VETERINARY ANATOMY

1
Natalia Lugay
DVM
Ms vetmed
Block 1
Outline
• Week 1: Introduction to veterinary anatomy and
general anatomy
• Week 2: Axial skeleton
• Week 3: Fasciae and muscles of the head, neck and
trunk
• Week 4: Fasciae and muscles of the head, neck and
trunk
• Week 5: Review
Tests and exams

Graded Activity Weight

Block 1 Exam (written & Practical) 20 %

Block 2 Exam (written & Practical) 20 %
Block 3 Exam (written & Practical) 20 %
Practical Exam 30 %
Block Assignments/Quizzes 10 %
Grade Scale Letter

>/= 90 H
>/= 80 HP
>/= 70 P
<70 F
 1 2 3 4
Introductio
Define and describe Describe structure Describe structure Indicate
n
directional terms and relationship of of components of topographical
and bone surface bones, joints, common location of skeletal
modifications muscles, nerves integument, and associated soft
and blood vessels lymphatic and structures on live
of forelimb and nervous system. animals.
hind-limb.
1. Pasquini, C.,T. Spurgeon and S. Pasquini, 2007. Anatomy of Domestic Animals –Systemic and
Regional Approach, Soudz, USA.

2. Getty, R.,S.Sisson and J.D. Grossman, 1986. The Anatomy of the Domestic Animals. W.B. Saunders
Co., Philadelphia, U.S.A.

3. Miller, M.E., 2000. Guide to the Dissection of the Dog. Edwards Brothers, Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.

4. Philips, G.D., 1988. Guide to Ruminant Anatomy Based on the Dissection of the Goat. Iowa State
University Press, Ames, U.S.A.

5. Haward, E. and D. Alexander, 2000. Guide to the Dissection of the Dog. W.B.Saunders Co., U.S.A.

6. Akers, R.M. and Denbow, D.M., 2013. Anatomy and physiology of domestic animals. John Wiley &
Sons.
 Introduction to
veterinary anatomy
What we will cover
• Brief history
• Directional terms and planes
• Division of the animal body in organs and organ
systems
• Locomotor apparatus
• General anatomy of the cardiovascular system
• General anatomy of the nervous system
• General anatomy of the viscera
Anatomy
• Greek : ana- tome
• To cut
• Latin:
• Dissection

Anatomy is the branch of morphology dealing with

the form, structure, topography and the functional
interaction of the tissues and organs that comprise
the body.
Subdivisions of Anatomy

• Macroscopic (gross) anatomy

• Topographical anatomy
• Microscopic anatomy
• Developmental anatomy
 15th & 16th century:
Leonardo da vinci
Aristotle Fabrizio d’
Acquapendente and
Marcello Malpighi

20th century: Richard

History Owen, an English dissector,

German scientists Johann
Philippe Etienne
Lafosse
Friedrich Meckel, and
Caspar Friedrich Wolff

1968: “Nomina
Anatomica Veterinaria”.
Directional terms and planes
Planes of the animal body
• Median plane: Plane dividing the body in two equal
parts
• Sagittal plane: Any plane parallel to the median plane,
it would be either to the right or to the left of the
median plane.
• Transverse plane: Any plane at right angles to the
median plane and divides the body into cranial and
caudal parts. A cross-sectional view of the body or part
would be made on the transverse plane
• Dorsal plane(horizontal plane ): is at right angles to
both the median and the transverse planes and would
divide the body into dorsal (upper) and ventral (lower)
segments
Directional terms
• Cranial is a direction toward the head.

• Caudal is a direction toward the tail.

• Rostral and caudal are terms for direction within

the head to mean toward the nose (rostral) or
toward the tail (caudal).
Directional terms

Cranial: Towards
Rostral: Towards
the head, trunk
the tip of the nose
and tail

Caudal: Towards Dorsal: Towards

the tail the back
• Dorsal pertains to the back or upper surface of an
animal. Often used to indicate the position of one
structure of the body relative to another

• Ventral pertains to the undersurface of an animal

and, as with dorsal, is often used to indicate the
position of one structure relative to another.
• Medial relates to the middle or center; nearer to
the median or midsagittal plane. The lungs are
medial to the ribs.

• Lateral is opposite to the meaning of medial (i.e.,

away from the median plane). The ribs are lateral
to the lungs.

• Median In the middle Trunk, head and limbs

• Proximal, when referring to part of a limb, artery,
or nerve, means it is nearest the center of the body
or the point of origin.

• Distal means relatively farther from the center of

the body.
• Palmar: refers to the caudally facing surface of the
forelimb distal to the carpus (joint connecting the
radius, ulna, and carpals).

• Plantar: refers to the caudally facing surface of the

hindlimb distal to the tarsus (also known as the
hock; joint connecting the tibia, fibula, and tarsals).
• External: Located outside Body parts and organs

• Internal: Located inside Body parts and organs

• Superficial: Located near the surface Body parts

and organs

• Deep: Located in the depth Body parts and organs

Organs and organ systems
Cells and tissues similar in structure and function
are joined together to form individual organs or
organ systems. These act synergistically to fulfill
functions that define the organism and ensure
survival.

• Parenchyma
• Interstitial tissue
• The cells of the parenchyma are responsible for the
function of the organ (e.g. hepatic cells of the liver,
renal cells of the kidneys, glandular cells of the
salivary glands).
• The interstitial tissue builds the connective tissue
that, for example, either encloses a small
functional unit or separates larger areas of an
organ into lobules (lobuli) or lobes (lobi).
R. Michael Akers, D. Michael Denbow 2013
 Locomotor apparatus
(apparatus locomotorius)
The locomotor apparatus is a complex organ
system whose primary function is mechanical
• Passive locomotor system
• Skeleton
• Bones
• Cartilage
• Ligaments
• Joints
• Active locomotor system
• muscles
Components of bone
• Bone tissue
• Endosteum (internal)
• Periosteum (external)
• Bone marrow (medulla ossium)
• Blood vessels and nerves
 Bones are classified based on
their general shape and
function
• long bones (ossa
longa)
• short bones (ossa
brevia)
• flat bones (ossa plana)
• pneumatic bones
(ossa pneumatica)
• irregular bones (ossa
irregularia)
• Sesamoid bones (ossa
R. Michael Akers, D. Michael Denbow 2013
sesamoidea)
LONG BONES
• Have an elongated cylindrical part, the shaft or
diaphysis and two expanded extremities or
epiphysis.
• The shaft encloses the medullary cavity, which in
life is occupied by yellow marrow.
• The wall consists of dense compact bone of
considerable thickness in the middle part of the
shaft but becoming thinner towards the
extremities.
• Each epiphysis consists of spongy bone covered by
a thin layer of compact bone.
• The spaces in the cancellated bone of the
epiphyses are occupied by red marrow.
• Long bones are found in the limbs and act as pillars
for support and as levers. E.g. humerus, femur.
FLAT BONES
• They are expanded in two directions. They are plate
like, affording large surface area for the attachment of
muscles and protection of subjacent structures.
• The flat bones are made up of varying thickness of
spongy bone between two layers of compact bone E.g.
scapula, flat bones of skull like frontal, parietal.
• The flat bones of the cranial vault are composed of an
outer layer of ordinary compact bone or lamina externa
and an inner layer of very dense compact bone, lamina
interna or tabula vitrea and between these is a variable
amount of spongy bone called diploe.
SHORT BONES
• They present similar dimensions in length, breadth
and thickness. They are made up of a thin layer of
compact bone outside and spongy bone inside.
• The medullary cavity is absent.
• This arrangement helps to diffuse concussion.
Irregular bones

• They are irregular in shape and are usually placed on

the median line. They resemble short bones in
structure. E.g. vertebrae.
Pneumatic bones

• These bones contain air spaces within the compact

substance instead of spongy bone and marrow.
These cavities/spaces are lined by mucous
membrane and are termed as sinuses.

• In the fowl, many of the bones are pneumatic (vertebrae,

sternum, humerus and femur) and these receive air
through the medium of air sacs.
Osteogenesis (Development of
bone) Inorganic
compounds (
Intramembranous (primary): phosphates,
calcium carbonate)

mesenchyme cells osteoblasts osteoid osteocytes

(Type 1
collagen
fibers)

endochondral ossification (secondary):

mesenchyme cells chondroblasts cartilage matrix

spongy bone periosteum

Blood chondrocytes
vessels degenerate
R. Michael Akers, D. Michael Denbow 2013
Joints
• Types of joints

• Fibrous unions (juncturae fibrosae)

• Cartilaginous unions (juncturae cartilagineae)

• True joints (articulationes synoviales)

Fibrous unions

• Sutures- the bones of the skull

• connective tissue joints

(syndesmoses) - attachment of
the dew claws to the
metapodium in the ox, between
radius and ulna- Short fibrous
tissues prevents movement

• impactions (gomphoses)-
anchoring of the teeth roots
periodontal ligaments
Cartilaginous unions
(juncturae cartilagineae)

• Hyaline cartilage unions

(synchondroses), e.g. between
base of the skull and the hyoid
bone

• Fibrocartilage unions
(symphyses)- compressible
( shock absorbers) e.g. the
pelvic symphysis, between
vertebrae
True joints (articulationes synoviales)

• Contain a
cavity filled
with fluid
• Joint cartilage
• Joint cavity
Type of movement
• Uniaxial joints – movement in one plane:
• hinge joint (ginglymus): the joint axis is perpendicular to the
long axis of the bones
• pivot joint (articulatio trochoidea): the joint axis is parallel to
the long axis of the bones
• Biaxial joints – movement in two planes. Allow all
angular motions, including flexion, extension,
abduction, and adduction, but not rotation
• saddle joint (articulatio sellaris): e.g. between the
interphalangeal joints, and
• ellipsoidal joint (articulatio ellipsoidea): e.g. atlanto-occipital
joint between the occipital bone and the 1st cervical vertebra;
• Multiaxial joints – movement in 3 planes:
• spheroidal or ball-and-socket joint (articulatio
sphaeroidea): e.g. shoulder joint or hip joint, and

• Tight joints (amphiarthroses): (slipping motion)e.g.

sacroiliac joint.
Structural Class Characteristics Type Mobility Example

Fibrous End of bones united 1. Sutures Immobile Bones of the cranium

by fibrous tissue (synarthrosis)

2. Syndesmosis Slightly mobile Distal tibiofibular

(amphiarthrosis) and joint
immobile

3. Gomphosis Immobile Articulation of a tooth

with its socket

Cartilaginous End of bones united 1. Synchondrosis Immobile Epiphyseal plates

by cartilage (hyaline cartilage)

2. Symphysis Slightly movable Pubic symphysis

(fibrocartilage)

Synovial Ends of bones 1. Ball-and-socket Freely movable Coxofemoral (hip)

covered with articular joint and
cartilage, and a joint glenohumeral
cavity enclosed with a (shoulder) joint
joint capsule

2. Pivot Rounded end of one Between atlas and

bone projected into dens of axis; proximal
sleeve or ring on radioulnar joint in
another bone; freely animals where
movable but allows pronation and
only uniaxial rotation supination possible

3. Ellipsoidal Both articulating Radiocarpal joints

surfaces are
oval;freely movable
allowing flexion,
extension, abduction,
adduction, and
circumduction

4. Saddle Each articulating Caprometacarpal joint

surface has both of thumb in man
concave and convex
areas, resembling a
saddle;freely movable

5. Plane (or gliding) Articulating surfaces Intercarpal and

∼flat; freely movable, intertarsal joints;
but only slipping or vertebral processes
gliding motions

6. Hinge Cylindrical projection Knee, elbow, and

of one bone into interphalangeal joints
trough-like
depression of another
Muscular system
• smooth muscle tissue:
• responsible for the contractile functions of the internal
organs, lines the excretory ducts of glands, forms the
blood and lymphatic vessel walls

• skeletal muscle/ striated muscle:

• skeletal musculature
• heart musculature
skeletal musculature
• Controlled consciously
• Moves the bones of the skeleton
Location of skeletal muscle
• Cutaneous
• Head and neck
• Abdominal
• Thoracic limb
• Pelvic limb
• Muscles of respiration (external and internal
intercostal, diaphragm)
Cardiac Muscle (involuntary striated)

• Myocardium
Smooth muscle (non striated
involuntary)

Eyes Blood vessels Organs

What we General anatomy of the
cardiovascular system
will cover
General anatomy of the
nervous system

General anatomy of the

viscera
General anatomy of
angiology

Angiology is the medical specialty dedicated to

studying the circulatory system and of the lymphatic
system
The cardiovascular system is transport system of
body

- Arteries
- veins
- lymphatic vessels
• The system supplies nutrients to and remove
waste products from various tissue of body.

• The conveying media is liquid in form of blood

which flows in close tubular system.
• Blood is a fluid connective tissue that flows all over
the body in the vessels of the cardiovascular
system.
• The blood volume in a domestic animal accounts
for 6–8% of body weight.
• Circulatory system (systema cardiovasculare) : the
blood-filled tubular pathways of the body.
Organization of the
cardiovascular system
Organization of the
cardiovascular system
The heart
(cor)
• The heart is the
central organ of
the cardiovascular
system.
• Located in the
middle of the
thoracic cavity -
mediastinum
• Four-chambered,
muscular sac
• 2 atria
• Receive blood
into heart

• 2 ventricles
• Pump blood out
of the heart
• Valves
Pulmonary
or small
circulation
Systemic
or large
circulation
Portal circulation

• Portal vein (v. portae) collects deoxygenated blood from

the first capillary beds in the gastrointestinal tract and
other unpaired organs within the abdominal cavity

• In the liver, capillary beds are formed, blood passes

through the liver, it is collected by veins and transported
into the caudal vena cava. Here the blood joins the
remaining blood from the periphery to flow into the right
atrium of the heart.
• Peripheral circulatory system

• Governed by functional adaptations which are

reflected in the structures of the various vessel
walls.
• Organs and tissues are supplied by ‘vessel-nerve
bundles’, in which arteries, veins, lymphatic
vessels and nerves mutually wind through
connective tissue paths.
Structure of the blood vessels
• Arteries: large vessels carrying blood away from the
heart

• Arterioles: smaller arteries (diameter 20–100 µm)

• Capillaries: thin walls participating in exchange with

surrounding tissues

• Venules: small veins

• Veins: large vessels carrying blood to the heart

Lymphatic system (systema
lymphaticum)
• Lymph is comprised mainly of proteins and similar
in composition to the blood plasma.
• Returns excess tissue fluid to circulating blood
• Removes bacteria and foreign particles through
lymph nodes
• Produce lymphocytes
• Transport products of fat digestion and fat-soluble
vitamins from intestines
• Lymphatic tissue is found in the body as:

• single cells (diffuse lymphatic tissue,

lymph nodules),
• aggregates of cells (tonsils)
• complex organs (thymus, lymph nodes and
spleen).
• Lymphatic capillaries
• Lymphatic vessels
• Transport vessels
• Central lymph trunks
• Lymphatic ducts
• The lymphatic
capillaries are similar in
structure to the blood
capillaries
• However, the wall of the
lymphatic capillaries is
much thinner, and they
do not possess valves
• Near the blood
capillaries, the lymph
capillaries form vessel
nets (retia
lymphocapillaria) within
most body tissues
• The capillaries merge to
form the lymphatic
vessels that collect the
lymph from the plexuses
• Ductus thoracicus passes through the diaphragm
alongside the aorta and continues dorsally through
the thorax, entering the venous system at the left
venous angle
• The venous angle is formed by the convergence of
the internal jugular and the left subclavian veins
• The lymph drainage from the head and throat
occurs through the two branches of the tracheal
trunk, which unite and empty into the venous angle
as well
 General anatomy of the nervous
system
(systema nervosum)

The nervous system, along with the endocrine and

immune systems and the sensory organs, is
responsible for receiving various stimuli and
coordinating the reactions of the organism.
Classification

• Central nervous system (CNS)

• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Functions of the Nervous System

• Sensory functions
• monitor the external and internal environments
• register and react to various types of stimuli

• Motor functions
• responsible for coordinating movement
• Somatomotorics
• Visceromotorics
The nervous system follows a common structural
design, which can be classified functionally and
structurally into different sections:

• signal registration (sensory receptors)

• signal transmission (afferent nerve fibres)
• central processing of information
• stimulus response (efferent nerve fibres)
• reaction of the effector organ (muscle, gland)
Neurons vary greatly in function and structure.

• multipolar neurons, which send impulses to non-

neuronal effector cells (muscle or gland cells) and
induce activity (efferent, motor neurons)
• pseudo-unipolar neurons, which receive stimuli and
send them on to higher centers, (afferent, sensible
neurons)
• bipolar neurons, which form a network to connect
neurons over short and long distances
(interneurons).
 Receive stimuli and
conducts through
cell body

Works with the

myelin sheath to
increase speed of
conduction of
impulses along
axon
Conducts impulse
away from cell
body toward
another neuron or
effector cell

Cell membrane of
specialized glial Releases the
cells impulse to the
adjoining neuron or
cell
• A ganglion is a cluster of nerve cell bodies with
similar functions located outside of the CNS.
• The mechanisms that control the unique
environment of the brain are collectively referred
to as the blood-brain barrier
• The blood-liquor barrier is formed by the epithelial
cells of the choroid plexus (plexus choroideus) in
the ventricles of the brain (ventriculi cerebri)
• A barrier present in the peripheral nervous system
is referred to as the blood-nerve barrier
 Central nervous system
(systema nervosum centrale, CNS)
 Peripheral nervous system
(systema nervosum periphericum,
PNS)
• cranial nerves
• spinal nerve
• efferent (axonal,
motor) nerves
• afferent
(dendritic,
sensory) nerves
• peripheral glial
cells (Schwann
cells)
 Somatic (voluntary) nervous
system
Innate reflex
• nerve impulse is triggered by
a stimulus and carried by an
afferent, sensory nerve fibre.
• The response occurs through
a simple reflex arc, ending in
an efferent motor neuron.
• This type of reflex is
monosynaptic - occurs
unconsciously and quickly

Acquired reflex
• Learned reflexes
 Vegetative (autonomic) nervous
system

Sympathetic system:
fight or flight

Parasympathetic
system:
brings all systems
of the body back to
normal
The sympathicus activates vital functions (catabolic
function):

• increases blood pressure

• increases heart and respiratory rates
• constricts the blood vessels (vasoconstriction,
without heart)
• mobilises glucose (glycolysis)
• increases perspiration, raises hair, dilates the
pupils
• inhibits activity of the alimentary canal
The parasympathicus antagonises the sympathicus
in that it restores the body to a restful or idle state

• decreasing heart and respiratory rates to their

basal values
• constricting the bronchioles
• constricting the pupils
• stimulating digestion
• increasing metabolism
General anatomy of the viscera
• The viscera denotes the internal organs of the
thoracic, abdominal and pelvic cavities, as well as
the digestive and respiratory organs located in the
head and neck regions.
• organs of the head (caput)
• neck (collum)
• thorax
• abdomen
• pelvis
• The majority of the internal
organs (viscera) are
situated in the body
cavities, in which very little
free space remains.
• The flexible mesenteries
and small, fluid-filled
spaces between the organs
reduce friction to a
minimum, thus allowing the
organs to glide freely
against each other, for
example, during breathing
or the digestive process.
• visceral mucosa (tunica mucosa),
• visceral connective tissue (interstitium),
• visceral motility (tunica muscularis) and
• body cavities and their serous lining (tunica
serosa).
The body cavities are contained in the body trunk
and can be divided into three different zones:

• Thorax
• abdomen
• pelvis
Serous membranes line almost completely the body
or serous cavities. There are four serosal cavities:

1. the left and right pleural cavities (cavum pleurae

sinistrum et dextrum)
2. the peritoneal cavity (cavum peritonei)
3. the pericardial cavity (cavum pericardii) with the
pericardium
• Epithelium
• Lines the inner surfaces of cavities in many internal
organs
• Protection;
• Absorption, resorption and secretion of substances

• Visceral connective tissue

• Non-specific connective tissue
• Organ-specific tissue, called the parenchyme (organ
parenchyme)
Questions
 Within the head, rostral means:

A. Towards the nose

B. The same as cranial
C. Toward the tail
D. The same as caudal
A sagittal plane is :

A. One that divides the body into cranial and caudal

parts
B. Any plane parallel to the median plane
C. One that would divide the plane into upper
(dorsal) and lower (ventral) segments
D. Equipped with jets
The part of a limb, artery or nerve that is nearest
the center of the body or point of origin is referred
to as:

A. Proximal
B. Palmar
C. Distal
D. Superficial
The cylindrical shaft of a long bone is known as the:

A. epiphysis
B. metaphysis
C. diaphysis
The principal location of hematopoiesis (blood cell
production) is the:

A. joint capsule
B. medullary cavity of the diaphysis
C. epiphyseal plate
D. lacunae
Osteoblasts:

A. are the hematopoietic cells of bone

B. synthesize and secrete the organic substance of
bone
C. are bone-dissolving cells
D. are the mature cells of bone
The epiphyseal plate:

A. is a cartilage plate between the epiphysis and

diaphysis
B. has a profuse blood supply
C. has no distinguishable zones
D. is located on only one end of a long bone.
The synovial membrane:

A. covers the bearing surface (articular cartilage) of

a joint
B. is the outer fibrous layer of a joint capsule that
contributes to the stability of the joint
C. is the lining inner surface of a joint capsule that
contains synoviocytes, which secrete synovial
fluid.
Which one of the following is the smallest
component of a skeletal muscle?

A. Sarcomere
B. Myosin
C. Myofibril
D. Muscle fiber
Which muscle type is under voluntary control?

A. Smooth muscle
B. Skeletal muscle
C. Uterine muscle
D. Cardiac muscle
A B

F
E
D
Venous blood (deoxygenated) enters the:

A. left atrium from the vena cava

B. pulmonary trunk from the left ventricle
C. pulmonary trunk from the right ventricle
D. left atrium from the pulmonary veins
Blood flow through the heart, when received from the
venae cavae, proceeds in the following order:

A. left atrium, right atrium, right ventricle, left ventricle

B. right atrium, left atrium, left ventricle, right ventricle
C. right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, left ventricle
D. left atrium, left ventricle, right atrium, right ventricle.
Because of its greater work, the heart chamber with
the greatest muscle mass is the:

A. right ventricle
B. left ventricle
C. right atrium
D. left atrium
Which one of the following circulatory divisions has
the lowest pressure?

A. Capillaries
B. Veins
C. Arterioles
D. Arteries
Smooth muscle fibers are contained within:

A. All of the blood vessels

B. Capillaries
C. capillaries and veins
D. veins
The lymphatic system:

A. is the only route back to the blood for the return

of protein that leaks from the capillaries
B. has a fluid in its vessels known as lymph
C. has a fluid in its vessels similar to interstitial fluid
D. has lymph nodes along the course of the
lymphatic vessels that phagocytize foreign
material and generate lymphocytes
E. all of the above
The myelin sheaths of nerve fibers in the central
nervous system are cytoplasmic extensions of:

A. Schwann cells
B. oligodendrocytes.
Parasympathetic stimulation increases intestinal
muscle and secretory activity.

A. True
B. False
The blood–brain barrier:

A. exists for all substances in the blood

B. applies to all areas of the brain
C. excludes transport of some substances from
blood to brain and permits transport of other