal energy of 1 kg
steam at a pressure 10 bar (abs.), (i) when the dryness fraction of the
steam is 0.85, (ii) when the steam is dry and saturated, (iii) when the
steam is superheated to 300°C. Neglect the volume of water and
take Cps as 2.1 kJ/kg-K. 66
 Problems
Problem 12: How much heat is required to convert 3 kg of water at
30°C into steam at 8 bar and 210°C? Take specific heat of
superheated steam as 2.1 kJ/kg-K and that of water as 4.186 kJ/kg-K.
Problem 13: Determine the quality of steam for the following case,
(1) P = 10 bar, v = 0.180 m3/kg
(2) P = 10 bar, t = 200°C
(3) P = 25 bar, v = 2750 kJ/kg
Problem 14: A rigid tank contains 10 kg of water at 90°C. 8 kg of the
water in the liquid form and the rest is in the vapor form. Draw p-V
diagram and identify the point in p-V diagram. Determine: (1) the
pressure in the tank (2) the volume of liquid and water vapor (3)
quality (dryness fraction) (4) volume of the tank by using dryness
fraction.

67