Hindawi Publishing Corporation

Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

Volume 2016, Article ID 4964828, 10 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/4964828

Review Article
An Overview of Nanomaterials for Water and
Wastewater Treatment

Haijiao Lu,1,2 Jingkang Wang,1,2 Marco Stoller,3 Ting Wang,1,2

Ying Bao,1,2 and Hongxun Hao1,2
1
National Engineering Research Center of Industry Crystallization Technology, School of Chemical Engineering and Technology,
Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
2
Co-Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering, Tianjin 300072, China
3
Department of Chemical Materials, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy

Correspondence should be addressed to Hongxun Hao; [email protected]

Received 26 April 2016; Revised 21 June 2016; Accepted 23 June 2016

Academic Editor: Mikhael Bechelany

Copyright © 2016 Haijiao Lu et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Due to the exceptional characteristics which resulted from nanoscale size, such as improved catalysis and adsorption properties as
well as high reactivity, nanomaterials have been the subject of active research and development worldwide in recent years. Numerous
studies have shown that nanomaterials can effectively remove various pollutants in water and thus have been successfully applied
in water and wastewater treatment. In this paper, the most extensively studied nanomaterials, zero-valent metal nanoparticles (Ag,
Fe, and Zn), metal oxide nanoparticles (TiO2 , ZnO, and iron oxides), carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and nanocomposites are discussed
and highlighted in detail. Besides, future aspects of nanomaterials in water and wastewater treatment are discussed.

1. Introduction of nanomaterials. On the basis of numerous studies, nano-

materials show great promise for applications in water and
Generally speaking, nanomaterials describe materials of wastewater treatment. At present, the most extensively
which the structural components are sized (in at least one studied nanomaterials for water and wastewater treatment
dimension) between 1 and 100 nm [1]. Due to the nanoscale mainly include zero-valent metal nanoparticles, metal oxides
size of nanomaterials, their properties, such as mechanical, nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and nanocompos-
electrical, optical, and magnetic properties, are significantly ites.
different from conventional materials. A wide range of nano-
materials have the characteristics of catalysis, adsorption, and
high reactivity. 2. Nanomaterials for Water and
In the past decades, nanomaterials have been under Wastewater Treatment
active research and development and have been successfully
applied in many fields, such as catalysis [2], medicine [3], 2.1. Zero-Valent Metal Nanoparticles
sensing [4], and biology [5]. In particular, the application 2.1.1. Silver Nanoparticles. Silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) are
of nanomaterials in water and wastewater treatment has highly toxic to microorganisms and thus have strong antibac-
drawn wide attention. Due to their small sizes and thus large terial effects against a wide range of microorganisms, includ-
specific surface areas, nanomaterials have strong adsorption ing viruses [11], bacteria [10], and fungi [12]. As a good
capacities and reactivity. What is more, the mobility of nano- antimicrobial agent, silver nanoparticles have been widely
materials in solution is high [6]. Heavy metals [7], organic used for the disinfection of water.
pollutants [8], inorganic anions [9], and bacteria [10] have The mechanism of the antimicrobial effects of Ag NPs
been reported to be successfully removed by various kinds is not clearly known and remains under debate. In recent
2 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

Table 1: The standard reduction potentials of different metalsa .

Metal Standard reduction potential (𝐸0 /V)

Fe −0.440
Zn −0.762
Live bacteria in Al −1.677
Ni −0.236
a
The data comes from [40].
Blotter paper containing
silver nanoparticles
remarkably suppressed. The PES-Ag NPs membranes exhib-
ited strong antimicrobial properties and held great potential
in application for water treatment [20].
Dead bacteria out In the past twenty years, Ag NPs on ceramic materi-
als/membranes have drawn substantial attention due to their
disinfection and biofouling reduction for household (point-
Figure 1: Schematic presentation of the disinfection process of
of-use) water treatment [21]. For instance, the addition of
blotter paper containing silver nanoparticles. Reprinted from [19]
with permission. Copyright © 2011, American Chemical Society. Ag NPs to ceramic filters constructed with clay and sawdust
has turned out to be able to improve the removal efficiency
of Escherichia coli. It was also found that filters with higher
porosity achieved higher bacteria removal than those with
lower porosity [22]. Besides, colloidal Ag NPs have been
years, several theories have been put forward. Ag NPs have combined with cylindrical ceramic filters, which were made
been reported to be able to adhere to the bacterial cell wall up of clay-rich soil with water, grog, and flour, in different
and subsequently penetrate it, resulting in structural changes quantities and ways (dipping and painting). It was proved
of the cell membrane and thus increasing its permeability that colloidal Ag NPs improved the filter performance and the
[13]. Besides, when Ag NPs are in contact with bacteria, free filters can remove Escherichia coli in the rate between 97.8%
radicals can be generated. They have the ability to damage and 100% [23]. Recently, the attachment of Ag NPs to ceramic
the cell membrane and are considered to cause the death of membranes has been successfully predicted by Derjaguin-
cells [14]. In addition, as DNA contains abundant sulfur and Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) approximation methods
phosphorus elements, Ag NPs can act with it and thus destroy [24]. Further studies on Ag NPs will promote their applica-
it. This is another explanation for the death of cells caused tions in water and wastewater treatment.
by Ag NPs [15]. What is more, the dissolution of Ag NPs
will release antimicrobial Ag+ ions, which can interact with 2.1.2. Iron Nanoparticles. In recent years, various zero-valent
the thiol groups of many vital enzymes, inactivate them, and metal nanoparticles, such as Fe, Zn, Al, and Ni, in water
disrupt normal functions in the cell [16]. pollution treatment have drawn wide research interest. The
With the development of nanotechnology, Ag NPs have standard reduction potentials of Fe, Al, Ni, and Zn are listed
been successfully applied in water and wastewater disinfec- in Table 1. Due to the extremely high reductive ability, nano-
tion in recent years. Direct application of Ag NPs might zero-valent Al is thermodynamically unstable in the presence
cause some problems, such as their tendency to aggregate in of water, which favors the formation of oxides/hydroxides on
aqueous media that gradually reduces their efficiency during the surface, impeding (completely) the transfer of electrons
long-term use [17]. Ag NPs attached to filter materials have from the metal surface to the contaminants [25]. Compared
been considered promising for water disinfection due to their with Fe, Ni has a less negative standard reduction poten-
high antibacterial activity and cost-effectiveness [18]. tial, indicating a lower reducing ability. With a moderate
Via the in situ reduction of silver nitrate, Ag NPs have standard reduction potential, nano-zero-valent Fe or Zn
been deposited on the cellulose fibers of an absorbent holds good potential to act as reducing agents relative to
blotting paper sheet (see Figure 1). The Ag NPs sheets showed many redox-labile contaminants. Despite a weaker reduction
antibacterial properties towards suspensions of Escherichia ability, Fe possesses many prominent advantages over Zn for
coli and Enterococcus faecalis and inactivated bacteria during applications in water pollution treatment, including excellent
filtration through the sheet. Moreover, the silver loss from adsorption properties, precipitation and oxidation (in the
the Ag NPs sheets was lower than the standards for silver presence of dissolved oxygen), and low cost. Therefore, zero-
in drinking water put forward by Environmental Protection valent iron nanoparticles have been the most extensively
Agency (EPA) and World Health Organization (WHO) [19]. studied zero-valent metal nanoparticles.
Therefore, for water contaminated by bacteria, filtration As a result of the extremely small size and thus large
through paper deposited with Ag NPs could be an effective specific surface area, nZVI possesses good adsorption prop-
emergency water treatment. Besides, Ag NPs synthesized by erties and strong reducing ability [26]. These characteristics
chemical reduction have been incorporated into polyether- contribute most to its excellent performance in the removal of
sulfone (PES) microfiltration membranes. The activity of contaminants. Under anaerobic conditions, as shown in (1)-
microorganisms nearby the membranes was observed to be (2), Fe0 can be oxidized by H2 O or H+ and generates Fe2+
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 3

and H2 , both of which are also potential reducing agents for negative standard reduction potential (Table 1), Zn is a
contaminants. In the oxidation-reduction reaction between stronger reductant compared with Fe. Therefore, the contam-
nZVI and contaminants, Fe2+ will be oxidized to Fe3+ , which inant degradation rate of zinc nanoparticles may be faster
can form Fe(OH)3 with the increase of pH. As a common than that of nZVI.
and effective flocculant, Fe(OH)3 facilitates the removal of For the application of nano-zero-valent zinc (nZVZ),
contaminants, for example, Cr(VI) [27]. What is more, ZVI most studies have been focused on dehalogenation reaction.
can degrade and oxidize a variety of organic compounds in Research indicated that the reduction rates of CCl4 by
the presence of dissolved oxygen (DO) since ZVI transfers nZVZ were more significantly affected by solution chemistry
two electrons to O2 to produce H2 O2 (see (3)). The resultant than particle size or surface morphology. By comparing
H2 O2 can be reduced to H2 O by ZVI (see (4)). Moreover, the the reactivity of various types of nZVI and nZVZ, it was
combination of H2 O2 and Fe2+ (known as Fenton reaction) found that nZVZ could degrade CCl4 more rapidly and com-
can generate hydroxyl radicals (HO∙ ) which have strong pletely than nZVI under favorable conditions [49]. Besides,
oxidizing ability towards a wide range of organic compounds a study has been carried out to examine the degradation
(see (5)) [28]: of octachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (OCDD) in water with four
different zero-valent metal nanoparticles: zero-valent zinc
Fe0 + 2H2 O 󳨀→ Fe2+ + H2 + 2OH− (1) (nZVZ), zero-valent iron (nZVI), zero-valent aluminum
(nZVAL), and zero-valent nickel (nZVN). On the basis
Fe0 + 2H+ 󳨀→ Fe2+ + H2 (2) of experimental results, only nZVZ was able to efficiently
degrade OCDD into lower chlorinated congeners and thus
Fe0 + O2 + 2H+ 󳨀→ Fe2+ + H2 O2 (3) became the first reported zero-valent metal nanoparticles
suitable for OCDD dechlorination under ambient conditions
Fe0 + H2 O2 + 2H+ 󳨀→ Fe2+ + 2H2 O (4)
[48].
Fe2+ + H2 O2 󳨀→ Fe3+ + HO∙ + OH− (5) However, although several studies have demonstrated
that contaminant reduction by nZVZ could be successful,
With the effects of adsorption, reduction, precipitation, the application of nZVZ is mainly limited in the degradation
and oxidation (in the presence of DO), nZVI has been of halogenated organic compounds, especially CCl4 . The
successfully applied in the removal of a large range of con- treatment of other kinds of contaminants by nZVZ has rarely
taminants, including halogenated organic compounds [29], been reported up to now. Therefore, pilot-scale or full-scale
nitroaromatic compounds [30], organic dyes [31], phenols applications of nZVZ have not been achieved at contaminated
[32], heavy metals [33], inorganic anions such as phosphates field sites yet [49].
[34] and nitrates [35], metalloids [36], and radio elements
[37]. What is more, research on the application of nZVI in 2.2. Metal Oxides Nanoparticles
water and wastewater treatment is not limited to water or
laboratory tests. In recent years, nZVI has also been applied 2.2.1. TiO2 Nanoparticles. As an emerging and promis-
in soil remediation [38] and already achieved pilot-scale and ing technology, photocatalytic degradation has attracted
full-scale applications at real water contaminated field sites great attention since 1972 when Fujishima and Honda
[39]. [50] observed electrochemical photolysis of water on TiO2
Despite many advantages, nZVI also has its own dis- semiconductor electrode. In recent years, photocatalytic
advantages, such as aggregation, oxidation, and separation degradation technology has been successfully applied in the
difficulty from the degraded system. To solve these problems, contaminant degradation in water and wastewater. At the
various modification approaches have been put forward to presence of light and catalyst, contaminants can be gradually
enhance the performance of nZVI in water and wastewater oxidized into low molecular weight intermediate products
treatment. Common modification approaches mainly include and eventually transformed into CO2 , H2 O, and anions such
doping with other metals, surface coating, conjugation with as NO3 − , PO4 3− , and Cl− .
supports, encapsulation in matrix, and emulsification [41]. The majority of common photocatalysts are metal oxide
Doping with other metals is supposed to enhance the reac- or sulfide semiconductors, among which TiO2 has been most
tivity of nZVI [42]. Both surface coating and conjugation extensively investigated in the past decades. Owing to its high
with supports can prevent aggregation and enhance the photocatalytic activity, reasonable price, photostability, and
dispersibility of nZVI [43, 44]. Besides, both conjugation chemical and biological stability [51–53], TiO2 is the most
with supports and encapsulation in matrix facilitate the exceptional photocatalyst to date. The large band gap energy
separation of nZVI from the degraded system [45, 46]. In (3.2 eV) of TiO2 requires ultraviolet (UV) excitation to induce
addition, the emulsification of nZVI is aimed at solving the charge separation within the particles. As shown in Figure 2,
delivery problem of nZVI in dense nonaqueous phase liquid upon UV irradiation, TiO2 will generate reactive oxygen
(DNAPL) [47]. species (ROS) which can completely degrade contaminants
in very short reaction time. Besides, TiO2 NPs show little
2.1.3. Zinc Nanoparticles. Although most studies on contam- selectivity and thus are suitable for the degradation of all
inant degradation in water and wastewater treatment by zero- kinds of contaminants, such as chlorinated organic com-
valent metal nanoparticles have been focused on iron, Zn pounds [54], polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons [55], dyes
has also been considered as an alternative [48]. With a more [56], phenols [57], pesticides [58], arsenic [59], cyanide [60],
4 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

acid)] composite hydrogel. Methylene blue was successfully

removed by the photocatalysis of TiO2 NPs. Moreover, due
to the coupling with polymeric membranes, TiO2 NPs could
be easily separated from the treated system through a simple
filtration [76]. A detailed review on TiO2 nanocomposite
based polymeric membranes has been presented [77]. More
recently, doped TiO2 magnetic nanoparticles have been
synthesized in a spinning disk reactor to achieve a feasible
recovery of the nanoparticles by a magnetic trap [78, 79].
The production process is continuous and thus suitable for
industrial applications [79].

Figure 2: Schematic presentation of the mechanism of TiO2 photo- 2.2.2. ZnO Nanoparticles. In the field of photocatalysis, apart
catalytic process. Reprinted from [59] with permission. Copyright from TiO2 NPs, ZnO NPs have emerged as another efficient
© 2014, American Chemical Society. candidate in water and wastewater treatment because of their
unique characteristics, such as direct and wide band gap in
the near-UV spectral region, strong oxidation ability, and
good photocatalytic property [80–82].
and heavy metals [61]. What is more, hydroxyl radicals ZnO NPs are environment-friendly as they are com-
generated under UV irradiation (𝜆 < 400 nm) enable TiO2 patible with organisms [83], which makes them suitable
NPs to damage the function and structure of various cells for the treatment of water and wastewater. Besides, the
[62]. The photocatalytic properties of TiO2 NPs are able to photocatalytic capability of ZnO NPs is similar to that of
kill a wide array of microorganisms, such as Gram-negative TiO2 NPs because their band gap energies are almost the
and Gram-positive bacteria, as well as fungi, algae, protozoa, same [84]. However, ZnO NPs have the advantage of low cost
and viruses [63]. over TiO2 NPs [84]. Moreover, ZnO NPs can adsorb a wider
However, TiO2 NPs also have some disadvantages. As range of solar spectra and more light quanta than several
mentioned above, their large band gap energy makes them semiconducting metal oxides [85].
need the excitation of UV and the photocatalytic properties Nevertheless, similar to that of TiO2 NPs, the light
of TiO2 NPs under visible light are relatively inconspicu- absorption of ZnO NPs is also limited in the ultraviolet
ous. Hence, studies have been conducted to improve the light region due to their big band gap energies. Besides, the
photocatalytic properties of TiO2 NPs under visible light application of ZnO NPs is impeded by photocorrosion, which
and UV. For example, metal doping has been demonstrated will result in fast recombination of photogenerated charges
to be able to improve the visible light absorbance of TiO2 and thus cause low photocatalytic efficiency [86].
NPs [64] and increase their photocatalytic activity under To improve the photodegradation efficiency of ZnO
UV irradiation [65]. Among various metals, Ag has received NPs, metal doping is a common strategy. Various types of
much attention for metal doping of TiO2 NPs because it could metal dopants have been tested, including anionic dopants,
enable the visible light excitation of TiO2 NPs [66] and greatly cationic dopants, rare-earth dopants, and codopants [87].
improve the photocatalytic inactivation of bacteria [67] and Besides, many studies have shown that coupling with other
viruses [68]. Besides, modifications of TiO2 NPs by nonmetal semiconductors, such as CdO [88], CeO2 [89], SnO2 [90],
elements, such as N, F, S, and C, have also been found to be TiO2 [91], graphene oxide (GO) [92], and reduced graphene
able to narrow the band gap significantly, enhance adsorption oxide (RGO) [93], is a feasible approach to enhance the
in the visible region, and improve the degradation of dyes photodegradation efficiency of ZnO NPs.
under visible light irradiation, especially under natural solar
light irradiation [69]. 2.2.3. Iron Oxides Nanoparticles. In recent years, there is a
Besides, the production process of TiO2 NPs is rather growing interest in the use of iron oxides nanoparticles for the
complicated. What is more, it is difficult to recover TiO2 NPs removal of heavy metal due to their simplicity and availability.
from the treated wastewater, especially when they are used in Magnetic magnetite (Fe3 O4 ) and magnetic maghemite (𝛾-
suspension. In recent years, more and more efforts have been Fe2 O4 ) and nonmagnetic hematite (𝛼-Fe2 O3 ) are often used
devoted to surmounting this problem. Among them, the cou- as nanoadsorbents.
pling of the photocatalysis of TiO2 NPs with membrane tech- Generally, due to the small size of nanosorbent materials,
nology has attracted much attention and shown promise for their separation and recovery from contaminated water are
overcoming the recovery problem of TiO2 NPs. A wide range great challenges for water treatment. However, magnetic
of membranes have been incorporated with TiO2 NPs, such magnetite (Fe3 O4 ) and magnetic maghemite (𝛾-Fe2 O4 ) can
as poly(vinylidene fluoride) [70, 71], polyethersulfone [72, be easily separated and recovered from the system with the
73], polymethyl methacrylate [74], and poly(amide-imide) assistance of an external magnetic field. Therefore, they have
[75]. For instance, using N,N󸀠 -methylenebisacrylamide as the been successfully used as sorbent materials in the removal of
cross-linker and ammonium persulphate as the initiator pair, various heavy metals from water systems [94–96]. In order
the polymerization of acrylamide in an aqueous solution was to increase adsorption efficiency and to avoid interference
carried out to synthesize TiO2 /poly[acrylamide-co-(acrylic from other metals ions, iron oxides nanoparticles have
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 5

been functionalized to tune their adsorption properties by To improve the adsorption, mechanical, optical, and elec-
adding various ligands (e.g., ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid trical properties, carbon nanotubes are often combined with
(EDTA), L-glutathione (GSH), mercaptobutyric acid (MBA), other metals or types of support [110]. The functionalization
𝛼-thio-𝜔-(propionic acid) hepta(ethylene glycol) (PEG-SH), increases the number of oxygen, nitrogen, or other groups
and meso-2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA)) [97] or on the surface of CNTs, enhances their dispersibility, and
polymers (e.g., copolymers of acrylic acid and crotonic acid) thus improves specific surface area [111–113]. For example,
[98]. A flexible ligand shell has been reported to facilitate a study using CNTs as a support for magnetic iron oxide
the incorporation of a wide array of functional groups into has been reported by Gupta et al. [114]. Combining the
the shell and ensured the properties of Fe3 O4 nanoparticles adsorption properties of CNTs with the magnetic properties
are intact [99]. Besides, a polymer shell has been found of iron oxide, a “composite” adsorbent was prepared to
to be able to prevent aggregation of particles and improve remove chromium from water. Apart from owning excellent
the dispersion stability of the nanostructures [98]. Polymer adsorption properties, the “composite” adsorbent can be
molecules could act as binders for metal ions and thus became easily separated from water via an external magnetic field.
a “carrier” of metal ions from treated water [99]. In spite of the exceptional properties of CNTs, the
Hematite (𝛼-Fe2 O3 ) has been considered as a stable development and applications of CNTs are mainly limited
and cheap material in sensors, catalysis, and environmental by their low volume of production and high cost. Besides,
applications [100]. Moreover, nanohematite has also been CNTs cannot be used alone without any supporting medium
demonstrated to be an effective adsorbent for the removal of or matrix to form structural components [102].
heavy metal ions from spiked tap water [101]. 3D flower-like
𝛼-Fe2 O3 microstructures assembled from nanopetal subunits 2.4. Nanocomposites. As mentioned above, every nanomate-
have been synthesized for water treatment use. The flower- rial has its own drawbacks. For example, nZVI has the disad-
like 𝛼-Fe2 O3 could effectively prevent further aggregation, vantages of aggregation, oxidation, and separation difficulty
and the enhanced surface area with multiple spaces and pores from the degraded systems. The light adsorption of TiO2 NPs
provided many active sites to interact with contaminants. The and ZnO NPs is limited in the ultraviolet light region due
maximum adsorption capacities of the as-prepared 𝛼-Fe2 O3 to their big band gap energies. Nanofiltration membranes
for As(V) and Cr(VI) were much higher than those of many are troubled by the problem of membrane fouling. Carbon
previously reported nanomaterials [100]. nanotubes are mainly limited by their low volume of pro-
duction and high cost as well as the need for supporting
medium or matrix. In order to overcome these problems
2.3. Carbon Nanotubes. Carbon nanomaterials (CNMs) are a and achieve better removal efficiency, it is a common and
class of fascinating materials due to their unique structures effective strategy to fabricate nanocomposites for water and
and electronic properties which make them attractive for wastewater treatment.
fundamental studies as well as diverse applications, espe- In recent years, the synthesis of various nanocomposites
cially in sorption processes. Their advantages for water and has become the most active subject in the field of nanoma-
wastewater treatment are due to (1) great capacity to adsorb terials. On the basis of numerous studies, much progress has
a wide range of contaminants, (2) fast kinetics, (3) large been made throughout the world. For example, via chemical
specific surface area, and (4) selectivity towards aromatics [6]. deposition of nZVI on CNTs, a novel nanoscale adsorbent
There are several forms of CNMs, such as carbon nanotubes was prepared. According to the results, the adsorbent has
(CNTs), carbon beads, carbon fibers, and nanoporous carbon good potential for quick and effective removal of nitrate
[6]. Among them, CNTs have attracted the most attentions in water. Besides, due to its unique magnetic property, the
and progressed rapidly in recent years. adsorbent can be easily separated from the solution by
Carbon nanotubes are graphene sheets rolled up in cylin- the magnet [115]. Besides, thin film nanocomposite (TFN)
ders with diameter as small as 1 nm [102]. CNTs have attracted nanofiltration membranes have been prepared via in situ
great interest as an emerging adsorbent due to their unique interfacial incorporation of TiO2 NPs along with fabrica-
properties. With an extremely large specific surface area tion of copolyamide network on a polyimide support. To
and abundant porous structures, CNTs possess exceptional improve the compatibility of TiO2 NPs inside the polymer
adsorption capabilities and high adsorption efficiencies for matrix, both amine and chloride compounds were utilized
numerous kinds of contaminants, such as dichlorobenzene to functionalize TiO2 NPs. TFN membranes exhibited higher
[103], ethyl benzene [104], Zn2+ [105], Pb2+ , Cu2+ , and Cd2+ methanol flux and dye rejection in spite of lower swelling
[106], and dyes [107]. According to their (super)structures, degree. The loading of TiO2 NPs turned out to be a crucial
CNTs can be classified into two types (Figure 3): (1) mul- factor on the NF membrane performance [116].
tiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), which comprised In theory, ideal composites for real applications should be
multiple layers of concentric cylinders with a spacing of about continuous, bulk immobile materials of which the nanore-
0.34 nm between the adjacent layers, and (2) single-walled activity is obtained by anchoring or impregnating a parent
carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), which consist of single layers material structure with nanomaterials [117]. What is more,
of graphene sheets seamlessly rolled into cylindrical tubes it is widely acknowledged that the treatment of water and
[108]. In recent years, both MWCNTs [105–107] and SWCNTs wastewater calls for nontoxic, long-term stable and low-
[109] have been applied for the removal of contaminants in cost materials. To obtain desirable nanocomposites, further
water. research is still under way.
6 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

(a) (b)

Figure 3: (Super)structure representations of (a) MWCNTs and (b) SWCNTs. Reprinted from [108] with permission. Copyright © 2009,
American Chemical Society.

3. Conclusions and Perspectives Acknowledgments

In this paper, the most extensively studied nanomaterials, This research is financially supported by National Natural Sci-
zero-valent metal nanoparticles (Ag, Fe, and Zn), metal ence Foundation of China (no. 21376165 and no. 51478308).
oxide nanoparticles (TiO2 , ZnO, and iron oxides), carbon
nanotubes (CNTs), and nanocomposites were highlighted. References
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