Some Examples of Dynamical Systems

MATH41112/61112 Ergodic Theory Lecture 2
2. Some examples of dynamical systems
§2.1 The circle

Several of the key examples in the course take place on the circle. There are
two different—although equivalent—ways of thinking about the circle.
We can think of the circle as the quotient group
R/Z = {x + Z | x ∈ R}
which is easily seen to be equivalent to [0, 1) mod 1. We refer to this as

additive notation.
Alternatively, we can regard the circle as
S 1 = {z ∈ C | |z| = 1} = {exp 2πiθ | θ ∈ [0, 1)}.
We refer to this as multiplicative notation.

The two viewpoints are obviously equivalent, and we shall use whichever
is most convenient given the circumstances.
We will also be interested in maps of the k-dimensional torus. In additive
notation this is given by
Rk /Zk = {x + Zk | x ∈ Rk } = [0, 1)k mod 1
(in additive notation) and
S 1 × · · · × S 1 (k-times) = {(exp 2πiθ1 , . . . , exp 2πiθk ) | θ1 , . . . , θk ∈ [0, 1)}
(in multiplicative notation).
§2.2 Rotations on a circle

Fix α ∈ [0, 1) and define the map
T : R/Z → R/Z : x 7→ x + α mod 1.
(In multiplicative notation this is: exp 2πiθ 7→ exp 2πi(θ + α).) This map
acts on the circle by rotating it by angle α.
Suppose that α = p/q is rational (here, p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0). Then
T q (x) = x + qp/q mod 1 = x + p mod 1 = x.
Hence every point of R/Z is periodic.

When α is irrational, one can show that every point x ∈ R/Z has a dense
orbit. This will follow from a more general result later in the course, but it
can also be proved directly.
1
Exercise 2.1
Prove that, for an irrational rotation of the circle, every orbit is dense.
(Recall that the orbit of x is dense if: for all y ∈ R/Z and for all ε > 0,
there exists n > 0 such that d(T n (x), y) < ε.)
(Hints: (1) First show that T n (x) = T n (0) + x and conclude that it’s
sufficient to prove that the orbit of 0 is dense. (2) Prove that T n (x) 6= T m (x)
for n 6= m. (3) Show that for each ε > 0 there exists n > 0 such that
0 < nα mod 1 < ε (you will need to remember that the circle is sequentially
compact). (4) Now show that the orbit of 0 is dense.)
§2.3 The doubling map

We have already seen the doubling map
T : R/Z 7→ R/Z : x 7→ 2x mod 1.
(In multiplicative notation this is
T (exp 2πiθ) = exp 2πi(2θ).)
Proposition 2.1
Let T be the doubling map.
(i) There are 2n − 1 points of period n.
(ii) The periodic points are dense.
(iii) There exists a dense orbit.
Proof. We prove (i). Notice that
T n (x) = 2n x = x mod 1
if there exists an integer p > 0 such that
2n x = x + p.
Hence
p
x= .
2n −1
We get distinct values of x ∈ [0, 1) for p = 0, 1, . . . , 2 n − 2. Hence there are
2n − 1 periodic points.
We leave (ii) as an exercise.
Exercise 2.2
Prove (ii).
2
We sketch the proof of (iii). Let us denote the interval [0, 1/2) by the
symbol 0 and denote the interval [1/2, 1) by 1. Let x ∈ [0, 1). For each n ≥ 0
let xn denote the symbol corresponding to the interval in which T n (x) lies.
Thus to each x ∈ [0, 1) we associate a sequence (x 0 , x1 , . . .) of 0s and 1s. It
is easy to see that
X∞
xn
x=
n=0
2n+1
so that the sequence (x0 , x1 , . . .) corresponds to the base 2 expansion of x.

Notice that if x has coding (x0 , x1 , . . .) then
X∞
2xn X∞
xn+1 X∞
xn+1
T (x) = 2x mod 1 = n+1
mod 1 = x0 + n+1
mod 1 =
n=0
2 n=0
2 n=0
2n+1
so that T (x) has expansion (x1 , x2 , . . .), i.e. T can be thought of as acting
on the coding of x be shifting the associated sequence one place to the left.
For each n-tuple x0 , x1 , . . . , xn−1 let
I(x0 , . . . , xn−1 ) = {x ∈ [0, 1) | T k (x) lies in interval xk for k = 0, 1, . . . , n−1}.
That is, I(x0 , . . . , xn−1 ) corresponds to the set of all x ∈ [0, 1) whose base 2
expansion starts x0 , . . . , xn−1 . We call I(x0 , . . . , xn−1 ) a cylinder of rank n.
Exercise 2.3
Draw all cylinders of length ≤ 4.
One can show:
(i) la cylinder of rank n is an interval of length 2 −n .
(ii) for each x ∈ [0, 1) with base 2 expansion x 0 , x1 , . . ., the intervals

I(x0 , . . . , xn ) ‘converge’ as n → ∞ (in an appropriate sense) to x.
From these observations it is easy to see that, in order to construct a dense

orbit, it is sufficient to construct a point x such that for every cylinder I
there exists n = n(I) such that T n (x) ∈ I. To do this, firstly write down all
possible cylinders (there are countably many):
0, 1, 00, 01, 10, 11, 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111, 0000, 0001, . . . .
Now take x to be the point with base 2 expansion
010001101100000101001110010111011100000001 . . .
(that is, just adjoin all the symbolic representations of all cylinders in some
order). One can easily check that such a point x has a dense orbit. 2
3
Exercise 2.4
(Assuming that you know what a metric space is.) Write down the proof of
Proposition 2.1(iii), adding in complete details.
Remark. This technique of coding the orbits of a given dynamical system

by partitioning the space X and forming an itinerary map is a very powerful
technique that can be used to study many different classes of dynamical
system.

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MATH41112/61112 Ergodic Theory Lecture 2

2. Some examples of dynamical systems

§2.1 The circle

which is easily seen to be equivalent to [0, 1) mod 1. We refer to this as

S 1 = {z ∈ C | |z| = 1} = {exp 2πiθ | θ ∈ [0, 1)}.

We refer to this as multiplicative notation.

Rk /Zk = {x + Zk | x ∈ Rk } = [0, 1)k mod 1

(in additive notation) and

S 1 × · · · × S 1 (k-times) = {(exp 2πiθ1 , . . . , exp 2πiθk ) | θ1 , . . . , θk ∈ [0, 1)}

(in multiplicative notation).

§2.2 Rotations on a circle

T : R/Z → R/Z : x 7→ x + α mod 1.

T q (x) = x + qp/q mod 1 = x + p mod 1 = x.

Hence every point of R/Z is periodic.

§2.3 The doubling map

T : R/Z 7→ R/Z : x 7→ 2x mod 1.

(In multiplicative notation this is

T (exp 2πiθ) = exp 2πi(2θ).)

(i) There are 2n − 1 points of period n.

(ii) The periodic points are dense.

(iii) There exists a dense orbit.

Proof. We prove (i). Notice that

if there exists an integer p > 0 such that

so that the sequence (x0 , x1 , . . .) corresponds to the base 2 expansion of x.

I(x0 , . . . , xn−1 ) = {x ∈ [0, 1) | T k (x) lies in interval xk for k = 0, 1, . . . , n−1}.

(i) la cylinder of rank n is an interval of length 2 −n .

(ii) for each x ∈ [0, 1) with base 2 expansion x 0 , x1 , . . ., the intervals

From these observations it is easy to see that, in order to construct a dense

Now take x to be the point with base 2 expansion

Remark. This technique of coding the orbits of a given dynamical system

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