GRP104

COURSE OUTLINE

1. INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY *

2. TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION

3. RESOURSES AND ENVIRONMENTAL

MANAGEMENT*

4. DEVELOPMENT AND UNDER DEVELOPMENT *

5. CULTURE AND TOURISM *

6. GLOBAL PATTERN OF POPULATION DISTRIBUTION *

7. MIGRATION AND MOBILITY *

 Nature of Human Geography
Human geography is a board category of geography which deals with the
relationship between man and nature on the one hand and between society and
space on the other hand.

Man and Nature

Environmental Determinism: Is when nature tends to control, influence and
moderate human actions and behaviors.

Environmental Possibilism: Is when man tends to control, influence and

moderate the nature to his advantage

For years, man and nature have seek to control each other in a probabilistic way

Environmental Probabilism: Occurs because of the need for man to survive on

the earth and the need for nature to reach a balance or equilibrium with its
components as a natural system.

Natural System Consist of three (3) Spheres namely;

Atmosphere: Made up of air above the land

Lithosphere: Made up of soil and rocks

Hydrosphere: Made up of water bodies either in form of liquid or solid

N/B: Biosphere is the point of intersection of the three spheres where all living
organisms including man existence.

Culture: is simply the totality of man’s way of life including language, food,
clothing, housing, religion, social attitudes and behaviors.

Culture consist of material and non-material entities

Human activities that impact on the environment are as follows;

Primary Activities: such as farming, forestry, mining, extraction and animal

husbandry.

Secondary Activities: such as manufacturing and industrialization.

Tertiary Activities: such as merchandising and transporting.

Quaternary Activities: such as teaching, administration and governance.

Society and Space

The place or space occupied by man forms a society.

Society: is a space that is socially constructed by man and it’s embodiment of his
cultural and social economic relations.

Human geography therefore studies and explains how the society as a socially
constructed space is shaped by man. It is within the socially constructed space
(society) that all the facets of human life including social, economy, political,
Cultural historical and environmental matters are bound up

Theoretically, space is understood in human geography in three ways namely;

Absolute space – physical space

Relative space – social conception of space

Relational space – social conception of space

TERMINOLOGICAL APPROACH TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

Humanism: Humanism geography is an approach that focuses on the conscious,
creative and meaningful activities and experiences of human beings.

Historicity: Historicity is an approach that emphases historical specify and

variability.
Spatiality: spatiality is a process by which space is socially produced or
constructed.

Ethnography: Ethnography is a process of propounding in-depth explorations and

accounts of the lives, interactions and textures associated with a particular people
and places.

DEVELOPMENT AND UNDER-DEVELOPMENT

DEVELOPMENT
To the economist, development simply connotes the process of achieving
sustainable economic growth over a long period of time.

To the sociologist, development means the process through which cultural

attitude and diversity of the people have advanced

Social changes to the human geographer, development is a socio-environmental

and special process through which a balanced improvement in the quality of life is
achieved and the nexus between nature, culture and nurture is preserved.

Doudney Seers 1969: states that development involves not only economic growth
but also conditions in which people in a country have adequate access to food
and jobs and where income inequality and poverty are greatly reduced.

Micheal Todaro 1979: Define development as a multi-dimensional process

involving major changes in social structure, popular attitudes and national
institutions as well as the acceleration of economic growth, reduction in
inequality and the eradication of absolute poverty.

United Nations Development Program (UNDP) 1990: Define development as a

way of leading long and healthy lives, to be knowledgeable, to have access to the
resources needed for a descent standard of living and to be able to participate in
the life of the community.
Amartya Sen 1981: states that development is viewed by its impacts on people
not only by changes in their income, but more generally in terms of their choices,
capabilities and freedoms.

Conclusively, development is a process of achieving modernization, distributive

justice, economic growth and socio-cultural transformation.

Doudney Seers has three (3) questions concerning development

1. What happens to poverty?
2. What happens to unemployment?
3. What happens to inequality?

Core values of development

1. Sustenance of ability to meet basic means including livelihood and
employment
2. Self esteem which is sense of worth and dignity
3. Freedom from servitude.

OBJECTIVES OF DEVELOPMENT
1. To increase the availability and widen the distribution of basic life
sustainable such as food, shelters, health and security.

2. To raise levels of living through higher income, more jobs, better education,
cultural values and higher self esteem.

3. To expand the range of economic and social choices available to individuals

including political freedom, freedom from servitude, ignorance, misery and
religious dogmatism.

UNDER-DEVELOPMENT
The word under-development is a generic term for describing lack or inability of a
person or a country to experience positive growth economically, socially and
politically. It is a process by which a group of people fined it difficult to improve
on their quality of life due to a set of factors.
Factors ranging from lack of personal capabilities to national failures in
economic and social systems. By social system, we mean the value based issues
such as attitudes, educational institutions, land tenure systems, belief systems,
cultural values and community organization.
Under- development can be identified through the following indicators;

 Lower Per Capita (GNP)

 Absolute poverty and social deprivation

 Food insecurity and hunger

 Poor health institution

 Gross income inequality

 Lack of social and political freedom

 Low life expectancy and increased child maternity

 Inability to successfully use resources

 Low educational attainment

 Less industrialization and urbanization

Measure of development / underdevelopment

The following are the measures of development

 Gross national product (GNP)

 Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI)

 Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)

 Human Development Index (HDI)

 The Democracy Index (TDI)

  Gender related development Index (GDI)

 Gender Empowerment Measures (GEM)

The most popular of these measures are Gross national product (GNP) and
Human Development Index (HDI).

Gross National Product (GNP): is based on the total economic output by the
citizens of a country and it is used to define the world into four classes namely;

(a) Low income countries with GNP per Capita of 905 dollars and less

(b) Lower middle income countries with GNP per Capita of 906 dollars to
3,905 dollars

(c) High middle income countries with GNP per Capita of 3,905 to 11,115

(d) High income countries with GNP per Capita of 11,116 and above

Purchasing Power Parity (PPP): Is simply the strength of a country’s currency to

purchase the same amount of goods and services compared to other countries
currencies.

Human Development Index (HDI): Is a composite index used to rank and establish
whether a country is developed or developing or underdeveloped. HDI was
developed by the World Bank and its values ranges between 0.00 – 1.00. HDI is
actually calculated based on three (3) indicators namely; Life expectancy, Adult
Literacy or education and Standard /quality of living expressed in GNP per
Capita.

The World Bank used HDI to classify the whole world into four (4) namely;

1. Very High Human Development ( 0.80 – 1.00 )

2. High Human Development ( 0.70 – 0.79 )

 3. Medium human development ( 0.55 – 0.69 )

4. Low human development ( 0.00 – 0.54 )

In 2013, Nigeria HDI was 0.50 and the country was ranked 152nd in the whole
world, the least in Africa was Niger with 0.34 and ranked 187th country in the
world.
N/B: The last 20 ranked countries were from Africa.

Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI): Measures the basic needs of the people
such as health, water, sanitation, nutrition and education. PQLI has three (3)
major indicators and these are;

1. Infant mortality rate

2. Life expectancy at age 1

3. Literacy rate

The Democracy Index (TDI): It is a 0 -10 index that measures the level of political
development and participation of the citizens. The TDI is used to classify countries
into;
a. Full Democracies

b. Flood Democracies

c. Hybrid Democracies

d. Authoritarian Regimes ( Dictatorship )

Gender related development Index (GDI): Means the performance of women on

a. Long and healthy life
b. Knowledge
c. Descent standard of living
Gender Empowerment Measures (GEM): Means the performance of women on
a. Political participation and decision making
b. Economic participation and decision making
c. Power over economic resources

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
The world commission on environment and development (WCED) 1987: Define
sustainable development as the development that needs the present generation
without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own
needs. The concept of sustainable development embodies a powerful idea of
inter-generational equity where successive generations receive of diminishing
national resources and economic opportunities.
This invariably suggest in the pursuit of economic growth and long time
comfort, man must be conscious about the allocation of resources such that
human development does not vitiate in the rejuvenating about of the National
environment.
Sustainability: Is a situation where development vectors do not decrease over
time. The debate on the continuous survival and quality of life of mankind has
been ongoing for a very long time.
In 1798, Thomas Malthus (1776 – 1834) essay on the principle of
population argued that resources are finite and growing in arithmetical order,
while human population grows in exponential fashion.
Over time, if not checked, according to Malthus human existence will be
severely challenged leading to precedence, wars, misery, poverty and child
mortality.

CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Concept of sustainable development was formed on the basis of the United
Nations Conference on environment and development (UNCHE) held in
Stockholm Sweden in 1972. That conference was attended by 113 national
delegate countries.
In the same year 1972, the club of Rome produced a report titled
“the limits of growth” Edited Domeller Midows. The Club of Rome report surely
awakened the consciousness of the world to the realization of the negative
impacts of economic development on the environment and natural time carrying
capacity. This report concluded that the world must consciously watch the
negative impact of industrialization especially industrial pollution.
 In 1983, the world commission on environment and development (WCED)
was established based on the report of 1972 and other reports. By 1987, the
world commission on environment and development (WCED) presented a report
titled “Our Common Future” under the chairmanship of Allen Brundtland
(president of Sweden) where sustainable development was frontally confronted.
It was also referred to Brundtland commission report which led to convocation of
the UN conference on environment and development tagged Rio Earth Summit in
Rio de Janerio 1992. This conference was attended by delegates from 178
countries.
In 2000, the millennium summit of United Nations was held at the UN
headquarters in New York to produce the millennium development goals (MDGs)
with the resolve to address poverty, economic growth and sustainability.
In 2002, a conference tagged world summit of sustainable development
(WSSD) was held in Johannesburg in South Africa. It is otherwise known as
Rioplus10. The 2002 world Summit was attended by delegates from 191
countries. The Rioplus10 declaration contains 21 agendas.
In 2012, the 2nd world summit on sustainable development known as
Rioplus20 was held again in Rio De Janeiro Brazil. This Rioplus20 Summit
reviewed the millennium development goals and set agenda for sustainable
development goals. In actual facts we had two (2) sustainable development goals
namely:
1. The millennium development goals of 2000 and
2. The sustainable development goal of 2015.

The MDGs goals are as follows with targets of 2015 has the following objectives
/agendas;
1. To eradicate poverty by 2015
2. Achieve universal primary education
3. Promote gender equality and empowerment
4. Reduce child mortality
5. Improve maternity health
6. Reverse the spread of HIV / AIDS and malaria
7. Ensure environmental sustainability
8. Develop global partnership for development

For SDGs (Sustainable development goals) with target of 2030 has 17 goals
namely;
 1. No poverty
2. Zero hunger
3. Good health and well being
4. Quality education
5. Gender equality
6. Ensure access to clean water and sanitation
7. Ensure access to affordable and clean energy
8. Promote descent work and economic growth
9. Build resilient industry, innovation and infrastructure
10.Reduce inequalities
11.Sustainable cites and communities
12.Responsible consumption and production
13.Take action to combat climate change
14.Sustainable use of oceans, seas and marine resources
15.Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial eco-system
16.Promote inclusive and peaceful society and institutions
17.Strengthen partnerships for implementation of SDGs

OBJECTIVES OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

According to WCED, sustainable development seeks to achieve three broad
objectives namely;
1. Economic sustainability including legitimate economic growth and use of
resources for development
2. Social sustainability including food, employment, social equity, security,
education, health, political participation and cultural identity
3. The environmental sustainability objectives including healthy environment,
rational use of renewable resources and conservation of non-renewable
natural resources.

In-order to achieve these objectives, sustainable development emphasis two

ideological approaches to development and environment and thus are; Eco-
centrism and anthropocentrism.

Eco-centrism: Is an ideological persuasion that emphasis the integrity of the

ecosystem and of course nature as a whole. Eco-centrism preaches the value of
humidity and respect / reference towards the earth, planets and thus enjoins low
impact technology and exploiting environmental resources. It recognizes the
equation

i = Pat
Where i = Impact of technology
P = Population
a = affluence
t = Technology

Anthropocentrism: Is a logical sequence of orientation directed and the thorough

domestication of management of earth planet where all non-human forms are in
the service of humanity. The proponent of anthropocentrism believes in the
ability of man to study, exploit and control physical, biological and social
processes for the benefit of the present and future generations.
This can be done by conservation and preservation of environmental
resources. From anthropocentrism point of view, resources must be used
1. To benefit people who are alive
2. Prevent waste, abuse and destruction of natural resources
3. To manage resources for the benefit of the majority

CRITERIA FOR ACHIEVEMENT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

In-order to achieve sustainable development, the followings must be met namely;
1. Eradication of absolute poverty
2. Establishment and preservation of peace and
3. Stability in all regions of the world
4. Reasonable consumption and equitable use of resources

CULTURE AND TOURISM

At one point or another, we have always been a tourism or we have practiced
tourism because defining tourism is actually difficult but summarily we can define
tourism as the activities of people travelling from one part and staying in places
that are not actually their immediate or usual environment and these travelling
could be for leisure, business or other purposes that may not last for more than
one consecutive year.

What is Tourism?
Tourism is a dynamic and competitive industry that requires the ability to adapt
constantly to customer’s needs and desires as also the customer’s satisfaction,
safety and enjoyment which are particularly the key focus of the tourism industry.
We can also defined tourism as travel for pleasure or business or the theory
and practice of touring, the business of attracting, accommodating and
entertaining tourist.
W.T.O (World Tourism Organization): define tourism as the business that
goes beyond the common perception of tourism that it is not limit to being a
holiday because people travelling to, and staying in these places outside their
usual environment of domain does not spend more than 24 hours or more than 7
days. Example picnickers going to various beaches in Lagos do not spend more
than 6 hours or those travelling outside their domain do not spend more than two
days.
Tourism can be classified into domestic (that is tourism within one country
say from Lagos to Idanri Hills, to olumo rock, to slave relies in Badagry or to the
first storey building in Nigeria or to the point of no return. While international can
be defined as moving from one country to another in search of tourist attractions
which could be medical tourism, educational tourism or institutional tourism,
cultural tourism or market tourism for example the Safari in Kenya, the business
tourism in dubai, the cultural tourism in France and our local cultural tourism that
attracts foreign nationalities to Calabar, or the Osun Oshogbo groove or the black
heritage/ Eyo festival in Lagos.
It is noteworthy to realize that tourism and tourism potentials decline as a result
of strong economic meltdown in the year 2000s, intra and inter ethnic clashes,
Guerilla wars, insurgencies such as Al-Shabab, Boko Harams, Al-Qeedas, the 911
destruction of the world trade tower in US has heightened the fears of people to
embark on tourism.
Tourism declined tremendously as a result of 2009 H1N1 influenza Virus
and the 2014/2015 Ebola Virus but the industry recovered slowly.
In the world, there are top 10 tourist destinations with their financial
receipts growing to 1.03 Billion US Dollars in 2005 and a corresponding increase
of 3.8% in 2010 with China, Russia and Brazil having significant increase in their
spending compared to the previous decades. Though, other tourism attractions or
sites such as Seychelles, U.A.E (Dubai), Sun city in South Africa, Johannesburg or
the sun city in Yamassoukra (second capital of Ivory Coast).
The word tourist was first used in 1772 and tourism in 1811. It is formed
from the word “Tour” which is derived from an old English word called “Turian”
and from an old French word called “Torner” and from Latin word called
“Tornare” which means to turn on or latha or from the ancient Greek word called
“Tornos”.
SIGNIFICANCE / IMPORTANCE OF TOURISM

The tourism industry is part of the service sector of the hospitality industry and it
has become an important source of income for many regions and countries such
as Saudi- Arabia, Jerusalem, Kenya, Namibia, Zanzibar, Bermuda, Bahamas,
Barbados, France, U.A.E, United Kingdom, USA and some parts of the Latin
America.

1. Tourism brings large amount of income into a local economy in the form of
payment for goods and services needed by tourists. Therefore, aside
increasing the revenue, 6% of overall export of goods and services comes
from tourist and tourist destinations.

2. Tourism also creates employment opportunities in the service sector,

hospitality industry, transport and logistics, medicals and other auxiliary
services.

3. Tourism or the hospitality industry also benefit from transportation services

such as airline, cruise ship, trains and taxi cabs, lounging into hotels,
hostels, amusement parks, restaurants, casinos. Shopping malls, cinemas,
music venues, theatre, galleries, circus, boil rooms etc. Also on the other
side, tourism and degrade people and their relationships, it can also cause
enmity and can eventually lead to a life time debacle.

Conclusively, it has sharpened the ways and manners governments, institutions,

personalities relates and do business.
 RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

1. The concept and types of natural Resources

2. Spatial pattern of resources distribution
3. Uses of resources
4. Resources Management

Natural Resources: It is the nature endowment for the benefit of man-kind.

Zimmerman () believes that nothing can be called resource only when it becomes
useful to man’s benefit. He also believed that what is called resource today may
not be called resource tomorrow and what is not called resource tomorrow may
be resource today. Resources can change with time.
He said resources are special but are temporal in nature. We get to know
that not all countries have all the resources that is they are not evenly spread and
that was what led to international trade which came into existence because of
geography.

TYPES OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Natural resources can be classified based on their sources namely:

1. Through their source of origin: It can either be Biotic or Abiotic Natural

Resources

a. Biotic Resources: Those resources that are living resources like living things
and organic matters like forest resources, animals ( deals with everything
that has life)

b. Abiotic Resources: It includes land, water, air and metals which includes
Gold, iron, copper, silver and other mineral resources.

2. Resources can be classified based on their stage of development

 a. Potential Resources: They are those resources that may be used in the
nearest future. For example Petroleum. Petroleum is derived from
sedimentary rock and sedimentary rocks are where only those that are
tapped into make petroleum.
b. Actual Resources: Resources that have been quantified and currently being
put into use.

c. Reserved Resources: It is the part of the resources that have not been
consumed from the actual resources.

d. Stock Resources: They are those resources that are being surveyed but
don’t have technology to harness it.

Many resources can be categorized as Renewable and Non-Renewable Resources

1. Renewable Resources: Those resources with the rate of replenishment is

very high that have the potential to replenish and new itself when they are
used. Examples water, forest, plant and vegetation.

2. Non-Renewable Resources: they are resources that cannot replenish or

renew themselves when they are being used. Examples mineral resources
like petroleum, gas, diamond, silver etc. The rate of replenishment is very
slow.

EXTRACTION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

It is a function of the type of resources, technologies available, environment

where the resources are found. Levels and type of extraction is a function of the
society, function of the economy. Most of the resources are Non-renewable even
when the resources are renewable and the population using it increases then
there will be a danger which is mostly on the environment. In the ancient times,
resources are being extracted traditionally like picking of fruits, now in the
modern times new technology have emerged because of high population.
 CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE RESOURCES

This states that resources should satisfy needs but not jeopardize later in the
future. The rate of deforestation was very high which will affect humans through
low rate of oxygen and also pushes animals away from their initial habitants. The
only way to save planet earth is to look for a way to reduce human population.
World commission of environment and development 1984,Britland
commission. It was named after Helen britland former prime minister of Norway.

DISTRIBUTION OF RESOURCES IN THE WORLD

The earth is spherical in shape, whereby the sun is not equally distributed,
equatorial regions are hot, and Polar Regions are cold.

1. Soil Resources: The following countries have soil

a. Southern Russia
b. South America
c. The Praries of Northern America
d. South Asia
e. Souther China
f. Sub-Sahara Africa

2. Oil (Fossil Fuel / Petroleum): The following countries have enormous of oil
a. Saudi-Arabia
b. Iran
c. Iraq
d. Venezuela (South America)
e. Texas (North America)

3. Natural Gas: These countries includes;

a. Russia
b. Iran
c. Qatar
d. United States of America

4. Metal: These countries includes;

a. Australia
 b. South Africa especially Diamond
c. China, Russia, USA, Canada, Peru produce Gold

5. Fresh water resources: In the whole world, there is a place called Amazon
Basin in South America, The Congo Basin in Northern America

RESOURCES IN NIGERIA
South: salt water, fresh water, rain forest, guinea savannah, Sudan Savannah,
desert.

River State – Fresh water and salt water

Ogun State – Tropical rain forest
Oyo State – Rain forest
Oyo town – Derived Savannah
Ogbomosho – Derived Savannah

Niger & Kogi State – Food basket like tuber crops.

Sedimentary rocks are always in the bed of water, they are formed from the
sedimentation through erosion, natural gases and petroleum is found in Niger
state.
Zamfara State – Diamond
Ilesha – Gold
Plateau – Tin
Sokoto – Gold
Enugu – Coal

USES OF RESOURCES

It is useful to man either directly or indirectly. The energy that is required

whether through petroleum or crude oil are derived from natural resources. Our
existence is based on geography, everything we use either directly or indirectly is
from natural resources.
 POPULATION
Population means numbers; Human population is the number of persons or
people living within a particular area at a particular point in time. Time and
location (spatio-temporal) are essential ingredients in description of human
population on the earth surface because the human population at any given point
in time varies from one location to another in terms of number, composition and
the actual location.
This variation is due essentially to the 3 major elements of population
dynamic reflecting the level of performance, interaction and changes. These
elements are; Fertility, Mortality and Migration.

Fertility
Fertility is described as the number of life birth by women in a particular area.
Determining fertility rate will include the identification of the actual number of
women in the population and the numbers of children multiply by 1000
(constant). Fertility rate could be determined through the CBR (Crude Birth Rate).
Crude birth rate is calculated by dividing the number of life birth in a given year by
the mid-year population multiply by 1000.

Age Specific Fertility Rate (ASFR)

This describes the fertility of each age group X to X+5 in a given year. The
intention of the age specific fertility rate (ASFR) is to identify the most fertile age
group in any population.

Total Fertility Rate

Total fertility rate is the sum of all Age Specific fertility rate (ASFR).

Mortality
Mortality is refers to the incidents of death. It could be determined through the
determination of
1. Crude Death Rate(CDR): Is the total number of death in a particular year
divided by the mid-year population multiply by 1000
2. Age Specific Death Rate (ASDR): It refers to numbers of death for a
particular age group in a given population.
Migration
Migration is the movement of people from one geographical area to another for a
period not below 6(six) months.
As an aspect of mobility (general movement/change of location), migration
affects the population of any area than the other type of mobility which is known
as Circulation (temporary movement from one point to another).

PATTERN OF WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF HUMAN RACES

This emphasis on population growth is of quite recent occurrence. In the past
centuries, the early human population did not increase because of the factors
relating to environmental constraints which includes; dry and cold weather.
Increase in population is the result of adaptation which can be called hardware.
Those that died early are called software. Small isolated population in the moist
forest of new guinea have been known as hunters and they also rear domestic
swans while operating essentially on a Swedish type of agricultural pattern of
shifting population. There are many communities in the part of the world that
exhibited pure relationship with land and engaging is pastoral tradition to
influence the pattern of population at different times. Essentially, the followings
could be described as the common pattern of population situation before the
admittance of general technology.
i. Primitive Community: The more civilized man becomes, the more he is
able to utilize and develop the natural resources of the region in which he
lives. There are still immense areas which are under-developed and where
the inhabitants are almost entirely dependent on local resources.
ii. Cold Desert: This area covers Tundra of Eurasia. The chief groups of people
inhabiting the Eurasia Tundra are Lapps, the Samoyed and Yakuts. The
natural resources of these lands include the wild animals, birds, fish and a
variety of berries which are harvested during the short summer. The
vegetation consists of moss and berry bearing bushes. Trees are limited to
stunted birch found along the water courses. The most important animal in
the cold desert is called the Reindeer. In the Tundra land of North America,
which is the Arctic regions of North America and the coastal fringes of
Greenland are inhabited by the ESKIMOS.
iii. The People of the Temperate Grassland: The Kirghiz of Central Asia are an
example of people adapted to a grassland environment. These groups of
people are pastoral nomads who move from pasture to pasture with their
 flocks and herds of horses, camels, oxen, sheep and goats. Camel hair cloth,
leather, sheep skins and cotton fabrics are used for clothing.
iv. The People of the Hot Desert: These sets of people have varied ways of life.
Some live in permanent settlement in the Oasis areas and they are both
cultivators and herdsmen. They grow crops like rice, maize, onions,
tomatoes on the drier edges of the Oasis, they rear sheep, goats and
camels. These people are called the Suwa Arabs. Other desert dwellers are
the Bedounins of Arabic and Tuaregs of the Sahara who are entirely
nomadic. The usual attire of the desert nomads consists of long flowing
ropes of white cotton clothes. In the Kalahari deserts lived the Bushmen.
The rank among the most uncivilized and backward people in the world.
Comparable in ways to the Australian black fellow. Bushmen do not live in
tribes but in small family groups, they have great powers of endurance and
are patient virile and courageous.
v. The People of the Savannah: Three stages of cultural development maybe
distinguished among this people;
a. The pastoral People
b. Those whose combine pastoralist with primitive agriculture
c. They are the agriculturalist
The Masai of the East Africa plateau are examples pastoral People, they are
strong, war like and partly Negroid in type. They rear cattle, sheep and
goats on the grasslands. They mostly hunt Lions in-order to protect their
live stocks.
Another set of people residing in the savannah are the kikuyu who are a
race of Bantu Negroid who live to the South of Mount Kenya. They are
more settled.
The Hausas are a race of Sudanese Negroid who lives in the
savannah lands of West Africa. They are settle agricultural people with
primitive method. They grow cotton, millet, guinea corn and groundnuts.
They are also traders, skilled in leather clothes in weaving in cotton. They
wear long flowing ropes.
vi. The People of the Equatorial Forest : These people includes Pygmies and
the Congo basin, the Vedas of Ceylon, the head hunting Indians of the
Amazon basin, the Kubus of Sumatra and other similar tribes. Most of
these people and hunters who roam the forest in search of fruits and nuts
and they also hunt monkeys with bows and poison arrows. In the less
dense forest, the people combine primitive agriculture with their hunting
 activities, some even rear chickens and goats. Such people are the Gabon
of equatorial Africa, the Bakuba of the Congo basin, the Mio of Annam
and various tribes of the Philippines.

Differences between Race and Culture

Race is division of mankind that is, physical characteristics. Among these

characteristics by the Anthropologist are the skin colours. It is also called the
Biological inheritance by the Sociologists and Anthropologists.
Culture of the people encompasses all the way people live. Examples language we
speak, religion etc. which is not a biological inheritance.
Races of the world are; Anthropologist in sociology will say there are no numbers
of types of races in the world. There are 5 principal races in the world, which
includes;
1. Caucasoid: Made up of white people with fair to light brown skin. Narrow
to medium board face, straight wavy hair, usually high bridge nose and light
blue to dark brown hair. They are found indigenously in Europe, North
Africa, Middle East and West Asia.
2. Mongoloids: They are yellow people with yellow brown or reddish brown
skin, medium short to medium tall stature, board faces and coarse straight
hair. They are indigenously found in Northern and Eastern Asia.
3. Negroid: This is made up of black people with yellow brown to dark brown
skins, very short to tall stature, board nose they are indigenously found in
Africa.
4. Australoids: They are also made up of black people with short statures,
long faces with full lips and dark wavy hair. They are indigenously found in
Australia, parts of South East Asia and East Indies.
5. Capoid: These comprise brownish yellow people with short stature, flat
faces, with epicanthic eye folds. They are commonly found in South Africa.

TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION

Transportation can be defined as the movement of goods, people, information
and services from the point of Origin (O) to the point of consumption, usually the
(Market) of the destination (D) for the finished product.

Frederick Lord Lugard (1922) in his book “The Dual Mandate” said that the
material development of Africa may be summed up in one word “Transport”.

Ullman (1954) succinctly mentioned that “Immobility perpetuates poverty”.

Mumby (1968) says that “There is no escape from transport”.

Filani (1986) in his inaugural lecture posited that question that “How do we get
there from here”?

Mobility in human affairs be it socio-economic, political, cultural and host of

others are essential and necessary for human survival and existence.

Modes of Transportation
The modes of transportation are of various modes namely;
1. Beast of Burden
2. Human Porte rage
3. Rail Transport
4. Pipeline Transport
5. Road Transport
6. Air Transport
7. Water Transport

Beast of Burden
This is the use of animals like mule, donkey and horse to transport good, humans
from one place to another. This form of mode may sound old fashion but is still
being used in some societies. This mode is being used in some parts of Northern
Nigeria.

Human Porte rage

This mode of transport involves the carrying of loads on the head from the farm
to the market. Some society in Suleja (Niger State) of Nigeria known as Gwari do
carry their loads on their shoulders, because they so much have respect for their
heads, and so they do not carry loads on their heads but their shoulders.

Rail Transport
- Nigeria railway began in 1892.
- William shelford survey to estimate the cost of railway construction in Nigeria in
1895.
- The secretary of state approved the construction of 20 miles about 32
kilometers of 3 ½ inches (1067 millimeters) gauge railway from Iddo to Otta.
- First railway began from Iddo in the year 1896.
- It reached Otta and Abeokuta in 1898 and finally got to Ibadan 1901.
- Nigerian Railway Corporation was established in 1955 by an Act as a government
institution.
-One characteristics of the railway network is its North-South parallelism.
- The old railway network in the country is made up of 3,500 kilometers (Elechi,
1998: 424) of single track route of the same 1067 millimeters gauge which
provides services between Lagos and Port-Harcourt.
-The railway began from Lagos (South-West) and runs to kaura Namoda in the
Northern most part of the country.
- Port-Harcourt (eastern part) runs to Maiduguri in Borno State in the North
Eastern part of the country.

Problems Associated with the Nigerian Railway

Lawal (2006) summarized the problems associated with the railways as follows;
a. Human Resources
b. Bad Administration
c. Engineering
d. Revenue Generation
e. Political Consideration

Human Resources: NRC was one of the largest absorber of Labour in Nigeria with
the employment opportunities over 29,576 in 1959/60.
The figure declined to 24,831 in 1989. The declines in the staff strength are both
caused by the Nigerian Civil war 1967-70 and the old age nature of the
equipments, coaches, wagons under which the staff are operating.
Bad Administration: This was summed up in the word of Abharamwa (2001) “I
suspect that the reason for Nigerian railway has not made any remarkable
improvement and impact on the nation’s transport system in particular and the
economy at large is because the parastatals has been managed by people who do
not really understand the essence or importance of viable railway system”.

Engineering: There had been lack of proper maintenance since the advent of the
Nigerian railway. In 1979, the Rail Indian Technical and Economic Services
(RITES) was invited to refurbish and maintain the engines, wagons and
locomotives.
In the early 1980’s, the Chinese Civil Engineering and Construction Company
(CCECC) were invited to continue with the maintenance job which the RITES had
abandoned.
People described the Nigerian railway to be moving with a “snail speed”.
The speed is slow about 50-60km/h.
Germany has the fastest train speed called Transrapid which has a speed of over
400km/h. It has annual passenger capacity of 12.2 million.

Pipeline Transport
Robinson and Bamford (1978) defined pipeline as “A line or conduit of pipes of
varying diameter and length but sometimes hundreds of kilometers long which
are traditionally used for carrying a liquid or gas from the point of supply to the
point of consumption”.
Murray (1975) defined pipelines from its functional perspective as “ a steel metal
with diameter capable of moving oil and natural gas from the heart of the
continent to the parts as in the case of the North America and this has accounted
for about 1/5th of the inter-city freight-ton kilometer”.
In Nigeria, a pipeline is defined under section II (2) of the 1965 Oil pipeline Act “as
a system of pipes for the conveyance of anything other than air, water, water
vapour, or steam and not being a drain, a sewer or pipes for heating, cooling or
for domestic purpose”.
23rd December, 1955, Nigeria opened its first pipeline to crude oil to link Oloibiri
Oil field with Kugbo Bay, over a distance of eleven (11) kilometer in the then
Rivers State.
Evolution of Pipeline
- Oil Transportation began with oil shipment across the Atlantic
 - Elizabeth Watt was the first ship to carry a full cargo of oil across the
Atlantic in 1861
- In 1865, another ship called Gluckauf was built in the River Tyne
- Glucsauf according to King (1975) has a carrying capacity of about 2,300
tons.
- Water is 65%
- Coal is 35%

Road Transport
- Road transport in Nigeria started as far back as the first decade of the 19 th
century
- Bush paths were developed into motor able routes which were designed to
serve two main objectives

Air Transport
Nigerian Airways was established in October 1958 as a joint venture between the
Nigerian Government, Elder Dempster Lines, and the British Overseas Airways
Corporation (BOAC) with shareholding of 51,32 2/3 and 16 1/3 % respectively
(Stanford Research Institute 1961).