Example

Persistent bullying is one of the worst experiences a child can face

How can it be prevented?

A Bullying can take a variety of forms, from the verbal - being taunted or called hurtful names
- to the physical - being kicked or shoved - as well as indirect forms, such as being excluded from
social groups. A survey I conducted with Irene Whitney found that in British primary schools up to a
quarter of pupils reported experience of bullying, which in about one in ten cases was persistent.
There was less bullying in secondary schools, with about one in twenty-five suffering persistent
bullying, but these cases may be particularly recalcitrant.

B as adults, while children who persistently bully are more likely to grow up to be physically
violent, and convicted of anti-social offences. Bullying is clearly unpleasant, and can make the child
experiencing it feel unworthy and depressed. In extreme cases it can even lead to suicide, though
this is thankfully rare. Victimised pupils are more likely to experience difficulties with interpersonal
relationships

C Until recently, not much was known about the topic, and little help was available to teachers
to deal with bullying. Perhaps as a consequence, schools would often deny the problem. ‘There is no
bullying at this school’ has been a common refrain, almost certainly untrue. Fortunately more
schools are now saying: There is not much bullying here, but when it occurs we have a clear policy
for dealing with it.’

D Three factors are involved in this change. First is an awareness of the severity of the
problem. Second, a number of resources to help tackle bullying have become available in Britain. For
example, the Scottish Council for Research in Education produced a package of materials, Action
Against Bullying, circulated to all schools in England and Wales as well as in Scotland in summer
1992, with a second pack, Supporting Schools Against Bullying, produced the following year. In
Ireland, Guidelines on Countering Bullying Behaviour in Post-Primary Schools was published in 1993.
Third, there is evidence that these materials work, and that schools can achieve something. This
comes from carefully conducted ‘before and after’ evaluations of interventions in schools,
monitored by a research team. In Norway, after an intervention campaign was introduced nationally,
an evaluation of forty-two schools suggested that, over a two-year period, bullying was halved. The
Sheffield investigation, which involved sixteen primary schools and seven secondary schools, found
that most schools succeeded in reducing bullying.
Questions 27-30

Reading Passage 3 has six sections, A-F.

Choose the correct heading for sections A-D from the list of headings below.

Write the correct number, i-vii, in boxes 27-30 on your answer sheet.

List of Headings

i The role of video violence

ii The failure of government policy

iii Reasons for the increased rate of bullying

iv Research into how common bullying is in British schools

v The reaction from schools to enquiries about bullying

vi The effect of bullying on the children involved

vii Developments that have led to a new approach by schools

27 Paragraph A IV

28 Paragraph B VI

29 Paragraph C V

30 Paragraph D VII

Questions 31-34

Choose the correct letter. A. B. C or D.

Write the con·ect letter in boxes 31-34 on your answer sheet.

31 A recent survey found that in British secondary schools

A there was more bullying than had previously been the case.

B there was less bullying than in primary schools.

C cases of persistent bullying were very common.

D indirect forms of bullying were particularly difficult to deal with.

32 Children who are bullied

A are twice as likely to commit suicide as the average person.

C are less likely to be violent in later life.

D may have difficulty forming relationships in later life.

33 The writer thinks that the declaration 'There is no bullying at this school'

A is no longer true in many schools.

B was not in fact made by many schools.

C reflected the school's lack of concern.

D reflected a lack of knowledge and resources.

34 What were the findings of research carried out in Norway?

A Bullying declined by 50% after an anti-bullying campaign.

B Twenty-one schools reduced bullying as a result of an anti-bullying campaign

C Two years is the optimum length for an anti-bullying campaign.

D Bullying is a less serious problem in Norway than in the UK.

Air Traffic Control in the USA

A An accident that occurred in the skies over the Grand Canyon in 1956 resulted in the
establishment of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to regulate and oversee the operation of
aircraft in the skies over the United States, which were becoming quite congested. The resulting
structure of air traffic control has greatly increased the safety of flight in the United States, and
similar air traffic control procedures are also in place over much of the rest of the world.

B Rudimentary air traffic control (АТС) existed well before the Grand Canyon disaster. As early as
the 1920s, the earliest air traffic controllers manually guided aircraft in the vicinity of the airports,
using lights and flags, while beacons and flashing lights were placed along cross-country routes to
establish the earliest airways. However, this purely visual system was useless in bad weather, and,
by the 1930s, radio communication was coming into use for АТС. The first region to have something
approximating today's АТС was New York City, with other major metropolitan areas following soon
after.

C In the 1940s, АТС centres could and did take advantage of the newly developed radar and
improved radio communication brought about by the Second World War, but the system remained
rudimentary. It was only after the creation of the FAA that full-scale regulation of America's airspace
took place, and this was fortuitous, for the advent of the jet engine suddenly resulted in a large
number of very fast planes, reducing pilots' margin of error and practically demanding some set of
rules to keep everyone well separated and operating safely in the air.

D Many people think that АТС consists of a row of controllers sitting in front of their radar screens
at the nation's airports, telling arriving and departing traffic what to do. This is a very incomplete
part of the picture. The FAA realised that the airspace over the United States would at any time have
many different kinds of planes, flying for many different purposes, in a variety of weather conditions,
and the same kind of structure was needed to accommodate all of them.

E To meet this challenge, the following elements were put into effect. First, АТС extends over
virtually the entire United States. In general, from 365m above the ground and higher, the entire
country is blanketed by controlled airspace. In certain areas, mainly near airports, controlled
airspace extends down to 215m above the ground, and, in the immediate vicinity of an airport, all
the way down to the surface. Controlled airspace is that airspace in which FAA regulations apply.
Elsewhere, in uncontrolled airspace, pilots are bound by fewer regulations. In this way, the
recreational pilot who simply wishes to go flying for a while without all the restrictions imposed by
the FAA has only to stay in uncontrolled airspace, below 365m, while the pilot who does want the
protection afforded by АТС can easily enter the controlled airspace.
F The FAA then recognised two types of operating environments. In good meteorological conditions,
flying would be permitted under Visual Flight Rules (VFR), which suggests a strong reliance on visual
cues to maintain an acceptable level of safety. Poor visibility necessitated a set of Instrumental Flight
Rules (IFR), under which the pilot relied on altitude and navigational information provided by the
plane's instrument panel to fly safely. On a clear day, a pilot in controlled airspace can choose a VFR
or IFR flight plan, and the FAA regulations were devised in a way which accommodates both VFR and
IFR operations in the same airspace. However, a pilot can only choose to fly IFR if they possess an
instrument rating which is above and beyond the basic pilot's license that must also be held.

G Controlled airspace is divided into several different types, designated by letters of the alphabet.
Uncontrolled airspace is designated Class F, while controlled airspace below 5,490m above sea level
and not in the vicinity of an airport is Class E. All airspace above 5,490m is designated Class A. The
reason for the division of Class E and Class A airspace stems from the type of planes operating in
them. Generally, Class E airspace is where one finds general aviation aircraft (few of which can climb
above 5,490m anyway), and commercial turboprop aircraft. Above 5,490m is the realm of the heavy
jets, since jet engines operate more efficiently at higher altitudes. The difference between Class E
and A airspace is that in Class A, all operations are IFR, and pilots must be instrument-rated, that is,
skilled and licensed in aircraft instrumentation. This is because АТС control of the entire space is
essential. Three other types of airspace, Classes D, С and B, govern the vicinity of airports. These
correspond roughly to small municipal, medium-sized metropolitan and major metropolitan airports
respectively, and encompass an increasingly rigorous set of regulations. For example, all a VFR pilot
has to do to enter Class С airspace is establish two-way radio contact with АТС. No explicit
permission from АТС to enter is needed, although the pilot must continue to obey all regulations
governing VFR flight. To enter Class В airspace, such as on approach to a major metropolitan airport,
an explicit АТС clearance is required. The private pilot who cruises without permission into this
airspace risks losing their license.
Question 14- 19

Reading Passage 2 has seven paragraphs, A-G.

Choose the correct heading for paragraph A & C-G from the list below.

Write the correct number i-ix, in boxes 14- 19 on your answer sheet.

List of Headings:

i Disobeying FAA Regulations

ii Aviation disaster prompts action

iii Two coincidental developments

iv Setting Altitude Zones

v An oversimplified view

vi Controlling pilots' licence

vii Defining airspace categories

viii Setting rules to weather conditions

ix Taking of Safety

x First step towards ATC

Example Answer

Paragraph B X

14. Paragraph A II

15. Paragraph C III

16. Paragraph D V

17. Paragraph E IV

18. Paragraph F VIII

19. Paragraph G VII

Do the following statements agrees with the given information of the reading passage?

In boxes 20-26 on your answer sheet, write:

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement contradicts the information

NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this

20. The FAA was created as a result of the introduction of the jet engine. F

21. Air traffic control started after the Grand Canyon crash in 19 56. F

22. Beacons and flashing lights are still used by the ATC today. NG

23. Some improvements were made in radio communication during World War II. T

24. Class F airspace is airspace which is below 365m and not near airports. F

25. All aircraft in class E airspace must use IFR F.

26. A pilot entering class C airspace is flying over an average-sized city. T

THE CHALLENGE

It is a great deal easier to motivate employees in a growing organisation than a declining one. When
organisations are expanding and adding personnel, promotional opportunities, pay rises, and the
excitement of being associated with a dynamic organisation

create Slings of optimism. Management is able ta use the growth to entice and encourage
employees. When an organisation is shrinking, the best and most mobile workers are prone to leave
voluntarily. Unfortunately, they are the ones the organisation can least afford to lose- those with me
highest skills and experience. The minor employees remain because their job options are limited.

Morale also surfers during decline. People fear they may be the next to be made redundant.
Productivity often suffers, as employees spend their time sharing rumours and providing one
another with moral support rather than focusing on their jobs. For those whose jobs are secure, pay
increases are rarely possible. Pay cuts, unheard of during times of growth, may even be imposed.
The challenge to management is how to motivate employees under such retrenchment conditions.
The ways of meeting this challenge can be broadly divided into six Key Points, which are outlined
below.

KEY POINT ONE

There is an abundance of evidence to support the motivational benefits that result from carefully
matching people to jobs. For example, if the job is running a small business or an autonomous unit
within a larger business, high achievers should be sought. However, if the job to be filled is a
managerial post in a large bureaucratic organisation, a candidate who has a high need for power and
a low need for affiliation should be selected. Accordingly, high achievers should not be put into jobs
that are inconsistent with their needs. High achievers will do best when the job provides moderately
challenging goals and where there is independence and feedback. However, it should be
remembered that not everybody is motivated by jobs that are high in independence, variety and
responsibility.

KEY POINT TWO

The literature on goal-setting theory suggests that managers should ensure that all employees have
specific goals and receive comments on how well they are doing in those goals. For those with high
achievement needs, typically a minority in any organisation, the existence of external goals is less
important because high achievers are already internally motivated. The next factor to be determined
is whether the goals should be assigned by a manager or collectively set in conjunction with the
employees. The answer to that depends on perceptions the culture, however, goals should be
assigned. If participation and the culture are incongruous, employees are likely to perceive the
participation process as manipulative and be negatively affected by it.

KEY POINT THREE

Regardless of whether goals are achievable or well within management's perceptions of the
employee's ability, if employees see them as unachievable they will reduce their effort. Managers
must be sure, therefore, that employees feel confident that their efforts can lead to performance
goals. For managers, this means that employees must have the capability of doing the job and must
regard the appraisal process as valid.
KEY POINT FOUR

Since employees have different needs, what acts as a reinforcement far one may not for another.
Managers could use their knowledge of each employee to personalise the rewards over which they
have control. Some of the more obvious rewards that managers allocate include pay, promotions,
autonomy, job scope and depth, and the opportunity lo participate in goal-setting and decision-
making.

KEY POINT FIVE

Managers need to make rewards contingent on performance. To reward factors other than
performance will only reinforce those other factors. Key rewards such as pay increases and
promotions or advancements should be allocated for the attainment of the employee's specific
goals. Consistent with maximising the impact of rewards, managers should look for ways to increase
their visibility. Eliminating the secrecy surrounding pay by openly communicating everyone's
remuneration, publicising performance bonuses and allocating annual salary increases in a lump sum
rather than spreading them out over an entire year are examples of actions that will make rewards
more visible and potentially more motivating.

KEY POINT SIX

The way rewards ore distributed should be transparent so that employees perceive that rewards or
outcomes are equitable and equal to the inputs given. On a simplistic level, experience, abilities,
effort and other obvious inputs should explain differences in pay, responsibility and other obvious
outcomes. The problem, however, is complicated by the existence of dozens of inputs and outcomes
and by the Fact that employee groups place different degrees of importance on them. For instance,
a study comparing clerical and production workers identified nearly twenty inputs and outcomes.
The clerical workers considered factors such as quality of work performed and job knowledge near
the top of their list, but these were at the bottom of the production workers' list. Similarly,
production workers thought that the most important inputs were intelligence and personal
involvement with task accomplishment, two factors that were quite low in the importance ratings of
the clerks. There were also important, though less dramatic, differences on the outcome side. For
example, production workers rated advancement very highly, whereas clerical workers rated
advancement in the lower third of their list. Such findings suggest that one person's equity is
another's inequity, so an ideal should probably weigh different inputs and outcomes according to
employee group.
Questions 14-18

Reading Passage 2 contains six Key Points.

Choose the correct heading for Key Points TWO to SIX .from the list of headings below.

Write the correct number, i-viii, in boxes 14-18 on your answer sheet.

List of Headings

i Ensure the reward system is fair

ii Match rewards to individuals

iii Ensure targets are realistic

iv Link rewards to achievement

v Encourage managers to take more responsibility

vi Recognise changes in employees' performance over time

vii Establish targets and give feedback

viii Ensure employees are suited to their jobs

Example Answer

Key Point One viii

14 Key Point Two VII

15 Key Point Three III

16 Key Point Four II

17 Key Point Five IV

18 Key Point Six I

Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage 149?

In boxes 19-24 on your answer sheet, write:

YES if the statement t agrees with the claims of the writer

NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer

NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

19. A shrinking organisation tends to lose its less skilled employees rather than its more skilled
employees. NO

20. It is easier to manage a small business ban a large business. NG

21. High achievers are well-suited to team work. NO

22. Some employees can fee! manipulated when asked to participate in goal-setting. YES

23. The staff appraisal process should be designed by employees. NG

24. Employees' earnings should be disclosed to everyone within the organisation. YES

Questions 25-27

Look at the follow groups of worker (Question25-27) and the list of descriptions below

Match each group with the correct description, A-E.

Write the correct letter, A - E, in boxes 25-27 on your answer sheet.

25. high achievers B

26. clerical workers C

27. production workers A

List of Descriptions

A. They judge promotion to be important.

B. They have less need of external goals.

C. They think that the quality of their work is important.

D. They resist goals which are imposed.

E. They have limited job options.