ATMOSPHERIC

MOISTURE
AND
PRECIPITATIONS
 Atmospheric Moisture and
Precipitation

A presentation of Physical Geography

Submitted to: Prof. Amer Masood

Chishti

Submitted by: Zawar Ali Gillani

Usama Arqem
Ahmed Mustafa
Usman Ali
Waqar
 Group 6

Preface:-
Starting with the name of Allah, Whose
possession is my life and power. As a student of BS Space
Science (Replica) Semester 1, we, the members of group 6,
present this assignment “Atmospheric Moisture and
Precipitation” to Professor Amer Masood Chishti.
This assignment has been made to study the presence
moisture in atmosphere, its condensation and ultimately
precipitation. This writing provides a brief account of Water
Cycle and detailed information about evaporation, condensation,
clouds and precipitation.
 Contents

Water The Global Perspective

 Polarity of Water
 Capillarity

Physical States of Water

Phase Changing of Water
Hydrosphere

 Water in the Earth’s Atmosphere

Water Cycle

 Mechanism of Water Cycle

 Stages of Water Cycle

Evaporation
Transpiration
Condensation

 Condensation in Atmosphere

Clouds
  Clouds Formation
 Types of Clouds
 Cloud Species and Varieties

Humidity

 Types of Humidity
 Dew Point
 Relation Between Relative Humidity and Dew Point
 Measurement of Humidity

Hair Hygrometer

 Principal
 Construction
 Working
 Uses
 Limitations

Sling Psychrometer

 Construction
 Working
 Applications
 Limitations

Effects of Humidity

 Greenhouse Effect
 Animals and Plants
 Human Beings
 Building Construction
 Industry
 Electronics
Lapse Rate
 Moist Adiabatic Rate
Precipitation
 Forms of Precipitation
a) Drizzle
b) Sleet
c) Snow
d) Graupel
e) Hail
f) Sun Shower
g) Rainfall
i. Convectional Rainfall
o Mechanism
ii. Relief Rainfall
o Mechanism
iii. Frontal Rainfall
o Mechanism
Water the Global Perspective:
Water is everywhere on Earth. About
seventy percent of the surface of the Earth is covered by water. Water plays a
key role in the energy flows that shape our planet’s climate and weather.
Ocean currents act to carry solar energy and latent heat toward poles. Water
is also involved in transpiration in plants.
Polarity of Water:-
A water molecule contains two hydrogen atoms and one
oxygen atom. The hydrogen atoms are negatively charged and oxygen atom
has a positive charge. Due to these opposite charges the water molecule
becomes highly polar. This polarity causes water molecules to attract other
molecules. This also leads to greater tension which allows things with greater
to float on water.
Capillarity of Water:-
Capillarity is the ability of water to follow in narrow
spaces due to the inter-molecular attraction of water, without the assistance of
any external force.

Physical States of Water:-

Water occurs in solid, liquid and gas state.

 Solid Phase: Unlike other substance that contract when cooled water
expands as solid. Ice will increase its volume to 9% at -29˚C.
  Liquid Phase: Water attains its greatest density at 4˚C. Liquid water has
no definite shape. It attains the shape of the container. Liquid water
exists from0˚C to 100˚C.
 Gas Phase: Water vapor is an invisible gas and moves independently in
space.

Phase Changing of Water:-

Water molecule changes it phase through processes
of melting/freezing, evaporation/condensation and sublimation/deposition.

 Melting/Freezing: It describes the change between liquid and solid.

 Evaporation/Condensation: It describes the change between liquid and
gas.
 Sublimation/Deposition: It describes the direct change between solid
and gas.

Hydrosphere:-
Hydrosphere is the physical distribution of the combined
mass of water found under on and over the surface of the earth.
Earth’s hydrosphere contains 1.36 billion cubic km. 97.22 % (1.321
billion km3) is located within the oceans (saltwater). 2.78% is freshwater.
77.14% of freshwater and 99.357% of surface fresh water is within glaciers
and ice sheets. Less than 1% of freshwater is within lakes, rivers and streams.
Water in the Earth-Atmosphere System.
Oceans and Salt Lakes 97.6
Ice caps and Glaciers 1.9
Subsurface Water 0.5
Surface Water 0.02
 Atmosphere 0.0001

Water Cycle:-
The water cycle explains the continuous movement of water on,
above, and below the surface of the earth. It is also referred to as the
Hydrological Cycle. The cycle describes the properties of water that make it
undergo the various movements on the planet.
Mechanism of Water Cycle
Step 1
Liquid water evaporates from surface.
Step 2
Water vapors condense to form clouds.
Step 3
Heavy drops of water, snow or ice falls to the ground.
Step 4
Water flows through soil.
Step 5
Plants undergo transpiration.
Step 6
Water is stored in the earth crust, water bodies and atmosphere.

Stages of Water Cycle:-

The water cycle has nine main physical processes that
create a continuous water movement on the planet. The water cycle processes
involve evaporation, condensation, precipitation, interception, infiltration,
percolation, transpiration, runoff, and storage. Here we will discuss
evaporation, condensation, precipitation and some aspects of transpiration.

Evaporation:-
Evaporation takes place when water changes from its liquid
state to vapor or gaseous state. A substantial heat amount is exchanged during
the process, roughly 600 calories of energy per gram of water. In most cases,
the solar radiation and additional causes such as the wind, vapor pressure,
atmospheric pressure, and air temperature influence the amount of natural
evaporation in different geographical regions.
Evaporation occurs over the surfaces of the water bodies such as
oceans, streams, and lakes. It can also occur on raindrops, rocks, snow, soil or
vegetation. When evaporation happens, anything present in the water such as
salts and minerals is left behind. Thus, evaporation purifies the water. The
evaporated moisture then rises into the atmosphere from the evaporation
sources as water vapor or in a gaseous state. At any particular moment, some
water vapor is present in the atmosphere.

Transpiration:-
Transpiration is a process in all plants that normally takes
place during the day, giving off water vapor from the leaves openings. Plants
transpire to move nutrients to the upper sections of the plant and to cool the
plants. Most of the water absorbed by the plants is transpired into the
atmosphere until a water deficit point is reached whereby the plant resorts to
releasing water vapor at a much slower rate. 

Condensation:-
Condensation is the process whereby the water vapor
changes from its gaseous physical state to liquid or crystal solid. The water
vapor condenses on minute air particles due to the cooling of the air, freezing
temperatures, or increased vapor amounts to the point of saturation in the
upper stratospheres.
Condensation in Atmosphere:-
Even though clouds are absent in a crystal clear
blue sky, water is still present in the form of water vapor and droplets which
are too small to be seen. Depending on weather conditions, water molecules
will combine with tiny particles of dust, salt, and smoke in the air to form
cloud droplets, which combine and grow and develop into clouds, a form of
water we can see. Cloud droplets can vary greatly in size, from 10 microns
(millionths of a meter) to 1 millimeter (mm), and even as large as 5 mm. This
process occurs higher in the sky where the air is cooler and more
condensation occurs relative to evaporation. As water droplets combine (also
known as coalescence) with each other, and grow in size, clouds not only
develop, but precipitation may also occur.
The condensed vapor then forms fog, dew or clouds.

Clouds:-
A cloud is a mass of water drops or ice crystals suspended in the
atmosphere. Clouds form when water condenses in the sky. The condensation
lets us see the water vapor. There are many different types of clouds. Clouds
are an important part of Earth's weather and climate.
Clouds Formation:-
Clouds form from water in the sky. The water
may evaporate from the ground or move from other areas. Water vapor is
always in the sky in some amount but is invisible. Clouds form when an area
of air becomes cooler until the water vapor there condenses to liquid form. At
that point, the air is said to be saturated with water vapor.
The air where the cloud forms must be cool enough for the water vapor
to condense. The water will condense around things like dust, ice or sea salt -
all known as condensation nuclei. The temperature, wind and other
conditions where a cloud forms determine what type of cloud it will be.
Types of Clouds:-
The types of clouds can be divided into three levels, each in
turn with its own main groups of clouds. All in all, there are ten fundamental
types of clouds.

 High-level Clouds.
1. Cirrocumulus
2. Cirrus
3. Cirrostratus

 Mid-level Clouds.
4. Altocumulus
5. Altostratus
6. Nimbostratus

 Low-level Clouds
7. Stratus
8. Cumulus
9. Cumulonimbus
10. Stratocumulus

1) Cirrus:-
Cirrus is one of the most common types of clouds that can be
seen at any time of the year. They’re thin and wispy with a silky sheen
appearance.
This type of cloud is always made of ice crystals whose degree of
separation determines how transparent the cirrus is. Besides the filament
appearance, cirrus clouds stand out among other types of cloud because
they’re often colored in bright yellow or red before sunrise and after sunset,
respectively. Cirrus clouds lit up long before other clouds and fade out much
later.
 2) Cirrocumulus:-
Cirrocumulus clouds are among the most gorgeous out
there. These usually form at about 5 km above the surface with small white
fluff patterns that spread out for miles and miles over the sky. They’re
sometimes called ‘mackerel skies’ because they can sometimes have a
grayish color which makes the clouds look a bit like fish scales.

Cirrocumulus clouds exhibit features from both cumulus and cirrus

clouds but should not be confused with altocumulus clouds. While the
two can look similar, cirrocumulus does not have shading and some parts of
altocumulus are darker than the rest. Cirrocumulus cloud comes after cirrus
cloud during warm frontal system.

What’s worth keeping in mind about cirrocumulus clouds is that they

never generate rainfall (but can mean cold weather) nor do they interact with
other types of clouds to form larger cloud structures.

3) Cirrostratus:-

Cirrostratus clouds have a sheet-like appearance that can

look like a curly blanket covering the sky. They’re quite translucent which
makes it easy for the sun or the moon to peer through. Their color varies from
light gray to white and the fibrous bands can vary widely in thickness. Purely
white cirrostratus clouds signify these have stored moisture, indicating the
presence of a warm frontal system.

Some of the best cloud pictures involve cirrostratus clouds because the
ice crystals beautifully refract light from the sun or moon producing a
dazzling halo effect. Cirrostratus clouds can turn into altostratus clouds if
these descend to a lower altitude.

As a nice piece of trivia, cirrostratus clouds almost always move in a

westerly direction. The sight of them usually means rainfall is imminent in
the next 24 hours.
 4) Altocumulus:-

Altocumulus clouds form at a lower altitude so they’re

largely made of water droplets though they may retain ice crystals when
forming higher up.  They usually appear between lower stratus clouds and
higher cirrus clouds, and normally precede altostratus when a warm frontal
system is advancing. When altocumulus appears with another cloud type at
the same time, storm normally follows. Altocumulus clouds are common in
most parts of the world.
Altocumulus clouds are quite common in most parts of the globe. They
usually grow by convection, in most cases after damp air rises to mix with
descending dry air. Altocumulus clouds may also form in combination with
other types of clouds like cumulonimbus. The amount of rainfall from
altocumulus is projected from light to moderate.

5) Altostratus:-

Altostratus often spread over thousands of square miles and are

strongly linked to light rain or snow. Although they are not capable of
yielding heavy rain it’s common for altostratus clouds

to morph into nimbostratus clouds which are packed with moisture and can
deliver a pounding.
They’re uniformly gray, smooth, and mostly featureless which is why they’re
sometimes called ‘boring clouds’. You’ll commonly see this types of clouds
in an advancing warm frontal system, preceding nimbostratus clouds.
6) Nimbostratus:-

The name Nimbostratus comes from the Latin

words nimbus which means “rain” and stratus for “spread out”. These
gloomy clouds are the heavy rain bearers out there forming thick and dark
layers of clouds that can completely block out the sun. Though they belong to
the middle-level category, they may sometimes descend to lower altitudes.
Nimbostratus clouds form as a result of the gradual accumulation of
moist area over a large area as the warm frontal system lifts the warm and
moist area higher up in the atmosphere where it condenses. As outlined
earlier, a nimbostratus cloud can form from other types of clouds, like a
descending altostratus. Spreading cumulonimbus clouds may also lead to the
formation of nimbostratus.
7) Stratus:-

Stratus clouds are composed of thin layers of clouds covering a

large area of the sky. This is simply mist or fog when it forms close to the
ground. You can easily distinguish a stratus cloud by the long horizontal
layers of cloud which have a fog-like appearance.
The clouds form from large air masses that rise to the atmosphere and later
condense. These are pretty benign in terms of rainfall producing light
showers or even light snow if the temperatures fall below freezing. However,
if enough moisture is retained at the ground level, the cloud can transform
into a nimbostratus. Stratus clouds are very common all over the world most
especially in the coastal and mountainous regions.
8) Cumulus:-

It’s the most recognizable out of all the types of clouds. These
adorable ‘piles of cotton’ form a large mass with a well-defined rounded
edge, which explains the name ‘cumulus’ which is Latin for ‘heap’. Cumulus
clouds
Cumulus clouds are a sign of fair weather, though they may discharge
rains sometimes in form of a light shower. You can find them virtually
everywhere in the world expected for the Polar regions.
 9) Cumulonimbus:-

Cumulonimbus is fluffy and white like cumulus but the

cloud formations are far larger. It’s a vertical developing type of cloud whose
base grows from one to up to eight kilometers; hence it’s commonly called a
tower cloud. For the same reason, cumulonimbus is both a low-level and
high-level type of cloud. At the low-altitude base, the cloud is mostly made
of water droplets but the high-altitude summit is dominated by ice crystals.
The rain comes and goes with this cloud but when it does, it can come
pouring. When you see a cumulonimbus, you know there’s a thunderstorm
waiting to happen somewhere.
Cumulonimbus clouds can be seen most commonly during the
afternoons of summer and spring months when the Earth’s surface releases
heat.
10) Stratocumulus:-
Stratocumulus looks like a thick white blanket of
stretched out cotton. They resemble cumulus clouds except they’re far bigger.
The base is well-defined and flat but the upper part of the cloud is ragged due
to convection with the cloud itself.  Depending on the thickness of the cloud,
a stratocumulus will have light to dark gray hues.
People often think rain is imminent when they see these clouds. In
reality, you’ll be lucky to get a light drizzle out of them.
Cloud species and varieties:-
All of the above represents a broad
classification as each type of cloud can be further grouped by species and
varieties. The varieties are grouped and named based upon transparency and
the arrangement of cloud elements, like so:

 Duplicatus (du) – More than one layer at different levels.

 Intortus (in) – Irregular or tangled.
 Iacunosus (la) – Thin cloud with regularly spaced holes, net-like.
 Opacus (op) – Completely masks sun or moon.
 Perlucidus (pe) – Broad patches with some (small) gaps allowing blue
sky to be seen.
 Radiatus (ra) – broad parallel bands converging owing to perspective.
 Translucidus (tr) – Translucent enough to permit the sun or moon to be
seen.
 Undulatus (un) – Sheets with parallel undulations.
 Vertebratus (ve) – Looking like ribs or bones.

1. Cirrus species
 Cirrus fibratus – The most common type of cirrus cloud. Thin and
fibrous, cirrus fibratus is often aligned with the high altitude wind
direction. It appears as white parallel stripes which streak across the
sky.
 Cirrus uncinus – Has a trademark hook shape.
 Cirrus spissatus – Thick and dense, cirrus spissatus tends to dominate
the sky above.
 Cirrus floccus – These have a more cotton wool like appearance than
any other cirrus.
 Cirrus castellanus – More vertically developed and have a turret-like
summit.

2. Cirrocumulus species
 Cirrocumulus stratiformis – These are the famous ‘fish scale’ clouds.
 Cirrocumulus lenticularis – Often larger than other clouds in the family
with a rounded shape.
 Cirrocumulus floccus – Have a more ragged appearance than other
species. The species often appears in smaller patches with other
cirrocumulus clouds.
 Cirrocumulus castellanus – Taller than they are wide, these cute clouds
resemble tiny towers in the sky.

3. Cirrostratus species
 Cirrostratus fibratus – It looks a lot like cirrus only with more
consistency. It has the look of an animal’s fur.
 Cirrostratus nebulosus – Has the appearance of a veil covering the sky.
It’s featureless and sometimes unnoticeable.

4. Altocumulus species
 Altocumulus stratiformis – Looks like a bunch of flat-bottomed puffy
clouds packed tightly together but separated by small streaks. These
can sometimes extend over the whole sky.
 Altocumulus lenticularis – Lens-shaped clouds that usually form over
hilly areas. These are often called spaceship clouds since they often
resemble a UFO.
 Altocumulus castellanus – These often lead to cumulonimbus
thunderstorms. They’re taller and more puffy looking than they are
wide.
 Altocumulus floccus – Often spotted alongside altocumulus
castellanus, altocumulus floccus is made of more rugged cloudlets.

5. Altostratus species
 Altostratus Undulatus – Characterized by thin layers that resemble
waves. These are a sign of slight mid-atmospheric instability.
 Altostratus Duplicates – In this cloud formation, you will see two or
more layers of altostratus clouds on top of each other.
 Altostratus Pannus – Has chaotic layers that make it look like a
shredded cloth.
 Altostratus Translucidus – It’s more transparent than other species
allowing the contour of the sun to be visible through it.
 Altostratus Radiates – Clouds come in wide parallel bands pointing
towards the horizon.
 Altostratus Mamma – The name ‘mamma’ comes from the hanging
pouches of this altostratus species which resemble a woman’s
mammary glands.
 Altostratus Opacus – Seen in wet days, this is a gloomy species which,
once it descends, transforms into the rain-bearing nimbostratus.

6. Stratocumulus species
 Stratocumulus stratiformis – This is the most common type of cloud
out of all across the globe. Essentially, these are flat-based clouds with
cracks in between.
 Stratocumulus cumulogenitus – These interestingly form when a
cumulus encounters a temperature inversion.
 Stratocumulus castellanus – These are thicker, more drizzly
stratocumulus clouds.
 Stratocumulus lenticularis – The rarest variety of stratocumulus, these
are often spotted in hilly locations which produce atmospheric waves.
These clouds have a lens-like shape.

7. Stratus species
 Stratus Fractus – Cloud filaments whose appearance changes rapidly
due to wind gusts.
 Stratus Nebulosus – Featureless gray stratus clouds that form in cool
and stable conditions when moist air moves onto a water or cold
ground surface.
 Stratus Opacus – These are the clouds that completely or partly cover
the sun or moon.
 Stratus Undulatus – This variety displays a wave-like undulation.
  Stratus Praecipitatio – A form of stratus cloud that comes with
precipitation through ice prisms, snow grains or light drizzles.
 Stratus Translucidus – Has a veil-like pattern that outlines the sun and
moon.

8. Cumulus species
 Cumulus humilis – These cumulus clouds are wider than they are tall.
You’ll often find more than one dotting the skyline.
 Cumulus mediocris – As the name implies, these clouds are just as
wide as they are tall. You’ll usually see them amongst a variety of other
cumulus species.
 Cumulus congestus – These taller than they wide resemble long
chimneys.
 Cumulus fractus – Simply the broken remnants of cumulus clouds that
are dissipating.

9. Cumulonimbus species
 Cumulonimbus calvus – The top looks like a cumulus because the
tower has not produced ice crystals yet.
 Cumulonimbus capillatus – The top-side of the tower cloud is fibrous.
This time, the water droplets have started to freeze; indicating rainfall
is to be expected.
 Cumulonimbus incus – Like in the case of cumulonimbus capillatus,
the top of the cloud is fibrous but this time also anvil-shaped. This
characteristic shape is the result of the cloud reaching the barrier of the
troposphere and must now grow outward.

Humidity:-
 Humidity is the concentration of water vapors present in air. Water
vapour, the gaseous state of water, is generally invisible to the human eye.
Humidity indicates the likelihood for precipitation, dew, or fog to be present.
Types of Humidity:-
Following are the primary types of humidity:
(1)Absolute Humidity (2) Relative Humidity (3) Specific Humidity

1. Absolute Humidity:-
Absolute humidity is the total mass of water vapor
present in a given volume or mass of air. It does not take temperature into
consideration. Absolute humidity in the atmosphere ranges from near zero to
roughly 30 grams per cubic meter when the air is saturated at 30 °C (86 °F).
Absolute humidity is the mass of the water vapor (mH2O), divided by the
volume of the air and water vapor mixture (Vnet).

The absolute humidity changes as air temperature or pressure changes,

if the volume is not fixed.
2. Relative Humidity:-
Relative humidity (RH) is the ratio of the partial
pressure of water vapor to the equilibrium vapor pressure of water at a given
temperature. Relative humidity depends on temperature and the pressure of
the system of interest. The same amount of water vapor results in higher
relative humidity in cool air than warm air.
The relative humidity (RH or Ø) of an air-water mixture is defined as
the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor (pH2O ) in the mixture to
 *
the equilibrium vapor pressure of water (p H2O ) over a flat surface of pure
water at a given temperature:

Relative humidity is normally expressed as a percentage; a higher

percentage means that the air-water mixture is more humid.
Dew Point:-
Dew Point is the temperature at which air is saturated with water
and condensation begins. The higher the dew point rises, the greater the
amount of moisture in the air. 

Relationship between Relative Humidity and Dew Point:-

Compared to relative
humidity, dew point is frequently cited as a more accurate way of measuring
the humidity and comfort of the air, since it is an absolute measurement.
The relative humidity is 100 percent when the dew point and the
temperature are the same. If the temperature drops any further, condensation
will result, and liquid water will begin to form.
If the relative humidity is 100 percent (i.e., dew point temperature and
actual air temperature are the same), this does not necessarily mean that
precipitation will occur. It simply means that the maximum amount of
moisture is in the air at the particular temperature the air is at. Saturation may
result in fog on the ground and clouds aloft (which consist of tiny water
droplets suspended in the air).
 While dew point gives one a quick idea of moisture content in the air,
relative humidity does not since the humidity is relative to the air
temperature. In other words, relative humidity cannot be determined from
knowing the dew point alone, the actual air temperature must also be known.
Relative humidity is also approximately the ratio of the actual to the
saturation vapor pressure. 
RH = (Actual Vapor Pressure) / (Saturation Vapor Pressure) X 100%
Where actual vapor pressure is a measurement of the amount of water
vapor in a volume of air and increases as the amount of water vapor
increases. 
Saturated vapor pressure is the maximum VP that can exist at any given
temperature. 
Air which is at 100% relative humidity (RH) contains water vapor whose
VP is its SVP at the given temperature. This corresponds to air which is in
equilibrium with liquid water. RH is the ratio VP/SVP expressed as a
percentage. 'Dry' air will contain water vapor with a VP which is less than the
SVP at the given temperature.
3. Specific Humidity:-
Specific humidity (or moisture content) is the ratio of the mass of water
vapor to the total mass of the air parcel.
Specific humidity is approximately equal to the mixing ratio, which is
defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapor in an air parcel to the mass
of dry air for the same parcel. As temperature decreases, the amount of water
vapor needed to reach saturation also decreases. As the temperature of a
parcel of air becomes lower it will eventually reach the point of saturation
without adding or losing water mass.
Measurement of Humidity:-
 Humidity is commonly measured using
1. Hair Hygrometer.
2. Sling Psychrometer.

Hair Hygrometer:-
The hair hydrometer is a type of absorption hydrometer
and uses the technique of mechanical moisture detection.
Principle of Hair Hygrometer:-
Due to humidity, several materials undergo a
change in physical, chemical and electrical properties. This property is used
in a transducer designed and calibrated to directly read the relative humidity.
Certain hygroscopic materials, such as human hair, animal membranes,
wood, paper, etc., undergo changes in the linear dimensions when they
absorb moisture from the surrounding air. This change in the linear
dimension is used as the measurement of the humidity present in the air.
Construction of Hair Hygrometer:-
 Human hair is used as a humidity sensor. The hair is arranged on a
parallel beam and separated from each other to expose them to the
surrounding air / atmosphere. Number of hairs is placed in parallel to increase
the mechanical strength.
This hair arrangement is placed under a small tension by the use of a
tension spring to ensure proper functioning.
The hair arrangement is connected to an arm and a link arrangement
and the link is attached to a pointer rotated at one end. The pointer sweeps
over a calibrated scale of humidity
Working of Hair Hygrometer:-
When air humidity is to be measured, this air
is made to surround the hair arrangement and the hair arrangement absorbs
moisture from the surrounding air and expands or contracts in the linear
direction.
This expansion or contraction of the hair arrangement moves the arm
and the link and, therefore, the pointer to a suitable position on the calibrated
scale and, therefore, indicates the humidity present in the air / atmosphere.
Uses of Hair Hygrometer:-

 These hydrometers are used in the temperature range of 0’C to 75’C.

 These hydrometers are used in the range of relative humidity (relative
humidity) from 30 to 95%.
Limitations of Hair Hygrometer:-

 These hydrometers are slow in response

 If the hair hydrometer is used constantly, its calibration tends to
change.
Sling Psychrometer:-
Sling Psychrometer is used to measure both the dry
bulb and wet bulb temperatures at time. These temperatures are a measure of
humidity content in air.
Construction of Sling Psychrometer:-

There are 2 thermometers in this instrument.

1. Dry bulb thermometer, whose sensor bulb is in direct contact with air
(mercury is the sensing element)
2. Wet bulb thermometer: the sensor bulb of this thermometer is
covered with a wick of cotton or muslin moistened with pure water
A glass frame is provided as the housing for the instrument.
A rotating handle is attached to the glass frame housing – the
arrangement of the thermometer to ensure that the air in the wet bulb always
in immediate contact with the wet wick.
When a thermometer bulb is directly exposed to a mixture of air-water
vapor, the temperature indicated by the thermometer is the dry bulb
temperature.
 When the bulb of a thermometer is covered by a constantly wet wick
and if the bulb covered by the wet wick is exposed to the mixture of air vapor
and water, the temperature indicated by the thermometer is the temperature of
the wet bulb.
Operation of Sling Psychrometer:-
In order to measure the dry bulb and the
temperature of the wet bulb, the disposition of the thermometer of the
Psychrometer- glass cover – is rotated from 5 m / s to 10 m / s to obtain the
necessary air movement.
The thermometer whose bulb is empty contacts the air indicates the
temperature of the dry bulb.
At the same time, the thermometer whose bulb is covered with the wet
wick comes in contact with the air and when this passes the wet wick present
in the thermometer bulb, the moisture present in the wick begins to evaporate
and a cooling effect occurs produced in bulb. Now the temperature indicated
by the thermometer is the wet bulb thermometer that will naturally be lower
than the temperature of the dry bulb.

Note: If the Psychrometer is rotated for a short period, then the registered
wet bulb temperature will not be adequate.
An important condition is that the correct / accurate measurement of
the wet bulb temperature is obtained only if the air moves with the speed
around the wet wick. To get this air velocity, the Psychrometer is spinning.
Application of Sling Psychrometer:-

 It is used for checking humidity level in air-conditioned rooms and

installations.
 It is used to set and check hair hygrometer.
 It is used in the measurement range of 0 to 100% RH.
  It is used for measuring wet bulb temperature between 0’C to 180’C.

Limitations of Sling Psychrometer:-

 The measured medium is altered due to the act of measurement. The

evaporation process in the wet bulb will add moisture to the air.
 Cannot be used in situations of automation requirements.
 Cannot be used for continuous recording purposes.
 If the wick is covered with dirt, the wick will harden and its water
absorption capacity will be reduced; however, a stiff / dirty wick will
return to normal when boiling in hot water.

Effects of Humidity:-
Humidity affects the energy budget and thereby
influences temperatures in two major ways. First, water vapor in the
atmosphere contains "latent" energy. During transpiration or evaporation,
this latent heat is removed from surface liquid, cooling the earth's surface.
This is the biggest non-radioactive cooling effect at the surface. It
compensates for roughly 70% of the average net radioactive warming at the
surface.

 Greenhouse Effect and Humidity:-

Water vapor is the most abundant of

all greenhouse gases. Water vapor, like a green lens that allows green light to
pass through it but absorbs red light, is a "selective absorber". Along with
other greenhouse gases, water vapor is transparent to most solar energy, as
one can literally see. But it absorbs the infrared energy emitted (radiated)
upward by the earth's surface, which is the reason that humid areas
experience very little nocturnal cooling but dry desert regions cool
considerably at night. This selective absorption causes the greenhouse effect.
It raises the surface temperature substantially above its theoretical radioactive
equilibrium temperature with the sun, and water vapor is the cause of more of
this warming than any other greenhouse gas.
 Unlike most other greenhouse gases, however, water is not merely
below its boiling point in all regions of the Earth, but below its freezing point
at many altitudes. As a condensable greenhouse gas, it precipitates, with a
much lower scale height and shorter atmospheric lifetime- weeks instead of
decades. Without other greenhouse gases, Earth's blackbody temperature,
below the freezing point of water, would cause water vapor to be removed
from the atmosphere. Water vapor is thus a "slave" to the non-condensable
greenhouse gases.

 Animals and Plants:-

Humidity is one of the fundamental abiotic

factors that defines any habitat (the tundra, wetlands, and the desert are a few
examples), and is a determinant of which animals and plants can thrive in a
given environment.

 Human Beings:-

The human body dissipates heat through perspiration and its

evaporation. Heat convection, to the surrounding air, and thermal
radiation are the primary modes of heat transport from the body. Under
conditions of high humidity, the rate of evaporation of sweat from the skin
decreases. Also, if the atmosphere is as warm as or warmer than the skin
during times of high humidity, blood brought to the body surface cannot
dissipate heat by conduction to the air.
Humans are sensitive to humid air because the human body uses
evaporative cooling as the primary mechanism to regulate temperature.
Under humid conditions, the rate at which perspiration evaporates on the skin
is lower than it would be under arid conditions. Because humans perceive the
rate of heat transfer from the body rather than temperature itself, we feel
warmer when the relative humidity is high than when it is low.
 Human Health:-
 Some people experience difficulty breathing
in humid environments. Some cases may possibly be related to respiratory
conditions such as asthma, while others may be the product of anxiety.
Sufferers will often hyperventilate in response, causing sensations
of numbness, faintness, and loss of concentration, among others.
Higher humidity reduces the infectivity of aerosolized influenza virus.

 Building Construction:-

Common construction methods often produce

building enclosures with a poor thermal boundary, requiring an insulation and
air barrier system designed to retain indoor environmental conditions while
resisting external environmental conditions. The energy-efficient, heavily
sealed architecture introduced in the 20th century also sealed off the
movement of moisture, and this has resulted in a secondary problem
of condensation forming in and around walls, which encourages the
development of mold and mildew. Additionally, buildings with foundations
not properly sealed will allow water to flow through the walls due to capillary
action of pores found in masonry products. Solutions for energy-efficient
buildings that avoid condensation are a current topic of architecture.

 Industry:-

High humidity can often have a negative effect on the capacity

of chemical plants and refineries that use furnaces as part of a certain
processes. For example, because humidity reduces ambient oxygen
concentration, flue gas fans must intake air at a higher rate than would
otherwise be required to maintain the same firing rate.

 Electronics:-

Electronic devices are often rated to operate only under

specific humidity conditions (e.g., 5% to 95%). At the top end of the range,
moisture may increase the conductivity of permeable insulators leading to
malfunction. Too low humidity may make materials brittle. A particular
danger to electronic items, regardless of the stated operating humidity range,
is condensation. When an electronic item is moved from a cold place (e.g.
garage, car, shed, an air conditioned space in the tropics) to a warm humid
place (house, outside tropics), condensation may coat circuit boards and other
insulators, leading to short circuit inside the equipment.
In contrast, a very low humidity level favors the build-up of static
electricity, which may result in spontaneous shutdown of computers when
discharges occur. Apart from spurious erratic function, electrostatic
discharges can cause dielectric breakdown in solid state devices, resulting in
irreversible damage. Data centers often monitor relative humidity levels for
these reasons.
It is advisable to allow electronic equipment to acclimatize for several
hours, after being brought in from the cold, before powering on. Some
electronic devices can detect such a change and indicate, when plugged in
and usually with a small droplet symbol, that they cannot be used until the
risk from condensation has passed. In situations where time is critical,
increasing air flow through the device's internals, such as removing the side
panel from a PC case and directing a fan to blow into the case, will reduce
significantly the time needed to acclimatize to the new environment.

Lapse Rate:-
The lapse rate is the rate at which an atmospheric variable,
normally temperature in Earth's atmosphere, changes with altitude. Lapse
rate arises from the word lapse, in the sense of a gradual change. It
corresponds to the vertical component of the spatial gradient of temperature.
Although this concept is most often applied to the Earth's troposphere, it can
be extended to any gravitationally supported parcel of gas.
Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate:-
The presence of water within the atmosphere
(usually the troposphere) complicates the process of convection. Water vapor
contains latent heat of vaporization. As a parcel of air rises and cools, it
eventually becomes saturated; that is, the vapor pressure of water in
equilibrium with liquid water has decreased (as temperature has decreased) to
the point where it is equal to the actual vapor pressure of water. With further
decrease in temperature the water vapor in excess of the equilibrium amount
condenses, forming cloud, and releasing heat (latent heat of condensation).
Before saturation, the rising air follows the dry adiabatic lapse rate. After
saturation, the rising air follows the moist adiabatic lapse rate. The release of
latent heat is an important source of energy in the development of
thunderstorms.
The moist adiabatic lapse rate varies strongly with temperature. A
typical value is around 5 °C/km, (9 °F/km, 2.7 °F/1,000 ft., and
1.5 °C/1,000 ft.) The formula for the moist adiabatic lapse rate is given by:

Precipitation:-
Precipitation is any product of the condensation of
atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity.
Forms of Precipitations:-
The main forms of precipitation include

 Drizzle: Light rainfall in very fine drops.

 Rain: The condensed moisture of the atmosphere falling visibly in
separate drops.
 Sleet: Rain containing some ice, as when snow melts as it falls.
 Snow: Atmospheric water vapor frozen into ice crystals and falling in
light white flakes or lying on the ground as a white layer.
 Graupel: Small particles of snow with a fragile crust of ice.
  Hail: Pellets of frozen rain which fall in showers from cumulonimbus
clouds.
 Sun shower: a brief and typically light fall of rain while the sun is
shining.

a) Drizzle:-
Drizzle is a very light rain. It is stronger than mist but less than a
shower. Mist is a dense fog thin fog which is condensed near the ground.
Drizzle droplets are smaller than 0.5 mm in diameter. They rise from low
stratocumulus clouds. They sometime evaporate even reaching the ground
due to their minute size.

b) Sleet:-
Sleet takes place in freezing atmospheric conditions. Sleet, also known
as ice pellets form when snow falls into a warm layer then melts into rain and
then the rain droplets fall into a freezing layer of air that is cold enough to
refreez the rain drops into ice pellets. Hence sleet is defined as a form of
precipitation composed of small semitransparent balls of ice. They should not
be confused with hail stones as they are smaller in size.
Sleet is often experience during thunder storms and is normally
accompanied with frosty ice crystals that form white deposits and a mixture
semi solid rain and slushy snow. Ice pellets bounce when they hit ground or
any other solid objects and falls with a hard striking sound Sleet do not freeze
into a solid mass except when it combines with freezing rain.

c) Snow:-
Snow occurs almost every time when there is rain. However snow often
melts before it reaches the ground. It is precipitation in the form of virga or
flakes of ice water falling from clouds. Snow can at times fall when the
atmospheric temperatures are above freezing, but it mostly occur in sub-
freezing air. When the temperatures are above freezing, the snowflakes can
partially melt but because of relatively warm temperatures, the evaporation of
the particles occurs almost immediately.
This evaporation leads to cooling just around the snowflake and makes
it to reach to the ground as snow. Snow has fluffy, white and soft structure
and its formation is in different shapes and ways, namely flat plates and thin
needles. Each type of snow forms under specific combinations of
atmospheric humidity and temperatures. The process of snow precipitation is
called snowfall.

d) Graupel:-
Graupel is a precipitation that forms when super cooled water
droplets are collected and freeze on falling snowflakes forming 2.5 mm balls
of rime.
Under some atmospheric conditions, snow crystals may
encounter super cooled water droplets. These droplets, which have a diameter
of about 10 μm, can exist in the liquid state at temperatures as low as −40 °C,
far below the normal freezing point. Contact between a snow crystal and the
super cooled droplets results in freezing of the liquid droplets onto the
surface of the crystal. This process of crystal growth is known as accretion.

e) Hail:-
Hailstones are big balls and irregular lumps of ice that fall from large
thunderstorms. Hail is purely a solid precipitation. As opposed to sleets that
can form in any weather when there are thunderstorms, hailstones are
predominately experienced in the winter or cold weather. Hailstones are
mostly made up of water ice and measure between 0.2 inches (5 millimeters)
and 6 inches (15 centimeters) in diameter. This ranges in size of a pea’s
diameter to that larger than a grapefruit.
 For this reason, they are highly damaging to crops, tearing leaves apart
and reducing their value. Violent thunderstorms with very strong updrafts
usually have the capability to hold ice against the gravitational pull, which
brings about the hailstones when they eventually escape and fall to the
ground. So, hailstones are formed from super-cooled droplets that slowly
freeze and results in sheet of clear ice.

f) Sun Shower:-
Sun shower is a precipitation event that is registered when rain
falls while the sun shines. It occurs when the winds bearing rain together with
rain storms are blown several miles away, thus giving rise to raindrops into
an area without clouds. Consequently, sun shower is formed when single rain
cloud passes above the earth’s surface and the sun’s rays penetrate through
the raindrops. Most of the time, it is accompanied with the appearance of a
rainbow.

g) Rainfall:-
Rain is any liquid that drops from the clouds in the sky. Rain is
described as water droplets of 0.5 mm or larger. Droplets less than half a
millimeter are defined as drizzle. Raindrops frequently fall when small cloud
particles strike and bind together, creating bigger drops. As this process
continues, the drops get bigger and bigger to an extent where they become
too heavy suspend on the air. As a result, the gravity pulls then down to the
earth.
When high in the air, the raindrops start falling as ice crystals or snow
but melt when as they proceed down the earth through the warmer air.
Rainfall rates vary from time to time, for example, light rain ranges from
rates of 0.01 to 0.1 inches per hour, moderate rain from 0.1 to .3 inches per
hour, and heavy rain above 0.3 inches per hour. Rain is the most common
component of the water cycle and replenishes most of the fresh water on the
earth.
Types of Rain:-
Following are the two types of rain:
1) Convectional Rainfall:-
Convectional rainfall occurs when the energy of
the sun (or insolation) heats the earth’s surface and causes water to evaporate
changing to water vapor. This warm, moist air then rises, and as it rises, it
cools. The air reaches a point called the condensation level where it has
cooled to such an extent that the water vapor condenses and turns back to a
liquid form. This process of condensation high in the atmosphere leads to the
development of clouds. As the clouds continue to grow the weight of the
water droplets can eventually lead to precipitation.
Mechanism of Convectional Rainfall
Stage 1
The sun heats the ground and warm air rises.
Stage 2
As the air rises it cools and water vapor condenses to form clouds.
Stage 3
When the condensation point is reached large cumulonimbus clouds are
formed.
Stage 4
Heavy rainstorms occur. These usually include thunder and lightning due to
the electrical charge created by unstable conditions.

Convectional rainfall is very common in areas where the ground is heated

by the hot sun, such as the Tropics. This is why areas, such as the Amazon
Rainforest, experience heavy rainfall most afternoons.
 2) Relief Rainfall:-
Relief rainfall, also known as orographic rainfall, occurs
in areas where land increases in height. It is very common on the west coast
of the United Kingdom due to the prevailing weather coming from that
direction.
Relief rainfall produced when moist air is lifted as it moves over a
mountain range. As the air rises and cools, orographic clouds form and serve
as the source of the precipitation, most of which falls upwind of the mountain
ridge. Some also falls a short distance downwind of the ridge and is
sometimes called spillover. On the lee side of the mountain range, rainfall is
usually low, and the area is said to be rain shadow. Very heavy precipitation
typically occurs upwind of a prominent mountain range that is oriented across
a prevailing wind from a warm ocean.
Mechanism of Relief Rainfall
Stage 1
Warm wet air is forced to rise over high land.
Stage 2
As the air rises it cools and condenses. Clouds form and precipitation occurs.
Stage 3
The drier air descends.
Stage 4
As the air descends it warms meaning it can carry water moisture, so there is
little rain on this side of the mountain. This area is known as a rain shadow.

3) Frontal Rain:-
 Frontal Rain is caused by cyclonic activity and it occurs along
the fronts of the cyclone. It is formed when two masses of air of different
temperature, humidity and density meets.
When a cold polar air mass meets a warm tropical air mass they do not
mix - they form fronts. The colder air mass is heavier than the warmer air
mass; therefore the lighter, warmer air rises over the top of the heavier, colder
air. As the warm air is forced to rise it cools. Also, the warm air is in contact
with the cold air along the fronts, and this also cools. Condensation occurs
and clouds form. Rain occurs along the front.
Mechanism of Frontal Rainfall
Stage 1
An area of warm air meets an area of cold air.
Stage 2
The warm air is forced over the cold air
Stage 3
Where the air meets the warm air is cooled and water vapor condenses.
Stage 4
Clouds form and precipitation occurs.

Fog:-
Fog is a visible aerosol consisting of tiny water droplets or ice
crystals suspended in the air at or near the Earth's surface. Fog can be
considered a type of low-lying cloud, usually resembling stratus, and is
heavily influenced by nearby bodies of water, topography, and wind
conditions.
Formation of Fog:-
Naturally fog forms in two different ways:
1. Infrared Cooling Process:-
The first way that fog is formed is by infrared
cooling. Infrared cooling happens due to the change of seasons from summer
to fall and winter. During the summer the ground absorbs solar radiation. As
air passes over it is made warm and moist. When the seasons change this
mass of warm moist air collides with the cooler that is now prevalent. This
cause is the water vapor in the air mass to condense quickly and fog is
formed. This fog is often called radiation fog due to the way it forms.
This kind is the most common type of fog. It also happens when an
unseasonable day of warm weather combined with high humidity is followed
by dropping temperatures.
2. Advection Process:-
The next way that fog forms is through advection.
Advection is wind driven fog formation. In this case warm air is pushed by
winds across a cool surface where it condenses into fog.

In general we see that fog is formed whenever there is a temperature

difference between the ground and the air. When the humidity is high enough
and there is enough water vapor or moisture fog is sure to form. However the
kind of fog and how long is last and its effects will depends on the different
conditions.
Difference between Fog and Clouds:-
 The basic difference between fog and
clouds is of altitude. Clouds can form at many different altitudes. They can be
as high as 12 miles above sea level or as low as the ground. However fog
touches the ground. Fog forms when the air near the ground cools enough to
turn its water vapor into liquid water or ice.