Biology 11 Federal

Addition of Coenzyme A
CoA
O
C O H CoA
+
NAD NADH
Co2
Oxidation/Dehydrogenation
Decarboxylation
www.learningall.com
SECTION 2
Biodiversity
CHAPTER 5
ACELLULAR LIFE
Major Concepts: Number of allotted

teaching periods: 10
5.1 Viruses: Discovery and Structure (2 Periods)
5.2 Parasitic Nature of Virus (2 Periods)
5.3 Life cycle of Bacteriophage (1 Period)
5.4 Life cycle of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) (2 Periods)
5.5 Viral Diseases (2 Periods)
5.6 Prions and Viroids (1 Period)
You or any one of your family members must have suffered from
common cold in which there is watering of eyes, dry throat, production of
watery mucus from nose and it is difficult to breath through nose. You must
have heard about influenza in which there is raised temperature, headache,
dry cough etc. Everyday you read in the newspapers about bird flu, plio,
swine flu, dengue fever etc. All these and many other diseases are caused by
the infectious agents called viruses. The viruses are pathogens, which cause
diseases in animals and plants.
5.1 VIRUSES-DISCOVERY AND STRUCTURE

Viruses are not cells, they are not capable of independent replication,
can synthesize neither their own energy nor their own proteins and are too
small to be seen in the light microscope.
Viruses-Living or Nonliving
Viruses are a link between living and nonliving worlds. They show the
characteristic of both living and nonliving things. The living characteristics of
viruses are: (1) Viruses occur in different varieties or strains. (2) They have
www.learningall.com
BIOLOGY XI: Chapter 5, ACELLULAR LIFE 133
their own genetic material. The DNA or RNA can undergo mutation. (3) They
reproduce using the metabolic machinery of the host cell they infect. (4) They
get destroyed by ultraviolet rays.
The nonliving characteristics of viruses are: (1) They lack cellular
structure, coenzyme and enzyme system and do not have metabolic activity of
their own. (2) They can be crystallized and stored in bottles. (3) They do not
respire. Viruses are nonliving infectious particles. They enter living organism
and cause disease. They do not have a cellular structure, which is the basis of
all life.
History of Virus
The word virus is derived from a Latin word venom meaning 'poison'.
The study of virus is known as virology.
Tobacco Mosaic Disease was thought to be caused by bacteria. In 1892
Iwanowsky extracted the juice from the leaves of tobacco having tobacco
mosaic disease. In order to remove bacteria the juice was passed through a
very fine filter made of porcelain (a fine earthenware, white thin). He then
rubbed the filtered juice on the leaves of healthy plants, expecting no disease
to develop, but the healthy leaves soon showed the symptoms of the disease.
By 1900, similar disease producing substance had been discovered in
both plants and animals. The name filterable viruses were given to these
substances i.e. the viruses that can pass through a filter which has pores too
small for bacteria to pass through are called filterable viruses.
Fig: 5.1 (a) Tobacco Plant Infected with Virus (b) Ultra Structure of Tobacco Mosaic Virus
www.learningall.com
134 BIOLOGY XI: Chapter 5, ACELLULAR LIFE
Classification of Virus
Virus classification is based mainly on phenotypic characteristics,
including morphology, nucleic acid type, mode of replication, host organisms,
and the type of disease they cause.
Baltimore Classification
David Baltimore, a Nobel Prize-winning biologist, devised the Baltimore
classification system, which places viruses into one of seven groups. These groups are
designated by Roman numerals and separate viruses based on their mode of replication,
and genome type. Viruses can be placed in one of the seven following groups:
Group Nature & Examples
I Double-stranded DNA viruses: e.g HSV1 (oral herpes), HSV2
(genital herpes), VZV (Varicella zoster virus) (chickenpox),
Poxviridae (smallpox)
II Single-stranded DNA viruses: e.g. family Parvoviridae and
bacteriophage.
III Double-stranded RNA viruses: e.g. Rotavirus
IV Positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses: e.g picornaviruses,
Hepatitis A virus, Hepatitis C virus and rubella virus.
V Negative-sense single-stranded RNA viruses: e.g. influenza virus,
measles, mumps and rabies.
VI Reverse transcribing Diploid single-stranded RNA viruses: e.g.
HIV
VII Reverse transcribing Circular double-stranded DNA viruses: e.g.
hepatitis B
Viruses are also classified on the bases of their hosts e.g. plant viruses,
bacteriophage viruses and animal viruses. Plant viruses occur as parasites in plants
e.g. tobacco mosaic viruses attack leaves on tobacco plant. This is an RNA virus
with a helical capsid. Bacteriophage attack bacteria. It is a DNA virus with a
polyhedral head and a helical tail. Animal Viruses occur as parasites in animals.
Human immunodeficiency viruses attacks human being. It is an RNA virus.
Shape and Size of Virus

Viruses vary in shapes. The polio virus particles are little spheres that
look like tiny golf balls. Tobacco mosaic virus is a rod shaped and helical
virus, while some phage viruses look like tadpoles. So viruses have several
shapes, such as spherical, needle like and cubical. Most forms are
icosahedral with upto twenty sides. Viruses can be seen only under electron
microscope. Viruses vary in size from 17nm to 1000nm.
Fig: 5.2 Shapes and Types of viruses
Structure of Model Viruses

Viruses have a very simple structure. The core is the genetic matter,
which is either DNA or RNA, which may be single stranded or double
stranded. The capsid is the protective coat of protein surrounding the core.
Nucleocapsid is the combined structure formed by the core and capsid. A few
viruses have an additional lipoprotein layer around the capsid derived from
the cell surface membrane of the host, called envelope. Capsids are often
built up of identical repeating subunits called capsomers. There are two
forms of symmetry in virus capsid.

When the capsomers are arranged in
20 triangles, it is called iocosahedral.
When the capsomers are arranged in a
hollow coil that appears rod shaped, it
is called helical.
Now we will discuss the
structure of bacteriophage, flu virus
and HIV to explain the structure of model viruses.
Bacteriophage
The word phage means
eater. A bacteriophage or
simply phage consists of nucleic
acid, capsid, end plate, tail and
tail pin. The interior core is the
nucleic acid. The phage has
DNA which is also known as its
genome. The outer coat of
protein surrounding the nucleic
acid is called capsid or head.
The head is hexagonal and made
up of protein subunit the
capsomers. The tail is hollow
tubular and made up of proteins. Fig .5.3 Phage Virus
It consists of six fibres. The
protein sheath around the tail is
contractile. The fibres are
attached to end plate or base
plate. It is the last part of the
tail. The end plate has tail pins.
Influenza or Flu Virus
Influenza virus exists in three
forms called A, B, C. Influenza
viruses are the only members of
orthomyxovirus family. The term
myxo refers to the observation that
these viruses interact with mucin
Fig: 5.4 Influenza virus (Orthomyxovirus)
(glycoproteins) and ortho is added to distinguish them from the paramyxovirus.

Influenza virus is composed of a segmented single-stranded RNA genome, a helical
nucleoprotein and an outer lipoprotein envelope. The virion (the complete, mature
and infectious, particle is known as virion) contains an RNA dependent RNA
polymerase, which transcribes genome into mRNA. The genome is therefore not
infectious. The envelope is covered with hemaglutinin and a neuraminidase, both
are the type specific antigens.
Science Titbits
Although we can often refer to the causative agent of cold as the cold
virus there are actually more than 200 viruses that cause cold. Developing
a vaccine against the infection is not practical.
Science, Technology and Society Connections

Describe the limitations of the vaccine for the common cold/flu virus.
Human Immunodeficiency Virus
Viral core (proteins)
Fig: 5.5 Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) (cross section)

Human Immunodeficiency Virus

(HIV) is a retrovirus and spherical in
shape. The core protein is somewhat
cone shaped. It is surrounded by a
envelope (lipid bilayer) derived from the
host cell membrane. The virus core
contains: (1) Two identical molecules of
single stranded RNA and is said to be
diploid. (2) Three viral enzymes-
protease, reverse transcriptase and
integrase. The viral core (nucleocapsid or
capsid) is composed of protein. The viral
core is surrounded by a matrix protein
which lies underneath the virion Fig: 5.6 Human Immunodeficiency
Virus (HIV)
envelope. The viral envelope has
glycoprotein spikes.
Skills: Interpreting and Recording
Make a list of names of five plant and animal viruses that have DNA or
RNA.
Draw labelled diagrams of bacteriophage, flu virus and HIV.

Justify how the invention of Electron Microscopy revolutionized the
science of microscopic organisms.
5.2 PARASITIC NATURE OF VIRUS

Viruses are obligate parasites, which means they cannot multiply
outside a living cell. Viruses infect all sorts of cells, from bacterial cells to
human cells.
Specificity of Viruses on their Hosts: Viruses are highly specific to their
host. Bacteriophage infects only bacteria, the tobacco mosaic virus infects only
tobacco plants and rabies virus infects only mammals. Some human viruses even
specialize in a particular tissue. HIV will enter only certain blood cells, the
poliovirus reproduces in spinal nerve cells, the hepatitis viruses infect only liver
cells. The specificity of attachment determines the host range of the virus. Some
viruses have a narrow range, whereas others

have quite a broad range. For example, Science Titbits
poliovirus can enter the cells of only humans
To maintain animal viruses in
and other primates whereas rabies virus can
the laboratory, they are some-
enter all mammalian cells, herpes simplex
times injected into live chick
virus type 1 attaches to the fibroblast growth
embryos. Today, host cells are
factor receptor, rabies virus to the
often maintained in tissue cul
acetylcholine receptor and human
ture by simply placing cells in
immunodeficiency virus to the CD4 protein
a glass or plastic container
on helper T lymphocytes. What could cause
with appropriate medium.
this remarkable parasite-host cell correlation?
It is now believed that viruses are derived from the cell they infect; the nucleic
acid of viruses came from their host cell genomes. Therefore, viruses must have
evolved after cells came into existence and new viruses are probably evolving
even now.
How do Viruses complete their Life Cycles?
Viruses are Obligate Parasites. Reproduction of Viruses occurrs
in the living cells of the host. Viruses cannot reproduce on their own. They
must invade cell, take over the cells internal machinery and instruct the
machinery to build enzymes and new viral structural proteins. Then they
copy the viral genetic material enough times so that a copy be placed in
each newly constructed virus. Finally they leave the host cell. The
invading virus also blocks the synthesis of any host DNA, RNA or protein.
This features forces the host cell to construct only viral proteins and
copies of the viral genetic material. For reproduction viruses must
complete the following five steps: (1) Adsorption and penetration,
(2) Uncoating of virus, (3) Transcription, translation and replication,
(4) Viral assembly, (5) Release of virion.
(1) Adsorption and Penetration: Viruses may be engulfed by their
host cell (endocytosis). Some viruses have surface protein that bind to
receptors on the host cells membrane and stimulate endocytosis. Other
viruses are coated with an envelope that can fuse with the host cell membrane.
(2) Uncoating. The nucleic acid is released from the capsid into the
nucleus or cytoplasm.
(3) Transcription, Translation, Replication: For RNA viruses these
usually take place in cytoplasm and for DNA viruses these usually take place
in the nucleus.
(4) Viral Assembly: The viral genetic material and enzymes are
surrounded by their protein coat.
(5) Release of Virions: Viruses emerge from the cell by budding
from the cell membrane or by bursting the cell.
How a Virus Survives Inside a Host Cell, Protected from the Immune
System?
Viruses circumvent (to surround) the host immune response by: (1)
Blocking complement activation e.g. vaccinia (vacca virus) or using
complement receptor to enter B lymphocytes e.g. Espein Barr Virus (EBV).
(2) Inhibiting interferon induced antiviral response e.g. adenovirus, EBV and
HIV (3) Blocking production of cytokines or response to cytokines e.g.
cowpox, adenovirus. (4) Suppressing major histocompatibility complex e.g.
adenovirus (5) Reducing B-cell activation e.g. EBV. (6) Changing their own
genetic constitution so rapidly that vaccines/antibodies of host against them
become ineffective.
How Virus Employs to Pass Over Unfavourable Conditions When it Does
Not Have a Host to Complete its Life Cycle?
Virus does not have acellular, cellular or spore forms as parasites.
When there is no host or when there are unfavourable conditions, outside the
cells viruses may form crystals e.g. Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV). Some
remain in saliva e.g. EBV (cause mononucleosi lesion on the tongue), in
respiratory droplets e.g. Influenza A virus, measles virus, Varicella zoster
virus (chicken-pox), in respiratory aerosol e.g. small-pox virus, in the faeces
e.g. adenoviruses.
Record the symptoms of flu in any individual.

Make a list of names of at least five viruses in plants and animals that
are specific for specific host.
Swine flu is an infection by any one of several types of swine flu virus. A
virus subtype H1N1, H1N2, and H3N2 are the most common strains
world wide. The H1N1 viral strain implicated in the 2009 flu pandemic
among humans often called swine flu. Its vaccine is available.
5.3 LIFE CYCLE OF A BACTERIOPHAGE

The virus which lives in a bacterium as parasite is called
bacteriophage or phage. Bacteriophages show two types of relationships
with the host: Master-slave relationship i.e. Lytic cycle and Host-guest
relationship i.e. Lysogenic cycle.
Lytic Cycle
It is a master slave
relationship. The process of
lytic cycle of a phage virus
consists of the following stages:
The head determines what
kind of cell the virus particle will
be able to attach and assists the
insertion of the core into the host
cell. One of the bacteriophage
makes contact with the cell
surface of Escherichia coli
(E.coli) bacteria.
Proteins in its tail fibres Fig. 5.7 Insertion of Core into the Bacterium
'recognize' proteins on the
bacterial cell surface. The protein sheath contracts and the contents of the
bacteriophage head are injected into the bacterium.
Once within the cell, some of the bacteriophage genes take up the
control and use host's RNA polymerase (enzyme), tRNA, ribosomes etc. to
produce enzymes that will make many copies of the phage DNA.
As fresh copies of phage DNA accumulate, the proteins of the capsid
are being formed, as per other genes of the invader phage. The proteins then
collect around the nucleic acid forming the six sided head and tail. New
viruses appear within 12 to 15 minutes after infection.
The rest of the genes of the invader phage form the enzyme called
lysozyme. The lysozyme attacks the bacterial cell wall from the inner side.
Eventually the cell ruptures about 30 minutes after the insertion of the phage
DNA, and releases new viruses. The cycle is now complete and ready to be
repeated. This cycle of the phage is called lytic cycle.
Lysogenic Cycle
The lysogenic cycle is a
host guest relationship, which
is a peaceful relationship.
Certain DNA containing
bacterial viruses referred to as
temperate bacteriophage can
infect a cell without producing
progeny viruses or damaging
the host. This association is
called lysogeny i.e. host guest
relationship. It occurs by the
following mechanism:
After penetration, the
viral DNA directs production of
proteins that specially bind to
the virus DNA and turn off
replication of viral DNA.
The viral DNA then
integrates into and becomes a
physical part of the host
chromosome. The integrated
virus DNA is now called a
phage, or prophage.
The viral DNA replicates
whenever the bacterial chromosome
doubles, so all the progeny cells
inherit one copy of the
prophage in the chromosome
and thus carry the potential for
producing lysogenic or temperate
bacteriophage.
This cycle of phage is
called the lysogenic cycle.
Sometimes the phage becomes
reactivated and reproduces like
lytic phase.
Fig: 5.8 Life Cycle of a Bacteriophage
Usage of Bacteriophage in Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering can produce cells that contain recombinant DNA
and are capable of producing new and different protein. A. Harshey and M.
Chase used bacteriophage to prove DNA as the hereditary material.
Bacteriophage known as lambda can be used as vectors for carrying
foreign DNA. After lambda attacks a cell the DNA is released from the virus
and enters bacteria. Here it may direct the reproduction of many more viruses.
Each virus in the bacteriophage clone contains a copy of the foreign gene. A
clone is a large number of cloned bacteriophages that are identical to the
original virus. A genome is the full set of genes of an individual. A genomic
library is a collection of bacteria or bacteriophage clones; each clone contains
a particular segment of the DNA from a foreign cell.
When you make a genomic library an organisms DNA is simply sliced
up into pieces and the pieces are put into vectors (plasmids or viruses), that
are taken up by the host bacteria. The entire collection of bacteriophage
clones or bacteria that results therefore contains all the genes of the organism.
Phage library:Viral DNA is removed
from a bacteriophage such as lambda and is Science Titbits
used to make recombinant DNA. The virus
Virus studies helped to estab
containing the recombinant DNA infects a
lish molecular genetics. Now
host bacterium. Cloning is achieved when
molecular genetics helps us to
the virus reproduces and then leaves the host
understand viruses
cell.
Fig: 5.9 Way of Preparation of a Genomic Library
Make a list of the sequence involved in the lytic life cycle of a

bacteriophage.
5.4 LIFE CYCLE OF HIV

HIV is a retrovirus. It causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome or
AIDS. It was identified in 1984 by research team from Pasture Institute in
France and National Institute of Health in USA. In 1986 the virus was named
HIV. Luc Montagnier director of the World Foundation for AIDS research and
prevention and Francoise Barre-Sinoussi of the Pasteur Institute were
awarded Nobel Prize in 2008 for discovering the virus.
Life Cycle: The primary hosts of HIV are certain immune cells. These
are macrophages and lymphocytes. HIV encounters the white blood cells
collectively called T4 cells. How does HIV recognize T4 cells? Or what is the
reason of specification of HIV on its host cells? The initial step in the
penetration or entry of HIV into the cell is the binding of the virion
(glycoprotein) 120 envelope protein to the CD4 protein (a receptor) on the
surface of T4 cells. The virion gp 120 protein then interacts with a second
protein on the cell surface one of the chemokine receptors.
Next the fusion of the viral envelope with the cell membrane takes place and
the virion enters the cell by endocytosis. Once inside the host cell, the HIV particle
sheds its protective coat i.e. uncoating occurs. This leaves the double stranded viral
RNA in the cytoplasm along with virus enzymes. The enzyme called reverse
transcriptase synthesizes a double strand of DNA complementary (cDNA) to virus
RNA. The cDNA then integrates into the host cell DNA. The viral DNA can integrate
at different sites in the host cell DNA and multiple copies of viral DNA can integrate.
Integration is mediated by a virus encoded endonuclease (integrase).
The integrated DNA is now called provirus. Viral mRNA is transcribed

from the proviral DNA by the host cell RNA polymerase and translated into several
large proteins, which are then cleaved by the virus-encoded protease to form the
virion structural proteins. The immature virion forms in the cytoplasm and cleavage
by the viral protease occurs as immature virion buds from the cell membrane. It is
this cleavage process that results in mature, infectious virion.
Immunity is primarily the result of the action of the B lymphocytes and T

lymphocytes (white blood cells). T lymphocytes are also known as T cells. There
are different types of T cells e.g. helper T cells, which regulate immunity by enhancing
the response of other immune cells. The virus attacks helper T cells and certain other
cells and causes deficiency of the human immune system. The patient becomes
increasingly susceptible to other diseases. HIV preferentially infects and kills helpers
(CD4) T lymphocytes and the virus does not cause any disease itself. As the virus
affects the human immune system, so the virus has been named Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).
Fig: 5.10 Life Cycle of HIV (Retrovirus) 1. Attachment: Spike combines with receptor.
2. Penetration: Virus enters cell and uncoating occurs. 3. Reverse transcription: Produces
cDNA strand. 4. Break down: Viral DNA breaks down. 5. Replication: Produces double-
stranded cDNA. 6. Integration: Viral DNA passes on when cell reproduce. 7. Provirus:
The integrated DNA is known as provirus. 8. Transcription: Produces many strands of
mRNA. 9. Biosynthesis: Genomic RNA is formed. 10. Formation of protein: Structural
proteins are formed. 11. Maturation: Assembly of viral components. 12. Release:
Budding gives virus an envelope.
Symptoms of AIDS
An HIV infection can be divided into 3 stages: Asymptonic Carrier,
AIDS Related Complex (ARC), Full Blown AIDS.
Asymptonic Carrier: Symptoms that may include are fever, chills,
aches, swollen lymph glands and an ichy rash. These symptoms disappear and
there are no other symptoms for nine months or longer. Although the
individual exhibit no symptoms during this stage, he or she is highly
infectious. The standard HIV blood test for the presence of antibody becomes
positive during this stage.
AIDS Related Complex (ARC): The most common symptoms of
ARC are swollen lymph glands in the neck, armpit or groin that persist for
months. Other symptoms include night sweats, persistent cough, flu, and
persistent diarrhoea, loss of memory, inability to think clearly, loss of
judgment and depression.
Full Blown AIDS: In this final stage, there is severe weight loss
and weakness due to persistent diarrhoea and usually one of several
opportunistic infections. These are called opportunistic infections because
the body can usually prevent them, only a severely weakened immune
system gives the opportunity to get started. For example Pneumocystis
carinii pneumonia, Kaposi sarcoma (a form of cancer) etc are
opportunistic infection.
Opportunistic Diseases that may Attack an AIDS Victim
HIV does not cause any disease nor kills any person. It only destroys
T-cells of immune system. The decrease in the human immune system results
in the inability of the body to fight diseases. Getting this opportunity of less
or no immune system i.e. weak defence system a person suffering from AIDS
is attacked by diseases called opportunistic diseases. e.g., Kaposis sarcoma
(cancer or lesion on skin) is the most common opportunistic malignancies
associated with HIV and are considered AIDS defining illness.
Critical Thinking
How do retroviruses
differ from other animal
viruses?
Fig. 5.11 This photograph shows the multiple lesions of
the skin cancer, Kaposis sarcoma, on the arm of a patient
with AIDS.
Treatments of AIDS
The aims of HIV treatment is to reduce the viral load to an
undetectable level as long as possible and to reduce transmission by using
antiviral drugs.
Treatment: The decision to start therapy is a major one. It is
dependent upon the symptom status of the patient, the CD4 count, the viral
load (it is the quantity of virus at which it is detected in an organism) and
wishes of the patient. Starting therapy early will allow the potential
development of drug resistance and thereby reduce drug options for the
future. Currently, there is clear move to delay therapy until there are clinical
or immunological indications to commence and not just on the basis of high
viral load. Nevertheless, the risk of HIV related opportunistic infection
increases and treatment is less effective. The
higher the viral load the faster the CD4 count Critical Thinking
falls. So a potent combination is always used,
i.e. they are often on more than 10 different Why antibiotics do not
medications. AIDS patients are now surviving work against viruses?
for prolonged period.
Control Measures against the Transmission of HIV
It can be controlled by preventing transfer of body fluid (blood, serum,
semen etc), from patient to unaffected person. The following behaviour of
precautionary measure will prevent AIDS: (1) Do not use used syringes and
needles. (2) For blood transfusion, blood must be used after proper screening
for HIV. (3) Do not share toothbrushes, blades and towels with any one.
Special care to be taken at barbers shop or hair cutting saloons, beauty
saloons. (4) Surgical instruments must be properly sterilized. (5) AIDS is
primarily a sexually transmitted disease. Refrain from immoral sexual
activities and follow Islamic teachings to pass healthy, neat and clean life.
(6) Mother having HIV should not feed their babies. Shaking hands, hugging,
Predict from the given data the incidence and prevalence of AIDS over
a period of next five months.
GLOBAL SUMMARY, UNAIDS 2008 STATISTICS
Number of people living with HIV in December 2007
Adults: 30.8 million, Women: 15.5 million, Children <15: 2.5 million.
AIDS Death in 2007: Adults: 1.7 million, Children <15: 330 000
Courtesy: NACP, Pakistan & The News International, Islamabad, 01-12-09 (World AIDS Day).
coughing or sneezing and swimming in the same pool do not transmit HIV.
One cannot get AIDS from inanimate objects such as toilets, door knobs,
telephones, office machines and house hold furniture. AIDS is not transmitted
by mosquitoes and other insects.
AIDS in Pakistan
The first case of AIDS in a Pakistani citizen was reported in 1987 in
Lahore. In 1993, the first recognized transmission of HIV infection through
breastfeeding in Pakistan was reported in the city of Rawalpindi. Currently
classified by WHO/UNAIDS high-risk country for the spread of HIV
infection, Pakistan has recently witnessed changes in the epidemiological
trends of the disease owing particularly to rapid rise in infection among
injecting drug users. According to UNAIDS estimates, in 2009 there are
6000 registered cases and 97400 to 1,25,000 of estimated cases, or 0.1
percent of the adult population in Pakistan, are infected with HIV although
cases reported to the National AIDS Control Programme are less. Data
analysis indicates that most infections occur between ages of 20-44 years,
with men outnumbering females by a ratio 5 : 1.
List the factors responsible for the spread of AIDS.

Factors for Vulnerability to AIDS
a) High risk behaviour among Injecting Drug Users (IDUs)
b) Unsafe practices among sex workers and men who have sex with men
(MSM).
d) Inadequate blood transfusion screening and high level of professional
donors.
e) HIV infected mother can pass to the fetus via the placenta or to an in
fant via the mothers milk.
f) By use of contaminated needles of syringes, dental surgical instru
ments. Instruments used, and sharing of used towels at barbers saloons
or beauty saloons.

Correlate the social and cultural values of a country with prevalence of AIDS.
5.5 VIRAL DISEASES

In this section we will describe causative agent, symptoms, treatment,
transmission and prevention of hepatitis, herpes, polio and cotton leaf curl
disease.
Hepatitis
There are several types of hepatitis A,B,C,D,E, and G hepatitis (L. itis
inflammation) is an inflammation of liver.
Hepatitis A
Cause: Hepatitis A virus (HAV) causes hepatitis A. It is a typical
enterovirus. It has a single stranded, RNA genome and a nonenveloped
icosahedral nucleocapsid.
Transmission: HAV is transmitted by the fecal-oral route.
Symptoms: Fever, anorexia, nausea, vomiting and jaundice are
typical. Dark urine, pale feces are seen.
Treatment and Prevention: No antiviral therapy is available. Active
immunization with a vaccine containing inactivated HAV is available.
Vitamin B complex if anorexia is marked and medicine for jaundice is
given. Observation of proper hygiene e.g. sewage disposal and hand washing
after bowel movements is of prime importance.
Hepatitis B
Cause: It is caused by HBV. It has a
Science Titbits
partially stranded double stranded DNA,
HBV can also be transmitted
icosahedral nucleocapsid core and an
through surface contact with
envelope.
dried blood or other potential
Symptoms: It is similar to hepatitis ly infectious materials while
A, but more severe which can lead to HIV dries up on dry surface
cirrhosis and death. so it is not transmitted.
Transmission: The three main
modes of transmission are via blood, sexual contact and perinatally from
mother to newborn.
Treatment and Prevention: Alpha interferon and some nucleoside
analogues are effective against HBV. Vaccine is highly effective in preventing
hepatitis B. All blood transfusion should be screened.
Hepatitis C
Cause: It is caused by HCV. It is an enveloped virion, having single
stranded positive polarity RNA. (see glossary)
Transmission: It is primarily transmitted via blood.
Symptoms: Fever, anorexia, nausea, vomiting and jaundice are
common. Dark urine, pale faces are seen. Cirrhosis of liver may occur.
Treatment and Prevention: A combination of alpha interferon and
ribavirin is the treatment choice for chronic hepatitis C. No vaccine is
available. Blood transfusion should be screened as preventive measure.
Hepatitis D
Cause: It is caused by D virus or delta virus. It is a defective virus i.e.
it can replicate only in cells infected with HBV.
Transmission: HDV is transmitted by the same means as is HBV.
Symptoms: As in hepatitis B but more severe.
Treatment and Prevention: Treatment, immunization and prevention
same as HBV.
Hepatitis E
HEV is a nonenveloped, single stranded RNA virus. It is transmitted
through water. Clinically it resembles hepatitis A. There is no antiviral
treatment and vaccine.
Hepatitis G
In 1996 hepatitis G virus was isolated. The role of HGV in the
causation of liver disease has yet to be established.
Herpes
Cause: It is caused by herpes simplex virus type-1 and type-2. They have
double stranded DNA and icosahedral core surrounded by lipoprotein coat.
Transmission: HSV-1, is transmitted primarily in saliva, whereas
HSV-2 is transmitted by sexual contact.
Symptoms: HSV causes several forms of primary and recurrent diseases,
e.g. Gingivostomatitis, Herpes labialis, Keratoconjunctivitis, Encephalitis. HSV-2
causes several diseases, e.g. Genital Herpes, Neonatal Herpes.
Treatment: Antiviral drugs are used to S.T.S Connections

treat Herpes.
Suggest ways to rid human
Prevention: Avoid contact with vesicular civilization of viruses.
lesion or ulcer.
Poliomyelitis
Cause: It is caused by polio virus which is an enterovirus. The virus is
small, nonenveloped, have icosahedral nucleocapsid and a single stranded
RNA. The genome has a positive polarity i.e. on entering the cell, it functions
as the viral RNA.
Transmission: Polio virus is transmitted by the fecel oral route. It
replicates in the oropharynx and intestinal tract and spread to blood and
central nervous system.
Symptoms: The virus replicates in the motor neuron located in the
anterior horn of the spinal cord. Death of these cells results in paralysis of the
muscles innervated by those neurons. Non-paralytic poliomyelitis manifests
as aseptic meningitis with fever, headache and stiff neck. In paralytic
poliomyelitis flaccid paralysis is predominant finding. Painful muscle spasm
may also occur. The motor nerve damage is permanent.
Treatment: There is no antiviral therapy. Physiotherapy for the
affected muscles is important.
Prevention: Polio can be prevented by the killed (salk vaccine,
inactivated vaccine) and the live, attenuated vaccine (sabin vaccine, oral vaccine).
Cotton Leaf Curl Disease
Cotton leaf curl is a serious
disease of cotton and several other
malvaceous plant species The disease is,
at this time, endemic throughout
Pakistan and epidemic in Western India.
Affected cotton plants exhibit a range of
symptoms such as leaf curling, stunted
growth and a poor yield of cotton fibre.
In addition, affected plants may develop
leaf-like outgrowths from the veins on Fig: 5.12 Cotton Leaf Curl Disease
the undersides of leaves.
Cause: The viruses associated with the CLCuD complex on the Indian
subcontinent, five of which have been identified. These are all single
component begomoviruses (genus Begomovirus family Geminiviridae).
Transmission: This disease is transmitted by the whitefly Bemisia

tabaci.
Symptoms: The symptoms in cotton usually appear within 2-3 weeks of
inoculation by Bemisia tabaci and are initially characterized by a deep downward
cupping of the youngest leaves. This is followed by either upward or downward
curling of the leaf margins, swelling and darkening of the veins as well as the
formation of enations (outgrowth) on the veins, which frequently (dependant on
variety) develop into cup-shaped, leaf-like structures
Treatment and Prevention: Control of CLCuD is mainly based on
insecticide treatments against the insect vector (Bemisia tabaci). Roguing, the
removal of affected plants, particularly of ratoon cotton from the previous
seasons crop, is recommended but appears to have little affect in reducing the
incidence of the disease.
2002-03 357.7 2.05 359.58 265.0 2253

2003-04 489.5 14.12 503.62 514.2 4589
2004-05 1267.4 31.37 1298.77 987.1 9229
2006-07 1686.4 25.21 1711.63 1231.7 14063
2007-08 1432.8 2.5 1435.29 953.5 13778
2008-09 1440.1 40.25 1480.35 1115.7 16079
Source: The Pakistan Cottongrower, 2009, CCRI, Multan. Data 2005-06 not recorded.
Courtesy: Mr. Sardar Mustafa, PARC, Islamabad. Mr. Tariq Mehmood, CCRI, Multan
Source: Pakistan Poultry Association, Pakistan.

Courtesy: Dr. Khalid Naeem and Dr. Afzal, National Agriculture Research Council, Islamabad.

Interpret how viral infections cause global economic loss.
Skills: Interpreting and Communication.
Collect and Compare the number of fatalities caused by hepatitis,

herpes and polio combined with the total fatalities caused by AIDS.
National AIDS Control Programme, Ministry of health Government of
Pakistan. www.nacp.gov.pk.
Give reasons in favour of the statement prevention is better than cure
and present the arguments in class.
5.6 PRIONS AND VIROIDS

There are four exceptions to the virus like: Defective, pseudovirons,
prions and viroids. They are called atypical viruslike agents.
Prions
Structure: Prions are infectious particles that are composed solely of
proteins, i.e. they contain no detectable nucleic acid, so they are different from
viruses. Further more electron microscopy reveals filaments rather than virus
particles. Prions are much more resistant to inactivation by ultraviolet light and
heat than are viruses. Prions are composed of a single glycoprotein with a molecular
weight of 27,000- 30,000. This protein is encoded by a single cellular gene.
Diseases Caused by Prions in Man
Prions cause certain slow diseases called transmissible spongiform
encephalopathies, in man e.g. Kuru, Creutzfeldt-Jacob Disease, Fatal Familial
Insomni in man. Prions also cause diseases in animals e.g. Scrapie, Visna, Bovine
spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease).
Viroids
Viroids consist solely of a single molecule of circular RNA without a
protein coat or envelope. There is extensive homology between bases in the
viriod RNA, leading to large double stranded regions. The RNA is quite small
and apparently does not code for any protein. Nevertheless, viriods replicate
but the mechanism is unclear. They cause several plant diseases e.g. in potato,
coconut, apple, peach, etc., but are not implicated in human diseases.
SECTION I : MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Select the correct answer

1. Viruses are considered nonliving because
A) they do not mutate. B) they do not locomote
C) they cannot reproduce independently D) have nucleic acid.
2. Which of these are found in all viruses?
A) envelope, nucleic acid, capsid B) DNA, RNA and proteins
C) proteins and nucleic acid D) protein, carbohydrate, lipids
3. Which step in the lytic cycle follows attachment of virus and release of
DNA into the cell?
A) production of lysozome B) disintegration of host DNA
C) assemblage D) DNA replication
4. Which of these is a true statement?
A) viruses carry with them their own ribosome for protein formation
B) new viral ribosomes form after viral DNA enters the cell
C) viruses use the host ribosomes for their own ends
D) viruses do not need ribosomes for protein formation
5. Which part of an animal virus is not reproduced in multiple copies?
A) envelope B) protein
C) capsid D) ribosome
6. RNA retroviruses have a special enzyme that
A) disintegrates host DNA B) polymerises host DNA
C) transcribe viral RNA to DNA D) translates host DNA
www.learningall.com
7. Which of the following illness is caused by a retrovirus?

A) typhoid B) malaria
C) AIDS D) sleeping sickness
8. The HIV primarily infects
A) plasma cells B) helper T cells
C) all white blood cells D) red blood cells
9. Poliomyelitis affects
A) motor neuron B) sensory neuron
C) brain D) muscles
10. HIV attaches to
A) CD4 protein B) nucleoprotein
C) lipoprotein D) glycoprotein
SECTION II : SHORT QUESTIONS

1. What are the components of bacteriophage virus?
2. What do you mean by AIDS, HIV an TMV?
3. Why are viruses called obligate parasite?
4. Distinguish between the lytic and lysogenic cycle of becteriophage?
5. What are the uses of bacteriophage in genetic engineering?
6. How are viruses classified on the basis of their hosts?
7. What are the ways to control HIV?
8. How are viruses specific?
9. What is the difference between prions and viroids?
SECTION III : EXTENSIVE QUESTIONS

1. How viruses were discovered? Give the classification of viruses.
2. Describe the structure of bacteriophage, flu virus and HIV?
3. Discuss the parasitic nature of virus?

4. How does a virus survive inside a host cell protected from the immune
system?
5. Describe the life cycle of HIV? What are the treatment of AIDS and the
control measures against the transmission of HIV? What are the social
problems related to AIDS.
6. Write notes on: (a) hepatitis, (b) herpes, (c) poliomyelitis, (d) cotton leaf
curl disease.
7. Historically biologists thought that viruses, because of their simple
structure, evolved before cellular organisms. Based on what you have
learned about viruses, present an argument against this hypothesis.
ANSWER MCQS
1. C 2. C 3. B 4. C 5. C 6.C 7.C 8.B 9.A 10.A
SUPPLEMENTARY READING MATERIAL

1. Nester, E.W., C.E. Roberts, and M.T. Nester. Microbiology: A Human
Perspective. Wm. C. Brown, Dubuque, Iowa, 1995.
2. Madar, S.S. Biology, 6ht edition, WCB, McGraw-Hill, USA, 1998.
3. Taylor, D.J., Green, N.P.O. and Stout, G.W. Biological science 3rd Ed.
Cambridge university press, reprint, 2004.
USEFUL WEBSITES
1. www.newsscientist.com
2. www.prenhiall.com/~audesirk
3. www.mhhe.com/scienemath/biology/mader
www.learningall.com
www.learningall.com
195
CHAPTER 6
PROKARYOTES

6.1 Taxonomy of Prokaryotes (2 Periods)
6.2 Archaea (1 Period)
6.3 Bacteria: Ecology and Diversity (3 Periods)
6.4 Structure; Shape and Size of Bacteria (2 Periods)
6.5 Modes of Nutrition in Bacteria (2 Periods)
6.6 Growth and Reproduction in Bacteria (1 Period)
6.7 Importance of Bacteria (1 Period)
6.8 The Bacterial Flora of Human (1 Period)
6.9 Control of Harmful Bacteria (1 Period)
As we have seen in section 1.4 that all cells can be grouped into two
broad categories: prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. All prokaryotes have
a simple structure than eukaryotes. All prokaryotes lack a membrane bound
nucleus. They have no membrane bound organelles or microtubules and their
flagella are simple, compared to eukaryotes.
6.1 TAXONOMY OF PROKARYOTES

In 1969 American biologist Robert H. Whittaker proposed five-
kingdom system that incorporated the basic prokaryotic-eukaryotic
distinction which has been modified by Lynn Marguis and Karlene V.
Schwarts in 1988. They assigned a separate kingdom Monera for all the
prokaryotes.
www.learningall.com
158 BIOLOGY XI: Chapter 6, PROKARYOTES
Phylogenetic Position of Prokaryotes

In biology, phylogenetics (Greek: phyle, tribe, race and genetikos,
relative to birth, from genesis, birth) is the study of evolutionary relatedness
among various groups of organisms (e.g., species, populations). Phylogeny
(or phylogenesis) is the origin and evolution of a set of organisms, usually a
set of species.
The term "bacteria" was traditionally applied to all microscopic,
single-celled prokaryotes. However, molecular systematics showed
prokaryotic life to consist of two separate domains, originally called
Eubacteria and Archaebacteria, but now called Bacteria and Archaea that
evolved independently from an ancient common ancestor. These two domains,
along with Eukarya, are the basis of the three-domain system, which is
currently the most widely used classification system in bacteriology.
A major step forward in the study of bacteria was the recognition in
1977 by Carl Woese that archaea have a separate line of evolutionary descent
from bacteria. This new phylogenetic taxonomy was based on his discovery
that the genes encoding ribosomal RNA are ancient and distributed over all
lineages of life with little or no lateral gene transfer. Therefore rRNA are
commonly recommended as molecular clocks for reconstructing phylogenies,
and divided prokaryotes into two evolutionary domains as part of the three-
domain system, eubacteria, archaea and eukaryotes.
The ancestors of modern bacteria were single-celled microorganisms
that were the first forms of life to develop on Earth, about 4 billion years ago.
For about 3 billion years, all organisms were microscopic, and bacteria and
archaea were the dominant forms of life.
Gene sequences can be used to reconstruct the bacterial phylogeny,
and these studies indicate that bacteria diverged first from the
archaeal/eukaryotic lineage. The most recent common ancestor of bacteria
and archaea was probably a hyperthermophile that lived about 2.5 billion to
3.2 billion years ago.
6.2 ARCHAEA
The microorganisms Archaea were originally called archaebacteria
(GK; archaios, ancient). They are prokaryotic cells that are found in extreme
environments thought to be similar to those of the Earth. Further
investigations have revealed that these unusual microorganisms are different
enough from bacteria to be incorporated into their own domain, archaea.
BIOLOGY XI: Chapter 6, PROKARYOTES 159
Unifying Features of Archaea

The unifying features of archaea are: (1) The plasma membranes of
archaea contain unusual lipids that allow them to function at high
temperatures. (2) Lipids of archaea contain glycerol linked to branched chain
hydrocarbons in contrast to lipids of bacteria that contain glycerol linked to
fatty acids. (3) The cell walls of archaea do not contain peptidoglycan. In
some archaea the cell wall is largely composed of polysaccharides and in
others, the wall is pure protein. In a few there is no cell wall.(4) Methanogenesis
the ability to form methane, is one type of metabolism that is performed only
by some archaea. (5) Most archaea are autotrophs and use molecular
hydrogen and reduced elemental sulphur, carbon dioxide and water. (6) There
is no photosynthetic archaea. (7) The most fundamental difference between
archaea and eubacteria is in their nucleic acid e.g. rRNA. For instance, near
nucleotide number 910 (out of 1500) in one type of rRNA researchers have
found the following difference.
Eubactera: AAACUCAAA Archaea: AAACUUAAAG
Researchers have identified about a dozen of these molecular
signatures short rRNA sequences that distinguish eubacteria from archaea.
Interestingly in a number of cases, including the one above, the sequence in
archaea is identical to that of eukaryotes.
Many unique to
Eubacteria
Most Archaea Inhabit Extreme Environments

Many of the extreme environments to which the modern archaea are
adapted resemble conditions that were common to primitive Earth but
somewhat rare today. Archaea includes (a) Methogens, (b) Halophiles,
(c) Thermoacidophiles.
The methogens (methano, methane, gen, producer) are found in

anaerobic environments in swamps, marshes and in the intestinal tracts of human
and other animals where they produce methane from hydrogen gas and carbon
dioxide coupled to the formation of ATP. This methane, is also called biogas e.g.,
Methanobacterium formicom. The halophiles ( halo, salt, philes, lover ) grow
where nothing else can live, such as on fish and meat that have been heavily
salted to keep most bacteria away. The halophiles require high salt concentrations
for growth e.g. Holobacterium halobium. The thermoacidophiles (heat and acid
lovers) are isolated from extremely hot, acidic environments such as hot springs,
geysers, submarine thermal vent and around volcanoes e.g., Pyrulobus fumarii.
6.3 BACTERIA: Ecology and Diversity
The kingdom Prokaryotae is made up of organisms commonly known
as bacteria. The study of bacteria is called bacteriology and is an important
branch of microbiology. The Dutch scientist Anton van Leeuwenhoek first
discovered bacteria in 1674, using a single-lens microscope of his own
design. He called them animalcules and published his observations in a
long series of letters to the Royal Society. Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
introduced the name bacterium in 1882. It is derived from the Greek word
bacterion-a, meaning small stuff.
Occurrence of Bacteria in the Widest Range of Habitats
Eubacteria a huge group of prokaryotes is found just everywhere and
upon which nearly all other forms of life depend. Here we will discuss some
of the structural features that help eubacteria thrive in a great variety of
environments.
Bacteria having flagella can move toward more favourable places or away
from less favourable one. Pili help bacteria stick to each other and to surfaces
such as rocks in flowing streams or to the lining of human intestine. Bacteria form
endospores. Under harsh conditions the outer cell may disintegrate, but the
endospore survives all sorts of trauma, including lack of water and nutrients,
extreme heat or cold and most poisons. When the environment becomes more
hospitable, the endospore absorbs water and resume growth.
Some endospores can remain dormant for centuries. Not even boiling
water kills most of these resistant cells. The mass of branching cell chains or
filaments is a structural feature unique to the eubacterial group called
actinomycetes. These bacteria are very common in soil, where they break down
organic substances. The filaments enable the organism to bridge dry gaps
between soil particles.
Leptospira, Borrelia
Diagnostic Features of the Major Groups of Bacteria

Historically, bacteria have been subdivided taxonomically into groups
based on their cell wall types (Gram positive or Gram-negative), presence of
endospore, metabolism, growth and nutritional characteristics, physiological
characteristics and other criteria. The table 6.2 shows the diagnostic features
of the twelve major groups of bacteria.
CYANOBACTERIA - The Most Prominent Photosynthetic Bacteria
Cyanobacteria (Gk. kyanoa, blue and bacterion, rod) are Gram-
negative. The habitat of cyanobacteria is any damp place, salt water, fresh
water, in moist soil, on damp rock tree trunks, hot springs (with
temperature up to 85 C). The mode of life may be epiphytic or symbiotic.
They are symbiotic with a number of organisms, such as liverworts, ferns
and even at times invertebrates like corals. In association with fungi they
form lichens. It is presumed that cyanobacteria were the first colonizers of
land during the course of evolution. The forms of life are that they (a) may
be unicellular and solitary (b) in the form of colonies (c) in the form of
filaments attached end to end.
The prokaryotic features of cynobacteria are: (a) nuclear
membrane is absent (b) the chromosomes do not have protein combined
with DNA (c) membrane bound organelles are absent. Cell wall contains
muramic acid, which is found only in prokaryotes. The cell wall is often
surrounded by mucilaginous sheath. The genetic material is a circular
strand of DNA. Many ribosomes are present in the cytoplasm.
Photosynthesis takes place in the extensive system of membrane,
which is located in the outer zone of the cytoplasm. Oxygen is released
during photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria use phycobilins as accessory
pigment. Phycocyanin a blue pigment is their predominant phycobilins.
They are believed to be responsible for first introducing oxygen into the
primitive atmosphere.
Sexual reproduction is absent in cyanobacteria. Asexual
reproduction takes place by: (a) Cell division e.g. unicellular form.
(b) Fragmentations is the breaking of the body of the organism into small
pieces of fragments. It takes place at weak points next to heterocyst
forming hormogonia. (c) Certain cells of the filament, may become
enlarged. The walls become thick. They contain reserve food and DNA.
These are the resting stages called akinetes. After resting stage, the wall
of the akinete ruptures and a short filament of cells is released. (d) Spore
formation is not common. Sometimes the heterocyst forms endospores.

The nuclear material divides and then the cytoplasm of the heterocyst
divides within the parent cell wall and many spores called endospores are
formed. Each spore forms a new Nostoc filament.
About one third of cyanobacteria are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen.
In most cases nitrogen fixation occurs in heterocycts, which are thick walled
without nuclei. In Pakistan cyanobacteria e.g. Nostoc, Anabaena are
purposely cultivated to increase the soil fertility, because of nitrogen fixation
by these organisms.
Fig. 6.1 Cyanobacteria
6.4 STRUCTURE: Shape and Size of Bacteria

A typical bacterium consists of cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm,
genetic material, and specialised structures outside the cell wall.
The cell wall is the outermost component common to all bacteria. Cell
wall is absent in Mycoplasma species, which are bounded by cell membrane.
Some bacteria have surface feature external to the cell wall such as capsule,
flagella and pili.
The cell wall is a multilayered structure located external to the
cytoplasmic membrane. It is composed of an inner layer of peptidoglycan
and an outer membrane that varies in thickness and chemical composition
depending upon the bacterial type. The peptidoglycan provides structural
support and maintains the characteristic shape of the cell.
Peptidoglycan is a complex interwoven network and surrounds the
entire cell and is composed of a singly covalently linked macromolecule. It is
found only in bacterial cell wall. The term

peptidoglycan is derived from the peptide
and sugars (glycan) that make up the
molecule. Synonyms for peptidoglycan are
murein and mucopeptide.
The capsule is a gelatinous layer
covering the entire bacterium. It is
composed of polysaccharide, except in
the Anthrax bacillus, which has a capsule
of polymerized D-glutamic acid. The
sugar components of the polysaccharide
vary from one species of bacteria to
another. The capsule may play a role in the
adherence of bacteria to human tissues.
Fig: 6.2 Peptidoglycan
Cell Walls of Gram-Positive and Gram
Negative Bacteria
The structure, chemical composition and thickness of the cell wall
differ in Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. (1) The peptidoglycan
layer is much thicker in Gram-positive than in Gram-negative bacteria. Some
Gram-positive bacteria also have fibre of teichoic acid that protrude outside
the peptidoglycan, whereas Gram-negative bacteria do not have it. (2) In
contrast, the Gram-negative have a complex outer layer consisting of
lipopolysaccharide, lipoprotein and phospholipid. Lying between the outer
Periplasmic space
Fig: 6.3 Cell Wall of Bacteria

membrane layer and the cytoplasmic membrane in Gram-negative bacteria is

the, which is the site,in some species of enzymes called -lactamases that
degrade penicillins and other -lactum drugs.
Diversity of Shapes and Sizes in Bacteria
Bacteria have three main shapes: spherical, rod shaped and spiral.
Spherical: A coccus (kokus) is a spherical bacterium Cocci (koksi)
generally appears in groups: (1) the groups consisting of two cells are called
diplococci, (2) in the long chain called streptococci, (3) in irregular clumps that
look like bunches of grapes called staphylococci, (4) Cocci may form packet of
4 cells called tetrad and (5) packet of eight cells called octate or sarcina. The
example of cocci are: Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis.
Rod shaped: Bacilli are straight or rod shaped organisms. They are
found in: (1) pairs, called Diplobacillus, (2) very short and ovoid, called
Coccobacilli, (3) curved into a form resembling comma called Vibrio, (4) look
like stack of coin called palisade. The examples of rod shaped bacteria are
Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas.
Spiral: Spirochetes are spiral bacteria usually occur singly, seldom form
colonies. They are thin walled flexible spiral rods. Relatively spirochetes are
large and flexible e.g. Treponema pallidum.
Size of Bacteria: Bacteria range in size about 0.1 to 600 m over a
single dimension.
Endospore Formation in Bactera
A single bacterium forms a single spore by a process called
sporulation. The spore contains bacterial DNA, a small amount of cytoplasm,
ribosomes, peptidoglycan, very little water and most importantly, a thick,
keratin like coat. As the spore develops
within the vegetative cell, so it has been
named as endospore.
During germination the cell takes
up water and enlarges. At the same time
the wall disintergrates and a vegetative
cell emerges. Endospore formation is
not a means of reproduction since there
is no increase in cell number during the
spore cycle.
Fig: 6.4 Endospore
Fig: 6.5 Forms of Bacteria

Motility in Bacteria
Motile bacteria can move using flagella, bacterial gliding, twitching
motility or changes of buoyancy. A unique group of bacteria, the spirochetes,
have structures similar to flagella, They have a distinctive helical body that
twists about as it moves. In twitching motility, bacteria use their pili as a
grappling hook, repeatedly extending it, anchoring it and then retracting it
with remarkable force.
Fig: 6.6 Location of Flagella in Bacteria
Bacterial species differ in the number and arrangement of flagella on

their surface; some have a single flagellum i.e. monotrichous, a flagellum at
each end i.e amphitrichous, clusters of flagella at the poles of the cell i.e.
lophotrichous, while others have flagella distributed over the entire surface
of the cell i.e. peritrichous. Many bacteria (such as E. coli) have two distinct
modes of movement: forward movement (swimming) and tumbling. The
tumbling allows them to reorient and make their movement a three-
dimensional random walk.
Motile bacteria are attracted or repelled by certain stimuli in behaviors

called taxes: these include chemotaxis, phototaxis and magnetotaxis. Several
species move inside host cells by usurping the cytoskeleton, which is
normally used to move organelles inside the cell.
Structure of Bacterial Flagellum
Many bacteria have fine
thread like outgrowth called
flagella (singular: flagellum). It
is composed of a single protein
flagellin, arranged in interwined
chains, which are noncontractile
protein, and lacks microtubules.
Flagella are about twenty
nanometers diameter and up to
20 micrometers in length.
Bacterial flagella consists of
three parts: a basal body, a hook
and a filament (fig. 6.7). The
basal body originates just
beneath the cell membrane. It is Fig: 6.7 Structure of Bacterial Flagellum
a complex structure that
produces rotatory motion. The
hook connects the basal body to the filament. The filament is a hollow
structure which consists of several protein chains twisted into a helical
structure. The 360° rotation of the flagellum causes the cell to spin and move
forward.
Genomic Organization in Bacteria
The genetic material of a typical bacterium, Escherichia coli, consists
of a single circular DNA molecule and is composed of approximately 5 × 106
base pairs. This amount of genetic information can code for about 2000
protein.
Most bacteria have a single circular chromosome that can range in size
from only 160,000 base pairs in the endosymbiotic bacteria Candidatus
Carsonella ruddii to 12,200,000 base pairs in the soil-dwelling bacteria
Sorangium cellulosum. Spirochetes of the genus Borrelia are a notable
exception to this arrangement, they contain a single linear chromosome. Apart
from bacterial chromosome many bacteria have accessory rings of DNA
called plasmids. To date, 8 complete bacterial genomes have been sequenced.
6.5 MODES OF NUTRITION IN BACTERIA

Bacteria can be classified on the basis of method of obtaining energy
and carbon. Carbon metabolism in bacteria is either heterotrophic, where
organic carbon compounds are used as carbon sources, or autotrophic,
meaning that cellular carbon is obtained by fixing carbon dioxide.
Autotrophic Nutrition in Bacteria
Autotrophy means self nourishing organisms. An autotrophic organism
can obtain all the carbon it needs from CO2 that is present in the atmosphere
and that dissolves readily in water. There are two major groups of autotrophs:
photosynthetic and chemoautotrophic.
Photosynthetic Bacteria: The photosynthetic bacteria contain unique
type of chlorophyll called bacteriochlorophyll. The chlorophyll is
incorporated in the membrane of their mesosomes, or dispersed in the
cytoplasm. Like green plants, the photosynthetic bacteria use the energy of
sunlight to make carbohydrates from CO2.
The examples of photosynthetic bacteria are Green sulphur bacteria,

purple sulphur bacteria, purple non-sulphur bacteria. They use hydrogen
sulfide (H2S) instead of water.
Chemoautotrophic Bacteria: Certain colourless bacteria make
carbohydrates from inorganic substance. They do not use light energy. They
oxidize inorganic substance. The energy produced by this oxidation is then
used to make carbohydrates. Sulphur bacteria oxidize sulphur to produce
energy.
The energy thus produced is used by bacteria to make carbohydrate (CH2O)n.
The examples of chemoautotrophic bacteria are Nitrifying bacteria, Sulphur bacteria.

Heterotrophic Nutrition in Bacteria
Heterotrophic Bacteria cannot synthesize their organic compounds

from simple inorganic compounds, so they depend on the organic compounds
present in the environment. There are two types of heterotrophic bacteria:
(a) Saprotroph bacteria (b) Parasitic bacteria.
Saprotroph Bacteria contain extensive enzyme system that break

down the complex substances of humus to simpler compounds. The
bacteria then absorb the simpler compounds, for example many soil
bacteria. eg., Pseudomonas, Azobacter. www.learningall.com
Parasitic Bacteria obtain their food from the host. Parasitic bacteria
include pathogenic (disease causing) bacteria e.g. Streptococcus pneumoniae.
Respiration in Bacteria
Respiration may be aerobic or anaerobic, accordingly bacteria are known as

aerobic bacteria e.g Pseudomonas and anaerobic bacteria e.g Spirochaeta.
Some are facultative bacteria e.g E.coli which grow either in the presence or
absence of oxygen. The bacteria which require a low concentration of oxygen
for growth are known as microaerophilic e.g Campylobacter.
Pigment Composition and Photosynthesis Mechanism in Cyanobacteria

Cyanobacteria contain a blue pigment called phycocyanin and a red
pigment called phycoerythrin. The simplest mixture of chlorophyll and blue
green pigment in some species produces the blue green colour that gives the
entire group its common name. But those species that contain red pigments,
appear red, purple brown or even black.
Cyanobacteria release oxygen during photosynthesis, which takes place
in the extensive system of membrane. It is located in the outer zone of the
cytoplasm. Their photosynthetic system closely resembles that of eukaryotes
because they have chlorophyll a and photosystem II. They use water as an
electron donor and generate oxygen during photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria use
phycobilins as accessory pigments. Photosynthetic pigments and electron
transport chain components are located in thylakoid membrane linked with
particles called phycobilisomes. Phycocyanin (a blue pigment) is their
predominant phycobilin and CO2 in them is assimilated through Calvin cycle.
Whereas in photosynthetic bacteria as we have already seen bacteriochlorophyll
is located in mesosome and use light energy to make carbohydrates from carbon
dioxide.
6.6 GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION IN

BACTERIA
Bacteria reproduce by binary fission. Because one cell gives rise to two
progeny cells, bacteria are set to undergo exponential growth (Logarithmic growth).
Number of cells: 1 2 4 8 16
Exponential 20 21 22 23 24
Thus one bacterium will produce 16 bacteria after four generation.
Phases of Growth
The curve in graph is known as a logarithmic or exponential curve. Such
growth curves can be converted to straight lines by plotting the logarithms of
growth against time. The growth cycle of bacteria has four major phases.
Lag Phase-No Growth: During the lag phase the bacteria are adapting
to their new environment and growth has not yet achieved its maximum rate.
The bacteria for example may be synthesising new enzymes to digest the
particular spectrum of nutrients available in the new medium.
Log Phase-Rapid Growth Period: The log phase is the phase when
growth is proceeding at its maximum rate, closely approaching a logarithmic
increase in numbers when the growth curve would be a straight line.
Stationary Phase-Bacterial Rate of Death and Reproduction is
Equal: Eventually growth of the colony begins to slow down and it starts to
enter the stationary phase where growth rate is zero, and there is much greater
competition for resources. Rate of production of new cells is slower and may
cease altogether. Any increase
in the number of cells is offset
by the death of other cells, so
that the number of living cells
remains constant. This phase
is a result of several factors,
including exhaustion of essential
nutrients, accumulation of toxic
waste products of metabolism
and possibly, if the bacteria
are aerobic, depletion of
oxygen.
Fig: 6.8 Typical Growth of Curve of a
Bacterial Population
Death Phase-Bacteria Start Dying: During the final phase, the death
phase or phase of decline, the death rate increases and cells stop multiplying.
Reproduction in Bacteria
The two types of reproduction in
bacteria are asexual reproduction and
sexual reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction: Bacterial
reproduction is mostly asexual. Bacteria
reproduce asexually by cell splitting
called fission. As the bacteria are divided
into two so it is called binary fission.
There is no mitosis in bacteria. First DNA
is replicated. Then the two chromosomes
move apart into separate nuclear region.
The plasma membrane pushes inward to
form a central transverse septum
(partition wall). Next the cell wall grows
inward within the transverse septum and
eventually divides the cell into two. The
interval time until the completion of next
division is known as generation time.
Under favourable condition i.e. when
there is sufficient amount of water and
nutrients and temperature is suitable,
bacteria can divide rapidly. It takes 20 Fig: 6.9 Binary Fission in Bacteria
minutes to daughter cells to grow and
start dividing again.
Sexual Reproduction: The sexual reproduction in bacteria is the
genetic recombination i.e. DNA of two bacteria combine to give rise to a new
type of bacteria called recombinant. The genetic recombination in bacteria
occurs by conjugation, transduction and transformation.
Science Titbits
The doubling (generation) time of bacteria ranges from as little as 20 minutes
for Escherichia coli to more than 24 hours for Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
The doubling time varies not only with the species but also with the amount
of nutrients, the temperature, the pH and the environmental factors.
Conjugation
Indirect proof of genetic recombination in bacteria was proved
indirectly by J. Lederberg and E.L. Tatum (1946) and they were awarded
Nobel Prize for this and other research works.
Experiment of Lederberg and Tatum
They took wild type of Escherichia coli bacteria. The bacteria were
grown on minimal medium containing inorganic salts, glucose and from these
materials wild type Escherichia coli can synthesize all substances necessary
for growth and reproduction.
Irradiation with X-rays on these wild type bacteria caused mutation.
Two types of nutritional mutants were taken out of many.
One strain called Y-10 required amino acid threonine, leucine and
vitamin thiamine in the minimal medium for growth. Another strain called Y-
24 required amino acids phenylalanine, cysteine and vitamin biotin in the
minimal medium for growth.
The mixed cultures of strain Y-10 and Y-24 were grown in nutrition
medium containing all the four amino acids and the two vitamins. Three types
of bacteria were obtained (a) one were like parent Y-10 (b) another were like
the parent Y-24 and (c) third group were like the wild type, as it could grow in
the minimal medium.
From this experiment it was
concluded that the offspring of the two
mutant types were wild type and it is only
possible when actual genetic recombination
takes place.
Direct Proof of Genetic Recombination
With the invention of electron
microscope, the direct proof of genetic
recombination was obtained. Mixture of the
two mutants was observed using electron
microscope. The mutants are easily
distinguished by their structure. The
bacterium that will give the DNA is called
Fig: 6.10 Sexual reproduction in
donor and the bacterium that will receive Bacteria by forming conjugation
the DNA is called the recipient. bridge
Method of Gene Transfer in Bacteria

Bacterial conjugation
involves a plasmid that can be
transferred during the conjugation
process. In some instances,
however a part of bacterial
chromosomal genes are also
transferred. Not all plasmids are
involved in bacterial conjugation.
Only one type of plasmid, the 'F'
(fertility) plasmid, also called the
F-factor takes part in conjugation.
It forms pilus. The pilus forms the
conjugation bridge, connecting
the donor and the recipient
bacterial cells. The F-plasmid
replicates and transfers a copy to
the recipient cell.
Transduction
The transfer of genetic
material from one bacterium to
another bacterium through the
third party-the virus, is called
transduction.
Transformation
When bacteria die or when
they are reproducing very rapidly,
they release fragments of their
DNA into their immediate
Fig: 6.11 Generalized transduction by a
environment. Transformation is bacteriophage
the absorption of DNA into a cell.
As a result the cell is transformed
into a new type of cell. These cells are called transformed cells.
Bacterial cells that release DNA fragment are called donor cells. If
one of the released DNA fragment contacts a cell of a species of bacteria that
is capable of transformation, the DNA fragment may bound to the recipient
and take inside.
Mutations and Genetic Recombinations in Bacteria

Bacteria, as asexual organisms, inherit identical copies of their parent's
genes (i.e., they are clonal). However, all bacteria can evolve by selection on
changes to their genetic material DNA caused by genetic recombination or
mutations. Mutations come from errors made during the replication of DNA
or from exposure to mutagens.
Mutation rates vary widely among different species of bacteria and
even among different clones of a single species of bacteria. Genetic changes
in bacterial genomes come from either random mutation during replication or
"stress-directed mutation", where genes involved in a particular growth-
limiting process have an increased mutation rate.
Skills: Performing and Recording
Draw a graph to present the time taken in each phase of bacterial

growth and the number of bacteria.
6.7 IMPORTANCE OF BACTERIA

Bacteria are useful as recyclers of nature and they have also ecological
importance.
BACTERIA: Recyclers of Nature
Bacteria are vital in recycling nutrients. Many important steps in
nutrient cycles depend on bacteria. e.g. nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen fixing bacilli
bacteria, genus Rhizobium, that live in root nodule of legume convert nitrogen
gas to ammonium. Saprotrophic soil bacteria, forming ammonia, decompose
the nitrogenous wastes of animals and plants. Chemosynthetic bacteria

Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter then oxidise ammonia to nitrate, a process
called nitrification. Denitrifying bacteria converts nitrates into nitrogen gas
and the process is called denitrification. Bacteria recycle both organic
matters and inorganic substances e.g. minerals, water, ammonia, carbon
dioxide etc. Carbon dioxide is produced by fermentation, which is released in
the atmosphere. The green plants fix this carbon.
Ecological Importance of Bacteria
Bacteria and fungi are the only organisms that decompose dead
animals and plants. The organic matter of dead organisms is converted into
humus. It contains nutrients and increases soil fertility for the growth of
plants. It also increases the water retaining capacity of the soil.
Economic Importance of Bacteria
Bacteria are both beneficial as well as harmful. Here we will discuss
these two aspects of bacteria.
Harmful Bacteria
Parasitic Bacteria attack plants and cause various diseases e.g., fire
blight in apple, ring diseases in potatoes, crown gall etc., many human
diseases are caused by bacteria e.g. tuberculosis, diphtheria, tetanus, cholera,
leprosy, typhoid fever, meningitis, sore throat, whooping cough (pertusis)
etc. Bacteria produce acids, which convert wine to vinegar. Bacteria cause
decay of wood, leather, fabrics etc. Bacteria spoil the food materials by
decomposition.
Beneficial Bacteria
Help in Digestion: Some bacteria in the large and small intestine help
to emulsify fats taken as food and thereby promote the digestion and
absorption of fats by the host. In cattle, bacteria help in digestion by
decomposing cellulose and starch.
Synthesis of Vitamins: Some bacteria can synthesize vitamin K and
vitamin B. These bacteria e.g. Escherichia coli are grown in culture and
produce vitamin B12 for commercial purposes.
Bacteria in Industry: Bacteria are widely used in many industrial
processes. It is easier and cheaper to use cultured bacteria than to produce the
substances by synthetic process. Bacteria are used in the manufacturing of
acetic acid (vinegar), acetone, lactic acid, butanol (alcohol), several vitamins,
curing cheese and flavouring of tobacco. Bacteria are also used in coffee and
leather (tanning) industries.
Bacteria in Food Industry: Dairy products such as yogurt (yoghurt,

yoghourt), cheese, butter etc. are produced with the help of bacteria.
Bacteria as Food: The large number of bacterial cells moving with
the partially digested plant material through the alimentary canal undergoes
digestion too. When they do, they provide the animal with most of its amino
acids and vitamins.
Antibiotics: Most of the antibiotics are obtained from various species
of actinomycetes group, e.g., Streptomycin, Auromycin, Teramycin etc.
Biogas: Bacteria decompose sawages, garbages, dungs, stool and during the
process produce methane gas. It is used as fuel. Biogas plants are used in villages.
Biogas is 54-70% methane, whereas the natural gas is about 80% methane.
A Single Cell Protein: A relatively new food source is single cell
protein. Its production began in the late 1960. The term refers to protein
obtained from the large scale growth of microorganisms such as bacteria,
yeast and other fungi and algae. The protein may be used for human
consumption or animals.
Use of Bacteria in Research
Microorganisms e.g.,bacteria, yeast, Neurospora etc have been
extensively used in research. We owe to bacteria for many of the biological
achievement for the benefit of human being. For example 1n 1952 Alfered D.
Hershey and Martha Chase used T2 bacteriophage and bacteria to prove that
DNA is the hereditary material.
Use of Bacteria in Technology
Biotechnology Products: Free-living organisms in the environment
that have a foreign gene inserted into them are called transgenic organisms.
Bacteria are used to clone a gene or to mass-produce a product. These
products include hormones and similar types of proteins or vaccines e.g.,
insulin, growth hormones, clotting factor VII for haemophilia etc.
Protection and Enhancement of Plants: Genetically engineered
bacteria can be used to promote the health of plants. For example, bacteria
that normally live on plants and encourage the formation of ice crystals have
been changed from frost-plus to frost- minus bacteria.
Bioremediation: Naturally occurring bacteria that eat oil can be
genetically engineered to clean up beaches after oil spills.
Science Titbits
Escherichia coli has been used to produce protein products of
recombinant DNA technology, such as insulin, human growth hormone,
etc. Genetic engineers often use a plasmid vector to introduce new genes
into plant cells. The plasmid they use is from soil bacterium
Agrobacterioum tumefaciens. Saccharomyces ceresvisiae (yeast) has been
used to produce hepatitis B vaccine, alpha and gamma interferoms.

List some biotechnologies utilizing bacteria.
Chemical Production: Organic chemicals are often synthesized by

using bacteria to carry out the synthesis. Today it is possible to manipulate the
genes that code for these enzymes. For example genetically engineered
bacteria are used to produce phenylalanine.
Mineral Processing: Genetic engineering may enhance the ability of
bacteria to extract copper, uranium and gold from low-grade sources.
Important Bacterial Diseases In Man
Bacteria cause many diseases in man such as pneumonia, anthrax,
tetanus, botulism, diptheria, meningitis, gonorrhea, whooping cough,
pneumonia, plague, urinary tract infection, typhoid fever, gastritis, peptic
ulcer, cholera, tuberculosis, syphilis, etc. Here we will discuss only cholera,
typhoid, tuberculosis and pneumonia.
Science Titbits
The plague, or Black Death which killed 100 million people during the mid-
fourteenth century, is caused by highly infections bacteria, Yersinia pestis,
spread by the fleas carried by infected rats. In 1994, an outbreak of plague
occurred in India for the first time in 30 years. Tuberculosis, a bacterial disease
has killed millions of peoples in the past and also thousand of people all over
the world including Pakistan. Streptococcus pneumoniae, causes pneumonia
has killed a large number of people in the past.

Narrate how bacterial diseases have affected human societies in the past.
Cholera
Symptoms: Watery diarrhoea in large volume is the hallmark of
cholera.
Causative Agent: Cholera is caused by the bacteria Vibrio cholerae.
Treatment: It consists of prompt, adequate replacement of water and
electrolytes, either orally or intravenously. Antibiotics such as tetracycline are
not necessary, but they do shorten the duration of symptoms and reduce the
time of excretion of the organisms.
Prevention: It is achieved mainly by public health measures that
ensure a clean water supply. The vaccine composed of killed organisms has
limited usefulness. A live vaccine is available in certain countries. The uses of
tetracycline for prevention are effective. Prompt detection of carriers is
important in limiting outbreaks.

Relate the causes of food poisoning and the sanitation condtions in
restaurants.
Typhoid
Symptoms: In typhoid and other enteric (pertaining to intestine) fever
infection begins in the small intestine. The onset of illness is slow, with fever
and constipation. High fever, delirium, tender abdomen and enlarged spleen
occur. Rosy spots i.e. rose coloured macules on the abdomen, are associated
with typhoid fever but occur rarely.
Causative Agent: It is caused by bacteria Salmonella typhi.
Treatment: Antibiotics should be used in patients who are chronic
carriers of S.typhi.
Prevention: It is prevented mainly by public health and personal
hygiene measures. Hand washing prior to food handling, pasteurisation of
milk, and proper cooking of poultry, eggs and meat are all-important.
Vaccines are available for the prevention of typhoid.
Tuberculosis
There are different types of tuberculosis e.g. meningeal TB, miliary
TB, bone TB, skin TB, abdominal TB etc. Here we will discuss only
pulmonary TB.
Symptoms: Mild fever lasts for 7-14 days and mild dry cough. Bluish
red raised tender cutaneous lesions on the shins and less commonly on the
thighs may occur in primary tuberculosis. In secondary tuberculosis there is
low-grade intermittent fever usually in the evening, night sweats, weight loss,
anorexia, malaise and weakness, dry hacking cough with blood stained
sputum, dull ache in the chest due to pleurisy etc.
Causative Agent: Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
Treatment: Multiple-drug therapy is used to prevent the emergence of
drug resistant mutants during the long 6 to 9 month duration of treatment or
DOTS (directly observed treatment short course) of only two months
duration.
Prevention: Prevention of the spread of the organism depends largely
on the prompt identification and adequate treatment of patients who are
coughing up the organism. The use of masks and other respiratory isolation
procedures to prevent spread to medical personnel is also important. A
vaccine containing a strain of live Mycobacterium bovis (Bacillus Calmette-
Guerin or BCG) can be used to induce partial resistance to tuberculosis.
Pneumonia
Symptoms: Pneumonia often begins with sudden chill, cough and
pleuritic pain. Sputum is red brown rusty colour.
Causative Agent: Streptococcus pneumoniae.
Treatment: Most pneumococci are susceptible to penicillins and
erythromycin.
Prevention is better than cure, so the measure to prevent any

epidemic are : Massive programs of immunization for vaccine preventable
diseases e.g. tuberculosis, hepatitis B, polio etc must be launched.
Detection of cases at the earliest and to treat them properly is the goal.
Complete quarantine of persons or domestic animals, which have been
exposed to communicable diseases. Supply of safe drinking water. Control
of vector disease e.g. mosquitoes, house flies at larval stages and adult
stage. To educate people for improving hygiene practices like washing of
hands. If any communicable disease occurs it should be notified
immediately e.g. pneumonia, polio etc.

Suggest how can we stop any epidemic to occur in future?
Important Bacterial Diseases In Plants

The important bacterial plant diseases are leaf spots, blights, soft rots,
wilts and galls.
Leaf spot
Symptoms: The most common symptoms of plant diseases are discrete
or spreading type lesion on leaf blade. It is caused by bacterial pathogens
through the action of toxins they produce.
Cause: It is cause by Xanthomonas campestris on tomato and pepper.
Pseudomonas syringae on tobacco, Aplanobacter sepedanium causes ring
disease of potato
Prevention: Prevention of contact between the pathogen and the host,
use of disease free seeds.
Blight
Symptoms: When the necrotic symptoms develop very rapidly damage
the plant cell wall structure, and effect organ or shoot or even the whole plant
soon gets killed. The symptom is termed blight. In some cases blight
symptoms appear initially at or near the leaf tip, often at the margin then
spread downwards and inwards drying up the leaf and the whole plant may
get blighted soon e.g. maize, rice and oat etc.
Cause: Xanthomonas oryzae cause blight disease in rice, Eriwinia
anylovora causes fire blight of pears and apples
Prevention: Disease free seeds, suitable location and removal of
diseased plant by physical method.
Soft Rot
Symptoms: When the cells of plant tissue die because of the action of
pathogen, produce pectolytic and cellulolytic, rot type symptoms. Rotting
may affect any organ of plant including flowers and fruits. When the pathogen
produces peptolytic enzyme, plant cell soon separates from one another
because of maceration and the affected host tissue loses its coherence and
leakage of water takes place from the effected cells, which are killed soon.
The necrotised tissue becomes wet to touch and soft inconsistency hence
termed soft rot. Such rot is of fast spreading nature and damage plant organs
very rapidly.
Cause: Erwinia atroseptica in potato, Corynebacterium causes ear rot
of wheat.
Prevention: Removal of diseased plants by physical method.

Wilting
Symptoms: Interference with the upward transport of water with
dissolved nutrients from roots through the stem into the leaves leads to loses of
turgidity in the leaf blade, which becomes limp. Such loss of turgidity in the leaf
blade increased with time and ultimately leads to wilting of leaf and drying.
Cause: Pseudomonas solanacaerum causes wilt disease of potato.
Xanthomonas campestris causes important wilt diseases.
Prevention: Selection of disease free seeds, selecting proper dates for
planting and suitable location and allowing proper spacing between the
plants.
Galls
Symptoms: These are localised outgrowth mostly small but may be
very large in some diseases.
Cause: Rhizobium leguminosarum causes small galls called root
nodule in legumes. Pseudomonas savastonoi cause a small gall in olive plant
known as olive knot. Agrobacterium tumifaciens causes large galls in many
plants. Xanthomonas campestris causes galls on cotton.
Prevention: Crop rotation, removal of disease plants and use of
disease free seeds.
Fig. 6.12 Root nodules: The bacteria Fig. 6.13 Crown gall disease on a tobacco
live in these nodules of legumes plant caused by Agrobacterium
www.learningall.com
6.8 THE BACTERIAL FLORA OF HUMANS

There are approximately ten times as many bacterial cells as human
cells in the human body, with large numbers of bacteria on the skin and in the
digestive tract. Normal flora is the term used to describe the various bacteria
(and fungi) that are permanent residents of certain body parts, especially the
skin, oropharynx, colon and vagina.
Benefits of the Bacterial Flora to Humans

The members of some normal flora play a role in the maintenance of
health and the causation of disease in three significant ways: They can cause
disease, especially in having an impaired immune system and weak, feeble
individuals. Although these organisms are nonpathogens in their usual
location, they can be pathogens in other parts of the body. They constitute a
protective host defence mechanism. The nonpathogenic resident bacteria
occupy attachment sites on the skin and mucosa that can interfere with
colonization by pathogenic bacteria. The ability of members of the normal
flora to limit the growth of pathogens is called colonization resistance. If the
normal flora is suppressed, pathogens may grow and cause diseases.
They may serve a nutritional function. The intestinal bacteria produce
several B vitamins and vitamin K.
Poorly nourished people who are treated
with oral antibiotics can suffer vitamin Critical Thinking
deficiencies as a result of the reduction Although many bacteria can
in the normal flora. However since cause dangerous diseases in
germ-free animals are well nourished, general, bacteria make life on
the normal flora is not essential for earth possible. Why?
proper nutrition.
6.9 CONTROL OF HARMFUL BACTRERIA

Chemical Methods to Control Bacteria
Antiseptics, disinfectants and chemotherapeutic agents are used as
chemical methods for microbial control.
Antiseptics: The chemical substances
used on living tissues that inhibit the growth of
microorganisms are called antiseptics.
Disinfectants: Oxidizing and reducing
agents are important chemical agents for
disinfection e.g. Halogens and phenols,
hydrogen peroxide, potassium permanganate,
alcohol and formaldehyde etc. These chemicals
inhibit the growth of vegetative cells and are
used on nonliving material.
Chemotherapeutic Agents: These
chemicals and antibiotics destroy the natural Fig: 6.14 Joseph Lister the first
defence and stop the growth of bacteria and other person to use antiseptic.
microbes in the living tissue e.g. sulphonamide,
tetracycline, penicillin etc.

Justify why it is important to disinfect articles of food and utensils
before use?
Physical Methods to Control Bacteria
Sterilization Process: It is the process in which physical agents like
steam, dry heat, gas, filtration and radiation are used to control bacteria.
Sterilization is destructive to all life forms. This process is used to sterilize
surgical apparatus. It is also used to preserve food items on large-scale e.g. milk,
meat etc.
High Temperature: It is usually used in microbiological labs for
control of microbes. Both dry heat and moist heat are effective. Moist heat
causes coagulation of proteins and kills the microbes. Dry heat causes
oxidation of chemical constituents of microbes and kills them.
Radiations: Certain electromagnetic radiations below 300 nm are
effective in killing of microorganisms. Gamma rays are in general use for
sterilization process.
Membrane Filter: Heat sensitive compounds like antibiotics, seras,

etc can be sterilized by means of membrane filters.
Pasteurization: It is the process to kill microorganisms by heating at
temperature enough to kill nonspore forming bacteria e.g. milk is pasteurised
by heating at 71° C for 15 seconds and at 62 ° C for 32 minutes. It does not
change the taste of the milk. Louis Pasteur introduced pasterization. It
minimizes the infector for typhoid and tuberculosis.
Low Temperature: Food can be preserved for several days by
keeping it at a temperature between 10° 15° C e.g. milk, vegetables, cheese
and meat.
Freezing: Food can be frozen at 10° C to -18° C for several weeks to
several months e.g. meat, vegetables.
Drying: The removal of water is called dehydration. Food is
dehydrated so that in dry condition bacteria may not grow e.g. dried milk and
dried meat.
Preservatives: Adding preservatives inhibit the growth of bacteria.
Acid is added to lower the pH. The contents of salt are increased so that water
in the food is not enough for bacterial growth. Some chemicals like potassium
metabisulphite are added. Pickles, candies, jam and breads are preserved by
such methods.
Skills: Initiating and Planning
Acquire some basic microbiological and safety techniques.

1. Cyanobacteria
A) are poisoned by oxygen B) are not widely distributed
C) have chlorophyll D) have chloroplast
2. Cyanobacteria, unlike other types of bacteria that photosynthesise, do

A) not give off oxygen B) give off oxygen
C) not have chlorophyll D) not have a cell wall
3. Pili are made up of pilin, which is
A) carbohydrates B) lipids
C) protein D) triglycerides
4. Most pathogenic bacteria cause disease by
A) directly destroying individual cells of the host
B) depriving the host of their nutrients
C) producing toxins
D) depriving the host of oxygen
5. Chemosynthetic bacteria
A) are autotrophic
B) use the sun rays
C) oxidize inorganic compounds to acquire energy
D) both A and C are correct
6. A bacterium with flagella all around is
A) monotrichous B) lophotrichous
C) amphitrichous D) peritrichous
7. Conjugation is facilitated by
A) capsule B) pili
C) flagella D) both pili and flagella
8. Bacterial membrane differ from eukaryotic membrane in
A) lacking proteins B) lacking lipids
C) lacking polysaccharide D) lacking cholesterol
9. Bacterial membrane also contains enzymes for

A) respiration B) photosynthesis
C) protein synthesis D) secretion
10. Facultative anaerobes
A) require a constant supply of oxygen
B) are killed in an oxygenated environement
C) do not always need oxygen
D) are photosynthetic
11. Ancient cyanobacteria found in fossil stromatolites, were very important
in the history of life because they
A) were probably the first living things to exist on Earth
B) produced oxygen in the atmosphere
C) are the oldest known archaea
D) extracted heat from the atmosphere, cooling Earth.
12. The bacteria that cause tetanus can be killed only by prolonged heating at
temperatures considerably above boiling. This suggests that tetanus
bacteria
A) are endotoxin B) are autotrophic
C) produce endospore D) have peptidoglycan
1. Write the pigment composition of cyanobacteria.

2. Do you know the differences between bacteria and archea?
3. What are the morphological forms of bacteria?
4. Give the functions of following in bacteria.
(i) ribosomes (ii) cell membrane (iii) nucleoid
(iv) plasmid (v) mesosomes (vi) slime capsule
(vii) flagella (viii) cell wall (ix) pili
5. How the mechanism of photosynthesis in cyanobacteria is similar and

different from that of plants?
6. Draw and label structure of flagellum.
7. How chemosynthetic bacteria are autotrophic in nature?
8. Which chemical methods are, used to control microbes?
9. Give physical methods to control microbes?
10. Name any two bacteria that cause diseases in plants.
11. Name any five diseases caused by bacteria in man.
12. Define the term normal flora.
13. What is chemical composition of cell wall of bacteria?
14. Distinguish between:
Lysosome and mesosome, Peptidoglycan and muramic acid, Gram
positive and Gram negative bacteria, Lytic and lysogenic bacteria,
Pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria, Autotrophy and heterotrophy,
Photosynthetic and chemosynthetic bacteria, Mutation and mutant,
Chromosome and a bacteriophage, Bacteria and mitochondria,
Prokaryotes and eukaryotes, Cyanobacteria and bacteria.
15. What are plasmids?
16. How do bacteria survive under unfavorable conditions?
17. List five ways in which bacteria are beneficial to man?
18. Why cyanobacteria are considered as the most prominent of the
photosynthetic bacteria?
19. What are the benefits of bacterial flora to human?
1. Discuss taxonomic and phylogenic position of Prokaryotes.

2. Justify occurrence of bacteria in widest range of habitats.
3. Distinguish between conjugation, transformation, transduction in
bacteria? What does each accomplish?
4. Describe shape, size, and structure of bacteria

5. Give an account of economic importance of bacteria.
6. Give a detail account of Archaea.
7. Explain the use of bacteria in research and technology.
8. Bacteria exhibit unmatched diversity in methods of obtaining nutrition.
Explain?
9. How might life on earth be different if bacteria had not evolved?
10. How prokaryotes are important for biosphere and human society?
www.learningall.com
ANSWER MCQS
1. C 2. B 3. C 4. C 5. D 6. D 7. B 8. D 9. A 10. C
11. B 12. C
1. Jawetz. E and Levinson W. Medical Microbiology and Immunology. Sixth

Edition Lange Madical Books/McDraw-Hill 2001.
2. Audesirk G. and Audesirk T. Biology Life on Earth. Prentice Hall, Upper
Saddle River, New Jersy. 1996.
3. Sinha A.K. Fundamentals of Plant Pathology, Kalyani Publishers. New
Delhi. 2001.
USEFUL WEBSITES
1) biology.about.com/library/weekly/aa030101a.html
2) biology.about.com/library/weekly/aa022201a.html
3) http://www.accessescellence.org/AB/BC/
www.learningall.com
CHAPTER 7
PROTISTS AND FUNGI

7.1 Protists The Evolutionary Relationships
(1 Period)
7.2 Major groups of Protists (4 Periods)
7.3 General characteristics of Fungi (1 Period)
7.4 Diversity among Fungi (3 Periods)
7.5 Importance of Fungi (2 Periods)
Kingdom Protista consists of a vast assortment of primarily aquatic

organisms whose diverse body forms, types of reproduction, modes of
nutrition, and life styles make them difficult to characterize. Biologists
estimate that there are as many as 200,000 living species of protists
unicellular or simple multicellular organisms that possess a eukaryotic
cellular organization. The word protist, from the Greek, meaning the very
first, reflects the idea that protists were the first eukaryotes to evolve.
Protists are defined by exclusion from other groups.
7.1 PROTISTS The Evolutionary Relationship

Eukaryotic cells, the unifying feature of protists, are common to complex
multicellular organisms from three other kingdoms (fungi, animals, and plants)
but clearly separate protists from members of the kingdom Prokaryotae
(bacteria). Eukaryotic cells have nuclei and other membrane-bounded organelles
such as mitochondria and plastids. There is no universal acceptance among
biologists about what comprises a protist. Many biologists, interpret the protist
kingdom broadly to include heterotrophic protists (the protozoa, slime molds, and
water molds) and autotrophic protists (the algae).
BIOLOGY XI: Chapter 7, PROTISTS AND FUNGI 191
Polyphyletic Origin
The protist kingdom is a polyphyletic group of organisms; that is,
protists do not share a single common ancestor. Any eukaryotic organism not
considered a fungus, animal, or plant is classified in the protistic kingdom
solely for convenience. If a cladist were classifying these organisms into
monophyletic kingdoms, kingdom Protista would be split into numerous
kingdoms-perhaps as many as twenty.
Protists Exibit Ramarkable Variation
The size varies considerably within the protist kingdom, from
microscopic protozoa to giant kelps, which are brown algae that can reach 60
metres (almost 200 feet) in length. Although most protists are unicellular,
some have a colonial organization (a colony is a loose aggregation of cells),
some are coenocytic (multinucleate but not multicellular), and some are
multicellular. Unlike animals, fungi, and plants, multicellular protists have
relatively simple body forms without specialized tissues.
Methods of obtaining nutrients differ widely in kingdom protista. The
autotrophic protists, e.g. the algae have chlorophyll and photosynthesize as
plants do. Some of the heterotrophic protists, the water molds, obtain their
food by absorption as fungi do. Other heterotrophs i.e. the protozoa and slime
molds resemble animals i.e. they ingest food derived from the bodies of other
organisms. The mode of life shows that many protists are free living while
others form symbiotic association with different organisms. These
associations range from mutualism, a more or less equal partnership in which
both organisms benefit, to parasitism in which one organism lives on or in
another and is metabolically dependent on it. Most protists are aquatic and
live in oceans or fresh water. They make up a part of the plankton.
Reproduction is quite varied in the kingdom protists. All protists
reproduce asexually and many also reproduce sexually with both meiosis and
syngamy (the union of gametes). However most protists do not develop
multicellular sex organs, nor do they form embryos.Most protists are motile at
some stage of their life cycle and have various means of locomotion.
Movement may be accomplished by amoeboid motion i.e. extending cell
protrusions, by waving cilia or by lashing flagella. Many protists use a
combination of two or more means of locomotion e.g. both flagellar and
amoeboid motion.
Protists are divert group of organisms. The manner in which

protists are currently divided is artificial.
192 BIOLOGY XI: Chapter 7, PROTISTS AND FUNGI
7.2 MAJOR GROUPS OF PROTISTS

Protists include four major groups: Protozoa, Algae, Myxomycota and
Oomycota. We will discuss the salient features of major groups of protists.
PROTOZOA: The Animal Like Protists
The name protozoa comes from the Latin word meaning first
animals (sing, protozoon). The name was first given to animal like
organisms that are not multicellular and the term protozoa is used today to
designate an informal group of protists that ingest food. Protozoa are
polyphyletic group.
Protozoans are mostly aquatic, fresh water e.g. Amoeba, Paramecium,
parasitic e.g. Plasmodium, Entamoeba histolytica. Some are marine e.g.
Actinipods. Body of the protozoan is a single mass of cytoplasm and consists
of one cell containing all the structures of a typical cell. Protozoan show all
the features of life e.g. nutrition, respiration, locomotion, homeostasis,
reproduction etc. Protozoans have organelles called vacuoles to perform
special function. Their food is digested inside food vacuoles. Fresh water
protozoan have contractile vacuoles for the elimination of water. Some
protozoans have shell e.g. foraminifera.
Reproduction takes place by asexual and sexual method. The organs
of locomotion are pseudopodia e.g. Amoeba, cilia e.g. Paramecium, flagella
e.g. Trypanosoma, the parasitic protozoans do not have any specific means of
locomotion e.g. Plasmodium (malarial parasite). Regeneration is common in
protozoans. Protozoans form resistant cyst to overcome unfavourable
conditions.
Amoebas
They are free-living organisms found in fresh water, marine, soil, and
also as parasites of animals. Amoeba move and feed with the help of
pseudopodia e.g. Amoeba proteus, Entamoeba histolytica
Zooflagellates
Protozoa that move by means of flagella are called zooflagellates.
Trypanosoma (fig. 7.2 a) is a human parasitic flagellate. It is transmitted by
the bite of tse-tse (se-se) fly and it is the cause of African sleeping sickness.
Choanoflagellate is a marine or fresh water flagellate, is sessile and
remains attached by a stalk. Flagellum is surrounded by a delicate collar
which resembles the collar cell of sponges (fig. 7.2 b).
Fig: 7.1 Amoeba proteus Entamoeba histolytica
Fig: 7.2 (a) Trypanosoma
Fig: 7.2 (b) Zooflagellates A colonial Choanoflagellate
Ciliates
Ciliates get their name from a Latin word meaning eyelash, a name
that is description of the fact that all parts of these cells are covered with hair
like extensions called cilia e.g. Paramecium, Stentor and Vorticella.
Science Titbits
Trichonymphas are complex specialized
flagellates with many flagella. They live as sym
bionts in the gut of the termites. It contains a bac
terium that enzymatically converts the cellulose of
wood to soluble carbohydrates that are easily di
gested by the insect.
Trichonympha
Fig: 7.3 Ciliates
Fig: 7.4 (a, b) Foraminifera (c, d) Actinopods
Foraminifera and Actinopods

These are marine protozoans. They produce tests or shells. In
foraminifera (commonly called forams) shells are made up of calcium. In
actinopods shells are made up of silica.
Apicomplexans
This is a large group of parasitic protozoa. Some cause diseases in man e.g.
Plasmodium (malarial parasite).
ALGAE: The Plant like Protists

Algae (singular. alga) are found in ocean, freshwater ponds, lakes,
streams, hot springs, polar ice, moist soil, trees and rocks. 50 to 60%
photosynthesis is carried out by algae. Algae may be unicellular, filamentous
or multicellular. Filaments are composed of multicellular structures, which
lack cross-walls (coenocytes) or distinct cells. In multicellular algae e.g. sea
weeds, the body is branched or leaflike called thallus. A thallus has no root,
stem, leaves and vascular tissues. The photosynthetic pigments found in algae
are chlorophyll a, yellow and orange carotenoids, xanthophyll and
phycoerythrin. Algal life cycle shows extreme variations. All algae except the
red algae (Phylum Rhodophyta) have forms with flagellated motile cells in at
least one stage of their life cycle. Algae differ from the plants in this respect
that the sex organs in algae are unicellular, the zygote is not protected by the
parent body and embryo is not formed. Algae is classified into six phyla. The
basic features and examples of each phylum are being discussed here.
Euglenoids: These are small fresh-water organisms. They are plant like in their
pigments. One third of all genera have chloroplasts, the rest do not. Those
which lack chloroplasts ingest or absorb their food. e.g Euglena (fig. 7.5)
Fig: 7.6 Dinoflagellate
Science Titbits
Most dinoflagellates are unicellular
and are extremely numerous and have
occasional population bloom. These
blooms frequently colour the ocean
Fig: 7.5 Euglena water orange, red or brown and are
known as red tides.
Dinoflagellates: Many dinoflagellates are bounded by protective cellulose

plates impregnated with silica. Most have two flagella. They vary in colour
from yellow, green to brown (fig. 7.6).
Diatoms: Diatoms (fig. 7.7) are the most numerous unicellular algae in the
oceans. They are also plentiful in fresh water. The structure of a diatom is often
compared to a box because the cell wall has two halves, with the larger halves
acting as a lid for the smaller half.
Fig: 7.7 Diatoms. Fig: 7.8 Brown algae Laminaria
Brown Algae: Brown algae range from small forms with simple filaments to
large multicellular forms up to
75 metre in length, live in
cooler marine water. The large
brown algae are called kelps
Red Algae: Red algae are
multicellular present chiefly in
warmer seawater growing in
both shallow and deep waters.
They can be up to a metre long
attached to rocks or other
substances by a basal holdfast
(fig. 7.9).
Fig: 7.9 Red Algae
Chlamydomonas
Spirogyra
Desmid Ulva
Volvox Colony
Fig: 7.10 Green Algae

Green Algae
Science Titbits
Green algae live in
the ocean but are more likely Green algae are believed to be closely related
found in fresh water and can to the first plants because both of these groups:
even be found on land e.g. Have a cell wall that contains cellulose. Pos
Chlamydomonas, Spirogyra, sess chlorophyll a and b. Store reserve food as
starch inside the chloroplast.
Volvox, Chlorella, Ulva.
Fungi Like Protists: Myxomycota and Oomycota
MYXOMYCOTA: Slime Molds
Usually plasmodial slime molds exist as a plasmodium. It is a diploid
multinucleated cytoplasmic mass enveloped by slime sheath. At times
unfavourable to growth, such as during drought the Plasmodium develops
many sporangia. A sporangium (Gk. spora, seed, and angeion, vessel) is a
reproductive structure that produces spores by meiosis. In plasmodial slime,
spores release a haploid flagellated cell or an amoeboid cell. Eventually two
of them fuse to form a diploid zygote that feeds and grows, producing a
Fig: 7.11 Life Cycle of Plasmodial Slime Mold (Physarum)

multinucleated Plasmodium once again. Characteristics of slime molds are

interesting to biologists because the life cycle involves many changes in form.
These different forms resemble other types of protists.
Science Titbits
Slime molds are organisms that are fungus like in one phase of their life
cycle and amoeba like in another phase of their life cycle. Slime molds are
similar in some respect to fungi i.e. body is filamentous, saprotroph,
formation of zygote, and having nonmotile spores. Slime molds differ from
fungi due to the presence of motility in the life cycle.
OOMYCOTA: The Water Molds

Oomycotes include water molds, white rusts and downy mildews. The
characteristics of oomycotes are: All of the members of the group are either
parasites or saprotrophs. The cell wall contains cellulose, not chitin like fungi.
Their life cycles are characterized by gametic meiosis resulting in a diploid phase.
The filamentous structures are called hyphae as in fungi. The hyphae are
aseptate i.e. without intercellular cell wall. Most oomycotes live in fresh water or
salt water or in soil. Some are plant parasites. A few aquatic oomycotes are
animal parasites. Zoospores are motile and have two flagella. Zoospores are
produced asexually in sporangium. For sexual reproduction there are two types of
Fig: 7.12 Life cycle of Oomycotes

gametangia. The female gamentagium is called oogonium and the male

gamentagium is called an antheridium. The antheridia contain numerous male
nuclei, which are functional male gametes and the oogonia contain from one to
eight eggs which are female gametes. The flowing of the contents of an
antheridium into an oogonium leads to the individual fusion of one or more pairs
of male nuclei with eggs. This is followed by the thickening of the cell wall
around the resulting zygote or zygotes. This produces a special kind of thick
walled cell called an oospore. The structure gives the phylum its name i.e.
phylum oomycota e.g. Phytopthora infestans.
Importance of Protists to Humans
Some dinoflagellates at times produce a neurotoxin that can kill fish
and cause paralytic shell fish, poisoning humans who eat shell fish that have
fed on these dinoflagellates and suffer paralysis of the respiratory muscles.
Usually the dinoflagellates are an important source of food for small animals
in the ocean.
Diatoms are an important source of food and oxygen for heterotroph
in both fresh water and marine ecosystem. Brown algae not only provides
food to organisms, but is also harvested for human food and for fertilizer in
several parts of the world.
Red algae are economically important. The mucilaginous material in
the cell walls of certain genera of red algae is a source of agar used
commercially to make capsules for vitamins and drugs, as a material for
making dental impression and a base for cosmetics. In laboratory agar is a
culture medium for bacteria.
Green algae are important producers. Chlorella has been used as an
experimental organism in research in photosynthesis. A relatively new food
source is single cell protein (SCP). In Japan and Taiwan dried Chlorella is
sold as health food.
Malaria caused by Plasmodium, is one of the world's most common
serious infectious disease. According to world health organization about one
to two million people die each year from malaria.
Other important protozoans are Entamoeba histolytica causes amoebic
dysentery, Trypanosoma causes sleeping sickness. Some amoeba like
Acanthamoeba usually free living but can produce opportunist infections such
as eye infections in contact lens users. In oceans, fresh water lakes and ponds,
are zooplanktons that feed on phytoplanktans, and are important as primary
consumers in the food chain.
Potato plants infected with Phytopthora infestans show individual

leaflets, with small, brown, dead and blighted areas. It obtains its nourishment
from the mesophyll cell by short specialized branches known as haustoria
(singular, haustorium) which penetrate them. Some sporangia may fall to the
ground and infects tubers. As a result the whole plant is killed. It can be
prevented by not planting infected tubers. All diseased parts of the infected
plant should be destroyed before lifting tubers.
Fig. 7.13 Phytopthora infestans

Explain what clues protists provide with respect to the evolution of the
three kingdoms of eukaryotes.
7.3 GENERAL CHARACTRERISTICS OF FUNGI

Fungi do not have root stem or leaves. Fungi (singular, fungus) can
live in darkness and also in light. The study of fungi is called mycology. The
person who studies fungi is called mycologist.
Fungi occupy a wide range of habitats, aquatic, terrestrial and as
parasites on plants and animals. The mode of life shows that fungi can be
parasites, saprotrophs or mutualists. Fungi range in size from the unicellular
yeasts to the large toadstool. Fungi lack chlorophyll, so they are
nonphotosynthetic. Thus mode of nutrition is heterotrophic. Digestion takes
place outside the body and nutrients are absorbed directly. Cell walls are rigid
containing chitin as fibrillar material. If carbohydrate is stored, it is usually as
glycogen and not starch. The thallus or the body of most fungi is a
multicellular structure known as mycelium. A mycelium (Gk: mycelium,

fungus filaments) (pl. mycelia) is a network of filaments called hyphae (Gk:
hyphae, web). Hyphae give the mycelium quite a large surface area per
volume of cytoplasm, and this facilitates absorption of nutrients into body of
the fungus. The hyphae may be nonseptate (aseptate) or septate. Nonseptate
(L. septum, wall) hyphae have no cross walls, are multinucleated i.e. they
have many nuclei in the cytoplasm, such hyphae are called coenocytic
hyphae. e.g. Rhizopus. Septate fungi have cross wall e.g. Penicillium. Fungi
are non-motile, lack basal bodies and do not have flagella at any stage of their
life cycle. They move towards a food source by growing towards it. A fungus
reproduces both asexually and sexually.
Fig. 14 (a) A Generalised life cycle for Fungi. Fungi alternate between sexual and
asexual reproductive stages
Why Fungi are Classified as Separate Kingdom?

According to five kingdom system of classification, 'Fungi' is now a
separate kingdom. Fungi have resemblance with plants in: (1) having cell wall
(2) lack centriole (3) are non-motile (4) produce spore and sporangium. Fungi
different from plants as : (1) fungi have no cholorophyll (2) fungi never have
flagella (2) fungi are saprotrophs.
Fungi resemble animals. Both: (a) are heterotrophs (b) lack cellulose in
their cell wall and contain chitin so it is thought that fungi and animals arise
from common ancestors. Fungi are different from animals. Fungi: (i) have cell
wall (ii) are absorptive heterotrophs (iii) are non-motile.
So fungi are neither plants nor animals. They show nuclear mitosis.
During nuclear mitosis nuclear envelope does not break, instead the mitotic
spindle forms within the nucleus and the nuclear membrane constricts
between the two clusters of daughter chromosomes. In some fungi nuclear
envelope dismantles late.
Fungi were originally classified in the plant kingdom, but biologists
today recognize that they are not plants. Interestingly, recent studies suggest
that fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants. Because fungi
are distinct from plants, animals and other eukaryotes in many ways, they are
assigned to a separate kingdom-fungi.
7.4 DIVERSITY AMONG FUNGI

The kingdom fungi are diverse group of more than 100000 known
species most of which are terrestrial. The ancestry of fungi which evolved
about 570 millions years ago, has not been determined. It has been suggested,
that fungi evolved from red algae because both fungi and red algae lack
flagella in all stages of their life cycle. Fungi are mostly multicellular
eukaryotes of varied structure that share a common mode of nutrition.
Classification of Fungi
Classification of fungi into four main groups is based primarily on the
type of their sexual reproductive structures and methods of reproduction.
However, these groups also differ in the type of hyphae and some other
characters.
Zygomycota (Conjugating Fungi)
The phylum or division zygomycota are called zygospore fungi, and
mainly saprotrophs living on plant remains, on bakery goods, on vegetables and
fruits. Some are parasites of small soil protists. Hyphae are nonseptate, mycelium
well developed and branching. Asexual reproductions takes place by conidia or
spores. e.g. Rhizopus nigricans. It is known as black or bread molds. It is a mass
of mycelium. Asexual reproduction in Rhizopus takes place by the sporangia
containing spores.
Sexual reproduction takes place by conjugation. Conjugation occurs
only between a member of a plus (+) strain and one of a minus (-) strain. When
hyphae (stolon) of opposite mating types meet, hormones are produced that
cause the tips of the hyphae to come together and to form gametangia,
structures that produce gametes. These structures become separated from rest of
Fig: 7.15 Reproduction in Rhizopus
the mycelium by the formation of septa. Plus and minus nuclei then fuse to
form a diploid nucleus, the zygote. The zygote develops into a zygospore. The
wall of the zygospore is thick and resistant to unfavourable conditions. The
division or phylum name refers to the zygospore. Zygospores germinate under
favourable conditions and divide by meiosis. The wall of the zygospore splits
and hyphae grows upward. The tip of the hypha develops into a sporangium.
The sporangium contains many nuclei. The wall of the sporangium ruptures and
the spores are liberated. Each spore grows into a new plus or minus strain of
mycelium. Thus the life cycle of Rhizopus is continued.
Q. What is the purpose of sporangiophores?

Ascomycota (Sac Fungi)

Ascomycotes are the members
of phylum or division ascomycota. It is
a large group. Ascomycotes are also
known as sac fungi because their
sexual spores are produced in little sacs
called asci (sing: ascus). Their hyphae
usually have septa but the cross walls
are perforated so that cytoplasm can
move from one compartment to other.
Ascomycotes reproduce both asexually
and sexually.
Asexual reproduction involves Fig: 7.16 Asci and Ascospore
production of spores called conidia
(singular: conidium) or conidiospores
(Gk: konis, dust, and spora, seed).
Conidia vary in shape, size and may
be multicellular. There are no sporan-
gia in Ascomycotes.
The conidia develop directly
on the tips of modified aerial hyphae
called conidiophores. When released
conidia are wind blown. Conidia
occur in various shapes, sizes and
colours in different species. The
colour of conidia is what gives the
characteristic brown, blue, pink or Fig: 7.17 Conidia
other tint to many of these molds.
In unicellular yeasts, asexual
reproduction takes place by budding.
In this process a small protuberance
(bud) grows and eventually separates
from the parent cell. Each bud can
grow into a new yeast cell. Yeast also
reproduces asexually by fission.
Sexual reproduction takes
place after two hyphae grow together
and their cytoplasm mingles. Within Fig: 7.18 Budding in Yeast
this fused structure, nuclei from the parent hyphae pair but do not fuse. New
hyphae develop from the fused structure and the cells of these hyphae are
dikaryotic. The n + n hyphae form a fruiting body known as ascocarp.
The asci develop in the ascocarp. The asci are usually surrounded by
sterile hyphae. An ascocarp is a fruiting body. It is a reproductive structure
where spores are produced and released. Ascocarps can have different shapes.
In cup fungi they are cup shaped, in molds they are flask shaped and in the
morels they are stalked and crowned by bell shaped structure.
Within an ascus the two nuclei fuse and form a diploid nucleus the
zygote which undergoes meiosis to form four haploid nuclei. This process is
usually followed by one mitotic division of each of the four nuclei, resulting
in eight haploid nuclei. Each haploid nucleus develops into an ascospore.
So there are usually eight haploid ascospores within the ascus. In most
ascomycotes the asci become swollen as they mature and then they burst
liberating the ascospores, which are then wind blown if lands in a suitable
location and germinates to form a new mycelium. e.g. in Yeasts, Neurospora
etc. Sac fungi produce sexual conidiospores. During sexual reproduction, asci
within a fruiting body produce conidiospores. The examples of sac fungi are
Yeasts, Neurospora, Morels,Truffles.
Basidiomycota (Club-Fungi)
Basidiomycotes are included in the phylum Basidiomycota. Included
in this phylum are mushrooms, bracket fungi, rust, smut and puffballs. These
structures are all fruiting bodies called basidiocarps. Basidiocarp contains
the basidia. Each basidium is a club shaped structure. It is a hyphal cell on
the tip of which develops four basidiospores, from which this phylum takes
its name. Each individual fungus produces millions of basidiospores and each
basidiospore has the potential to give rise to a new primary mycelium.
Hyphae of primary mycelium are composed of monokaryotic (n) cells. The
mycelium of a basidiomycote e.g. Agaricus (Mushroom), consists of mass of
white, branched, thread like hyphae that occur mostly below ground. The
hyphae are divided into cells by septa. The septa are perforated and allow
cytoplasmic streaming between cells.
Although club fungi occasionally do produce conidiospores asexually,
they usually reproduce sexually. A hyphae of a primary mycelium encounters
another monokaryotic (n) hyphae of a different mating type and the two
hyphae fuse. However the two haploid nuclei remain separated from each
other. In this way a secondary mycelium with a dikaryotic (n + n) hyphae is
produced, in which each cell contains two

haploid nuclei. The n + n hyphae of the
secondary mycelium grows and forms
compact mass, called buttons, along the
mycelium. Each button grows into a
fruiting body known as mushroom. A
Fig. 7.19 Main Steps of Life Cycle
mushroom, which consists of a stalk and a of a Mushroom
cap, is more formally referred to as
basidiocarp. Each basidiocarp actually consists of interwined hyphae that are
matted together.
Fig: 7.20 Life Cycle of a Mushroom

The walled off ends of the tightly packed hyphae become the club shaped
basidia. The lower surface of the cap usually consists of many thin perpendicular
plates called gills that radiate from the stalk to the edge of the cap.
On the gills of the mushroom haploid nuclei of the dikaryotic cells
fuse to form diploid zygotes. Meiosis then takes place forming four haploid
nuclei that move into finger like projections forming basidiospore, which are
released later.
Deuteromycota (Imperfect Fungi)
These fungi are called imperfect fungi because of the absence of the
sexual stage in their life cycle. Imperfect fungi always reproduce asexually by
forming conidiospores.
Usually cellular morphology and biochemistry indicate that these
fungi are sac fungi which have lost the ability to reproduce sexually. These
fungi live either saprophytically or parasitically on plants. Several imperfect
fungi have economic importance. The examples of imperfect fungi are:
Penicillium, Aspergillus, Alternaria and Fusarium.
Fig. 7. 21(a) Penicillium (b) Penicillium Colony
Science Titbits
Despite absence of sexual reproduction, imperfect fungi show special kind
of genetic recombination, called parasexuality, in which portions of chro
mosomes of two nuclei lying in the same hypha are exchanged.
7.5 IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI

Fungi cause economic gains as well as losses. People eat them and
grow them to make various chemicals. Fungi cause diseases in humans, other
animals and plants. Their activities cost billions of dollars in agricultural
damage yearly.
Importance of Yeast
The ability of yeasts to produce ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide from
sugars such as glucose by fermentation is utilized to make wine, beer and
other fermented beverages and also to make bread.
Brewing: Wine is produced when yeasts ferment fruit sugars and beer
results when yeasts ferment sugars derived from starch in grains (usually
barley).
Baking: During the process of making bread, carbon dioxide produced

by yeast becomes trapped in dough as bubbles, causing the dough to rise; this
is what gives leavened bread its light texture. Both the carbon dioxide and the
alcohol produced by the yeast evaporate during baking.
Genetic Research: Yeasts are used in biological research especially in

the genetic research. For example yeasts have been used to study mutation,
genetic recombination and laws of segregations and effect of many chemicals
and medicine.
Often the first choice eukaryotic organisms for protein production

is the yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae). Yeast cells can take up foreign
DNA and integrate into their genomes. Yeasts also have plasmids that
can be used as gene vectors and some time yeasts are better than bacteria
at synthesizing and secreting eukaryotic protein. Yeast is currently used
to produce a number of proteins. In some cases the same product, for
example interferons used in cancer research can be made in either yeast
or bacteria. In other cases such as hepatitis B vaccine, yeast alone is used.

Describe how helpful fungi have been for us as source of antibiotics
and other useful chemicals.
Cephalosporin
MUTULISM: Lichen and Mycorrhizae www.learningall.com
Mutualism is the association in which both the partners are benefitted.

The two key mutualistic symbiotic association formed by the fungi are
lichens and mycorrhizae.
Lichens
Lichens are an association between a fungus (mostly Ascomycotes and
imperfect fungi and a few basidiomycotes), a cyanobacterium or green alga. The
body of a lichen has three layers. The upper layer is thin and tough which consists
of fungal hyphae. The middle layer consists of fungal hyphae interwoven with
photosynthetic cell. Bottom layer consists of loosely packed fungal hyphae.
Specialized fungal hyphae which penetrate or envelope the photosynthetic cells,
transfer nutrients directly to the rest of the fungus.
Fig: 7.22 A Cross Section of Lichen

In past lichens were assumed to have mutualistic relationships in

which the fungus received nutrients from the algae cells and the algae cells
were protected from dessication by the fungus. Actually lichens might involve
a controlled form of parasitism of the algae cells by the fungus.
Mycorrhizae
Mycorrhizae are mutualistic relationships between soil fungi and the
roots of most plants. This association occurs in 95% of all families of higher
plants. Fungal hyphae increases the amount of soil contact and total surface
area for absorption. The hyphae help in the direct absorption of phosphorous,
zinc, copper and other nutrients from the soil into the roots. Plants whose
roots are invaded by mycorrhizae grow more successfully than do plants
without mycorrhizae. There are two main types of mycorrhizae in which
mycelium extends far out into the soil.
Fig: 7.23 Mycorrhizae
Endomycorrhizae
These penetrate only into the outer cells of plant root forming coils,
swellings and minute branches and also extend out into surrounding soil.
Ectomycorrhizae
These form a mantle that is exterior to the root, and they grow between
cell walls. These are mostly formed with pines, firs etc.
Fig: 7.24 Endomycorrhizae Fig: 7.25 Ectomycorrhizae
Edible Fungi
Aspergillus tamarii and other
imperfect fungi are used in the Orient
to produce soy sauce by fermenting
soy beans. Among the basidiomyco
tes, there are some 200 kinds of
edible mushrooms (Agaricus) and
about 70 species of poisonous ones,
sometimes called toadstools. Some
edible mushrooms are cultivated
commercially. (Morchella esculenta),
which superficially resemble
mushrooms and truffles, which
produce underground fruiting bodies,
are ascomycotes.
Edible and poisonous
mushrooms can look very much alike Fig: 7. 26 Truffel Fungi
and may even belong to the same
genus. There is no simple way to tell them apart; they must he identified by an
expert. Some of the most poisonous mushrooms belong to the genus
Amanita. Toxic species of this genus have been appropriately called such
names as destroying angel (Amanita virosa) and death cap (Amanita
phalloides). Eating a single mushroom of either species can be fatal. Jack-o-
lantern is a poisonous mushroom. Ingestion of certain species of mushrooms
causes in toxication and hallucinations.
Fig: 7.27 Amanita Fig: 7.28 Jack-o lantern
Ecological Impact of Fungi

Fungi make important contributions to the ecological balance of our
world. Like bacteria, most fungi are saprotrophs, decomposes and absorb
nutrients from organic wastes and dead organisms. In this way fungi help in
maintaining the nutrient balance in nature. It is done in three ways.
Removal of organic debris: The organic waste is removed from the
environment by the activity of saprotrophic fungi and bacteria. In the absence
of it, the Earth would be covered by organic waste, which will make life
difficult.
Liberation of Carbon dioxide: The fungi and bacteria liberate huge
amounts of CO2 in the air by decomposing dead bodies of animals and plants.
The green plants for the synthesis of organic food use this carbon dioxide.
Humus: It is an important constituent of soil and essential for the
proper growth of plants. It is found from the organic waste material through
the activities of fungi and bacteria.
Pathogenic Role of Fungi
Fungi cause many important diseases in plants and also in animals
including human beings.
Fungi Cause Plant Diseases
Fungi are responsible for many serious plant diseases, including
epidemic diseases that spread rapidly and often result in complete crop
failure. All plants are apparently susceptible to some fungal infection.
Some important plant diseases caused by ascomycotes are powdery

mildews, chestnut blight, Dutch elm disease, apple scab, and brown rot,
which attack cherries, peaches, plums, and apricots. Diseases casued by
basidiomycotes include smuts and rusts that attack various plants - for
example the cereal crops of corn, wheat, oats etc.
Fig: 7.29 Brown Rot of Peaches (Monilinia Fig: 7.30 Ergot Infection of rye,
fruticola an ascomycote) (Claviceps purpurea, sac fungi)
Rusts are called so because of numerous rusty and orange-yellow coloured

disease spots on their host surface (mostly stem, leaves), later revealing
brick/rust-red spores of the fungus. Smuts are called so because of their
black, dusty spore masses that resemble soot or smut; these spore masses
replace the grain kernels such as those of wheat, corn etc.
Rusts
Powdery mildews on grapes, roses and wheat, ergot of rye, red rot of sugar,
potato wilt, cotton root rot, apple scab, brown rot of peaches, plums, apri
cots and cherries etc are common plant diseases caused by fungi.
Fig: 7.32 Athletes foot
Fig: 7.31 Ringworm

(Microsporium audouni)
Fungi Cause Animal Diseases

Some fungi cause superficial
infections in which only the skin, hair,
or nails are infected. Ringworm
(Microsporium audouni) and athletes
foot (Tinea pedis) are examples of Fig: 7.33 Candida (Candidiasis)
superficial fungal infections; both are
caused by imperfect fungi.
Candidiasis, a yeast infection of mucous membranes of the mouth or vagina,
is among the most common fungal infections.
Other fungi cause systemic infections that infect internal tissues and
organs and may spread through many regions of the body. Histoplasmosis,
for example, is a serious infection of the lungs caused by inhaling spores of a
soil fungus.
Aspergillus fumigatus causes aspergillosis which may cause death to
persons with defective immune system. Some strains of Aspergillus flavus
produce aflatoxin, a cancer causing mycotoxins in improperly stored grains
of peanut, corn etc. Ergotism is caused by purple ergot rye. It causes nervous
spasm, convulsion, psychotic delusion and even gangrene.

1. Which of the following is true of both fungi and some types of bacteria?
A) they both produce gametes
B) they both engulf microscopic animals
C) they both absorb materials across cell wall
D) they both fix nitrogen
2. The cell wall consists of two over lapping shells in
A) euglenoids B) diatoms
C) dinoflagellates D) brown algae
3. Which of the following structure would you expect to find in the corn
smut fungus?
A) ascospores B) basidiospores
C) zoospores D) zygosopres
4. The feeding stage of a slime mold is called
A) hyphae B) plasmodium
C) rhizoids D) mycelium
5. Which is found in slime molds but not in fungi?
A) non-motile spores B) amoeboid adult
C) zygote formation D) photosynthesis
6. Fungi resemble animals because they are
A) saprotrophs B) autotrophs
C) heterotrophs D) heterosporous
7. Fungi cell walls contain chitin, which is also found in exoskeleton of

A) arthropods B) molluscs
C) echinoderms D) chordates
8. Poisonous mushrooms are called
A) toadstools B) morels
C) truffles D) tuber
9. Which of the following is associated with asexual reproduction in fungi
A) zygospores B) ascospores
C) basidiospores D) conidia
10. Imperfect fungi are called imperfect because
A) they have no zygospores
B) they cause diseases
C) they form conidiospores
D) sexual reproduction has not been observed

1. Name the three eukaryotic kingdoms.
2. How do ciliates differ from other protozoans?
3. How do algae differ from plants?
4. What are diatoms?
5. Write two characteristics of:
(a) Protozoa (b) Dianoflagelles (c) Diatoms
(d) Slime mold (e) Oomycotes
6. How fungi resemble plants?
7. Define coenocytic hyphae.
8. How fungi get their nutrition?
9. Name the fungal mutualistic associations.
10. List the methods of asexual reproduction in fungi.

11. What is zygospore and how it is formed?
12. Where basidiospores are produced?
13. What do you mean by imperfect fungi. Why they are given this name?
14. What is histoplasmosis?
15. Write one difference between: (a) Fungi and Plants. (b) Fungi and
Animals. (c) Zygomycota and Basidiomycota. (d) Sporangium and
Conidium. (e) Ascus and Basidium. (f) Diakaryotic and Diploid.
(g) Ascocarp, Ascus and Ascospores. (h) Basidiocarp, Basidium and
Basidiosopres. (i) Endomycorrhizae and Ectomycorrhizae.
16. List some fungi that attack crops. In what division is each found?
17. List the differences between bacteria and fungi.
18. Why are fungi and plants are classified in different kingdom?
19. What ecological consequences would occur if all fungi on Earth were
destroyed by human using a new and deadly fungisides?
1. What are the important features of protists.

2. Write the reasons for a separate kingdom, protista.
3. Explain the importance of protists.
4. Discuss general characteristics of algae.
5. Describe structure and reproduction of slime mold.
6. Write features that distinguish oomycotes from fungi.
7. Give some important features of Basidiomycotes.
8. Write general characteristics of fungi.
9. Discuss taxonomic status of fungi.
10. List the major divisions of fungi, describe the feature that gives each of its
name, and give one example of each.
www.learningall.com
11. Give an account of beneficial fungi and harmful fungi.

12. Discuss pathogenic role of fungi.
13. Explain the term club fungi. Draw and explain a diagram of the life cycle
of a typical mushroom.
ANSWER MCQS
1. C 2. B 3. B 4.B 5. B 6. C 7. A 8. A 9. D 10. D
1. Lewis, R. A New Place for Fungi? Bioscience 44:6, June 1994
USEFUL WEBSITES
1. www.prenhall.com/~audesirk
2. www.scigenics.com/index.html
3. www.newsscientist.com/
4. www.prairiepublic.org/features/healthworks/antibiotics/
www.learningall.com
www.learningall.com
CHAPTER 8
DIVERSITY AMONG PLANTS

8.1 The Evolutionary Origin of Plans (1 Period)
8.2 Nonvascular Plants (4 Periods)
8.3 Seedless Vascular Plants (5 Periods)
8.3.1 Evolution of Leaf
8.4 Seed Plants (10 Periods)
8.4.1 Evolution of Seed
8.4.2 Gymnosperms
8.4.3 Angiosperms
The kingdom plantae or plant kingdom comprises hundreds of

thousands of different species. They live in every type of habitat, from frozen
Arctic tundra to tropical rain forests and deserts. These range in size from
minute, almost microscopic duckweeds, to massive giant sequolas, some of
them are the largest organisms that has ever lived.
8.1 THE EVOLUTIONARY ORIGIN OF PLANTS

In the beginning the plants were restricted only to aquatic conditions.
The migration started towards land nearly 400 million years ago. Plants are
thought to have descended from a common protistan ancestor, an ancient
freshwater alga. Because of their common ancestory the living green algae
and plants share a number of features.
Both contain the same photosynthetic pigments: chlorophylls a and b,
carotenes and xanthophylls. Both store carbohydrates as starch inside
BIOLOGY XI: Chapter 8, DIVERSITY AMONG PLANTS 221
chloroplast. Both have cellulose in cell wall. Both types of organisms form a
cell plate during cytokinesis. Plants and some algae have a two-generation
life cycle called alternation of generation that involves sporic meiosis.
Diagnostic Features of Plants
The diagnostic features of plants are :
(1) Plants are multicellular eukaryotes with well-developed tissue and have
autotrophic nutrition.
(2) Plants are well protected from being dried up in air by their cuticle,
formed from a waxy substance
called cutin.
(3) The plant body has root, stems
and leaves having vascular tissue
xylem, phloem and cellulose rich
cell walls,
(4) Plants show alternation of
generation. It consists of the
sporophyte the diploid generation
that produces haploid spores by
meiosis. Spores develop into a
haploid generation. The gametophyte
is the haploid generation, which
produces gametes that unite to
form a diploid zygote. Fig: 8.1 Alternation of Generation
(5) The plants are oogamous; the
gametes are eggs and sperms.
Four major groups of plants are living today. These are: (a) Bryophytes,
(b) Seedless vascular plants, (c) Gymnosperms, (d) Angiosperms.
Bryophytes are small plants that lack vascular tissues and reproduce
by spores. The other three groups of plants have vascular tissues xylem and
phloem. Seedless vascular plants reproduce by spores like bryophytes.
Gymnosperms are vascular plants and reproduce by forming seeds, borne
exposed on a stem or cone. Angiosperms are vascular plants, which reproduce
by forming seeds enclosed within a fruit.
222 BIOLOGY XI: Chapter 8, DIVERSITY AMONG PLANTS
8.2 NON-VASCULAR PLANTS

Plants are currently divided into two main groups: the nonvascular and
the vascular plants. The nonvascular plants consist of three groups: hornworts
(division Anthocerotophyta), liverworts (division Hepatophyta), and mosses
(division Bryophyta).
The nonvascular plants lack vascular tissues specialized means of
transporting water and organic nutrients. Although they often have a leafy
appearance, these plants do not have true roots, stems, and leaveswhich by
definition must contain true vascular tissue. Therefore, the nonvascular plants
are said to have rootlike, stemlike, and leaflike structures.
General Characteristics of Bryophytes
Bryophytes is considered as a phylum and also as a group or division.
The bryophyta is a group of plants comprising of liverworts, hornworts and
mosses are the only nonvascular plants. Bryophytes are typically quite small
and a few exceed 2 centimetres in length.
They generally require a moist environment for active growth and
reproduction, but some bryophytes tolerate dry areas. .
The gametophytes of bryophytes
are green and manufacture their own
food. They are relatively large and
evident as compared to sporophytes.
Some of their sporophytes are
completely enclosed within gametophyte
tissue, others that are not enclosed; turn
brownish or straw coloured at maturity.
The four main features of
bryophytes are:
(1) They lack specialized vascular
tissues.
(2) Multicellular sex organs
produce embryo.
(3) Sporophytes are always smaller
and obtain their food from the
gametophyte.
Fig: 8.2 Mosses Covering Several Rocks
(4) Their life cycles are similar to seed plants. Bryophytes are also called
amphibious plants because they need water for development, existence and
reproduction.
Life Cycle of Moss
The moss plants show two generations the sporophyte and the
gametophyte, which regularly alternate with each other. It is known as
alternation of generation. The life cycle is completed when the plant passes
through these two generations.
The matured green shoot is the gametophyte. It produces gametes and
reproduces by sexual method. The sex organ is at the apex of the shoot. The
male sex organ is known as antheridium and the female sex organ as
archegonium (ar-keh-gonium). The sex organs are intermixed with some
multicellular hair like structures, known as paraphyses. The two sex organs
may occur on the same plant i.e., monoecious or on two separate plants i.e.
dioecious. The sporophyte consists of a foot which is embedded in the tissue
of the gametophyte and a stalk with a sporangium.
Spores are formed in the sporophyte by meiosis, thus the spores are
haploid. The spore germinates into alga like structure called protonema,
having bud and branches. The bud gives rise to gametophyte. In the
antheridium the sperms are produced. In the archegonium the egg is
produced. The flagellated sperms swim through the film of water to the egg.
Fertilization is internal. The diploid zygote divides and forms the embryo.
The embryo develops into a diploid sporophyte.
The Land Adaptations of Bryophytes
The land adaptive characteristics exhibited by nonvascular plants are:
(1) The Multicellular Plant Body and Conservation of Water: The
plant body of liverworts is called thallus and is multicellular e.g. Marchantia
(Mar-kan-shia). The thallus consists of hundreds of cells. Only the cells of
the upper layer are exposed to the atmosphere. Some cells are photosynthetic
and some are storage cells. Water cannot evaporate from these inner cells
Science Titbits
The name moss is often commonly used for plants that are not truly
mosses. For example reindeer moss is lichen that is a dominant form of
vegetation in the Arctic tundra, Spanish moss is a flowering plant and club
moss is relative to ferns.
Fig: 8.3 Life Cycle of Moss (Funaria)

because the upper epidermis has covering of cutin, which is a wax like
substance. It reduces the evaporation of water in some mosses and liverworts.
The layer of cutin is called cuticle.
(2) Absorption of Carbon
Dioxide: The upper epidermis in
Marchantia has many pores. The pores
open into the air chamber. The air
chamber is surrounded with
photosynthetic cells. CO2 is absorbed by
large amount of wet surfaces of the
photosynthetic cells of the air chambers.
CO2 then diffuses into the cytoplasm.
When CO2 is being absorbed,
evaporation of water may occur through
the pores. Fig: 8.4 Marchantia Thallus
(3) Absorption of Water: The structures for absorption of water in
moss and liverworts are rhizoids. These are present on the lower surface of
the Marchantia thallus. Rhizoids are long filamentous structures. They are
unicellular and are extensions of the cell of the lower epidermis. Rhizoids
increase the surface area for absorption of water from the soil and also help in
anchorage.
(4) Heterogamy: When two types of gametes are produced, it is called
heterogamy. Sperms and ova are produced by the nonvascular plants e.g.
Moss, Marchantia etc. The sperms are flagellated and motile require water
wedutus for reaching egg. The egg is large and nonmotile. It contains large
amount of food. The food is used to nourish the early stages of the developing
embryo after the fertilization of egg. Due to the water requirement for
fertilization they cannot live away from water and are thus called amphibious
plants.
(5) Protection of Reproductive Cells: The moss, Marchantia etc. can
be distinguished as male and female plants. The sex organs are multicellular,
(whereas in algae the sex organs are unicellular). In the moss plants the sex
organs are at the tip of the green shoot. The male sex organ is called
antheridium and it produces sperms. The female sex organ is called
archegonium (ar-keh-gonium). It produces eggs. The sex organs are covered
by sterile hairs to prevent the drying of the sex organs. Most of the cells of the
sex organs are sterile which form a protective coat around the egg and sperms.
Protection of spore is performed by sporangium.
Fig: 8.5 Transverse Section of Marchantia Thallus
(6) Embryo Formation: Fertilization is inside the archegonium. The

zygote divides to form the embryo and is retained inside the archegonium.
The chances of survival of embryo are increased as it is protected by the wall
of the archegonium. Embryo is present in all bryophytes and vascular plants.
Fig. 8.6 Disk shaped structures Umbrella shaped structures that

that bear antherida bear archegonia
(7) Alternation of Generations: The mosses and liverworts have a life

cycle with alternating gametophyte and sporophyte generations. It increases
the chances of survival of the plants on land.
Q. Where will you find bryophytes in Pakistan?
Uses of Bryophytes
Mosses play an important role in their environment. They hold the
soil in place and help prevent erosion. They provide food for animals,
especially birds and small mammals. Commercially the most important
mosses are the peat mosses. Their leaves hold water and are beneficial as
a soil conditioner. When added to sandy soils peat moss helps to hold and
retain moisture.
8.3 SEEDLESS VASCULAR PLANTS

Because the seedless vascular plants are not closely related, each type
is placed in its own division. The seedless vascular plants include whisk ferns
(division Psilotophyta), club mosses (division Lycopodophyta), horsetails
(division Equisetophyta), and ferns (division Pteridophyta).
General Characteristics of Vascular Plants
Vascular plants (L. vasculum, dim. of vas, vessel) include ferns and
their allies, gymnosperms, and angiosperms. Vascular tissue in these plants
consists of xylem (Gk. xylon, wood), and phloem (Gk. phloios, bark). The
vascular plants have true roots, stems, and leaves. Xylem, with its strong-
walled cells, supports the body of the plant against the pull of gravity. The
leaves are fully covered by a waxy cuticle except where it is interrupted by
stomata. The sporophyte generation is diploid and dominant in vascular
plants. The vascular plants are complex, extremely varied, and widely
distributed.
The seedless vascular plants (ferns and their allies) disperse the
species by producing windblown spores. When the spores germinate, a
relatively large gametophyte is formed which is independent of the
sporophyte for its nutrition. In these plants, flagellated sperm are released by
antheridia and swim in a film of external water to the archegonia, where
fertilization occurs.
In seed plants, there is a separate microgametophyte (male) and

megagametophyte (female). The microgametophyte and megagametophyte

are dependent on the sporophyte, which is fully adapted to a dry environment.
The mature microgametophyte is the pollen grain. The megagametophyte
retains the megaspores in the megasporangium. This modified structure is
called ovule. The fertilized ovule becomes
embryo, which is retained within the body
of the sporophyte, becomes a seed. Seed
dispersal occurs by wind and water or by
animals to a new location.
Characteristics of Seedless Vascular

Plants
PsilopsidaWhisk ferns
The group psilopsida (division or

phylum Psilotophyta/Psilophyta) includes
the simplest known vascular plants known
as whisk ferns, named for their
resemblance to whiskbrooms. The whisk
fern lack true roots but bear underground
stems called rhizomes that bear rhizoids.
Aerial stems have no leaves they have only
tiny scales fork repeatedly and carry on
photosynthesis. Sporangia are present at Fig : 8.7 Rhynia
the tips of the branches. Most members of
Fig : 8.8 Whisk Fern, Psilotum

this group are extinct and these fossil plants are known collectively as
psilophytes. Examples of extinct group are Rhynia, Psilophyton and
Cooksonia. Psilotum is the most common living genus. Another living genus
is Tmesipteris.
Lycopsida Club Mosses
Lycopsida or Lycodophyta includes the club mosses, spike mosses
and quillwort. The plant body consists of a branching rhizome which sends
up aerial stems less than 30 cm tall. Tightly packed scale like leaves cover the
stem branches of the plants. The leaves are microphylls, having only one
strand of vascular tissue. In club mosses the sporangia are born on terminal
clusters of leaves called strobili (sing. strobilus) which are club shaped.
They are only living plants to have microphylls. The familiar members of this
group belong to genera Lycopodium and Selaginella.
Fig : 8.9 Club Moss, Lycopodium
Sphenopsida - Horsetails
Sphenopsida (Equisetophyta or Sphenophyta) commonly known as
horsetail, are found in waste and wet places round the world. Sphenopsida
includes more fossil plants than living one. Today there is only one surviving
genus Equisetum.
A rhizome produces aerial

stem. The stems are slender, green,
hollow structure, and appear jointed
as slender green side branches are
present at the nodes. The small and
scale like leaves also form whorls at
the nodes, the nodes are separated by
internodes. Many horsetails have
strobili at the tips of the stem.
Q. Why Equisetum is called

Horse tail?
Pteropsida - Ferns
Ferns belong to the group
pteropsida (division pterophyta/
Fig : 8.10 Horsetail, Equisetum
pteridophyta), subgroup or class
filicinae, which are most abundant
group of seedless vascular plants. Ferns a wide-spread group of plants, are
much more abundant in warm and moist tropical regions.
Ferns range in size from reduced aquatic forms less than a centimetre,
to a tree fern that may have trunks more than 24 metres tall, with leaves up to
5 metres or more long. All but a few ferns are homosporous. Sporophyte
generation is much larger, more conspicuous, and more complex than the
Fig : 8.11 Ferns

gametophyte. Sporophyte is completely independent. Sporangia is foliar i.e.

attached to leaves or fronds. When the frond is young and immature, it is
coiled. This pattern of development is called circinate vernation. It is an
important feature of ferns.
The moss Sphagnum grows in bogy places that is low lowing, wet,
spongy places forming dense and deep masses called peat bog. One of the
distinctive features of this moss is a presence of large empty cells in the
leaves, which apparently function to hold water. This feature makes peat
moss particularly beneficial as a soil conditioner. When added to sandy
soils, for example, peat moss helps to hold and retain moisture. In some ar
eas as bogs, the dead Sphagnum accumulates and do not decay. This accu
mulated moss called peat can be used as fuel.
Peat bog Peat mosses Sphagnum

Describe the formation and importance of peat bogs.
8.3.1 EVOLUTION OF LEAF

Leaves are present in higher vascular plants. They have evolved from
the primitive vascular plants. There are two main types of leaves in vascular
plants: (a) One veined leaves. (b) Many veined leaves.
One veined leaves are small and scale like. They have single vascular
bundle and vein. Therefore they are called single or one veined leaves or
microphyllous leaves e.g. club mosses (Lycopodium).
Many veined leaves are large leaves having prominent blade. As many
veins and vascular bundles are present, so they are called many veined leaves
or megaphyllous leaves e.g. Ginkgo etc.
Evolution of Single Veined Leaves

There is no fossil record showing the evolution of microphyllous
leaves. However two hypotheses (singular; hypothesis) have been proposed to
explain their origin: (a) outgrowth hypothesis (b) reduction hypothesis.
Fig: 8.12 Evolution of Single Veined Leaf, Outgrowth Hypothesis
Out-growth hypothesis: According to this hypothesis single veined

leaf originated as simple outgrowth from the naked branches of the primitive
plant. The outgrowths had no vascular tissues. With the increase in size,
vascular tissues were needed for the transportation of food, water etc. and
support. Thus vascular supply was extended from main vascular bundle of
stem giving rise to a single veined leaf.
Fig: 8.13 Evolution of Single Veined Leaf, Reduction Hypothesis
Reduction Hypothesis: The early vascular plants had leafless

branches. These branches were gradually reduced in size. Thus by
simplification and reduction in size and flattening of the leafless branches the
microphyllous leaves were evolved.
Evolution of Many Veined Leaf
It is evident from fossil record that these leaves have evolved through
Fig: 8.14 Evolution of Many Veined Leaf
modification of the forked branches found in early vascular plants e.g.

Rhynia. According to this view the following three steps have taken place.
Plannation: The forked branches were changed to a single plane.
Flattening: The branches became flat.
Webbing: The spaces between the bundles and branches of
vascular tissues became filled with photosynthetic tissues. The structure
resembles superficially to the webbed foot of the duck and thus a many veined
leaf evolved.
Life Cycle of Fern
The life cycle of Adiantum (Maidenhair fern) shows heteromorphic
alternation of generation. The gametophyte is small reduced, haploid and
independent. It bears antheridia and archegonia which produce antherozoids
(sperms) and eggs (ova) respectively.
Fertilization leads to zygote formation which develops into an embryo
within the archegonium. Embryo develops into an independent sporophyte.
The sporophyte is dominant, diploid plant body and produces on the
underside of the leaflets of compound leaves (frond), number of sori. Each
sorus contains a cluster of sporangia, producing haploid spores. The spores
are dispersed by wind. When a spore falls on a moist soil it germinates under
favourable conditions forming haploid gametophyte.
The fern life cycle differs from that of a moss primarily in the much
greater development, independence and dominance of the fern's sporophyte.
In addition, the fern's sporophyte is more complex than that of moss having
vascular tissue and well differentiated roots, stem and leaves.
Fig : 8.15 Life Cycle of Fern (Adiantum)

VASCULAR PLANTS - Successful Land Plants

The three groups of vascular plants i.e. seedless ferns, naked seeded
gymnosperm and covered seeded angiosperms show many adaptations to
become the successful group of land plants.
Adaptations of Ferns: (a) Have true roots, stems and leaves.
(b) Leaves are green photosynthetic. (c) Gametophyte lacks vascular tissue.
(d) Gametophyte is separated from sporophyte. (e) Flagellated sperms require
outside source of water for fertilization. (f) Some ferns e.g. bracken fern
(Petridium aquilinum) can spread into drier areas by means of vegetative
(asexual) reproduction. (g) Fern also spreads by means of rhizome.
Adaptations of Gymnosperms: Gymnosperms have well developed
roots and stem. Many are tall trees that can withstand heat, dryness and cold.
Pollen grains are transferred by wind, and the growth of the pollen tube
delivers a sperm to an egg. Enclosure of the dependent megagametophyte in
an ovule protects it during its development and shelters the developing zygote
as well. Finally the embryo is protected within the seed. All these factors
increase the chance for reproductive success on land.
Adaptations of Angiosperms: The evolutionary adaptations of
flowering plants account for their success in terms of ecological dominance
and large number of species. Angiosperms have true roots, stems and leaves.
Roots are often modified for storage e.g. food or water. The vascular tissue is
well developed. Xylem tissue in angiosperms is different from that of
virtually all other vascular plant groups because it contains xylem vessels as
well as tracheids. Leaves are generally broad, expanded blades and are very
efficient in absorbing light for photosynthesis. Shedding of leaves during cold
or dry spells is also an advantage for survival in harsh environment.
Angiosperms are found in all sorts of habitats and some have even returned
to water. The reproductive organs are in the flowers, which attract animal
pollinators. Flowers are modified in wind pollinated plants.
Seeds are reproductively superior to spores for three main reasons.
First a seed contains a multicellular, well-developed young plant with
embryonic root, stem and leaves already formed, whereas a spore is a single
cell. Second, a seed contains a food supply. After germination, the plant
embryo is nourished by food stored in the seed until it becomes self-
sufficient. Because a spore is a single cell, few food reserves exist for the
plant that develops from a spore. Third a seed is protected by a well resistant
seed coat, as compared to the thick wall of the spore. Along with primary
growth secondary growth has also helped the survival of angiosperm (also
gymnosperms) on land.
Importance of Seedless Vascular Plants

The seedless vascular plants are of economic importance. Lycopodium
and Selaginella are chiefly grown as ornamental plants and are utilized in
the preparation of christmas wreathes. Spores and stems of Lycopodium have
got some medicinal importance. Ducks and other aquatic animals feed upon
the corm of Isoetes.
The ferns are mostly ornamental plants of gardens and greenhouses.
Some of them are used in the preparation of bouquets and are also placed in
the buttonholes. In some tropical countries stems and leaves of tree ferns are
used for building purposes, because the wood of the ferns resists decay
particularly by termites. Some genera, like Pteris, Ceratopteris and Marsilea,
are edible. The rhizome of the male fern yields a drug, which is utilized for
removing the intestinal parasites. The maidenhair fern are the source of
expectorant. Practically all the members of the seedless vascular plants have
contributed extensively to coal formation.
8.4 SEED PLANTS
The two groups of seed bearing vascular plants are the gymnosperms
and angiosperms. The seed of gymnosperm are produced exposed on the
surface of the sporophylls that make up cones. The seeds of angiosperms are
usually enclosed by a fruit produced from a flower.
8.4.1 EVOLUTION OF SEED
Botanists now generally agree that seed plants were derived from a
single common ancestor. From ecological and evolutionary perspective seed
represents an important evolutionary advancement. A seed may be considered
as a fertilized megasporanguim. It has integument around the embryo. The
seed is found in higher vascular plants i.e. gymnosperms and angiosperms.
During evolution the seed has passed through the following stages.
Development of Heterospory
All seed plants are heterosporous produce microspore and megaspore.
Microspores are formed in microsporangia and megaspores are formed in
megasporangia. The megaspore grows into a female gametophyte and
microspore grows into a male gametophyte. The megaspores of the seed
plants are retained inside the sporangium, where the megaspore develops into
a tiny female gametophyte.
Fig: 8.16 Evolution of Seed
Evolution of Pollen Tube

The evolution of pollen tube parallels the evolution of seeds. The egg
produced inside an ovule is very well protected in the sporangium. It is so
well protected that flagellated sperm would not have the slightest chance of
ever reaching an egg. This obstacle has been overcome by the development of
pollen tubes. Once the pollen grain reaches the cone or flower, it germinates.
The germinated pollen grain is a tiny male gametophyte. It produces a long
pollen tube, which grows to the ovule and then digests its way through the
protecting layers to the enclosed egg.
Evolution of Integument Around the Megasporangium and Seed
In carboniferous period (geological period 280-350 millions years
ago), fern like plants were present. The sporophyte of these plants had little
protective branch like outgrowths, surrounding the megasporangium. During
evolution the outgrowths fused together forming integument, enclosing the
megasporangium. Megaspore is retained in the megasporangium. This
modified structure is called an ovule. The fertilized ovule evolved into seed
because of retention of developing embryo.
8.4.2 GYMNOSPERMS
General Characteristics: The plant body may be tall, woody,
perennial trees or shrubs. The plant body is a sporophyte, differentiated into
stem, leaves and root. Stem is branched with the exception of Cycus, which is
rarely branched. There are two types of leaves. The foliage leaveas and the
scalar leaves. Foliage leaves may be simple or compound. The leaves are
evergreen with thick cuicle. Venation is simple. The arrangement of leaves
may be spiral or cyclic. Leaves exhibit xerophytic features like thick and
tough cuticle, stomata sunken in pits, presence of wax on the surface. Xylem
consists of tracheids and xylem parenchyma. Vessels and wood fibres are
generally absent with exceptions of Gnetales. Companion cell are absent in
phloem. Cones are unisexual. Male and female sporophylls are arranged on
straight axis. Gymnosperms are heterosprous i.e produce microspores and
megaspores. There is alternation of generation i.e sporopohytic and
gametophytic generation. Polyembryony is of common occurrence, but finally
a single embryo matures.
Conifers: Pinus
Fig: 8.17 Gymnosperms

Science Titbits
There are four groups of gymnosperms. Conifers, Cycads, Ginkgo
and Gnetophytes. In gymnosperms, the seeds are not covered. Instead they
are exposed on the surface of the sporophyll, leaves that bear sporangia.
Reproductive organs are usually borne in the cones on which sporophylls
are spirally arranged. Other than these features, the four groups of gymno
sperms have little in common.
Uses of Gymnosperms
Pine seeds like chilghoza are eaten as dry fruits. Ephedrine, a drug
from Ephedra is used for the relief of asthma and other respiratory ailments.
Conifers are a source of soft wood for construction, packing, plywood, board
and for making paper. Cycads are grown as ornamental plants. Cycas
circinalis, which grows as a wild cycad, serves as a source of sago. It is
pure starch extracted in liquid state and then solidifies to form small granules.
Resins, terpentine, tar and many oils are obtained from conifers.
8.4.3 ANGIOSPERMS
Angiosperms are the flowering plants. Their seeds are enclosed by fruits.
The term angiosperms literary means enclosed seed (angio: closed, sperm
seed). The leaves bearing ovules are folded and joined at the margins to form
cotyledons
Fig: 8.18 Comparison: Monocots and Dicots

ovaries. The ovary after fertilization is changed into fruit. This is exceptionally a
large and successful group of plants. Angiosperms live in all sorts of habitats,
from fresh water to desert and from frigid north to the torrid tropics. Angiosperms
have well developed vascular and supporting tissue. The xylem tissue consists of
tracheids and vessels. Gametophyte generation is very small and inconspicuous.
Pollen and ovules are produced in flowers. Sporophyte is the dominant
generation. They vary in size e.g. Eucalyptus about 100 meters high and Wolffia
(Duckweed) about 1 mm in length. Dicots and monocots have common
characters, like, vascular tissues, differentiated plant body, flower, fruits, and
seeds. The two groups may be differentiated as shown in table 8.1.
Life Cycle of a Flowering Plant

There is an alternation of generations in the flowering plants. The
sporophyte, a diploid dominant generation alternates with haploid inconspicuous
gametophytic generation.
www.learningall.com
Fig: 8.19 Life Cycle of Angiosperm

Sporophyte
The main plant body is diploid sporophyte which produces haploid
spores, Flower is the reproductive structure which bears anthers and carpels
as male and female reproductive parts respectively.
Male Gametophyte
The anther when fully developed contains 2 to 4 elongated sacs called
pollen sacs. The pollen sacs contain pollen grains.
Formation of Pollen Grains: When the anther is developing, mitotic
divisions produce local masses called microspore mother cells
(microsporocyte). Following meiosis in a diploid mother cell, four haploid
microspores are produced. A microspore divides mitotically into a two
celled, pollen grain (microspore). A tough wall develops around the pollen
grain, which protects the contents of the pollen grain from drying out.
Pollen Tube: Cells on the surface of the stigma secrete a sticky
nutrient fluid containing sugar and other substances. After pollination the
pollen grains germinate on the stigma. Each pollen grain produces a slender,
thin walled pollen tube. The pollen tube grows down, through the tissues of
the stigma, style and ovary until it reaches the ovule.
Tube Nucleus: As the pollen tube develops, the two nuclei of the pollen
grain move into it. The two nuclei are called generative nucleus and the pollen
tube nucleus. Generative nucleus divides again to form two somewhat elongated
sperms. The tube nucleus is located near the tip of the pollen tube with two
sperms following behind. The pollen tube, containing tube nucleus and the two
sperms (male gametes), is the male gametophyte (microgametophyte).
Q. Why is pollen tube called male gametophyte?
Female Gametophyte
The ovule is an egg shaped structure attached by a stalk, to the inside of
the ovary. Depending upon the species of the plant involved, an ovary may have
one, two, several or even thousand of ovules. The ovule has an opening called
micropyle. Certain cells (megasporocyte) of the ovule undergo meiosis to
produce four monoploid (haploid) cells. Only one of these cells survives. The
surviving cell is called the megaspore, which means large spore. The megaspore
nucleus divides by mitosis to form two haploid nuclei. Each of these nuclei
divides two more times to produce a total of eight haploid nuclei. At the centre of
the ovule is the microscopic structure called embryo sac having all these eight
nuclei. Wall formation takes place and these nuclei are converted into cells.
The cells of embryo sac are: (a) Antipodal cells 3 (b) Polar nuclei 2
(c) Synergids 2 (d) Egg - 1
Antipodal cells are three in number and are present at the opposite end
of the micropyle, and have no function and sooner or later get disorganized.
Synergids are two in number at the micropyler end. These help in fertilization
by guiding the pollen tube and as soon as their function is over these get
disorganized. Polar nuclei are two in number, placed in the centre. By the
time egg has been fertilized, the two polar nuclei have combined to form a
single fusion nucleus.
Egg is one in number and is present between the two synergids. Soon
after the tip of the pollen tube enters the embryo sac, the end of the tube
ruptures and releases the two sperms into the embryo sac. The first sperm
fuses with the egg to form a zygote.
The zygote develops into an embryonic plant within the ovule. The
second sperm deposited in the embryo sac by the pollen tube moves to the
centre and unites with the fusion nucleus. Union of one sperm with the egg
and the second sperm with the fusion nucleus is called double fertilization. It
only occurs in the flowering plants.
Seed and Fruit Formation
Zygote develops into an embryonic plant within the ovule. After
fertilization fusion nucleus develops into an endosperm. It is triploid i.e.
consists of three sets of haploid number of chromosomes, as two polar nuclei,
and one sperm nucleus fuses to form it. Endosperm divides, enlarges and is
used as store of food for the young embryo.
After double fertilization the formation of embryo and endosperm
tissue takes place. As a result the ovule increases in size. The embryo consists
of: (i) one or two cotyledons (ii) epicotyl (iii) hypocotyl. Both epicotyl and
hypocotyl are the parts of the rod like axis attached to the cotyledons. In some
plants cotyledons digest and absorb endosperm as the ovule is maturing into
seed.
The cotyledons become enlarge and store food for the development of
the embryo. Such plants are called nonendospermic e.g. bean. In some plants
the endosperm tissue continues to grow as the ovule matures into a seed.
These plants are known as endospermic e.g. corn, castor, rice and wheat. The
ovule matures into a seed. The protective covering (integument) of the ovule
is transformed into seed coat. Seed coats of some seeds are tough and protect
the embryonic plant from injury and dessication. The ovary wall enlarges and
ripens to become the fruit.
The Life Cycle Demonstrates an Adaptation of Angiosperms on Land
Fertilization takes place through pollen tube independent of external
water. Double fertilization increase reproductive success. Following
fertilization the ovules located in
ovaries develop into seed. An Critical Thinking
ovary wall is transformed into a
fruit. Fruits provide protection for How do the life cycles of seedless
seeds and a mechanism for their plants and seed plants differ? In what
wide dispersal. fundamental way are they alike?
Inflorescence
Flowers are borne either
Stigma
singly or in clusters. A flower is said Stamen
to be solitary when occurring singly.
e.g. Hibiscus rosasinensis.
Staminal tube
Flowers borne in clusters
along with the stem and associated Petal
whorls constitute inflorescence. The
advantages of the aggregation of Calyx
flowers in an inflorescence are: Makes
Epicalyx
the flowers in more conspicuous to
Pedicel
attract insects for pollination. Many
flowers get pollinated by a single
Fig: 8.20 A Solitary Flower, China-
insect. Inflorescence combines rose (Hibiscus rosasinensis)
economy with greater chances of
pollination and surety of abundant seed production. Depending upon the
arrangement of flowers, inflorescence is classified as:
(a) Racemose (b) Cymose (c) Compound
Racemose Inflorescence
Here the main axis of inflorescence does not end in a flower but it
continues to grow and give off flowers laterally. Some of the main types are
as follows.
Fig: 8.21 Raceme of Fig: 8.22 Spike of Fig: 8.23 Catkin of

Mustard Achyranthes Mulberry (Morus)
Raceme: The main axis is

elongated and bears flowers laterally.
The flowers are stalked and arranged
in acropetal succession, e.g., radish
and mustard.
Catkin: It is also a spike
with a long and pendulous axis. It
bears unisexual sessile flowers, e.g.,
mulberry (Morus).
Spike: Here also the main
axis is elongated but the flowers are
sessile and arranged in acropetal
succession, e.g., Amaranthus,
Achyranthes.
Spikelet : This is a very Fig: 8.24 Spike of Spikelets
small spike with reduced axis,
hence called spikelet. It bears one or a few small flowers. The spikelets arise
in a racemose manner on the main axis, e.g., wheat, sugarcane, paddy, etc.
Corymb: In this case the main axis is

comparatively short and the flowers are
pedicellate. The lower flowers have longer
pedicels than the upper ones so that all the
flowers lie more or less at one level, e.g.,
Candytuft (lberis), Cassia.
Head or Capitulum: Here the main
axis is highly suppressed and becomes flattened
forming a disc-like structure. It bears small
sessile flowers of two types the ray florets and
the disc florets. The ray florets are situated at Fig. 8.25 Corymb of Iberis,
the periphery and have a flat tongue-shaped
corolla. The disc florets are situated at the disc
or the receptacle. The florets are surrounded by a whorl of bracts called
involucre. Sunflower and marigold are the common examples of this type.
Pollen grains
Fused anther
tube
Corolla
Style
Corolla tube
Calyx
Ovary
Bract
Fig: 8.26 Capitulum of Sunflower
Cymose Inflorescence
Here the primary axis terminates in a flower but the growth continues
through the lateral buds. These buds give rise to lateral branches which bear
flowers. The flowers are arranged in basipetal succession, i.e., the outer or
basal flowers are younger and the upper flowers are older.
Compound Inflorescence
In a compound inflorescence the peduncle or main axis of the
inflorescence branches repeatedly in racemose or cymose manner and the
ultimate branches bear flowers in a racemose or cymose manner. Compound
racemose e.g. Goldmohur (Delonix regia), Amaltas (Cassia fistula),. Yucca, etc.
Compound Spike e.g. Wheat (Triticum aestivuni), rice (Oryza sativa).
Significance of Angiosperms to Humans
Food: Cereals constitute the staple food of man. Major cereals are
wheat rice, maize, barley, oat, etc.
Pulses: These are seeds of leguminous plants. These are rich in
proteins. Common pulses are lentil, arhar, urd, pea, gram, green gram,
soyabean, black gram.
Vegetables and Fruits: The main vegetables obtained from
angiosperms include carrot, radish, cabbage, cauliflower, potato, tomato,
okra. The fruits are mango, apple, banana, guava, grapes, melon, mulberry,
pears, etc. Nuts consumed as dry fruits are cashewnut, almonds, walnut, etc.
Edible Oils: Edible oils used for cooking are obtained from
groundnut, mustard, cotton seeds, coconut and sunflower.
Spices: These include cinnamon, (vern. dalchini), cloves, (vern.
laung), chillies, black pepper (vern. kali mirch), caraway (vern. zeera),
coriander (vern. dhania), fennel ( vern. saunf).
Beverages: Tea, Coffee and Cocoa are important beverages obtained
from flowering plants.
Sugar: It is obtained from sugarcane and beet roots.
Fodder: Many plants yield fodder for the cattle. Important fodder
giving plants are Trifolium (barseem), Melilotus (senji), etc.
Medicines: A large number of drugs are obtained from flowering
plants. Some of the drugs are aconite, belladona, quinine, malathi, santonin,
digitalis, asgandh, etc.
Timber: It is mostly obtained from dicotyledonous plants. The wood

Justify plants as a medical treasure.
is called hard wood in contrast to soft wood of gymnosperms. Important

timber yielding plants are teak, sal, oak and sisso (vern. sheeshum).
Commercial cork is obtained from oak.
Fibres: Many plants provide us fibres for various uses. Textile fibres
are obtained from cotton, rough fibres for making ropes and gunny bags are
obtained from flax, hemp and sunn hemp, etc. Jute fibres are obtained from
the husk of unripe fruits of coconut.
Ornamental Plants: A large number of flowering plants are grown in
gardens and houses as ornamental plants. Common among them are
bougainvilleas, roses, petunias, chrysanthemums, crotons, coleus, etc.

1. Plants are thought to have descended from a common protistan ancestor
ancient
A) freshwater algae B) archaea
C) cyanobacteria D) brown alga
2. Gametophyte in bryophytes is
A) haploid B) diploid
C) triploid D) pentaploid
3. Whisk ferns belong to the group
A) pteropsida B) lycopsida
C) psilopsida D) annelida
4. Sago grains are obtained from
A) cycus B) pinus
C) moss D) fern
5. These are highly evolved of all the plants on the earth

A) bryophytes B) pteridophytes
C) gymnosperms D) angiosperms
6. Moss plants develop from
A) oospore B) protonema
C) antherozoids D) diploid spores
7. Fern plant is
A) diploid sporophyte B) diploid gametophyte
C) haploid sporophyte D) haploid gametohyte
8. Gymnosperms are characterised by
A) multiflagellate sperms B) naked seeds
C) winged seeds D) seeds inside fruits
9. Seed habit originated in some
A) bryophytes B) ferns
C) gymnosperms D) angiosperms
10. Gametophyte generation is dominant in
A) pterideophytes B) gymnosperms
C) bryophytes D) angiospersms

1. How are cones and flowers are alike? How they are different?
2. What is the importance of alternation of generation, pollen tube and seed?
3. Write three main features of bryophytes.
4. Name the land adaptation features of bryophytes.
5. Write any four features of vascular plants.
6. Give one example of: Whisk ferns, club mosses, horsetails and ferns
7. What is the importance of seedless vascular plants?
8. Write any six features of gymnosperms.
9. Write any four uses of bryophytes and gymnosperms.

10. Define: angiosperms, inflorescence, and alternation of generation.
11. The majority of all plants are seed plants. What is the advantage of the
seed?
12. What do monocots and dicots have in common? How do they differ?

1. Write the evolutionary origin of plants.
2. List the diagnostic features shared by all plants with the emphasis on
alternation of generation.
3. Explain the land adaptations of bryophytes.
4. Describe the general characteristics of vascular plants.
5. Write the characteristics of seedless vascular plants and summarize their
importance.
6. Explain the evolution of leaf in vascular plants.
7. Describe vascular plants as successful land plants.
8. Describe the evolution of seed.
9. Write the general characteristics and uses of gymnosperms.
10. Describe major types of inflorescence.
11. Write the significance of angiosperms to humans
ANSWER MCQS
1. A 2. A 3. C 4. A 5. D 6. B 7. A 8. B 9. B 10. C

3. Mauseth, J.D. Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology. 2nd edition
Saunders Collage Publishing, Philadelphia. 1995.
USEFUL WEBSITES
1. www.mhhe.com/sciencemath/biology/mader/ (click on biology).
www.learningall.com
www.learningall.com
CHAPTER 9
DIVERSITY AMONG ANIMALS

9.1 Characteristics of Animals (1 Period)
9.2 Criteria of Animal Classification (3 Periods)
9.3 Diversity in Animals
9.3.1 Invertebrates (8 Periods)
9.3.2 Chordates (6 Periods)
The name animalia is derived from Latin word anima meaning breath
or soul. All the animals of the world are included in the kingdom animalia.
Now the question arises, what is an animal? How can we define an animal?
We can define animal very generally that animals are eukaryotic,
multicellular heterotrophs that lack cell walls. We will have a glance at the
characteristics of animals.
9.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF ANIMALS

Animals may be free living and motile, sessile or a parasite. Animals
are found almost in all types of habitat. They range in size from worms only
seen with a microscope to blue whales, which weigh up to 150 tons. Animals
are multicellular eukaryotes.
Most animals have cells specialized to form tissue and organs. Body
may be soft or hard, radial symmetry or bilateral symmetry, diploblastic or
triploblastic segmented. Body may be covered by shell, chitin, scales, furs.
Animals may be acoelomate, pseudcoelomatc and coelomate. All animals are
heterotroph and usually acquire food by ingestion followed by digestion.
Animals may have no definite digestive system e.g. sponges, it is a saclike
252 BIOLOGY XI: Chapter 9, DIVERSITY AMONG ANIMALS
gastrovascular cavity e.g., Hydra, or it may be rudimentary e.g. tapeworm.

Digestive system may have one opening e.g. planaria. Tube like digestive
system have two openings e.g. nematodes to mammals. Excretory system
may be absent in sponges, cnidarians. It is like branching tubes in flatworms.
Excretory system is present in nematodes to mammals. There is no definite
nervous system in sponges, and cnidarians. Nervous system is present in
nematodes to chordates. Most animals have sense organs. All animals respire
but a respiratory system is absent in sponges, cnidarians, flatworms,
nematodes (roundworms) and annelids. Respiratory system is present in
arthropods to chordates.
Skeleton is present is all animals. Spicules are present in sponges.

Hydroskeleton is present in worms and annelids. Skeleton may be
exoskeleton in arthropods, molluscs (mollusks), and chordates or it may be
endoskeleton in mollusks (sepia), echinoderms, chordates and highly
developed in vertebrates. Most animals are capable of locomotion at
sometime during their life cycle.
Circulatory System is absent in sponges, cnidarians, roundworms and

flatworm. It is present in annelids to chordates. Reproductive cells; organs or
reproductive system is present in all the animals. Asexual reproduction is
seen in sponges, cnidarians, sexual reproduction takes place in all other
groups of animals and produce an embryo that undergoes specific stages of
development. Animals have a life cycle in which the adult is always diploid.
The life cycle may have larval stages e.g. sponges, annelids, arthropods,
molluscs, echinoderms and amphibians. Regeneration is exhibited by
sponges, some cnidarians, annelids and echinoderms.
Thus we have a number of characteristics that answer the question,

what is an animal? What characteristics animals have common?
First, being eukaryotic, unites animals with protists, fungi and

plants and separates them from all prokaryotes. Secondly being
multicellular separates animals from fungi, plants and most protists,
which are unicellular. Third being heterotrophic separates animals and
fungi from plants and plantlike protists (the algae), which are
photosynthetic. Finally lacking cell walls distinguishes animals from
plants, algae and fungi, so we have four features that taken together
distinguish animals from other organisms.
BIOLOGY XI: Chapter 9, DIVERSITY AMONG ANIMALS 253
9.2 CRITERIA FOR ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION

Classification of animals is based on presence or absence of tissues,
number of tissue layers, type of symmetry and type of coelom.
Animals can be Classified According to Presence or Absence of Tissues
The animal kingdom has been divided into two subkingdoms on the
basis of presence or absence of tissues: subkingdom Parazoa and
subkingdom Eumatozoa. Parazoa includes the simplest metazoans or
multicellular animals that show the cellular grade of organization in which
cells demonstrate division of labour but are not strongly associated to perform
a specific collective function. They are asymmetrical. It includes all the
sponges.
In Eumatozoa similar cells are grouped together and perform their
common functions as a highly coordinated unit called tissue. The tissues are
assembled into larger functional unit called organs. Most metazoa have an
additional level of complexity in which different organs operate together as
organ system. Eleven different kinds of organ systems are observed in
Eumetazoa: skeletal, muscular, integumentary, digestive, respiratory,
circulatory, excretory, nervous, endocrine, immune and reproductive.
Animals can be Classified According to Number of Tissue Layers
Animals may be classified as diploblastic and triploblastic animals.
Diploblastic Organization
One of the main events during the
development of the animals is the
Ectoderm
establishment of germ layers from Mesoglea
which all other structure is derived. The Endoderm
body of diploblastic animals consists of
two germ layers of cells, the ectoderm
and endoderm. Such animals have tissue
Fig: 9.1 Diploblastic Organization
level of organisation. There is a jelly like
mesoglea, which in most cases is non-cellular between the two germ layers.
There are no specialized organs, no special transport system and no central
nervous system in diploblastic animals. A neuron net is present. There is only
one cavity called gastrovascular cavity (9.9) with only one opening. This is
known as sac like digestive system. These animals are radial symmetry. The
examples of diploblastic organization are animals of phylum Cnidaria.
Triploblastic Organization
The body of the triploblastic animals consists of three germ layers
i.e. ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm (9.3a). After embryonic development
these layers in most triploblastic animals are not distinct as separate layers of
cells, but are represented by the structures formed from them. Animals with
three germ layers have an organ level of organization. The animals have
specialized cells, organs and organ systems. The ectoderm gives rise to
integumentary and nervous system. Mesoderm gives rise to muscular, skeletal,
blood vascular and reproductive systems. Endoderm forms the lining of
digestive tract and the glands of digestive system. The digestive system is of a
tube type having two openings the mouth and the anus. The body of the animals has
bilateral symmetry. Triploblastic animals may be acoelomate, pseudocoelomate or
coelomate.
Animals can be Classified According to Body Symmetry
The subkingdoms Eumatozoa are divided into: grade Radiata and
grade Bilateria.
Grade Radiata
It includes all the animals with radial symmetry having a top and
bottom and similar body parts are arranged as spokes or radiate from a central
body axis. e.g. Jelly fish, sea anemone belong to phylum Cnidaria. The body
of a sea anemone can be cut in two equal halves vertically in any plane. All
the animals included in grade radiata are also diploblastic. Radial symmetry is
considered an adaptation for a sessile life.
Fig: 9.2a Radial Symmetry Fig: 9.2b Bilateral Symmetry

Grade Bilateria
In bilateral symmetry, a plane through the midline of the body divides
it into roughly equivalent right and left halves that are mirror image. The front
or anterior end of the animal generally has a head. The posterior or rear end of
the animal may be equipped with a tail. There are well defined dorsal and
ventral surfaces. The animals belonging to phyla Platyhelminthes, Aschelminthes,
Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda, Echinodermata, Hemichordata and Chordata
are included in this grade. In Echinoderms the larval stages show bilateral
symmetry and the adult secondarily develops radial symmetry. All the animals
included in grade Bilateria are triploblastic. These may be acoelomate,
pseudocoelomate or coelomate. Bilateral symmetry is considered an
adaptation to motility.
Animals can be Grouped According to Type of Body Cavity
A widely held system for grouping animal phyla is based on the
presence and type of body cavity or coelom, a fluid filled space between the
other body wall and the digestive tube.
Acoelomate
In platyhelminthes the body is essentially a double walled sac
surrounding a digestive cavity with a single opening to the outside, the mouth.
There is no body cavity so these animals are called acoelomate. There are
cellular tissues called mesenchyma which fills the spaces between ectoderm
and mesoderm. It forms a packing around the internal organs of the animals to
support and protect them.
Fig: 9.3 Acoelomate, Pseudocoelomate, and Coelomate Comparison

Pseudocoelomates
Complex animals usually have a tube within a tube plan. The inner
tube, the digestive tract, is lined with tissue derived from the endoderm and
open at each end. Between the two tubes is a second cavity the body cavity. If
the body cavity develops between the mesoderm and endoderm it is called
pseudocoelom (false cavity). Animals with this type of body cavity are called
pseudocoelomates e.g. Aschelminthes (Nematodes).
Coelomate
If the body cavity forms within the mesoderm and is completely lined
by mesoderm the body cavity is a true coelom. It is filled with coelomic
fluid. Animals with a true coelom are called coelomate. In coelomates gut is
more complex and neurosensory, excretory, circulatory respiratory and
reproductive systems are well developed. Animals from annelids to chordates
are coelomate.
Coelomate Can be Classified as Protostomes or Deuterostomes
Animals with a true coelom can be divided into two groups:
protostomes and deuterostomes. These groups reflect two main line of
evolution based on their pattern of early development. Early during
development, the embryo consists of a little ball of cells known as blastula. A
group of cells move inward to form and opening called the blastopore. In
most of the mollusks, annelids and arthropods, this opening develops into the
mouth. These animals are protostomes (from Greek words meaning first, the
mouth).
In echinoderms (for example, sea stars and sea urchins) and chordates
(the phylum that includes the vertebrates), the blastopore does not give rise to
the mouth. Instead it generally develops into the anus. The opening that
develops into the mouth forms later in development. These animals are the
deuterostomes (second, the mouth).
Another difference in the development of protostomes and
deuterostomes is the pattern of cleavage, the first several cell divisions of the
embryo. In many protostomes, the early cell divisions are diagonal to the
polar axis (the long axis of the egg), resulting in a somewhat spiral
arrangement of cells; any one cell is located between the two cells above or
below it (fig 9.4). This pattern of division is known as spiral cleavage. In
radial cleavage, characteristics of the deuterostomes, the early divisions are
either parallel or at right angles to the polar axis; the cells are located directly
above or below one another.
Fig: 9.4 Protostomes versus Deuterostomes
In the protostomes, the fate of each embryonic cell is often fixed very
early. For example, if the first four cells of an annelid embryo are separated,
each cell develops into only a fixed quarter of the larva; this is known as
determinate cleavage. In deuterostomes, cleavage is usually indeterminate.

If the first four cells of a sea star embryo, for instance, are separated, each cell
is capable of forming a complete, though small, larva.
Still another difference between protostome and deuterostome
development is the manner in which the coelom is formed. In protostomes,
the mesoderm splits and the split widens into a cavity that becomes the
coelom. This method of coelom formation is known as schizocoely and for
this reason the protostomes are sometimes called schizocoelomates. In many
deuterostomes, the mesoderm forms as outpocketings of the developing gut.
These outpocketings eventually separate and form pouches; the cavity within
the pouches becomes the coelom. This type of coelom formation is called
enterocoely and these animals are sometimes referred to a enterocoelomates.
Fig: 9.5 Phylogenetic Tree of the Animal Kingdom

Trace the position in the phylogeny of major groups of animals.
Skills: Interpreting and Communication
Draw the evolutionary tree of sponges, butterfly and monkey.

1. Ancestral Protista Choanoflagelates Sponges (Porifera),
2. Ancestral Protista Bilateria Coelomets Prostotomes, Butterfly (Ar
thropods)
3. Ancestral Protista Bilateria Coelomets Deuterostomes Monkey
(Chordates)
9.3 DIVERSITY IN ANIMALS

Animals are incredibly diverse in structure. Despite the vast
differences in structural complexity of organisms ranging form the simplest
sponges to humans, all share an intrinsic material design and fundamental
functional design.
9.3.1 INVERTEBRATES
When we think of animals we tend to imagine birds, dogs, fishes, and
squirrel etc. However most animal species are those that lack a backbone and are
commonly known as invertebrates. The invertebrates have been divided into eight
major phyla: porifera, cnidaria, platyhelminthes, aschelminthes, mollusca,
annelida, arthropoda, echinodermata. The chordates may be grouped as
invertebrate chordates (Phylum Hemichordata, sub phylum Urochordata and
subphylum cephalochordata) and vertebrates (subphylum vertebrata).
1. PHYLUM PORIFERA
The General Characteristics of phylum porifera (Latin porus, pore,
ferra, to bear) are: Sponges are sessile, attached to the rocks at the bottom of
water. Larvae are motile. Sponges are all aquatic, mostly marine, some found
Fig: 9.6 Generalized Sponge Anatomy

in fresh water. They range in size from a few millimetre wide to more than a
metre long. Body is multicellular and not organized as tissue or organs. Body
lacks symmetry. The sponges consist of outer dermal layer called
pinacoderm, and inner layer choanoderm made of flagellated cells called
choanocytes. The middle region is called mesenchyme.
Body is perforated by many pores called ostia. There is a single cavity
inside the body called spongocoel. Water enters through ostia travels through
the canal and goes out by a large main opening called osculum. Sponges
depend on food coming along with water currents. There is no definite
nervous system. Various shapes of spicules form the skeleton. These are
needle like and may be calcarious or siliceous. The bath sponge has spongin
fibre.
Asexual reproduction takes place by budding or gemmules. Buds
develop into new sponges. Sexual reproduction takes place by egg and sperm.
Sexes may be separate or hermaphrodite. The embryo development includes
free swimming ciliated larval stages.
Sponges have remarkable ability of regeneration from a small
fragment. Sponges have evolved from the protists called choanoflagelates.
The examples of Sponges are: Sycon, Leucosolenia, Euplectella, Spongilla.
Fig: 9.7 Examples of Sponges
Q. Justify the classification of sponges as animals.

Evolutionary Adaptations in Sponges

Digestion is completely intracellular and occurs in food vacuoles
within choanocytes. Respiration is aerobic. All the cells of the dermal and
gastral layers are in contact with water. There are no special organelles for
respiration. Transportation takes place through water current and diffusion.
The water current system has greatly enlarged area for the feeding and
gaseous exchange. Excretion takes place through diffusion and outgoing
water-current. The individual cells react as independent effectors. A sponge
lacks nervous system. Sensory cells probably seem to coordinate the flow of
water. Sponges are the only animals with collar cells (choanocytes). In the
sense that they apparently did not give rise to any other animal group,
sponges seem to represent a dead end in evolution.
Economic Importance of Sponges
Skeleton of sponges are used for washing and bathing. Sponges have great
capacity to absorb water. They are used in surgical operations for absorbing fluid
and blood. Sponges are used for sound absorption in buildings.
2. PHYLUM CNIDARIA
The General characteristics The name Cnidaria as this group of ani
of phylum Cnidaria (Greek, Knide, mals have special cells called cni
nettle, + L. aria, connected with) docytes. These cells give rise to nema
are: Most of the species are tocyst the stinging cells characteristics
sessile, e.g. Hydra, free living and of this group.
motile e.g. Jelly fish, colonial e.g.
Obelia. Cnidarians are entirely
aquatic, mainly marine, few found
in fresh water, e.g. Hydra.
They range in size from
microscopic (Hydra) to two metres
in length (hydrozoan polyp). Body
is radial symmetry. Cnidarians are
diploblastic animals having
ectoderm, endoderm and mesoglea
in between the two. They have a sac
like internal gastrovascular
cavity, which has only one opening the mouth. The mouth is often surrounded
by tentacles. Tentacles and body is provided with stinging cell organelles
called nematocysts. Nervous system consists of nerve net and some sense
gastrovascular
cavity
Fig: 9.8 Hydra Fig: 9.9 Obelia
Science Titbits
Alternation of Generation: Polyp reproduces asexually by budding to
form medusae. In turn medusae reproduce sexually to form polyp. It is
called alternation of generation. Both the generations are diploid, often the
two generations consist of one free living and one attached stage. e.g. Obe
lia. Some do not show any alternation of generation e.g. Hydra.
Fig 9.10 Cnidarians

organs. Asexual reproduction takes place by budding and sexual reproduction

by gametes. Cnidarians also occur in the form of colonies. The units of the
colonies are called zooids, There are two main types of zooids. Hydroids or
polyps which are feeding zooids and Medusae are reproductive zooids, for
sexual reproduction.
Evolutionary Adaptations in Cnidarians
In cnidaria, both the polyp and medusa are constructed on the same
scheme. The colonial form of life shows alternation of generation and
polymorphism. Occurrence of different types of zooids in the same organism
is called polymorphism. Some colonies grow to a great size e.g. corals. Gastro
vascular cavity is often branched or divided with septa with a single opening.
Nerve net is present. Transportation and excretion take place through
diffusion. There is no respiratory and excretory system.
Economic Importance of Cnidarians
Coral reefs protect shores from erosion by tidal waves. Corals are used
in jewellery and others are used in aquaria, rock gardens etc. Some cnidarians
have poisonous stings. Large jelly fish and sea anemone are even more
dangerous. Jellyfish is common at seashore in Karachi and stings many
persons every year.
Coral Reefs: Corals are cnidarians. It is made of CaCO3. The ectodermal

cells of the corals take lime from the sea water and form their exoskeleton.
These exoskeleton form coral reefs and even island. Coral reefs are found
in the coastal water of Florida, West Indies, East coast of Africa, Australia
and Island of Coral Sea.
3. PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES
The general characteristics of phylum platyhelminthes (flatworms)
are: The flat worms are free living e.g. Planaria, or parasite e.g. Tapeworm.
They are found in fresh water, marine, animal gut, liver. Body is soft and
flattened dorsiventrally. Platyhelminthes are triploblastic and exhibits a
bilateral symmetry. Coelom is absent, and the spaces are filled with
mesenchyme tissue. Digestive system is incomplete and is of gastrovascular
type and it is absent in some flatworms.
Excretory system consists of two lateral canals with branches bearing
flame cells (protonephridia). Nervous system consists of a pair of anterior
ganglia to which longitudinal nerve cords are connected by transverse nerves
and are located in the mesenchyme.

Cells, organs are simple and
eyespots are present in some
flatworms. Free living forms are
motile. They move by cilia present
on the underside of the animals e.g.
Planaria. In parasitic forms
movement is restricted.
Reproduction takes places

both by asexual and sexual means.
Asexual reproduction is by fission.
Most forms are monoecious. The
reproductive system is complex,
usually with well-developed gonads,
ducts and accessory organs. The
fertilization is internal.
Development is direct in
free-swimming forms and with
those with a single host in the life
cycle. Indirect development takes
place in internal parasites in which
there may be a complicated life
cycle involving several hosts. The
examples of flatworms are: Dugesia
(planaria), Fasciola (liver fluke),
Taenia (tapeworm).
Fig: 9.11 Flatworms
Evolutionary Adaptations in
Platyhelminthes
Digestive system is incomplete i.e. gastrovascular type, having only

one opening to the exterior, the mouth. Respiratory and transport systems are
absent, exchange of gases take place through diffusion. Excretory system of
two lateral canals with branches bearing flame cells (protonephridia).
Nervous system consisting of a pair of anterior ganglia with longitudinal
nerve cord.
Economic Importance of Platyhelminthes

The parasitic forms of flukes and tapeworms are very harmful for man
e.g. Tapeworm, liver fluke, the blood fluke of cattle etc.
4. PHYLUM ASCHELMINTHES
The phylum is also known as Nematoda (Gr, nematos, thread). The
general characteristics of Phylum Aschelminthes (roundworms) are: The
roundworms are free living or parasites, and live in soil, roots, human and
animal intestine and muscles. Most roundworms are less than five cm long
and many are microscopic but some parasitic roundworms are more than one
metre in length.
The worms are symmetry bilateral, having three germ layers. Body is
cylindrical, tapering at both ends. Digestive tract is complete. It is a straight
tube with mouth and anus at opposite ends of the body. Muscular layer is not
continuous. It is divided into four longitudinal quadrants: two - dorsolateral,
two - ventrolateral.
The body cavity is pseudocoelom. The excretory system consists of a
pair of longitudinal excretory canals and excretory pore. Nervous System
consists of a nerve ring around oesophagus (pharynx), from which nerve cord
and fibres extend in various directions. Most nematodes are dioecious.
Fertilization is internal. Most animals are unisexual. The circulatory and
respiratory organs are absent.
Evolutionary Adaptations in Aschelminthes
Aschelminthes have been able to adapt to almost every habitat
available to animal life. Their basic pseudocoelomate body plans with the
Pinworms Enterobius vermicularis

(Female) Fig: 9.12 Nematodes
cuticle hydrostatic skeleton and longitudinal muscles have proved generalized

and plastic enough to adapt to an enormous variety of physical conditions and
virtually all potential host have been exploited. All types of life cycle occur
from the simple and direct to the complex with intermediate hosts from
normal dioecious reproduction to parthenogenesis, hermaphroditism and
alternation of free living and parasitic generation. Aschelminthes have
extraordinary capacity to survive conditions suboptimal for viability.
Digestive System is complete with mouth and anus. Pharynx is
muscular well-developed tube within a tube arrangement. Circulatory and
respiratory organs are absent. Excretory system consists of canals and
protonephridea. Nervous system consists of a ring of nerve tissue and ganglia
around the pharynx with longitudinal nerve cords connected by transverse
nerve.
Economics Importance - Parasitic Diseases
Aschelminthes is important from the point of view of its parasites
which has a great variety causing some very serious diseases in man and
plants. Ascaris lumbericoides is an intestinal parasite of man. The genus
Rhabditis contains numerous species normally found in soil, organic matter,
water and faeces of man and animals. Enterobius vermicularis commonly
known as pinworm is cosmopolitan but more common in Europe and
America. Pinworms are parasites in the human caecum, colon and appendix.
Their movement causes intense itching of anus, inflammation of mucous
membrane of colon and appendix resulting in insomnia and loss of appetite.
5. PHYLUM MOLLUSCA
The general characteristics of Phylum Mollusca (Latin; Moallis, soft)
are: They are free living or sessile, and live in fresh water, marine and land (in
moist places). The molluscs are bilateral symmetry, triploblastic, coelomate,
soft and unsegmented animals. Body is divided into; head ventral muscular
foot dorsal visceral region containing most of the internal organs. The whole
animal is covered in an envelope of glandular epithelial tissue called mantle.
It secretes the shell. The shell may be external (snail), internal (cuttle fish) or
even absent (octopus). Mouth Cavity may have a tongue like structure called
radula, provided with horny teeth e.g. Cuttle fish, snail. Respiration takes
place by gills, lungs mantle or by body surface, which is richly provided with
blood vessels. Circulatory System is of open type except for the Cephalopods
e.g. Squids. Coelom is divided into haemocoelic channels or sinuses. The
excretory system consists of one or two metanephridia. Nervous System
consists of three pairs of interconnected ganglia in the head, foot and visceral
mass. There is a collection of ganglia in the head region forming a ganglionic

mass. e.g. Squids. Sexes may be separate e.g. Unio or united e.g. Helix. The
development takes place through trochophore larvae.
The molluscs are classified into six classes. The three major classes
are: (1) Gastropoda e.g. Helix aspera (gardan snail), Limax (slug) (2) Bivalvia
(Pelecypoda) e.g. Mytillus (marine mussel) , Ostrea (Oyster), Anodonta (fresh
water mussel) (3) Cephalopoda e.g. Loligo (squid), Sepia (cuttlefish),
Octopus.
Fig: 9.13 Molluscs
Evolutionary Adaptation in Molluscs

Most of the diversity among molluscs is related to their adaptation to
different habitats and modes of life and to a wide variety of feeding method
ranging from sedentary filter feeding to active predation. Digestive system is
complex having rasping organ radula and anus usually emptying into mantle
cavity. Gaseous exchange by gills, lungs mantle or body surface. Open
circulatory system consists of heart and blood vessels. In cephalopods mostly

closed circulatory system is present. There are one or two metanephridia,
which open into the pericardial cavity. The nervous system consists of paired
cerebral, pleural, pedal and visceral ganglia with nerve cords.
Economic Importance in Molluscs
Beneficial molluscs: Shell of fresh water mussels are used in button
industry. Shells of oyster are mixed with tar for making roads in America.
Shells in certain parts of the world are also used for making ornaments. Some
oysters make valuable pearls e.g. pearl oyster. Calms, oyster, mussels are
source of food in Far East, Europe, and America.
Harmful molluscs: Slugs are injurious in garden and cultivation.
Toredo a shipworm damages wooden parts in ships.
6. PHYLUM ANNELIDA
The annelids are called segmented worms. The general characteristics
of Phylum Annelida (Latin - Annelus = little ring) are: They are free living
(Earthworm) or ectoparasite e.g. (Stylaria, Hirudo). They are found in soil,
freshwater and marine (Nereis). Body is metamerically segmented i.e. the
body is divided into segments both internally and externally by transverse
septa. Circulatory, nervous and digestive system extend throughout the body.
Coelom is a true coelom. It is separated into compartments. Due to spaces
around alimentary canal, the adjacent coelomic chambers communicate with
each other. Thus coelomic fluid of the adjacent chamber is mixed. The
coelomic fluid serves as a hydrostatic skeleton also. Digestive system is in the
form of a alimentary canal. It is divided into distinct parts each performing a
specific function. It has two openings the mouth and anus. The mouth is
surrounded by a lobed structure the prostomium. The digestive system is
poorly developed in parasitic species. Annelids are the first group in the
animal kingdom having definite closed blood vascular system. Excretion
takes place by nephridia. These are ciliated organs present in each segment
of the body. Central nervous system is present. It consists of a pair of dorsal
ganglia and a solid double, longitudinal ventral nerve cord. Nerves arise in
each segment from the nerve cord. Respiratory system is absent and
respiration takes place through the moist skin. The body wall contains circular
and longitudinal muscles which help in locomotion. The locomotion takes
place by the interaction of muscles and hydrostatic skeleton. The organs of
locomotion in the annelids are chitinous chaetae or setae. It is embedded in
sacs in earthworm. Parapodia is present in the body wall of Nereis. The
chaetae are absent in leech. The common mode of reproduction is sexual.

Most of the annelids are hermaphrodite e.g. earthworm, leech. Sexes are
separate in some annelids e.g. Nereis. Fertilization is external. Development
is direct or indirect through trochopore larvae. Regeneration is common in
annelids.
Phylum Annelida consists of three classes: 1. Class Polychaeta e.g.
Nereis, 2. Class Oligochaeta e.g. Pheritima posthuma (Earthworm). 3. Class
Hirudinea e.g Hirudo (Leech).
Clitellum
Pheritima (Earthworm)
Nereis
Amphitrite Leech
Fig: 9.14 Annelids
Evolutionary Adaptations in Annelids

A basic adaptive feature in evolution of annelids is their septal
arrangement resulting in fluid filled coelomic compartments. Fluid pressure
in those compartments is used as a hydrostatic skeleton for movement.
Powerful circular and longitudinal muscles have been adapted for flexing
shortening and lengthening of the body. There is a wide variation in feeding
adaptations from the sucking pharynx of the oligochaetes and the chitinous jaws
of carnivorous polychaetes to the specialized tentacles and cirri of the ciliary
feeders. In Polychaetes the parapodia have been adapted in many ways and for
many functions, chiefly locomotion and respiration.
Economic Importance of Annelids
Polychaetes form an important food item for many edible fish.
Polychaetes that build calcarious tubes greatly contribute to reef formation.
Earthworms help in soil improvement. Leech is an ectoparsite to man and
cattle.
7. PHYLUM ARTHROPODA
The arthropods are called joint footed animals. The general characteristics
of Phylum Arthropoda (Arthros, joined pods, feet) are: They are free living or
parasites and are found in all types of habitat. The body is segmented. The
segments are attached to each other by a modified portion of the cuticle which is
thin and flexible. Arthropods vary in structure. Some are worm like and others are
flying insects. Segments are modified, specialized and fused. Symmetry is
bilateral; head, thorax and abdomen variously distinct or fused. Body is covered
by chitin. It is flexible at many places to allow articulation.
There are several pairs of appendages. Each pair of appendages with
many joints is used for movement in various directions, often modified for
specialized functions. Coelom is not present as the main body cavity. It is
reduced and is called haemocoel, because it is connected with the blood
vascular system.
Arthropods have complex digestive system. Alimentary canal has two
openings, the mouth and anus. Each part is modified for specific function.
Mouthparts are modified from appendages and are adapted for different
methods of feeding. Arthropods feed on small plants, plant juices, animals
etc. Nervous System is highly developed. There is a brain and a ventral
double nerve cord. There is a ganglion in each segment from which nerves
arise. A pair of compound eyes and antennae form the sensory organ.
Excretion takes place through paired excretory glands called coxal, antennal
or maxillary glands. In insects the excretory organs are called Malpighian
tubules, and the nitrogenous wastes are excreted in the form of solid uric
acid. Respiratory system consists of extensive tracheal system formed by the
air tubes called trachea. Spiracles are the openings of the main tubes to the
exterior. In aquatic arthropods respiration takes place through gills.
Circulatory system consists of dorsal contractile heart and haemocoel
(blood sinuses). Skeleton is exoskeleton, formed chiefly of chitin. Muscles
are attached to exoskeleton for locomotion. Arthropods have active and swift
movements. They may swim, crawl or fly as per habitat. The organs of
locomotion are paired appendages. Insects have paired wings.
Sexes are separate in arthropodes. The male and female arthropods are
often unlike. The reproductive organs and ducts are paired. The testes produce
sperms and ovaries produce eggs. Fertilization is mostly internal.
Fig: 9.15 Complete Metamorphosis
Fig: 9.16 Incomplete Metamorphosis

Development takes place through metamorphosis. It is of two types.

In incomplete metamorphosis only larval stage is present which resembles
the adult called nymph e.g. cockroach, chinch bug. In complete
metamorphosis the life cycle consists of egg, larva, pupa and adult e.g.
butterfly, housefly. In the larvae e.g. insects, the chitinous exoskeleton is shed
from time to time to allow growth of the larvae. This process of shedding of
exoskeleton is called moulting or ecdysis.
Science Titbits
What are the secrets of insect success? The body plan is modified
and specialized in so many ways that insects have been able to adapt to a
number of life styles. They have ability to fly. Protective mechanisms in
clude: body is covered by cutin, mimicry, protective colouration and ag
gressive behaviour. The larvae and pupae do not have to compete with
adults for food or habitats.
Classification of Arthropods
Phylum Arthropoda is a large group. It shows a great diversity. It has
been divided into four major classes. (1) Crustacea e.g Daphnia, Cyclops,
Crab, Lobsters, Prawn and Wood louse. (2) Insecta e.g. Dragon fly,
mosquitoes, butterflies, moths, wasp and beetles etc. (3) Arachnida e.g.
Scorpions, Spiders, Mites and Tick. (4) Myriopoda e.g. Centipede
(Scolopendra), Millipedes (Julus).
Evolutionary Adaptations in Arthropods
In arthropods there is the strong but flexible exoskeleton composed
primarily of chitin. It is hard and nonexpandable so arthropods molt the
exosekeleton as they grow larger. Before molting, the body secretes a new
larger exoskeleton. Arthropods are segmented but some segments are fused
into regions, such as head, thorax and
abdomen. In modern arthropods apppendages
are specialised for walking, swimming, Science Titbits
reproducing, eating and sensory reception.
Origin of Arthropods: It
Several arthropod groups, such as insects,
is believed that the
arachnids, centipedes, and millipedes, contain
arthropods and annelids
species that are adapted to terrestrial life. The
have a common origin, as
head bears various types of sense organs
both have appendages, a
including compound and simple eyes.
segmented body and
Arthropods have a variety of respiratory
cuticle.
Daphnia Cyclop
Fig: 9.17 Crustaceans
Fig: 9.18 Insects
Fig: 9.19 Arachnids

Fig: 9.20 Myriapods
organs. Marine forms have gills. Terrestrial forms have book lungs (e.g.,
spiders) or air tubes called tracheae (L. trachia, windpipe).
Digestive system is complete, mouthparts modified from appendages
and adapted for different methods of feeding. Open circulatory system with
dorsal contractile heart arteries and blood sinuses (homocoel) is present.
Paired excretory glands called coxal, antenna or maxillary glands present
some with other excretory organs called Malpighian tubules. Nervous
system with dorsal brain connected by a ring around the gullet to a double
nerve chain of ventral ganglia, well developed sensory organs.
Economic Importance of Arthropods
Many arthropods are of great importance, as some are useful and
others are harmful to mankind.
Crustacea: Many crustaceans provide human food, directly or
indirectly. Lobsters, cray fish and prawns are eaten. Some crustaceans act as
intermediate hosts for human parasites, e.g Cyclops carry larvae of a
nematode, the Guinea worm.
Insecta: The insects are of very great economic importance. They are
beneficial as well as harmful.
Beneficial Insects: They give us many
substances of commercial importance, e.g. Honey and
bees wax are produced by the honeybee, silk by silk
worms and shellac from a wax is secreted by lac
insects. Insects aid in the production of fruits, seeds
and vegetables by pollinating the flowers e.g. bees,
wasps, ants and butterflies. Insects like grasshoppers,
locusts, crickets, and many more are eaten by human
beings in certain parts of the world. Insects form food Fig: 9.21 Lady Bird
Beetle
for animals useful to man. Insects act as scavengers. Insects destroy other
injurious insects. Dragonflies feed on mosquitoes, ladybird beetles eat up
plant lice. Insects destroy weeds by feeding on them. Insects are employed in
scientific studies. Fruit fly (Drosophila), cockroach, grasshopper are
abundantly used as laboratory animals for scientific learning and research.
Harmful Insects: They destroy field crops, fruit trees and timber
plants. The more destructive insects are locusts, grasshoppers, beetles,
caterpillars, aphids, leafhoppers, scale insects, bugs and weevils. They
damage stored grains, e.g. grain weevils and ants. They spoil useful articles in
the houses, e.g. Silverfish damages books and white ants destroy furniture.
They spread diseases among human beings. The more important disease
carriers are housefly, mosquitoes, lice, sand fly, tsetse fly and bugs. They
irritate man in various ways. Bees and wasps sting, mosquitoes, lice and fleas
bite and suck blood; small insects fall into the eyes.
Arachnida: The arachnids are mainly harmful to man. Scorpions and a
few spiders are poisonous and sting. Certain mites damage crops. Spiders and
scorpions are beneficial to a certain degree as they feed largely on injurious
insects.

Explain the role of invertebrates in the field of research and daily life.
8. PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA
The echinodermata are called spiny skinned animals. The general
characteristics of phylum echinodermata (GK. echinos, spiny and derma skin)
are: They are free living, some are attached to the substratum. The
echinoderms are exclusively marine. Most are found at the bottom along the
shorelines in shallow seas.
Body is covered by delicate epidermis. The echinoderms are
triploblastic coelomates and exhibit radial symmetry in adult. Echinoderms
have an endoskeleton consisting of a spine bearing calcium rich plates. The
spines, which stick out through the delicate skin, account for their name. The
mouth is on the oral side and anus is on the aboral side. There is a central disc
from which arms radiate.
The body may be flattened like biscuit, (cake urchin), star-shaped with
short arm (starfish) globular (sea urchin), star-shaped with long arms (brittle
star) or elongated (sea cucumber).
Fig: 9.22 Echinoderms
Coelom consists of canals and spaces. One of which forms water

vascular system. It is a complex system of tubes. It consists of stone canal,
ring canal, lateral canal, radial canal, ampulla and tube feet. Water circulates
through these channels. Water enters through a sieve like plate called
madreporite present on the aboral surface. Organs of locomotion are the tube
feet. Each foot is a soft structure. These are present along the edges of
grooves present in the arms.
There are specialized organs for digestion and reproduction. There are
no specialized organs for respiration or excretion. The nervous system is
poorly developed. There is no brain, only a nerve ring is present around the
pharyngeal region. The circulatory system is poorly organized. The sexes are
separate. The fertilization is external. The larvae such as bipinnaria and
brachiolaria are complex and exhibit bilateral symmetry. Autotomy and
regeneration are common among starfish, sea cucumber, sea lily, brittle star
and sea urchin.
Science Titbits
Echinoderms show close resemblance with chordates. Both: (1) have mesodermal
skeleton. (2) are deuterostomous, (3) have similar early development. That is
why echinoderms have been placed closest to phylum chordata.
Evolutionary Adaptations in Echinoderms

The most evolutionary characteristic are: Radial symmetry, the water
vascular system and their dermal endoskeleton. If their ancestors had a brain
and specialized sense organs these were lost in the adoption of radial
symmetry. There are large numbers of echinoderm, which are creeping
benthic forms with filter feeding, deposit feeding scavengers and herbivores,
comparatively few predators and very large pelagic forms. Digestive system
usually complete axial or coiled anus absent in ophiuroids. Respiration by
dermal branchiae, tube feet, respiratory tree e.g. see cucumber and bursae e.g
spiny brittle star. Blood vascular system is much reduced. Excretory organs
are absent. Nervous system includes a circumoral nerve ring and radial nerve-
cords. There is no brain.
Economic Importance of Echinoderms
Many echinoderms are used as food e.g. Sea cucumber is used in
making soup in China. Gonads of sea urchin are eaten in South America. Eggs
of starfish, sea urchin are eaten in West Indies etc. Dried skeleton of
echinoderms are used as fertilizer because of their high percentage of calcium
and nitrogen. Starfishes act as scavengers and thus clean seawater. The
echinoderms are also harmful. They cause damage to oyster beds. The
stinging sea urchins are poisonous.
9.3.2 CHORDATES
Both invertebrate and vertebrate chordates have been divided into two
phyla, phylum Hemichordata and phylum chordata.
1. PHYLUM HEMICHORDATA
They show characteristics of both echinoderms and chordates and both
phyla belong to the group deuterostome branch of animal kingdom.
Hemichordates are also called prochordates because of their close
relationship to chordates. Examples: Balanoglossus, Saccoglossus.
The hemichordates are called acorn worms. The general

characteristics of Phylum Hemichordata (Gr. Hemi, half, Chorda, string cord)
are: All hemichordates are marine. Some are solitary, naked and slow moving,
others are sedentary. Body is soft and unsegmented and has a worm like form.
Body has three distinct regions: proboscis, collar and trunk.
The body wall consists of a single layered epidermis with mucous
secreting cells and nerve net. Symmetry is bilateral and hemichordates are
triploblastic. Body cavity is a true coelom with three parts corresponding to
the three body divisions. Respiration occurs by one pair to numerous pairs of
gill slits forming a dorsal row behind collar.
Circulatory system includes a dorsal heart and two longitudinal
vessels, a dorsal and a ventral, interconnected by small lateral vessels. Blood
is colourless and without corpuscles. Excretory system comprises of a
proboscis gland or glomerulus situated in the proboscis and connected with
blood vessels. There are no nephridia. Nervous system is diffused, consisting
of an epidermal plexus of nerve cells and nerve fibres. Sexes may be separate
or united. Fertilization is external. Developmen may include free swimming
larval stage.
Fig: 9.23 Saccoglossus
Evolutionary Adaptations in Hemichords

(a) The body is long slender having tapering proboscis
(b) Hemichordates live in burrows, foul smell provide safety from the predators
(c) Filter feeding habit suits the sluggish life in burrow
(d) Gonads are multiple
(e) There is a great power of regeneration
(f) Free swimming larva causes dispersal so essential for a sluggish creature.
2. PHYLUM CHORDATA
The representatives of the phylum chordata called the chordates, are the
most familiar, adaptable, successful and the most widely distributed animals,
showing diversity of form, habitat and habits to an amazing degree. The chordates
include the tunicates, lancelets, lampreys, fishes, salamanders, frogs, lizards,
snakes, tortoises, turtles, crocodiles, birds and mammals along with man.
Characteristics of Chordates
Notochord: The notochord
is a solid unjointed rod located in
the mid-dorsal line between the
gut and the central nervous
system outside the coelom. The
notochord serves as an axial
endoskeleton, giving support to
the body and providing space for
muscle attachment. In some
lower chordates the notochord
persists throughout life, but in
higher chordates it is partly or
wholly replaced in the adult stage
by a jointed backbone or vertebral
column.
Nervous System: The central
nervous system of all the chordates
consists of a single, tubular fluid
filled, nongangliated nerve cord, Fig: 9.24 Main Features of the Chordates,
situated along the mid dorsal line as Shown in a Generalized Embryo
above the notochord and outside
the coelom.
Gill Slits: The gill slits are paired perforations on the lateral sides of
the anterior part of the body, leading from the pharynx to exterior.
Classification of Chordates
The phylum chordata has been subdivided into two groups:
Protochordata (Acrania) in which brain is not enclosed in bony case and
Craniata in which brain is enclosed in a bony case and notochord has been
replaced by vertebral column. Protochordata has been divided into two sub-
phyla: (1) Subphylum urochorda, (2) Subphylum cephalochordata.
i. Subphylum Urochordata
The general characteristics of subphylum urochordata are: Body varies
considerably in size, form and colour. The body is covered by a covering called
tunic so they are called tunicates. Lining the tunic is an inner membrane, the
mantle. On the outside are two projections: the incurrent siphon which
corresponds to the anterior end of the body and excurrent siphon that marks the
dorsal side. Larva has a mid-dorsal supporting rod, the notochord, in the tail.
The notochord usually disappears during metamorphosis, so that adult has no
Fig: 9.25 Urochordates

skeleton. Digestive tract is complete. There are two to many gill or pharyngeal
slits in the pharyngeal wall. Circulatory system is of open type. Nervous system
is represented in the adult by a single ganglion. Excretion is carried on by
nephrocytes.
Urochordates are hermaphroditic, usually with a single testis and a
single ovary in the same animal. Germ cells are carried by the genital duct to
the arterial cavity and then to surrounding water where fertilization takes
place. Asexual reproduction takes place by budding. Larvae are free
swimming and have a dorsal hollow nerve cord extending the greater length
of the body and a notochord confined to the tail so the group has been named
urochordata. The examples of urochordates are Ascidia, Halosymthia, etc.
Evolutionary Adaptations in Subphylum Urochordata
Adaptation for feeding: Inability to move about in search of food has
been overcome by developing ciliary feeding in which food particles are
drawn towards the mouth.
Adaptation for survival: Thick leathery test and calcarious spiny
spicules keep the predators away. Free-swimming larva brings about
dispersal.
ii. Subphylum Cephalochordata
The general characteristics of subphylum cephalochordata are: Body is
fish like. It has no head but tail is present. Notochord extends the entire length
of the body. Digestive tract is complete. There is no organ for respiration. It
takes place through general body surface. Circulatory system is of closed
type. Excretory system consists of paired protonephridia. Sexes are separate
and fertilization is external. Development takes place through a ciliated free-
swimming larva. The example of cephalochordata is Branchiostoma
(Amphioxus) (lancelet).
Evolutionary Adaptations in Subphylum Cephalochordata
Adaptation for Swimming: Streamlined form, expanded caudal fin
increases the forward thrust of the body
Adaptation for Burrowing: Stream lined body helps burrowing in
sand, mucus acts as lubricant and front end acts as efficient drill during
burrowing.
Adaptation for Feeding: Ciliary feeding by the lancelet best suits its
nearly sedentary life inside burrows.
Adaptation for Survival:

Translucence of the body renders it
almost invisible in water. Habit of
leaving the burrows at night, free-
swimming larvae and high degree
of sensitivity also contributes to
survival of the animal.
iii. Subphylum Vertebrata
(Craniata)
The third subphylum of
the chordate is the largest and
imminently diverse vertebrata.
The characteristics that give the
member of this group the names
vertebrata and craniata are
spinal column of vertebrae, which
forms the chief skeletal axis of the
body, and a brain case or cranium.
The classification of the
subphylum vertebrata is given in
the table No. 9.1
Vertebrates may be divided
into nonamniotes or those without Fig: 9.26 Branchiostoma lanceolatum
foetal membrane, include
cyclostomata, chondrichthyes, osteichthyes, amphibia and amniota or those
with foetal membranes includes reptiles, aves and mammals.
a. SUPER CLASS AGNATHA
The living members of agnatha are divided into two classes; Mixini
(hagfishes) and Cephalospidomorphi (lampreys) members of both groups
lack jaws, internal ossification,
scales and paired fins and both
group share pore like gill Science Titbits
openings and an eel-like body
form. In other aspects however, Vertebrates are distinguished, in particular
the two groups are morpho- by, having endoskeleton, closed circulato
logically very different. ry system, paired appendages, efficient
respiration and excretion, high degree of
cephalisation.
The general characteristic of super class Agnatha are: Body slender,

eel-like, rounded with naked skin. There are no paired appendages and no
dorsal fin in class Myxini. There are one or two median fins and no paired
appendages in class Cephalospidomorphi. The caudal fin extends anteriorly
along the dorsal surface. Skeleton is fibrous and cartilaginous and the
notochord is persistent. Biting mouth with two rows of eversible teeth in
Class Myxini and the oral disk is sucker like and tongue with well-developed
teeth in class Cephalospidomorphi. There are five to sixteen gills for
respiration in class Myxini and seven pairs of gills each with external gill
opening in class Cephalospidomorphi. Digestive system is without stomach.
Dorsal nerve cord with differentiated brain. Sexes are separate. Fertilization
is external and there is no larval stage. The examples of agnatha are Hagfish,
and Lamprey.
Fig. 9.27 Sea lampret Fig: 9.28 The Atlantic Hagfish Myxine glutinosa
Petromayzon marinus
Evolutionary Adaptations in Super Class Agnatha

Body is long slender limbless, slimy skin offer minimum resistance to
water. Laterally compressed, tail with caudal fin provides greater forward
thrust. Buccal funnel and toothed tongue form a device for blood sucking in
absence of jaws. Ability to draw in and expel out water through the gill slits
carries on respiration. Very large numbers of eggs are laid. Burrowing life of
the larvae gives them protection against carnivores and filter feeding best
suits their nearly sedentary life in burrows.
b. SUPER CLASS GNATHOSTOMATA

It is divided into six classes: Chondrichthyes, Osteichthyes,
Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and Mammalia.
1. CLASS CHONDRICHTHYES
The chondrichthyes are popularly
Jaws Evolve
called the cartilaginous fishes. The The gnathostomates have jaws.
cartilaginous skeleton is considered as a The tooth bearing bones of the
head. Jaws are believed to have
degenerate character rather than primitive
evolved from the first pair of
character. It includes the sharks, gill arches of agnathans.
dogfishes, rays, skates and chimaeras. The
general characteristics of class
Chondrichthyes are: Body is laterally
compressed and spindle (fusiform) shaped. Mouth is ventral. Olfactory sacs
are not connected to mouth cavity.
Skin is tough and covered with minute placoid scale. The pectoral and
pelvic fins are paired. There are two dorsal fins. The caudal fin is
heterocercal. Endoskeleton is entirely cartilaginous. Digestive tract leads
into the cloaca. Stomach is J shaped. The circulatory system consists of two-
chambered heart. There is one atrium and one ventricle. There are 5-7 pairs of
aortic arches. Respiratory system includes 5-7 pairs of gills, without
operculum. Swim bladder is absent.
Sexes are separate. Gonads are paired. Fertilization is internal. Most
forms are oviparous or viviparous. Skates and Rays are bottom dwelling
fishes. The pectoral fins of these fishes are much enlarged and are used for
swimming like wings. Two members of this group are of special interest are
Sting rays and Electric rays. The tail of the sting rays is long and whip like
and have sharp spines, which can inflict dangerous wounds. Electric Rays
have certain dorsal muscles modified into powerful electric organ which can
give severe shock and stun their prey.
Evolutionary Adaptations in Class Chondrichthyes
Spindle shaped body, slippery skin, presence of scales on the body
protect the animal. Ventral mouth is suited for capturing prey at the bottom of
the sea. Internal fertilization, nourishment and protection of the embryo in the
mothers body are evolutionary adaptive feature.
Economic Importance of Chondricthyes
They provide food. Some shark and rays are eaten in many countries.
They provide products of commercial value. Oil is obtained from the liver of
many sharks, which is a source of vitamin A and D. Shark skin leather is used for
shoes and bags. Pituitary gland of shark yields an extract of medical use. Sharks
feed on crustaceans, lobsters, crabs, and other fishes, which form human food.
Fig. 9.29 Chondrichthyes
2. CLASS OSTEICHTHYES
The general characteristics of class Osteichthyes (bony fishes) are:
Body is usually spindle-shaped and stream lined for active movement through
water. Endoskeleton is partly or wholly bony. Vertebrae are numerous. Pelvic
girdle is often absent. Notochord persists in a greatly reduced form.
Skin usually contains dermal scales embedded in the dermis. The
scales are ganoid, cycloid or ctenoid. Both median and paired fins are
present. These are supported by cartilaginous or bony rays in the distal part.
Pelvic and pectoral fins are paired while dorsal fin is single. The caudal fin is
homocercal. Mouth is usually terminal i.e. anterior end often bears numerous
teeth. Jaws are well developed. Anus is present and cloaca is absent.
Fig: 9.30 Labeo rohita

The four pairs of gills are supported by a bony arch. They are covered
by operculum. Spiracles are mostly lacking. Swim bladder is usually present
with or without connection with the pharynx. Swim bladder helps in
bouyancy. Heart is two chambered, having only one atrium and one ventricle.
There are four pairs of aortic arches. Red blood cells are oval and nucleated.
Brain has ten pairs of cranial nerves. Sexes are separate. Gonads are paired.
Fertilization is generally external. Most forms are oviparous, some are
ovaviviparous or even viviparous.
Evolutionary Adaptations in Class Osteichthyes
Body is laterally compressed spindle shaped and has slimy skin, strong
segmental muscle for efficient swimming device. Gills help in respiration.
Air or swim bladder enables the fish to easily shift from one depth to
another. Gill rakers check the loss of food. Lack of teeth in the jaws is
correlated to the herbivorous diet.
Economic Importance of Osteichtheys
They provide food and important marine food fishes include cod,
herring and salmon etc. Popular fresh water food fishes are trout, carp, cat-
fish and mullet. They provide products of commercial value. Fish oil, fish
meal and liquid glue are important fish products. Liver of cods yield oil,
which is a source of vitamins A and D.
Adaptations to Aquatic Life in Fishes
Streamline body offers little resistance to water while fishes are
swimming. Swim bladder is present in bony fishes, except a few. It may or
may not be connected to pharynx. It helps in

bouyancy and with its help fish can float high or
sink lower in water. The swim bladder is filled
with oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. The
gases may be secreted by the glands in the swim
bladder. When the swim bladder is connected to
pharynx the bladder may be filled by gulping of
air.
Fins help in swimming. They keep balance
of fish in water. Fins are paired and unpaired.
Pectoral and pelvic fins are paired. Dorsal, caudal
and anal fins are unpaired fins. Heart has two
chambers. Afferent and efferent branchial system
present. Gills are the respiratory organs having
network of blood capillaries. Gills are adapted to
Fig: 9.31 Sea Horse
receive oxygen dissolved in water and remove
carbon dioxide. Kidney is mesonephros. It is modified for excretion in the
aquatic environment.
Fig: 9.32 Lobe-Finned Fish, The Coelacanth, Latimeria, is a living Fossil.
Limbs Evolve
All the animals which are called tetrapods have four limbs. The lobe-finned
fishes of the Devonian period are ancestral to the amphibians, the first
tetrapods. Animals that live on land use limbs to support the body,
especially since air is less buoyant than water. Lobed-finned fishes and
early amphibians also had lungs and internal nares as means to respire air.
3. CLASS AMPHIBIA
The general characteristics of class Amphibia are: Body varies
considerably in forms. Body is divisible only into head and trunk. Most have
Fig: 9.33 Amphibians

two pairs of pentadactyl limbs with 4-5 or fewer digits. Some are without legs
e.g. Caecilians. Webbed feet often present e.g. frogs. Skin is often smooth,
moist and rich in glands. It is highly vascular and may be respiratory. Scales
are generally absent. In some glands are poisonous, chromatophore pigment
cells are present in the skin.
In larval stage respiration takes place by gills and in the adults by
lungs and skin. Heart is three chambered with respect to atria and ventricle.
Sinus venosus, truncus arteriosus are present. Double circulation takes
place through the heart. Sexes are separate. Gonads are paired. Fertilization
may be external or internal Most forms are oviparous.
Development takes place through metamorphosis. Amphibians are
anamniotes. Body temperature is variable i.e. poikilothermic (ectotherms) and
most forms undergo hibernation in winter. The examples of amphibians are
Frogs, Toads, Salamanders etc.
Evolutionary Adaptations in Class Amphibia
Amphibians mark the transition from
aquatic to terrestrial life in vertebrates. Their Critical Thinking
notable adaptation on land are: Limbs for What limits the ability of
movement on solid substratum. Lungs for amphibians to occupy the
breathing air. Internal nares to make breathing full range of terrestrial
possible by keeping mouth closed. Slimy skin for habitats and allows other
protection against desiccation. Changed in terrestrial vertebrates to
circulatory system to provide respiration by lungs live in them successfully?
and skin. There is reduction in bones to make the
body lighter.
Transition from Aquatic to Land Habitat

Amphibians are on the borderline between aquatic and true
terrestrial animals. The animals live in moist condition or in water. So the
amphibians are not a successful group owing to their dependence on water
as habitat, reproduction and development.
4. CLASS REPTILIA
The general characteristics of class Reptilia are: Body form varies.
There are two pairs of pentadactyl limbs, each typically with five digits. Skin
is rough, cornified and dry, which is adapted to land life. Heart is
incompletely four chambered, having two atria and partly divided ventricle.
www.learningall.com
Fig: 9.34 Reptiles
Crocodiles have completely four chambered heart. Reptiles are cold blooded
animals i.e. piokilothermic (ectotherms) and hibernate in winter. Sexes are
separate. Gonads are paired. Fertilization is internal. Most forms are
oviparous. Eggs are large, amniotic and have large yolk eggs. Eggs are
enclosed by leathery or limy shell for protection. Embryo is protected by
three embryonic membranes known as amnion, allantois and chorion.
Evolutionary Adaptations in Class Reptilia
Reptiles show the advancement over the amphibians in having (a) a
dry skin which enables them to live away from water (b) limbs better suited
for rapid locomotion and raising the body off the ground (c) separation of
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the heart (d) complete ossification of
the skill (e) a neck movable independent of the body (f) better mechanism of
breathing (g) fertilization is internal (h) egg with shell for protection on land
(i) claws for defence.
The Amniote Egg Evolves:

It is adaptive for land animals to have a means of reproduction that is not
dependent on external water. Reptiles practice internal fertilization and lay
eggs that are protected by a shell. The amniote egg contains
extraembryonic membrane, which protect the embryo. One of the
membranes, the amnion, is a sac that fills with fluid and provides a private
pond within which the embryo develops.
5. CLASS AVES
The general characteristics of class Aves are: Body of aves is streamlined
and is boat shaped. It is divisible into a head, neck, a trunk and a tail. Neck is very
long and tail very short. There are two pairs of pentadactyl limbs. The forelimbs
are modified to form wings. The hind limbs are large, strong and adapted for
perching, walking or swimming. Each foot usually bears four toes armed with
horny claws. The skin is covered by an epidermal horny exoskeleton of feathers
all over the body and scales on the feet. Due to air spaces skeleton is light. Skull
has large sockets. Jaws extend into horny beak. Teeth are absent. Heart is four
chambered, having two atria and two ventricles. There is only right aorta. It
curves to the right side and then bends backward. Birds are endothermic.
Respiration takes place only by lungs. Lungs are compact, spongy. A system of
thin walled air sacs lying among the viscera maintains the supply of fresh air
through the lungs. Voice box the syrinx lies at the junction of the trachea and
bronchi. Alimentary canal has muscular structure called gizzard, which is used for
crushing food. Excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys. The ureter open
into the cloaca and the urinary bladder is absent. The urine is semisolid and uric
acid is main nitrogenous waste. Sexes are separate. Fertilization is internal. Eggs
are large with much yolk. Only one ovary and oviduct is functional. Some birds
have secondarily lost the power of flight and are called running birds, e.g.
Ostrich, Kiwi, etc.
Evolutionary Adaptations in Class Aves
Birds show the following evolutionary adaptations: An insulated
covering over the body. Better aeration of blood in the lungs, taking place
during both inspiration and expiration. Complete separation of venous and
arterial blood in the heart. Birds have an active life and a high rate of
metabolism. Very rapid locomotion is provided by the power of flight. A
regulated body temperature that keeps them equally active all the year round.
A highly developed power of producing sound. More efficient eyes with
Fig: 9.35 Birds
double means of accommodation. Better ears having cochlea with an organ of

Corti. Patterns of behaviour, such as care for the young ones, nest building,
courtship and affection for the mate and migration, which are practically
unknown in reptiles.
6. CLASS - MAMMALIA
The general characteristics of mammals are: Body is variously shaped
and divisible into a head, a neck, a trunk and a tail. There are two pairs of
pentadactyl limbs. These are variously adapted for walking, running,
burrowing and swimming or flying. Skin is glandular, mostly covered by hair.
Coelom is completely divided into anterior smaller thoracic cavity and
posterior larger cavity by a muscular partition the diaphragm, which is present
only in the mammals. Endoskeleton is fully ossified. Skull has two occipital
condyles, large cranium. Each half of the lower jaw consists of a single one,
the dentry and articulates directly with skull. External ear or pinna is present.
There is a chain of three bones in the ear incus, malleus and stapes (sta-pez).
Mammals have deciduous and permanent teeth. In some mammals for

example in man there are two sets, one in early life the milk teeth and later the
permanent teeth. Heart is four chambered. Only left aortic arch is present.
RBC are non-nucleated. Mammals are warm blooded (endothermic) animals.
Voice apparatus is well developed, and consists of larynx and epiglottis.
Mammals give birth to their young ones. Mammals feed them on milk
produced by mammary glands of mother.
Classification of Mammals
Mammals are classified into three subclasses: (1) Prototheria-Egg laying
mammals. (2) Metatheria-Pouched mammals. (3) Eutheria-Placental mammals.
SUB-CLASS PROTOTHERIA - The Monotremes
It is a connecting link between reptiles and mammals and provides
evidence of evolution and origin of mammals from reptiles. Certain members
of this sub-class are adapted for aquatic life e.g. Duck bill platypus, which has
a bill similar to that of a duck and has a webbed toes. The mammalian feature
of the monotremes is that the female has mammary glands and they feed their
youngs. The reptilian features includes the presence of cloaca and cloacal
opening (instead of separate opening for digestive and urinogenital system).
Monotremes are found in Australia. The examples of monotremes are
Duckbill platypus and Echidna-spiny ant eater.
Duckbill Platypus (Ornithornhynchus) Spiny Ant Eater (Trachyglossus)

Fig: 9.36 The Monotremes

Demonstrate an understanding of the connection of extinction of species
with that of human activities.
SUB CLASS METATHERIA The Marsupials

The females have an abdominal pouch the marsupium, where they
rear their young. The young when borne are immature. The nipples are in the
pouch. The mother feeds the young ones and carries them in the pouch till
they are matured enough. The Marsupials are found in Australia and America.
The examples of marsupials are: Opossum, Kangaroo and Tasmanian wolf.
Kangaroo Koala
Fig: 9.37 The Marsupials
SUB-CLASS EUTHERIA The Placentalis

Development of young one takes place inside the body of the mother.
The youngs are borne fully developed. Developing placental mammals are
dependent on placenta an organ of exchange between maternal blood and
fetal blood. Nutrients are supplied to the growing offspring, and wastes are
passed to the mother for excretion. The young ones are born at a relatively
advanced stage of development. So these mammals are called placental
mammals. All the placental mammals have maximum mammalian
characteristics. In some hair have been modified into scales in pangolin, and
spines in porcupine. Examples of the placentalis are man, whale, elephant,
horse, rat, mice, bat, dolphin, cat, tiger, lion, monkey, gorilla etc.
Evolutionary Adaptations in Class Mammalia
Mammals show the following evolutionary adaptations: A regulated
body temperature. This makes them independent of environmental change,
keeping active throughout the year, whereas reptiles must hibernate during
much of the year. An insulating coat of hair that aids in regulating body
temperature. Complete separation of venous and arterial blood in the heart.

More efficient mechanism of respiration due to the presence of a diaphragm.
An active life and a high rate of metabolism. A better developed larynx. A
separate respiratory passage that avoids interference in breathing during
feeding. Better developed senses of smell, sight and hearing. A more highly
developed nervous system. Large cerebrum and cerebellum provide for better
coordination in all activities and for learning and retentive memory. Patterns
of behaviour, such as care and nursing of the young, in most of these features
the mammals resemble the birds.
Fig: 9.38 The Placentalis
Critical Thinking
How are the characteristics of the phyla of chordates related to their way of life?

Trace the position in the phylogeny of major groups of animals.

1. All animals are
A) autotrophs B) heterotrophs
C) unicellular D) motile
2. Which of the following is not included in grade bilateria
A) cnidarians B) nematodes
C) annelids D) molluscs
3. Which of the following classes of animals includes the first verteberates to
appear on Earth?
A) agnatha, the jawless fishes
B) chondrichthyes, the sharks
C) osteichthyes, the bony fishes
D) tunicata, the sea squirts
4. Which of these does not pertain to a protestome?
A) spiral cleavage B) blasto poreanus
C) schizocoelom D) annelids
5. Sponges belong to the phylum.
A) aschelminthes B) arthropoda
C) porifera D) mollusca
6. Which of the following is not a parasite
A) annelida B) nematoda
C) platyhelminthes D) porifera
7. Which of the following most clearly demonstrates the evolutionary
relationship between annelids and arthropods?
A) a complete digestive tract B) an exoskeleton.
C) radial symmetry D) body segments
8. Reptiles are much more extensively adapted to life on land than

amphibians in that reptiles
A) have shelled eggs
B) have a complete digestive tract
C) are endothermic
D) go through the larva stage
9. Amphibians arose from
A) cartilaginous fish B) jawless fish
C) ray finned D) bony fishes with lungs
10. Which of these does not pertain to a deuterostome?
A) blastopore is associated with the anus
B) spiral cleavage
C) enterocoelom
D) echinoderms and chordates
11. Which of the following has a gastrovescular cavity?
A) sponges B) earthworms
C) roundworms D) flatworms
12. Which of the following is not a subphylum of chordata
A) hemichordata B) urochordata
C) cephalochordata D) vertebrata
1. Write four distinct features of animals.
2. Name the criteria for animal classification.

3. To what life style is radial symmetry an adaptation? Bilateral symmetry?
4. How radial and intermediate cleavage occurs in eggs.
5. Give three features of platyhelminthes for parasitic mode of life.
6. Give three distinguishing features of Aschelminthes.
7. Write five salient features of phylum arthropoda.
8. List any six harmful roles of insects.

9. List the similarities between echinoderms and chordates.
10. Give three reasons why urochordates are classified as chordates.
11. Why amphibians are not considered a very successful group of
vertebrates?
12. What does the term amphibian mean?
13. Distinguish between ectothermic and endothermic. Give an example of an
ectothermic and an endothermic.
14. Name two phyla of animals that are radially symmetrical and two that are
bilaterally, symmetrical.
15. List the vertebrate class (or classes) in which we find each of the
following. (a) a skeleton of cartilage. (b) a two-chambered heart. (c) The
amniotic egg. (d) A four chambered heart. (e) Placenta. (f) Lungs
supplemented by air sacs.
16. Identify the phyla that have the following characteristics: (a) radial
summetry (b) a coelomate (c) pseudocoelomate (d) alternation of sexual
and axesual stages (e) cnidocytes.
17. Write three main differences between prototheria, metatheria and eutheria.

1. Write the characteristics of animals.
2. Describe in detail the criteria for animal classification.
3. Write the salient feature of phyla, Mollusca and Echinodermata.
4. Write the economic importance of the all the phyla, which includes the
invertebrates.
5. Write the evolutionary adaptations of all the phyla, which include the
invertebrates.
6. Write the general characteristics of annelids.
7. Arthropods and vertebrates are highly successful groups of animals on
land. Explain with reference to adaptive features for existence on land.
8. Write notes on: (a) polymorphism, (b) alternation of generation (c) corals
(d) invertebrates (e) fresh water annelids (f) metamorphosis
(g) branchiostoma (h) classification
9. Write the characteristics of invertebrate chordates.
10. Write the evolutionary adaptation of all the classes of phylum chordata.
11. Describe the ways, which amphibians are adapted to life on land, and in
what ways they are still restricted to a watery or moist environment.
12. List the adaptations that distinguish reptiles from amphibians and help
them adapt to life in dry terrestrial environment.
13. How do mammals differ form birds? And what adaptations do they share?
14. Artropods and verteberates are highly successful groups of animals on
land. What characteristics shared by arthropods and vertebrates are
adaptive to a land existence?
ANSWER MCQS
1. B 2. A 3. A 4. B 5. C 6. D 7. D 8. A 9. D 10. B
11. D 12. A

1. Ruppert, E.E. and R.D. Barnes. Invertebrate Zoology, 6th Ed. Saunders
College Publishing, Philadelphia, 1994.
3. Hickman, C.P. Roberts, L.S. Larson M. Integrted Principles of Zoology.
9th Ed. Mosby. St. louis, Missouri. 1993.
USEFUL WEBSITES
2. www.mhhe.com/sciencemath/biology/mader/ (click on biology)
www.learningall.com
www.learningall.com
SECTION 3
Life Processes
Venus Flytrap
Pitcher Plant
Sundew
CHAPTER 10
FORM AND FUNCTIONS IN PLANTS

10.1 Nutrition in Plants (1 Period)
10.2 Gaseous Exchange in Plants (2 Periods)
10.3 Transport in Plants (10 Period)
10.3.1 Uptake of Water by Roots and Pathways
10.3.2 Ascent of Sap
10.3.3 Opening and Closing of Stomata
10.3.4 Translocation of Organic Matter
10.4 Homeostasis in Plants (3 Periods)
10.5 Support in Plants (1 Period)
10.6 Growth and Development in Plants (3 Periods)
10.6.1 Tissues for Growth Apical and Lateral Meristems,
Primary and Secondary Growth
10.7 Growth Responses in Plants (7 Periods)
10.7.1 Plant Growth Regulators (PRGs)
10.7.2 Geotropism and Phototropism
10.7.3 Photoperiodism
10.7.4 Vernalization
BIOLOGY XI: Chapter 10, FORM AND FUNCTIONS IN PLANTS 303
Nutrition is one of the important life processes of an organism to

obtain energy for various life activities. Plants and many microorganisms
obtain raw materials from air and soil. All those raw materials that organisms
need for various synthetic activities and for the production of energy are
called nutrients. All the process of the uptake and utilization of raw materials
by living organisms for various metabolic activities is called nutrition.
10.1 NUTRITION IN PLANTS

How do biologists determine whether an element is essential? It is
impossible to conduct mineral nutrition experiments by growing plants in soil
because soil is too complex and contains too many elements. Thus, one of the
most useful methods to test whether or not an element is essential is
hydroponics, which is the growing of plants in aerated water to which
mineral salts have been added.
Sixteen elements have been found essential for plant growth. Nine of
these are required in fairly large quantities (greater than 0.05% dry weights) and
are therefore known as macronutrients. These include carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, calcium and magnesium. The
remaining seven micronutrients are needed in trace amounts (less then 0.05%dry
weight) for normal plant growth and development. These include iron, boron,
manganese, copper, molybdenum, chlorine and zinc.
Nutrition In Carnivorous Plants
Carnivorous or insectivorous plants have green leaves which serve
for the photosynthesis and have roots which can absorb water and
dissolved mineral salts from the soil. But in addition to these organs,
insectivorous plants have special devices, such as modified leaves, bright
in colours which are used for trapping, attracting and digesting insects and
other small organisms.
These plants usually grow in places where nitrogenous salts are not
readily available e.g., marshy areas and therefore they use insects and other
small organisms as their source of nitrogen. The examples are Pitcher Plant,
(Nepenthes pupurea), Venus Flytrap (Dionaea muscipula), Sundew (Drosera
intermedia).

Identify some major symptoms of mineral deficiencies in plants e.g.
necrosis, chlorosis, stunted growth etc.
304 BIOLOGY XI: Chapter 10, FORM AND FUNCTIONS IN PLANTS
Fig 10.1: Mineral deficiencies in plants (a) Calcium deficiency (b) Leaf of a healthy plant
(c) Chlorine-deficient plant leaves with patches of dead tissue (d) Copper- deficient plant
with curled leaves (e) Zinc-deficient plant with small, necrotic leaves (f) Manganese-
deficient plant, with yellowing between the veins.
10.2 GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS

Respiration is one of the most important metabolic activities of all
organisms. It occurs at two levels, i.e. organism and cellular level. The
respiration occurring at organism level is called breathing, ventilation or
simply the exchange of gases. The cellular respiration is directly involved in
the production of energy. During this process cell utilizes oxygen and releases
carbon dioxide. Exchange of gases between organism and its environment
is carried out by diffusion. In the absence of special organs, every cell of
plant carries out the exchanges of oxygen and carbon dioxide according to
its needs.
Role of Palisade Tissue
Mesophylls are special types of thin walled parenchymatous cells.
This is the packing tissue found between the two epidermal layers of
leaves. These are modified to carry out photosynthesis. In dicots there are
two distinct layers of mesophyll, the palisade mesophyll and the spongy
mesophyll. Palisade forms the upper layer of cells which are elongated
and column shaped cells. The spongy mesophyll forms the lower layers.
These cells are used for the exchange of gases. There are also a large
number of intercellular spaces, which are filled with air and are used for
efficient gaseous exchange.
Role of Stomata
The stomatal transpiration is the loss of water in the form of water
vapors through stomatal openings. It is not only responsible for transportation
of water and minerals but also plays a vital role in the exchange of gases.
During daylight the stomata are widely open and provides a wide passage for
the exchange of gases. In the presence of light the process of photosynthesis
increases. It requires more and more carbon dioxide, which is provided by the
widely opened stomata from the air. As the photosynthesis increases the
evolution of oxygen also increases. The stomata provide a wide path for the
release of oxygen in the air.
During day time in the presence of light, rate of photosynthesis is
much greater which requires large amount of carbon dioxide, so the carbon
dioxide released in respiration, is used within the tissues for photosynthesis
and the oxygen needed for the process is made available in the tissues by
photosynthesis. So there is a prominent intake of carbon dioxide and release
of oxygen during daylights.
During nights as photosynthesis stops, and the stomata are closed,

there is no evolution of oxygen so the carbon dioxide liberated in respiration
is removed and oxygen is taken by the plant by simple diffusion through
scars, gaps etc in the outer surfaces or through cuticle.
Relationship Between Transpiration and Gas Exchange in Plants
The mechanism of opening and closing of stomata enable the land
plants to absorb carbon dioxide. The oxygen produced during photosynthesis
is released through stomata. Stomata are primarily meant for absorption of
carbon dioxide but these also help in exchange of gases. During exchange of
gases water vapours also escape through stomata. The rate of transpiration in
a plant is an indirect measure of the rate of photosynthesis as it indicates the
degree of period of stomatal opening and exchange of gases.
Q. What gases would you expect a leaf to be (a) taking in, (b) giving out,
in bright sunlight and in darkness?
10.3 TRANSPORT IN PLANTS

There are two types of conducting tissues in plants, namely xylem and
phloem. These tissues constitute the vascular tissues. Xylem conducts mainly
water and minerals from the roots upto other parts of the plants. While
phloem conducts organic food from the leaves both up and down the plant.
Xylem Tissues
Beside conduction these tissues are also used for support. It consists of
four cell types; the tracheids, vessel elements, parenchyma and fibres.
Tracheids are single cells, which are elongated, tapering and lignified. They
have mechanical strength and give support. Tracheids function very
efficiently, e.g. conifers rely exclusively on tracheids for the transportation of
water. In angiosperms relatively there are fewer tracheids than vessels.
Vessels are more effective structures for transportation, which are needed by
angiosperms for high rates of transpiration in the group.
Xylem vessels are the conducting units of angiosperms. These are very
long, tubular structures formed by the fusion of several vessel cells (vessel
elements) end to end in a row. Vessels are shorter than tracheids and act as the
pipeline. Xylem parenchyma occurs in both primary and secondary xylem. It
is more extensive and important in secondary xylem. The functions of xylem
parenchyma include food storage, deposition of crystals, radial transport of
food and water and gaseous exchange through the intercellular spaces.
Fig: 10.2 Vessels and Tracheids
Xylem fibres are originated from tracheids. They are shorter and
narrower than tracheids. They have much thicker walls. They are not involved
in the conduct of water.
Phloem Tissues
These are composed of living cells
and have no mechanical function. There are
five types of cells, namely, sieve tube
elements, companion cells, parenchyma
fibres and sclereids. Sieve tubes are the
long tube like structures, which translocate
solutions of organic solutes (sucrose)
throughout the plant. These are formed by
the end-to-end fusion of cells called sieve
tube elements or sieve elements. Sieve tube
elements have walls made up of cellulose
and pectic substances but the nuclei are lost
as they mature. The cytoplasm confined to
periphery of the cell. The sieve elements
remain living but are dependent on the Fig: 10.3 Phloem
adjacent companion cells. The two, i.e.
sieve elements and companion cells,
together form a functional unit. Plasmodesmata run through the walls but the
canals enlarge to form pores, making the walls look like a sieve and allows a
flow of solution from one element to the next.
Movement of Water
Transport or movement of materials in between the organisms and their
environment, as well as the transport of materials in various parts of a living
organism is vital event, which determines the overall life activities of the
organisms. In plants all their required substances (except light and carbon
dioxide) are supplied through soils by the roots. The water, carbon dioxide and
different mineral nutrients are used by the plants and are converted into energy
rich organic food like carbohydrates, lipids and proteins by the universal
phenomenon of photosynthesis. In this process the source of energy is sun.
Diffusion is the movement of substances in the form of molecules or
ions from the regions of their higher concentrations to the regions of their low
concentrations. It is the basis of transportations in all types of living
organisms. This process is deadly slow so it may not be used alone as
transporting means.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water through living membranes. The special
nature and structure of cell membranes makes the process very efficient. Osmosis
is the phenomenon of movement of water from its high potential (high conc.) to
the region of low potential through a semipermeable membrane. The mineral
nutrients are transported in dissolved form. In living organisms the transport of
materials is in the form of solutions so the phenomenon may be defined as the
movement of water from hypotonic solutions (dilute solutions) to the regions of
hypertonic condition through a semipermeable membrane. The movement will
continue until an equilibrium is maintained. At this level the two solutions across
Fig: 10.4 Plasmolysis

the membrane are called isotonic. The plant as a whole and the individual cells
get water and other substances by several other means besides diffusion and
osmosis. Some of them are described below:
Plasmolysis can be defined as the shrinkage of the protoplasm of a cell
due to exosmosis when it is placed in hypertonic solution. The cell in this
condition is called plasmolysed. However if a plasmolysed cell is placed in a
hypotonic solution the cell attains its normal state i.e. it becomes turgid again.
The phenomenon is called deplasmolysis and occurs due to endosmosis.
10.3.1 UPTAKE OF WATER BY ROOTS AND PATHWAYS
The cell wall of epidermal cells of roots is freely permeable to water and
other minerals. The cell membrane is differentially permeable. From root hairs
water enters the epidermal cells by osmosis. The water moves along the
concentration gradient. It passes through cortex, endodermis, pericycle and
reaches the xylem vessels. There are three pathways taken by water to reach the
xylem tissues: (a) The apoplast pathway, (b) The symplast pathway, (c) The
vacuolar pathway.
Apoplast pathway Symplast Pathway Vacuolar Pathway
Fig. 10.5 Pathway of Water

Apoplast Pathway: The apoplast is the system of adjacent cell walls

which is continuous throughout the plant. When water moving through spaces
in the cell walls reaches the endodermis, its progress is stopped by casparian
strips, (a band of suberin and lignin bordering four sides of root endodermal
cells). Therefore water and solutes particularly salts in the form of ions must
pass through the cell surface and into the cytoplasm of the cells of the
endodermis. In this way the cells of the endodermis can control and regulate
the movement of solutes through the xylem.
Symplast Pathway: Movement of cell sap that involves cytoplasmic
connection of adjacent cells is termed as symplastic transport or pathway. The
symplast is the system of interconnected protoplast in the plant. The
cytoplasm of neighboring protoplast is linked by the plasmodesmata, the
cytoplasmic strands which extend through pores in adjacent cell walls. Once
water and any solutes it contains is taken into the cytoplasm of one cell it can
move through the symplast without having to cross further membranes.
Movement might be aided by cytoplasmic streaming. The symplast is an
important pathway of water movement.
Vacuolar Pathway: In the vacuolar pathway water moves from
vacuole to vacuole through neighbouring cells, crossing the symplast and
apoplast in the process and moving membranes and tonoplast by osmosis. It
moves down a water potential gradient.
10.3.2 ASCENT OF SAP
Once water and mineral enter the root xylem, they still must be moved
to the leaves of the plant. Four important forces combine to transport water
solution from the roots through xylem elements and into the leaves. These
TACT forces are: (1) Transpiration (2) Adhesion (3) Cohesion (4) Tension.
Transpiration
The loss of water vapours by evaporation from aerial parts of the
plants is called transpiration. When stomata are open the water molecules
move from high potential of water (inside the cells) to a region of low
potential (in the air).
Adhesion
Adhesion is the attractive force between water molecules and other
substances. Because both water and cellulose are polar molecules so there is a
strong attraction for water within the hollow capillaries of the xylem.
Adhesion of the string of water

molecule to the wall of the
xylem cells assists upward Test tube
movement of the xylem sap
counteracting the downward Water
gravity. Adhesion also helps,
hold water in the xylem when Meniscus
transpiration is not occurring.
Cohesion
You may recall from
chapter 2 section 2.2 that water is Leaf
a polar molecule, with the oxygen
carrying a slight negative charge
while the hydrogen carry a slight
positive charge. As a result,
nearby water molecules attract
one another, forming weak
hydrogen bonds. The network of
individually weak hydrogen bond
within water collectively produces
a very high cohesion.
The column of water
molecule within the xylem is at
least as strong and as unbreakable
as a steal wire of the same Stem
diameter. Hydrogen bonds
among water molecules provide
the cohesion that holds together
the string of water extending the
entire height of the plant within
the xylem. Supplementing the
cohesion between water
molecules is adhesion between
water molecules and the walls of
xylem tubes help the water move Root
upward, just as water is pulled up
into a very narrow glass tube. This Fig. 10.6 Movement of Water in Xylem
principle, called capillary action, Through TACT Mechanism
helps water move upward within xylem. The U shaped surface formed by water
as it climbs the walls of the tube is called meniscus.
Tension
What effect does transpiration have on a vertical string of water of
xylem tubes? Before a water molecule can leave the leaf, it must break off from
the top of the string. In effect, it is pulled off by a large diffusion gradient
between the moist interior of the leaf and the surrounding air. Cohesion resists
the pulling force of diffusion gradient, but it is not strong enough to overcome
it. The molecules break off, and the opposing forces of cohesion and
transpiration put tension on the rest of the molecular string.
As long as transpiration continues, the string is kept tense and is pulled
upward as one molecule, exits the leaf and one right behind it is tugged up into
its place. Tension is a negative pressure a force that pulls water from
locations where the water potential is greater. The bulk flow of water to the top
of a plant is driven by solar energy since evaporation from leaves is responsible
for transpiration pull.
10.3.3 OPENING AND CLOSING OF STOMATA

There are two hypothesis which may explain the opening and closing of
+
stomata: (a) Starch sugar hypothesis, (b) Influx of K ions hypothesis.
Starch Sugar Hypothesis
It was proposed by German botanist H. Van Mohl. The guard cell
absorbs CO2. Some CO2 reacts with water in which it is dissolved to form
carbonic acid. In the presence of light energy, carbonic acid in the guard cell
is converted into CO2 and water, which are rapidly used in the synthesis of
carbohydrates. The contents of illuminated guard cell are: (i) The acid
concentration is low i.e. pH is high. (ii) Sugar concentration is high. As sugar
concentration increases in the guard cells, as a result water enters the guard
cells. The guard cells become turgid (swollen with water). The thin outer
walls bulge out and force the inner thick wall into a crescent shape. In this
way a stoma or pore is formed between each pair of guard cell.
Closing of Stomata
In the dark, most of the sugar molecules are removed by respiration or
are converted into insoluble starch. So there is an increase in the acidity of the
cell contents. As sugar molecules are removed from the guard cell and the
Fig: 10.7 (i) Stomata opening (ii) Stomata closing
relative concentration of H2O in the guard cell increases, water molecules

diffuse out to the epidermal cells. As the guard cell loses water, it becomes
flaccid. In contrast to turgidity, the loss of water causes them to become weak
limp and soft. This condition is known as flaccidity and the cells are said to
be flaccid. The inner thick wall moves together until the pore between them is
closed. Closing of stomata prevents (i) loss of water vapour (ii) the entry of
CO2 into the leaf. The CO2 produced during respiration is used for
photosynthesis even though the stomata are closed.
Influx of K+ ions Hypothesis
The K+ ion concentration in guard cells increase many times depending
upon plant species. K+ ions (shown in red dots in the fig. 10.7) enter guard
cells from the surrounding epidermal cells by active transport. The
accumulation of K+ decreases the osmotic potential of guard cells. Water
(shown in blue arrows) enters the guard cell by osmosis. The guard cells
become turgid and are stretched and stomata are opened. The guard cells
+
remain in this condition only so long as the pumping of K ions into the cell is
continued. So for keeping the stomata open a constant expenditure of energy
+
is required. In darkness K ions move out of the guard cells into surrounding
epidermal cells. The water potential of the guard cells increase as a result
water moves out of the cells. The loss of pressure makes the guard cells change
their shape again and stomata closes. Level of CO2 decreases in the spaces
+
inside the leaf and light controls the movement of K into and out of guard cells.
A low level of CO2 favours opening of the stomata and thus allow an increased
CO2 level and increased rate of photosynthesis.
10.3.4 TRANSLOCATION OF ORGANIC MATTER

Phloem tubes are delicate structures. These tubes are punctured by a
small greenish insect, aphid during its feeding from the young shoots of a
plant. Aphids are fluid (phloem) feeders. They suck sugary substance from
phloem tissues. Biologists found that if the feeding aphid is removed by
surgery and its style (pointed, tubular mouth part) is allowed to remain
intended in the phloem tube. The phloem contents are continued to come out.
On examining the contents it is found that it contains upto 30 percent sugars
(sucrose), remaining 70 percent is water.
Fig 10.8 Aphid feeding on the branch of a tree. Excess sugar is released as a drop of honey-
dew that serves as food for ants. The sap in the phloem enters the insect's mouth parts under
pressure.
With the use of radioactive carbon dioxide during photosynthesis the path
of the photosynthate may be traced. Biologists by conducting several of such
experiments discovered that sugar flow involves a mass movement of phloem
fluid based on bulk flow the movement of fluid from an area of high pressure
(source) to an area of low pressure (sink). The plant physiologists suggest that
sugars produced in source regions, such as photosynthesizing leaves or storage
places are loaded into the phloems sieve tube elements by the companion cells.
The active transport increases the concentrations of sugars in the phloem. As a
result water moves to phloem by osmosis from the nearby xylem cells and
increases turgor pressure in the phloem cells, which pushes forcibly the sugary
solution away from the leaf (source). Meanwhile the root cells absorb the organic
solutes from the phloem, making the phloem solution hypotonic and so the water
from the phloem flows back to the xylem tubes.
Sugar is actively loaded

into the sieve tube at the
source. As a result, wa
ter moves into the sieve
tubes by osmosis. At the
sink, the sugar is active
ly unloaded and water
leaves the sieve tube by
osmosis.
The pressure gradient
from source to sink
causes translocation
from the area of higher
hydrostatic pressure (the
source) to the area of
lower hydrostatic pres
sure (the sink)
Fig: 10.9 Pressure flow Mechanism

for Phloem Transport
By studying carefully the whole mechanism it may be concluded here

that the water pressure and the loading activities of companion cells provide
the base for the movement of sugars, amino acids and a few mineral ions from
sources to sinks. In a plant the same organ may be a source at one time and at
some other time it may act as a sink e.g. beetroot.
Illustrate diagrammatically the pathway of water in root, stem and leaf.

10.4 HOMEOSTASIS IN PLANTS

Specialized structural and physiological adaptations allow different
organisms to exploit their environment in different ways. The physiological
systems continuously adjust to the aspects of surrounding environment
outside the cells and making it suitable for efficient functionings of the body
cells.
An organism may be defined as a physiochemical system existing in a
steady state with its external environment. Homeostasis is the ability to
maintain a steady state within a constantly changing environment that
contributes towards the success of living systems.
Osmotic Adjustments
Plants differ in their ability to survive and grow under water stress.
Plants that are exposed to severe drought use dehydration tolerance
mechanism such as maintenance of high water potential either through
stomatal regulation or extraction of water through an extensive root system.
Generally growth of plants exposed to low water potential is reduced but
dehydration tolerant plants are more productive compared to non-tolerant
plants. Such plants can continue to grow at a reduced rate under low water
potential because of low osmotic potential or osmotic adjustment, which
maintain turgor. The lowering of osmotic potential by active solute
accumulation is known as osmotic adjustment.
Isotonic, Hypertonic and Hypotonic Conditions
Dissolved in the fluid compartment of every living cell are salts,
sugars and other substances that give that fluid a certain osmotic pressure.
When a cell is placed in a fluid with exactly the same osmotic pressure, no
net movement of water molecules occurs, either into or out of the cell, the cell
neither swells not shrinks. Such a fluid is said to be isotonic (i.e. of equal
osmotic pressure) to the fluid within the cell. If the surrounding has a
concentration of dissolved substances greater than the concentration within
the cell, it has a higher osmotic pressure than the cell is said to be hypertonic
to the cell and cell would lose water. If the surrounding contains a lower
concentration of dissolved materials than does the cell, it has a lower osmotic
pressure and is said to be hypotonic to the cell water that enter the cell and
causes it to swell (fig. 10.10).
Q. Why does over watering a plant often kill it?

Fig: 10.10 Plant Cells Respond to Isotonic, Hypertonic and Hypotonic solution
Osmotic Adjustment in Hydrophytic, Xerophytic and Mesophytic Plants

Plants are considered simply in relation to their environment and are
divided into the following categories.
Hydrophytes: Plant cells in fresh water are surrounded by a hypotonic
environment. Hydrophytes have larger surface area of leaves, by which
water is lost extensively. Moreover the presence of large number of stomata
on upper surface of leaf promotes the loss of water at high rates. Osmotic
adjustment in marine plants takes place through accumulation of solutes
facilitates maintenance of cell turgor and water retention.
Mesophytes: They are moderate in water availability. The majority of
flowering plants are mesophytes. The features which help to reduce water loss
are both structural (xeromorphic) and physiological. The presence of waxy
cuticle, protected stomata (at lower surfaces of leaves), the regulations of
stomatal openings, variable leaf shape, abscission, their ecological distribution
and many other adaptations enable these plants for their osmoregulation.
Xerophytes: The plants adapted to live in dry places and able to
survive long period of drought are called xerophytes. These plants constitute
the typical flora of deserts and semi-desert regions. Xerophytes show many
structural (xeromorphic) and physiological adaptations to survive in
extremely dry conditions. e.g. waxy cuticle, few and sunken stomata in
leaves, reduced or fleshy succulent leaves and stems, an extensive and deep
root system etc.
Fig: 10.11 Hydrophytic Plants Fig: 10.12 Xerophytic Plants
Osmotic Adjustment of Plants in Saline Soils

High salinity soils are characteristics of salt marshes. As salt water
from the ocean inundates and recedes from the system in a daily cycle,
sodium chloride is deposited into marsh soils where evapotraspirtion
amplifies soils concentrations. Saline soils can be detrimental to plants in a
variety of ways; therefore, plants living in saline environments have adapted
mechanisms to deal with these problems. These are:
Salt Exclusion: Salt can be excluded from entering the plant through
its root system by exchanging K+ ions for N+ ions as they passed through the
xylem.
Salt Excretion: Some plants simply get rid their systems of salt by
excreting it back into the environment.
Succulence: One defence against salt in plant tissues is simply to
dilute the concentration of ions. Plant achieve this by increasing their storage
volume by developing thick, fleshy, succulent structure.
Osmotic Adjustment: Some salt tolerant plants control the
accumulation of salt ions to counterbalance low water potential created by
saline soils. Salt ions are compartmentalized in vacuoles to protect proteins
and membranes from ion toxicity by active transport. Plants also produce
osmotically active organic solutes called compatible solutes, such as amino

acids and amides e.g. proline and soluble carbohydrates etc.
Osmoregualtion: Water uptake and flow through a plant is driven by a
water potential gradient where water flows from least to most negative water
potentials. Some plants living in saline soils adjust their water potentials
through the accumulation of solutes in plant tissues.
Thermoregulation in Plants
Heat is a form of energy. It is important to maintain a living system
because all living systems require a continuous supply of heat. The major source
of heat for all living systems is the sun. Solar radiations are converted into an
exogenous source of heat. The extent and effect of the radiations depend upon
geographical location. The organisms may be found living in a vast range of
temperature 4° C (arctic region) to 50° C (desert region) temperatures. Majority of
living organisms are found in confined temperatures between 10-35° C. Various
organisms show a number of adaptations, enabling them to live in both extremes
of temperatures.
Temperature indicates the amount of heat energy in a system.
Temperature can act as a limiting factor in the growth and development of plants
by influencing the rates of cell division, cell metabolism and photosynthesis. The
dark reactions of photosynthesis is a temperature dependent phase. The rate of
photosynthesis, enables the plant to complete its life cycle.
Adaptations to Low Temperatures in Plants
The vegetation of the northern temperate areas and the tundra shows
several adaptations. Most of the temperate woody perennials are deciduous, to
prevent water loss by transpiration. Wind and snow damages are also avoided
by the shedding of leaves of the plants. The buds are protected by scale leaves
and their activities are made slow by a regulator substance, called dormin.
Many conifers dominate the vegetation of these areas and have needle like
leaves with a thick cuticle. Many species of annual plants have a brief
growing period and survive the winter by producing resistant seeds or other
structures.
Adaptations to High Temperatures in Plants
The leaves are thin and with a large surface area to facilitate gaseous
exchange and light absorption. A thin leaf has relatively low heat capacity. In
hot areas the plants develop a shiny cuticle, which reflects much of the incident
light. Thus preventing the heat absorption and overheating by the plant. The
leaves contain numerous stomatal openings, which allow the loss of water
(transpiration), and also remove the heat from the plant. Wilting is a common
response to high temperatures.In some plants, growing in hot regions, special
types of proteins called heat shock proteins are, produced. They protect
enzymes from denaturing.
Skills: Interpreting and Analyzing
Interpret the adaptive differences through survey of xerophytic,

mesophytic and hydrophytic plants.
Illustrate the structure and position of stoma in xerophytic, mesophytic
and hydrophytic plants.

Correlate climatic record with tree growth.
Q. In tropical climates, many tall plants shut stomata during the hot days and
open at night. If their stomata are closed during day, why doesnt the water within
the plant fall down the stem?
10.5 SUPPORT IN PLANTS

When the life started on land from water, one of the very important needs
for the organisms was to gain some sort of support and strength for keeping their
bodies in shapes. In plants the cells have large central vacuoles, which are filled
with water. The water causes pressure on the surrounding walls, when the cells
are turgid. This pressure on the walls keep the cells, stiff and hard and is called
turgor pressure. In herbaceous plants where the specialized supporting tissues
are not common, the turgidity of the cells provides support and strength and it
grows uprightly. In these cases the plant may wilt or collapse due to a decrease in
turgidity (decrease in the internal hydrostatic pressure). Besides the hydrostatic
pressure the plants specially shrubs and trees have some supporting tissues, like
collenchyma, sclerenchyma, and conducting tissues.
Collenchyma
The collenchyma is characterized by the extra cellulose deposition at
the corners of these cells. It is a mechanical tissue, providing support
particularly in young plants, herbs and leaves etc. (Where secondary growth
does not occur) collenchyma is living so it can grow and stretch freely. In
Fig: 10.13 Collenchyma
stems and petioles it plays more important role in support because of its
location in peripheral regions near epidermis.
Sclerenchyma
These tissues are solely means for giving support and mechanical
strength for the plants. The mature cells are dead and their entire walls are
lignified (deposition throughout the walls). The sclerenchyma is of two types
Fig: 10.14 (a) T.S. of Sclerenchyma Cells (b) L.S. of Sclerenchyma Cells
i.e. fibres and sclereids. Fibres are elongated cells and sclereids are roughly
spherical otherwise both have heavily thickened walls with lignin and with
great tensile strength.
Fibres are arranged in strands or sheets and provide collectively a
greater strength to the plant. Moreover their ends interlock with one another
to give more strength. Fibres are found in the pericycle of stems forming a
solid rod of tissue. Fibres also found in xylem and phloem tissues.
Sclereids are generally
scattered singly or in groups
anywhere in the plant body, but
common in the cortex, pith,
phloem, fruits and seeds. In
seeds they toughen the seed
coat.
Xylem Tissues Fig: 10.15 T.S. of Sclereids
These also provide support and strength beside conduction of water

and salts. Their role is already discussed in Transport in Plants (section
10.3).
10.6 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN PLANTS

Growth is the phenomenon of life. Like animals plants also show
growth. The growth in plants differs from growth in animals. In plants the
growth is of open growth i.e. plants add new organs like, branches, leaves,
roots etc throughout life. The growth may be defined as an increase in the size
and volume. It is achieved by the mitotic cell division and the enlargement of
the dividing cells.
10.6.1 TISSUES FOR GROWTH- Apical and Lateral Meristems
The continual growth is based on meristems the tissues which retain
their dividing ability and gives rise to new cells. Meristems allow adult plants
to produce eggs and sperms as well as new tissues and organs. Plants have
two types of meristems: (a) Apical meristems (b) Lateral meristems
Apical Meristems
These are the growth zones at the tips of roots and stems. It allows
shoots to grow upward towards the light and allows roots to grow into the soil
to a water source. The growth by apical meristems is called primary growth.
Fig: 10.16 Photomicrograph of Shoot, Apical Meristem
Primary growth
occurs by the meristems of
two apices (i.e. root apex
and shoot apex) so it results
in an increase in the size of
plants.
Lateral meristems
These meristems are
cylinders of dividing cells
in stems and roots of dicots
and gymnosperms and
increase their thickness and
diameter. This increase in
diameter of plants by Fig: 10.17 Photomicrograph of Root Apical Meristem
lateral meristems is called
secondary growth. During secondary growth the bulk of tissues added
laterally is mainly secondary xylem and is called wood.
The lateral meristem is generally called cambium. It may be located
between primary xylem and phloem and is called vascular cambium whereas
the cambium present on the surface (outside cortex) is called cork cambium
and adds cork cells.
Fig: 10.18 Secondary Growth in Dicot Woody Stem
The production of secondary xylem in growing plants increases the

efficiency of conduction of water and salts. The size of xylem tissues depend
on the needs and availability of water. During spring and summer water is
plentiful and also the light conditions are better whereas during winter and
autumn the water available and light conditions are not suitable. The xylem
tissues are formed accordingly and the two xylem tissues (spring and autumn)
are differentiated on the basis of their large sizes in spring and small sizes
Locate annual rings in the log of a tree

Calculate the age of a plant by counting number of annual rings.
www.learningall.com
Fig: 10.19 Secondary Growth
during autumn. It makes ring structures. These are called annual rings and
are used to determine the age of the plant.
Apical Dominance
It is a phenomenon in which the presence of a growing apical bud
inhibits growth of lateral buds. It also includes the suppression of lateral root
growth by growth of the main root. The removal of the shoot apex results in
the growth of lateral branches. It is known that auxins promotes growth in the
stem but inhibits growth of lateral buds. Auxins continuously break down as it
moves down the stem, its concentration drops off. Apical dominance is a
classical example of one part of a plant controlling another via the influence
of a growth substance. This is called growth correlation.
Apical Meristem and the Growth of Lateral Shoots
Development of shoot is carried out by apical shoot meristem. The
same meristem is also responsible for the growth of leaves and lateral
branches of the plants. Leaves arise as small outgrowths, called leaf
primordia. They contain groups of meristematic cells.
The primordial elongate rapidly and soon enclose and protect the
apical meristem, both physically and by the heat they generate in respiration.
Then they grow and increase in area to form the leaf blade. Soon after the
leaves start to grow, buds develop in the axils. These are small groups of
meristematic cells, which had retained the capacity to divide and grow.
Fig: 10.20 Experiment to show influence of Auxin on Apical Dominance
They become active at this stage and start the formation of lateral
branches or specialized structures such as flowers, rhizomes or tubers. It is
known that growths are under the control of apical meristem.
10.7 GROWTH RESPONSES IN PLANTS
Plants unlike animals cannot move from one place to the other as a
whole. They show response against various factors, which may be beneficial
or harmful. These responses are shown by their parts like shoots, roots, etc.
Plants generally adjust themselves to changing environment by growth. The
changes in plant shape or functions are often regulated by plant hormones
(growth substances) produced in response to environmental factors. The plant
hormones act at the level of cells to induce cell division, enlargement or cell
maturation.
10.7.1 PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS (PRGs)
Plants are co-ordinated by chemicals which necessarily move from
their sites of synthesis and because their effects are usually on some aspect of
growth, they are called growth substances. Five major types of growth
substances are recognised (a) auxins (b) gibberellins (c) cytokinins (d) abscisic
acid (e) ethene.
Auxins
These are indole acetic acid (IAA) or their varieties. The discovery of
auxins was the result of investigations into phototropism that began with the
experiment of Charles Darwin and his son Francis(1880).
The effects of auxins are (a) In stem, promote cell enlargement in

region behind apex. Promote cell division in cambium. (b) In root promote
growth at very low concentrations. Inhibit growth at higher concentrations.
e.g. geotropism. Promote growth of roots from cutting and callus. (c) Promote
bud initiation in shoots but sometimes antagonistic to cytokinins and is
inhibitory. (d) Promote apical dominance and fruit growth. (e) Sometimes can
induce parthenocarpy. Cause delay in leaf aging in a few species. (f) Inhibit
abscission.
Discovery of IAA lead to the synthesis of a wide range of active
compounds with similar structure. Synthetic auxins have proved commercially
useful in a variety of ways. They are cheaper than IAA to produce and often
more physiologically active because plants generally do not have necessary
enzymes to break them down.
Gibberellins
The compound extracted from
fungus Gibberella (now called Fusarium) is
called gibberellins. The third and most
active gibberellin isolated is called
gibberellic acid (GA3). Now more than 50
naturally occurring gibberellins are known.
The effects of Gibberellins are:
(a) The main effect of gibberellins is on stem
elongation, mainly by affecting cell
elongation. Cause cell division in apical
meristem and cambium (b) Promote bolting
in some rosette stage of plants e.g, a lettuce
Fig 10.21 The biennial plant called
plant, typically formed into a compact head honesty will bolt when it is treated
can be made to bolt that is to stretch its with gibberellins.
stem upward and separate the leaves. (c)
Promote bud (shoot) initiation in Chrysanthemum callus. Sometimes promote in
intact plant if apical dominance is broken. (d) Promote leaf growth and fruit
growth can sometimes induce parthenocarpy. (e) In apical dominance, enhance
action of auxins. Break bud dormancy (f) Break seed dormancy e.g. cereals.
(g) Sometimes substitute for red light. Therefore promote flowering in long day
plants, inhibit in short day plants (h) Delay leaf senescence (aging) in a few
species.
The commercial applications of the of gibberellins are: (1) They
promote fruit setting e.g. in tangerines and pears and are used for growing
seedless grapes, (parthenocarpy) and also increase the berry size. (2) GA3 is
used in brewing industry to stimulate a amylase production in barley and this
promotes malting. (3) To delay ripening and improve storage life of
bananas and grape fruits.
Cytokinins
Cytokinins are most abundant where rapid cell division is occuring,
particularly in fruits and seeds where they are associated with embryo growth.
The effects of cytokinins are: (1) Cytokinins promote cell division in
the apical meristem, only in the presence of auxins. Gibberellins may also
play a role, as in the cambium. (2) Inhibit primary root growth. (3) Promote
lateral root growth. (4) Promote bud initiation and leaf growth. (5) Promote fruit
growth but can rarely induce parthenocarpy. (6) Promote lateral bud growth, also
break bud dormancy. (7) Cause delay in leaf senescence. (8) Promote stomatal
opening.
The commercial applications of cytokinins are that they delay aging
of fresh crops, such as cabbage and lettuce, as well as keeping flowers fresh.
They can also be used to break dormancy of some seeds.
Abscisic acid
The substances which accelerated abscission (an act of cutting off) was
called abscisic acid (ABA) in 1967.
The effect of ABA are: (1) Inhibits stem and root growth notably
during physiological stress e.g. drought, waterlogging. (2) Promotes bud and
seed dormancy. (3) Promotes flowering in short day plants and inhibits in
long day plants (antagonistic to gibberellins). (4) Sometimes promotes leaf
senescence. (5) Promotes abscission. (6) Promotes closing of stomata under
conditions of water stress (wilting)
The commercial applications of ABA are that they can be sprayed on
tree crops to regulate fruit drop at the end of the season. This removes the
need for picking over a long time-span.
Ethene
Ethene is made by most or all plant organs and tends to escape more
easily from the plant surface.
The effects of ethene are: (1) Inhibits stem growth, notably during
physiological stress. (2) Inhibits root growth. (3) Break dormancy of bud.
(4) Promotes flowering in pine apple. (5) Promotes fruit ripening. (6) Like
ABA it acts as a growth inhibitor in some circumstances and can promote
abscission of fruits and leaves.
The commercial applications of ethene are that they induces
flowering in pineapple. Stimulates ripening of tomatoes and citrus fruit. The
commercial compound ethephon breaks down to release ethene in plants and
is applied to rubber plant to stimulate the flow of latex.

Describe the reasons for bushy and cylindrical growth.
10.7.2 GEOTROPISM AND PHOTOTROPISM

Unlike animals, the plants have no nervous system and for their
coordination they completely depend on hormonal coordination. It is very
slow and generally shown in the form of growth. This growth results in some
sort of movements of some organs of the plant. The plants as their
characteristics do not show locomotion, but the individual plant organs may
show movements in response of some stimulus (internal or external).
Phototropism: It is the response of a shoot or a root towards the
source of light (positive in shoots) or away from light (negative in roots).
Thigmotropism: These movements are due to the touch stimulus.
Geotropism: Movement of shoots and roots against and towards force
of gravity.
Chemotropism: The stimulus is a chemical e.g. movement of hyphae
is chemotropic.
10.7.3 PHOTOPERIODISM
Photoperiodism may be defined as the effect of the length of light
period on the formation of flowers in plants.
Light exerts its influence on living organisms through variation in day
length called photoperiod. In plants, photoperiod and temperature affects
flowering, fruit and seed production, bud and seed dormancy, leaf fall and
germination. Photoperiod affect flowering, when shoot meristem, starts
producing floral buds instead of leaves and lateral buds.
In 1920 W.W. Garner and H.A Allard (agronomist in USA) were

working with various varieties of tobacco plants. Tobacco plants (Nicotiana
tobacum) are self pollinated and gave flowers in summer. One day it was
noticed that a single plant was quite different from other varieties. It had
broad leaves, was 3 metres tall and did not flower. It was named Maryland
mammoth tobacco plant.
Under field condition during summer when the days were warm and
long, all other tobacco plants flowered profusely, but Maryland mammoth
showed no sign of flowering. At the end of the growing season, they
transferred the plant to green house to protect it from frost. In the middle of
December the plant flowered. It was then allowed to self pollinate and seeds
were obtained. These seeds produced new Maryland mammoth plants. The
plants flowered in winter.
Garner and Allard put seedlings of the mutant i.e. Maryland mammoth
plant in special chamber, where day lengths could be regulated. When day
lengths were shortened artificially to about 9 hours, the plant flowered.
Experiment on Soyabean: Garner and Allard made a series of
soyabean (soybean) planting over a period of several weeks. In the late
summer, they observed the flowering time of the plants in the various groups.
Despite age difference due to different planting time, all the soyabean
flowered surprisingly close to the same time, in late summer as the day
shortened.
The critical factor in both tobacco and soyabean was the length of the
day. Flowering occurred when the day shortened below a critical length. This
phenomenon is called photoperiodism. Photoperiodism is any response by a
plant to a relative lengths of daylight and darkness.
Plants are classified into three main groups on the basis of how
photoperiodism affects their flowering.
Short-day plants: These plants flower when the day length is less than
a certain critical length e.g. Maryland mammoth, cocklebur, chrysanthemum.
Long-day plants: They flower, only when the day length exceeds
from the critical length period e.g. spinach, sugar beet, clove, lettuce,
Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger), snapdragon, cabbage, spring wheat, spring
barley etc.
The critical lengths for both long day and short day plants tend to fall
in the 12-14 hours range.
Day-neutral plants: In these plants the flowering is not affected by day

length or darkness. Thus the plants flower in response to some other type of
stimulus, either external or internal e.g. tomato, pansy, bean, sweet, pea, rose, etc.
Now it has been discovered that the actual stimulus for flowering is the
uninterrupted dark period rather than the light period. So the short day plants
are actually long night plants and long-day plants are short-night plants.
Mechanism of Photoperiodism
For more than one hundred
years, biologists have searched for
a flowering hormone, a substance
that causes the growth changes
leading to a flower development.
What evidence is there for a
flowering hormone? Evidence has
been accumulated since 1936 when
M.H. Chaila-khyan and his
colleagues in Russia experimented
with photoperiodic induction of
flowering and found that a
flowering stimulus appeared to be
transmitted from leaves to other
parts of the plants. He proposed
Fig: 10.22 Phytochrome detects varying periods
that leaves produce a chemical, of day length and darkness.
flowering substance that is
transported through the plant. He suggested that the substance be called
'florigen' (meaning flower maker), but the flowering hormone has not, yet,
been isolated.
For biological response to light, there must be a photoreceptor (light
sensitive pigment) in the organisms to absorb light. The photoreceptor
involved in photoperiodism is called phytochrome. Although present in
exceedingly small amounts, Phytochrome has been isolated from plant
tissues. It is a protein to which is attached a non-protein part. Phytochrome is
a blue-green pigment.
One form of phyto-chrome, designated as PR, strongly absorbs red light
(at 660 nm). In the process the shape of the phytochrome molecule changes to
the second form of

phytochrome PFR. Red light of
longer wavelengths than PR,
described as far-red light (at
730 nm). When PFR (P730)
absorbs far-red light, it reverts
back to the original form, PR
(P660). The PFR (P730) form is
less stable than the PR (P660)
form and so it reverts to PR in
the dark. The form of
phytochrome that triggers
physiological responses such as
flowering is PFR, (P730)
The sunlight has more
red light (P660) than far-red
light (P730). Therefore, the
phytochrome in a plant exposed
Fig: 10.23 Night interruption experiments on
to the sunlight is a mixture of short-day plants using a red light interruption
both PR (P660) and PFR (P730), and combinations of red and far-red (fr) light
with PFR (P730) predominating. interruptions
During day PR (P660) is
converted to PFR, (P730) and
during the night, the PFR (P730)
slowly reverts back to PR
(P660).
Phytochrome Affects
Flowering
In short-day plants the
active form of phytochrome PFR,
inhibits flowering in short-day
plant. In order to flower, these
plants need long night. The long
period of darkness allows the
PFR to completely revert back to
PR so the plant has some
minimum time during the 24-
hour period with no PFR present.
Fig: 10.24 Interconversion of two forms of
This initiates flowering. phytochromes
Short-day plants were grown under a short day/long-night condition.

The night was interrupted with a short burst of red light. Exposure to red light
for a brief period as 10 minutes in the middle of the night prevents flowering
in short day plants. This effect occurs because the brief exposure to red light
converts some of the phytochrome from the PR (P660) form to the PFR
(P730)form.
Therefore the plant does not have a sufficient period of time at
night for the conversion of P FR (P730). Short day plants need long nights to
allow complete dark for reversion of P FR(P730) to P R (P660) to initiate
flowering. A brief flash of red light in the middle of the night converts P R
(P660) to P FR (P730). However, if this is followed by a brief period of far
red light, the P FR (P730) is converted back to P R (P660). Therefore,
flowering occurs.
In Long-day Plants the active form of Phytochrome PFR (P730)
induces flowering in long-day plants. Long-day plants exposed to a long-
day/short-night condition flower. The long days cause these plants to produce
predominantly PFR (P730). During the short night some PFR (P730) is slowly
changed to PR but sufficient PFR (P730) remains to induce flowering. Plant
biologists are puzzled by the observation that PFR (P730), the active form of
phytochrome, inhibits flowering in short-day plants and induces flowering in
long-day plants. Why different plants respond to opposite way to PFR (P730) is
not known at this time.
10.7.4 VERNALIZATION
In certain plants, temperature has an affect on flowering. The
promotion of flowering by exposure to low temperature is known as
vernalization (after a Latin term meaning to make spring like). The low
temperature stimulus is received by the shoot apex of a mature or plant
embryo (not by the leaves as in photoperiodism). Although the exact
temperature and amount of time required varies among species, most
vernalization temperature occur between 00C to 100C, but temperature around
40C is found to be most effective. The part of the plant that must be exposed to
low temperature varies. For some plants, the moist seeds must be exposed to
several weeks of low temperature in order for flowering to be induced. For
other plants, recently germinated seedlings have a cold requirement.
In some plants, the requirement of low temperature period is
absolute, meaning that they will not flower without vernalization. Other
plants will flower sooner if exposed to low temperature but still flower at a
late date if not exposed to low temperature.
Examples of plants with a low temperature requirement include

biennials (plants lasting for two years) like carrots and annuals like winter
wheat. Carrot left in a warm environment and not exposed to low temperature
continue vegetative growth indefinitely and do not initiate sexual
reproduction. Low temperature stimulates production of vernalin hormone
which induces vernalization. It is actually gibberellin.
Photoperiodism and vernalization serve to synchronize the reproductive
behaviour of plants with their environment, ensuring reproduction of the same
species flower at the same time for cross pollination and genetic variability.

1. It is found essentically in organic compounds
A) calcium B) nitrogen
C) carbon D) phosphorus
2) Chlorosis occurs due to the deficiency of
A) sulphur B) magnesium
C) phosphorus D) calcium
3) Carnivorous plants use insects as a source of
A) water B) glucose
C) oxygen D) nitrogen
4) Most of the uptake of water and minerals from soil takes place through
A) epidermal cells B) root cap
C) root D) root hair
5) Which of the following is closest to the centre of a woody stem?
A) vasular cambium B) young xylem
C) old phloem D) old xylem
6) Symplast is the movement of water through
A) vacuoles B) cell walls
C) cytoplasm of cells D) inter spaces
7) Guard cells are the only cells of epidermis, which have

A) vacuole B) chloroplasts
C) cytoplasm D) leucoplasts
8) The sugar moves through phloem is mostly in the form of
A) glucose B) sucrose C) maltose D) lactose
9) Succulent tissues are formed in
A) hydrophytes B) thallophytes
C) mesophyll D) xerophytes
10) Why does a plant auxin produce different effects on the growth of a root
and of a shoot?
A) gravity affects the action of the auxin
B) the growth rates of shoot and roots differ
C) the shoot and root respond differently to similar auxin concentrations
D) light effects the action of the auxin
11) Collenchyma is a supporting tissue in
A) seeds B) seedlings C) shrubs D) trees
12) The phenomenon of growth includes
A) cell differentiation B) cell elongation
C) cell maturation D) cell decomposition
13) A researcher, who wants to study the composition of a plants sap, inserts
a capillary tube into the phloem. What causes the sap to flow out of the
tube?
A) capillarity B) hydrostatic pressure
C) root pressure D) transpiration stream
1. Define osmosis in terms of diffusion.

2. What is water potential?
3. Why exchange of gases occurs more effeciently in air than water?
4. Give adaptive characters in hydrophytes
5. Name the hormones involved in each of the following physiological

processes: (a) germination of seeds: (b) stem elongation: (c) ripening of
fruits: (d) abscission of leaves; (c) dormancy of seeds.
6. Differentiate between: collenchyma and sclerenchyma, photoperiodism
and phototropism, transpiration and evaporation.
7. What do you understand by open growth?
8. Define: nutrition, nutrients, osmotic adjustment, primary growth,
secondary growth, homeostasis, cohesion and adhesion
9. Why support is needed in terrestrial life?
10. What is the path of salts and water in vascular plants?
11. How does symplast differ from apoplast?
12. Why support is needed? Enlist the names of supporting tissues in plants.
13. What are annual rings? Define primary and secondary growth in plants.
14. Physiological processes are coordinated in organisms. Give an example
to show that plant hormones are involved in coordinating physiological
processes.
15. What happens to the primary tissue of a stem when secondary growth
occurs?
16. Why does the wood of many tropical trees lack annual rings?
17. Why is hardwood more desirable than softwood for making furniture?
1. What are nutrients? Describe the role or mineral in plants.

2. Describe the role of stomata in the exchange of gases in plants.
3. Explain water movement between plant cells.
4. Discuss the movement of water in xylem through TACT mechanism.
5. How sugars move in plants? Why it is called translocation?
6. How guard cells control the rate of water loss from a plant on a hot dry
day. Why is this both helpful and harmful to the plant?
7. What are the adaptations in plants to cope with low and high
temperature.
8. Explain the types and role of meristems.
9. Discuss the role of important growth regulators.
10. What is photoperiodism? What is the role of phytochromes in the
mechanism of photoperiodism?
11. Describe the pressure flow theory.
12. Name the elements that make up most of plants body. What are essential
minerals nutrients and beneficial mineral nutrients?
ANSWER MCQS
1. C 2. C 3. D 4. D 5. D. 6. C 7. B 8. B 9. D 10. C 11. B
12. B 13. B

1. Madar, S.S., Biology, 6th edition, WCB, McGraw-Hill, USA, 1998.
2. Mauseth, J.D. Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology, 2nd ed.,
Philadelphia, Saunders College Publishing, 1995.
www.learningall.com
USEFUL WEBSITES
1. www.scipub.net/botany/root-hairs.html
2. www.sirinet/~jgjohnso/plants.html
3. hcs.osu.edu/mg/manual/botany.html
4. plantphys.info/Plant_Biology/lecppt/root.ppt
5. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_tissue
www.learningall.com
CHAPTER 11
DIGESTION

11.1 Digestive System of Man ( 9 Periods)
11.1.1 Alimentary Canal: Structure and Functional Details
11.1.2 Role of Accessory Glands
11.2 Disorders: Digestive System and Food Habits (4 Periods)
Every cell of the body needs nourishment, but most cells cannot travel
to a food source, so the food must be delivered. Food is necessary to sustain
life. The food is utilized at the cellular level. Most of the food we eat,
however, is not suitable for cellular utilization until it is mechanically and
chemically reduced to forms that can be absorbed through the intestinal wall
and transported to the cells by the blood. Ingested food is not technically
inside the body until it is absorbed, in fact a large portion of this food remains
undigested and passes through the body as waste material. This chapter
presents a general view of the digestive system describes its anatomy and
physiology and disorders related to digestive system and food habits.
11.1 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF MAN

Anatomically and functionally the digestive system can be divided into a
tubular gastrointestinal tract (GIT) or digestive tract or alimentary canal and
accessory digestive organs. Viscera are frequently used to refer the abdominal
organs of digestion but actually viscera can be any organ such as spleen,
stomach, lungs etc. Gut is an anatomical term that generally refers to the
developing stomach and intestine. The first section of the digestive tract is the
mouth, or oral cavity. The oral cavity opens posteriorly into the pharynx,
which in turn, continues inferiorly into the oesophagus (meaning: passageway)
(American spelling: esophagus). Oesophagus opens into the stomach.
340 BIOLOGY XI: Chapter 11, DIGESTION
Oesophagus
colon
Sigmoid colon
Fig: 11.1 Digestive System of Man
The stomach opens inferiorly into the small intestine. The first
segment of the small intestine is the duodenum (meaning: twelve fingers
breadth in length). The next segment of small intestine is the jejunum
(meaning, empty). The last segment of the small intestine is the ileum
(meaning, twisted). The last section of the digestive tract is the large
intestine. The first segment is the cecum (meaning, blind), with the attached
vermiform (meaning, wormlike) appendix. The cecum is followed by the
ascending, transverse, descending and sigmoid colon and the rectum
(meaning, straight). The rectum joins the anal canal, which ends at the anus,
the inferior termination of the digestive tract.
BIOLOGY XI: Chapter 11, DIGESTION 341
11.1.1 ALIMENTARY CANAL - Structure and

Functional Details
The organs of GI tract include oral cavity, pharynx, oesophagus¸
stomach, small intestine and large intestine. The accessory organs include the
teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. The GI tract,
which extends from the mouth to the anus, is a continuous tube. It is a locally
differentiated structure. It is specialized at various points along its length,
with each region designed to carry out a different role in the overall process
of digestion and absorption. GI is approximately 9m (30 ft) long. It traverses
the thoracic cavity and enters the abdominal cavity at the level of diaphragm.
The digestive tube consists of four major layers, or tunics: an internal
mucosa and an external serosa with a submucosa and muscularis in between.
These four tunics are present in all areas of the digestive tract from the
oesophagus to the anus.
Oral Cavity
The oral cavity, or mouth, is that part of the digestive tract bounded by
the lips anteriorly, the fauces (meaning, throat, opening into the pharynx)
posteriorly, the cheeks laterally, the palate superiorly and a muscular floor
inferiorly. The oral cavity is lined with moist stratified squamous epithelium,
which provides protection against abrasion.
Palate and Palatine Tonsils
The palate (fig. 11.2) consists of a two parts, an anterior bony part, the
hard palate and a posterior, non-bony part, the soft palate, which consists of
skeletal muscle and connective tissue. The uvula (meaning, a grape) is the
projection from the posterior edge of the soft palate. The palate is important
in the swallowing process, preventing food from passing into the nasal cavity.
Palatine tonsils are located in the lateral wall of the fauces.
Salivary Glands
A considerable number of salivary glands are scattered throughout the
oral cavity. There are three pairs of the large multicellular glands: the
parotid, the submandibular and the sublingual glands (fig. 11.1).
Science Titbits
Inflammation of the parotid is called parotiditis. The most common type
of parotidits, caused by a viral infection, is mumps.
Fig 11.2 Superficial Structures of the Oral Cavity
Pharynx
The pharynx consists of three parts: the nasopharynx, the oropharynx and
the laryngopharynx. Normally only the oropharynx and laryngopharynx transmit
food. The oropharynx communicates with the nasopharynx superiorly, the larynx
and laryngopharynx inferiorly, and the mouth anteriorly.
Oesophagus
The oesophagus is that part of the digestive tube that extends between
the pharynx and the stomach. It is about 25 cm long and lies in anterior to the
vertebrae and posterior to the trachea. It passes through the oesophageal
hiatus (opening) of the diaphragm and ends at the stomach. An upper
oesophageal sphincter and a lower oesophageal sphincter are present at the
upper and lower ends of the oesophagus respectively, regulate the movement
of materials into and out of the oesophagus.
Science Titbits
A hiatal hernia is a widening of the oesophageal hiatus, occurring
most commonly in adults, which allows part of the stomach to extend
through the opening into the thorax.
Stomach
The stomach is an enlarged segment of the digestive tract in the left
superior part of the abdomen immediately below the diaphragm. Typically
J-shaped when empty, the stomach is continuous with the oesophagus
superiorly and empties into the small intestine inferiorly. The opening from
the oesophagus into the stomach is the gastro-oesophageal, or cardiac
opening (located near the heart), and the region of the stomach around the
cardiac opening is the cardiac region (fig. 11.3). The lower oesophageal
sphincter, also called the cardiac sphincter, surrounds the cardiac opening.
Although this is an important structure in the normal function of the stomach,
it is a physiologic constrictor only and cannot be seen anatomically. The
largest part of the stomach is the body which narrows to form the pyloric
(meaning, gatekeeper) region, that joins the small intestine. The opening between
the stomach and the small intestine is the pyloric opening, which is surrounded
by a relatively thick ring of smooth muscle called the pyloric sphincter. The
stomach is lined with simple columnar epithelium. The mucosal surface forms
Oesophagus
Body
Gastro-oesophageal opening
Cardiac region
Greater curvature
Lesser curvature
Pyloric
sphincter
Pyloric
region
Duodenum
Fig: 11.3 Cutaway section of the Stomach reveals Muscular layers and internal Anatomy
Fig. 11.4 A Section of the Stomach wall that Illustrates its Histology,
Including Several Gastric Pits and Glands
numerous tubelike gastric pits, which are the openings for the gastric glands.
There are five types of epithelial cells in the stomach:
(1) Goblet cells secrete protective mucus (2) Parietal (oxyntic) cells
produce hydrochloric acid (3) Principal cells or chief (zymogenic) cells secrete
pepsinogen (4) Endocrine cells secrete the hormone gastrin into the blood. In
addition to these products, the gastrin mucosa (the parietal cells) secretes intrinsic
factors.
Small Intestine
The small intestine consists of three parts: the duodenum, the jejunum,
and the ileum (fig. 11.5). The entire small intestine is about 6m long (range:
4.6-9 m). The duodenum is about 25 cm long. The jejunum, constituting about
two-fifths of the total length of the small intestine, is about 2.5 m long; and
the ileum, constituting three-fifths of the small intestine, is about 3.5 m long.
Two major accessory glands, the liver and the pancreas, are associated with
the duodenum.
Duodenum
The duodenum
begins with a short
superior part, which is
where it exits the
pylorus of the stomach
and ends in a sharp
bend, which is where it
joins the jejunum. Tiny
fingerlike projections
of the mucosa form
numerous villi (meaning,
shaggy hair, fig. 11.6),
which are 0.5-1.5 mm
Fig 11.5 The Small Intestine
in length. Each villus is
covered by simple columnar epithelium and contains a blood capillary
network and a lymph capillary called a lacteal.
Jejunum and Ileum
The jejunum and ileum are similar in structure to the duodenum,
except that there is a gradual decrease in the diameter of the small intestine,
the thickness of the intestinal wall, the number of circular folds and the
number of villi as one progresses through the small intestine. The duodenum
and jejunum are the major sites of nutrient absorption, The junction between
the ileum and the large intestine is the ileocecal junction. It has a ring of
smooth muscle the ileocecal sphincter, and a one-way ileocecal valve.
The structural features increase the surface area of small intestine and
make it the largest part of the alimentary canal. The internal walls are folded
to increase surface area for absorption. Villi and microvilli further increase
surface area for absorption.
Large Intestine
The cecum, which is the proximal end of the large intestine, is where
the large and small intestines meet. The cecum extends inferiorly about 6 cm
behind the ileocecal junction in the form of a blind sac. Attached to the cecum
Skills: Analyzing, Interpreting and Communication
List structural features that increase surface area of small intestine

Fig: 11.6 Histology of the Duodenum
is a small blind tube about 9 cm long called the vermiform appendix. The
walls of the appendix contain many lymph nodules. The colon is about 1.5 to
1.8 m long and consists of four parts: the ascending colon, transverse
colon, descending colon, and sigmoid colon. The rectum (means: straight)
is a straight, muscular tube that begins at the termination of the sigmoid colon
and ends at the anal canal. The last 2-3 cm of the digestive tract is the anal
canal. It begins at the inferior end of the rectum and ends at the anus
(external GI tract opening). The smooth muscle layer and skeletal muscle
form sphincter of the anal canal.
Appendicitis
Appendicitis is an inflammation of the vermiform appendix and usu
ally occurs because of obstruction of the appendix. Secretions from the ap
pendix cannot pass the obstruction and accumulate, causing enlargement and
pain. Symptoms include sudden abdominal pain. If the appendix bursts, the
infection can spread throughout the peritoneal cavity, causing peritonitis,
with life-threatening results. An appendectomy is removal of the appendix.
Functions of the Digestive System

As food moves through the digestive tract, secretions are added to
liquify and digest it and to provide lubrication. Each segment of the digestive
tract is specialized to assist in moving its contents from the oral end to the
anal end. Parts of the digestive system are also specialized to transport
molecules from lumen of the digestive tract into the extracellular spaces. The
processes of secretion, movement, and absorption are regulated by elaborate
nervous and hormonal mechanisms.
Functions of the Oral Cavity
Saliva is secreted at the rate of about 1-1.5 liter per day. The serous
(watery) part of saliva contains a digestive enzyme called salivary amylase
(meaning, starch-splitting enzyme), which breaks the covalent bonds between
glucose molecules in starch and other polysaccharides to produce the
disaccharides, maltose and isomaltose. Only about 3%-5% of the total
carbohydrates are digested in the mouth. Cooking and thorough chewing of food
destroys the cellulose of starch covering and increases the efficiency of the
digestive process. Food taken into the mouth is chewed, or masticated, by the
teeth. Mastication breaks large food particles into smaller ones, which have a
Composition of Saliva
Salivary amylase digests starch. Mucin is a proteoglycan that gives
a lubricating quality to the secretions of the salivary glands. Water moist
ens food and mucous membrane. Saliva also contains various mineral
salts including chloride ions which speed up the activity of enzymes. Sali
va prevents bacterial infection in the mouth as it contains lysozyme and
immunoglobulin. Saliva has a pH between 6.00 ND 7.0, a favourable
range for the digestive action of amylase.
Q. How is chewing important to human digestion?
much larger total surface area for the action of digestive enzymes.
Deglutition or Swallowing
The tongue forms the chewed and moistened food into a ball like mass called
bolus and pushes it into the pharynx. Muscles raise the soft palate against the back
wall of the pharynx, which closes the passage between nasal cavity and pharynx,
preventing food from entering the nasal cavity. The pressure of the food in the
pharynx stimulates nerves in its walls that begins the swallowing reflex, an involuntary
action. As part of this reflex action the voice box or larynx raises up to meet the
epiglottis (meaning upon the glottis ), with this action epiglottis cartilage drops over
the glottis, the opening to the larynx and trachea. In this way food is passed over
the trachea without entering it. If you place your hand over your larynx (Adams
apple), you can feel it moves up when you swallow. After food enters the oesophagus,
the soft palate lowers and the epiglottis is raised.
Pharynx Epiglottis
Epiglottis Larynx
Larynx
Oesophagus
Fig: 11.7 Process of Swallowing
Peristalsis
In peristalsis a wave of
relaxation of circular muscles Oesophagus
infront of food is followed by a
wave of strong contraction of
circular muscles behind food,
propels the mass of the food through
the digestive tract. As the food
moves it expands the tube wall, the
expansions stimulates peristalsis. If
there is any irritation of the
oesophagus or stomach the process Fig. 11.8 Peristalsis
of peristalsis may be reversed and
vomiting occurs. This reversal of peristalsis is called antiperistalsis.
Stomach Function
Ingested food and stomach secretions, mixed together, form a semi
fluid material called chyme (meaning, juice). The stomach functions
primarily as storage and mixing chamber for the chyme. Stomach secretions
include mucus, hydrochloric acid, gastrin, intrinsic factor and pepsinogen.
The mucous cells secrete viscous and alkaline mucus. The thick layer
of mucous lubricates and protects the epithelial cells of the stomach wall from
the damaging effect of the acidic chyme and pepsin. Parietal cells in the
gastric glands of the pyloric region secrete intrinsic factor and a concentrated
solution of hydrochloric acid. Intrinsic factor is a glycoprotein that binds
with vitamin B12 and makes the vitamin more readily absorbed in the ileum.
Hydrochloric acid produces the low pH of the stomach, which is
normally between 1 and 3. Although the hydrochloric acid secreted into the
stomach has a minor digestive effect on digested food, one of its main functions
is to kill bacteria that are ingested with essentially everything humans put into
their mouths. The low pH of the stomach also stops carbohydrate digestion by
inactivating salivary amylase. The low pH also denatures many proteins so that
proteolytic enzymes can reach internal peptide bonds, and it provides the proper
pH environment for the function of pepsin. Chief cells within the gastric glands
secrete inactive pepsinogen. Pepsinogen is packaged in zymogen (meaning,
related to enzymes) granules, which are released by exocytosis when
pepsinogen secretion is stimulated. Once pepsinogen enters the lumen of the
stomach, it is converted to pepsin by hydrochloric acid and previously formed
pepsin molecules. Pepsin exhibits optimum enzymatic activity at a pH of 3 or
less. Pepsin catalyzes the cleavage of some covalent bonds in proteins, breaking
them into smaller peptide chains.
Q. Why is it necessary for pepsin to be secreted in an inactive state?
Regulation of Stomach Secretion

Approximately 2-3 litres of gastric secretions (gastric juice) is
produced each day. Both nervous and hormonal mechanisms regulate gastric
secretions. The neural mechanisms involve reflexes integrated within the
medulla oblongata and local reflexes integrated within the GI tract. Hormones
that regulate stomach secretions include gastrin, secretin, gastric inhibitory
polypeptide, and cholecystokinin.
The sensations of the taste and smell of food, stimulation of tactile
receptors during the process of chewing and swallowing, and pleasant
thoughts of food stimulate centres within the medulla that influences
gastric secretion. Neuronal stimulation of the stomach mucosa results in
the secretion of acetylcholine, which stimulates the secretory activity of
both the parietal and chief cells and stimulates the secretion of gastrin
from endocrine cells. Gastrin is released into the circulation and travels to
the parietal cells, where it stimulates additional hydrochloric acid and
pepsinogen secretion.
The greatest volume of gastric secretions is initiated by the presence of

food in the stomach. The primary stimuli are distention of the stomach and the
presence of amino acids and peptides in the stomach. Distention of the
stomach wall, especially in the body or fundus, results in the stimulation of
mechanoreceptors. As food enters the stomach, its volume increases. Ingested
food is thoroughly mixed with the secretions of the stomach glands to form
chyme. This mixing is accomplished by gentle mixing waves, which are
peristaltic-like contractions that occur about every 20 seconds and proceed
from the body toward the pyloric sphincter to mix the ingested material with
the secretions of the stomach.
Peristaltic waves occur less frequently, are significantly more powerful
than mixing waves, and force the chyme near the periphery of the stomach
toward the pyloric sphincter. The pyloric sphincter usually remains partially
closed because of mild tonic contraction. Each peristaltic contraction is
sufficiently strong to force a small amount of chyme through the pyloric
opening and into the duodenum.
Q. Is human digestive system intracellular or extracellular?
Functions of the Small Intestine

The small intestine is the site at which the greatest amount of digestion
and absorption occurs. The intestinal phase of gastric regulation is controlled
by the entrance of acidic stomach contents into the duodenum. Acidic
solutions in the duodenum cause the release of the hormone secretin into the
circulatory system. Secretin inhibits gastric secretion by inhibiting both
parietal and chief cells. Fatty acids and certain other lipids in the duodenum
and the proximal jejunum initiate the release of two hormones: gastric
inhibitory peptide and cholecystokinin. Gastric inhibitory peptide strongly
inhibits gastric secretion, and cholecystokinin inhibits gastric secretions to a
lesser degree. Hypertonic solutions in the duodenum and jejunum also inhibit
gastric secretions.
The mucosa of the intestine produces secretions that primarily
contain mucus, electrolytes, and water. Intestinal secretions lubricate and
protect the intestinal wall from the acidic chyme and the action of
digestive enzymes. They also keep the chyme in the small intestine in a
liquid form to facilitate the digestive process. Most of the digestive
enzymes that enter the small intestine come from the pancreas. The
intestinal mucosa also produces enzymes that remain associated with the
intestinal epithelial surface.
Mucus is secreted in large amount by duodenal glands, intestinal

glands, and goblet cells. The mucus provides the wall of intestine with
protection against the irritating effects of acidic chyme and against the
digestive enzymes that enter the duodenum from the pancreas. Secretin and
cholecystokinin are released from the intestinal mucosa and stimulate hepatic
and pancreatic secretions. Secretion by duodenal glands is stimulated by the
vagus nerve, secretion, and chemical or tactile irritation of the duodenal
mucosa.
Movement in the Small Intestine
Mixing and propulsion of chyme are the primary mechanical events
that occur in the small intestine. Segmental contractions mix the intestinal
contents, and peristaltic contractions propel the intestinal contents along
the digestive tract. The ileocecal sphincter at the junction between the
ileum and the large intestine remains mildly contracted most of the time,
but peristaltic contractions reaching it from the small intestine cause it to
relax and allow movement of chyme from the small intestine into the
cecum.
Absorption and Transport
Absorption of certain molecules can occur all along the digestive tract,
a few chemicals, can be absorbed through the thin mucosa of the oral cavity
below the tongue. Some small molecules (e.g. alcohol and aspirin) can pass
through the stomach epithelium into the circulation. Most absorption,
however, occurs in the duodenum and jejunum, although some absorption
occurs in the ileum.
Science Titbits
Certain drugs, which are lipid-soluble and can, diffuse through the
cell membranes of the oral cavity, can be quickly absorbed into the
circulation. An example is nitroglycerin, which is a vasodilator used to
treat cases of angina pectoris. The drug is placed under the tongue, where,
in less than 1 minute, it dissolves and passes through the very thin oral
mucosa into the lingual vein.
Carbohydrates: Ingested carbohydrates consist primarily of
polysaccharides, and monosaccharides such as glucose and fructose. During
the digestion process polysaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides.
Carbohydrate digestion begins in the oral cavity with the partial digestion of
starches by salivary amylase and is completed in the intestine by pancreatic
amylase. The monosaccharides are transferred by facilitated diffusion to the

capillaries of the intestinal villi and are carried by the hepatic portal system to
the liver, where the nonglucose sugars are converted to glucose. Glucose
enters the cells through facilitated diffusion.
Lipids: The first step in lipid digestion is emulsification. Emulsification
is accomplished by bile salts secreted by the liver. Lipase secreted by the
pancreas digests lipid molecules. The primary products of this digestive process
are free fatty acids and glycerol. Cholesterol and phospholipids also constitute
part of the lipid digestion products. Once lipids are digested in the intestine, bile
salts aggregate around the small droplets to form micelles (meaning a small
morsel). When a micelle comes into contact with the epithelial cell of the small
intestine, the contents of the micelle pass by means of simple diffusion through
the lipid cell membrane of the epithelial cells.
Lipid Transport: In the intestinal epithelial cell, triacylglycerol is
formed. Proteins combine with triacylglycerold to form chylomicrons. The
chylomicrons leave the epithelial cell and enter the lacteals of the lymphatic
system within the villi. They are carried through the lymphatic system to the
blood stream. Before entering the adipose cells, triacylglycerol is broken
back down into fatty acids and glycerol, which enter the fat cells and are once
more converted back to triacylglycerol. Triacylglycerol is stored in adipose
tissue. In the liver the chylomicron lipids are stored, converted into other
molecules, or used as energy. Because lipids are either insoluble or only slightly
soluble in water, they are transported through the blood in combination with
proteins, which are water-soluble. Chylomicrons are one type of lipoproteins.
Science Titbits
Lipoproteins are referred to as high or low-density lipoproteins. A
lipoprotein with high lipid content has a very low density (LDL), whereas a
lipoprotein with high protein content has a relatively high density (HDL).
Chylomicrons, which are made up of 99% lipid and only 1% protein, have
an extremely very low density.
Proteins: Pepsin secreted by the stomach catalyzes the cleavage of
covalent bonds in proteins, producing smaller polypeptide chains. Once the
proteins and polypeptide chains leave the stomach, proteolytic enzymes
produced in the pancreas continue the digestive process, producing small
peptide chains. These are broken down into dipepetide, tripeptides and amino
acids by peptidases bound to the microvilli of the small intestine. Dipeptides
and tripeptides enter intestinal epithelial cells.
Once inside the cells, dipeptidase and tripeptidase split the dipeptides
and tripeptides into their component amino acids. Individual amino acids
then leave the epithelial cells and enter the hepatic portal system, which
transports them to the liver. The amino acids may be modified in the liver or
released into the bloodstream and distributed throughout the body. Most
amino acids are used as building blocks to form new proteins, but some amino
acids may be used for energy.
Water: About 9 litres of water enters the digestive tract each day, of
which about 92% is absorbed in the small intestine, and another 6%-7% is
absorbed in the large intestine. Water can move in either direction across the
wall of the small intestine by osmosis.
Ions: Sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions are
also actively transported.
Function of the Large Intestine
In the colon, chyme is converted to faeces. Absorption of water and
salts, the secretion of mucus, and extensive action of microorganisms are
involved in the formation of faeces, which the colon stores until the faeces are
eliminated by the process of defaecation.
Movement in the Large Intestine
Peristaltic waves are largely responsible for moving chyme along the
ascending colon. Distention of the rectal wall by faeces acts as a stimulus that
initiates the defaecation reflex. Local reflex action causes weak contractions
of the rectum and relaxation of the internal anal sphincter.
The external anal sphincter, which is composed of skeletal muscle and
is under conscious cerebral control, prevents the movement of faeces out of
the rectum and through the anal opening. If this sphincter is relaxed
voluntarily, faeces are expelled. The defaecation reflex persists only for a few
minutes and quickly dies. In infants, the defaecation reflexes cause
automatic emptying of the lower bowel at inconvenient times during the day
because of lack of conscious control exercised through voluntary contraction
of the external anal sphincter.
Science Titbits
Some bacteria in the intestine synthesize vitamin K, which is passively ab
sorbed in the colon, and breakdown a small amount of cellulose to glucose.
Gases called flatus (meaning, blowing) are produced by bacterial actions in
the colon.
11.1.2 ROLE OF ACCESSORY GLANDS

The Accessory glands of the digestive sysem are liver, gall bladder and
pancreas
Liver
The liver is the largest internal organ of the body. The liver consists of
two major lobes, left and right, and two minor lobes. A porta (gate) is on the
inferior surface of the liver where the various vessels, ducts, and nerves enter
and exit the liver. The hepatic ducts transport bile out of the liver. The right
and left hepatic ducts unite to form a single common hepatic duct. The
common hepatic duct is joined by the cystic duct from the gallbladder to form
the common bile duct, which empties into the duodenum at the major
duodenal papilla in union with the pancreatic duct.
Functions of Liver
The liver performs important digestive and excretory functions, stores
and processes nutrients, synthesizes new molecules and detoxifies harmful
chemicals.
Fig: 11.9 Duct System of the Major Abdominal Digestive Glands

Bile Production
The liver produces and secretes bile, which contains no digestive
enzymes. Bile helps to neutralize the acidic chymes and to bring the pH up to
a level at which pancreatic enzymes can function. Bile salts emulsify fats.
Bile also contains excretory products such as bile pigments. Bilirubin is a bile
pigment that results from the breakdown of hemoglobin. Most bile salts are
reabsorbed in the ileum and carried in the blood back to the liver, where they
stimulate further bile secretion.
Storage Role of Liver
Hepatocytes can remove sugar from the blood and store it in the form of
glycogen. They can also store fat, vitamins (A, B12, D, E, and K), copper and iron.
This storage function is usually short-term and the amount of stored material in
the hepatocytes varies, thus the cell size fluctuates during a given day.
Metabolic Role of Liver
Metabolism of glucose occurs in liver. Excess of glucose from blood is
converted into glycogen (glycogenesis) and stored in the liver cells.
Whenever needed, glucose is obtained by the hydrolysis of glycogen
(glycogenolysis). Glucose is also synthesized from amino acids or fatty acids
and glycerol (gluconeogenesis). Denaturation of fatty acids and
phosphorylation of fats takes place in liver cells. Excess of amino acids
undergo deamination producing pyruvic acid and ammonia. Ammonia
produced by deamination of amino acids in hepatic cells is converted to urea
(ornithine-arginine cycle).
Synthesis of Vitamin A from carotin and synthesis of albumin from amino
acids takes place in liver. Formation of blood proteins (like prothrombin,
fibrinogen) are synthesized in liver cells. These are necessary for blood clotting.
Phagocytosis also occurs in liver i.e. Kupffer cells destroy dead RBCs. The bile
pigments bilirubin and biliverdin are formed from the breakdown of
haemoglobin. Liver produces heparin, an enzyme that prevents clotting of blood
inside the blood vessels. Red blood cells are formed during foetal (fetal) life.
Detoxification occurs in liver. Liver cells detoxify or inactive the toxic substances
like cresol, carbolic acid, etc. (produce by intestinal bacteria) or convert them to
non-toxic substances. Similarly prussic acid produced during metabolism is
converted into non-toxic substance. Liver is centre of heat production.

Relate hepatitis and Jaundice with the function of liver.
Gallbladder
The gallbladder is a saclike structure on the inferior surface of the liver that
is about 8 cm long and 4 cm wide. The gallbladder is connected to the common bile
duct by the cystic duct.
Functions of the Gallbladder
Bile is continually secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder.
While the bile is in the gallbladder, water and electrolytes are absorbed, and
bile salts and pigments become as much as 5 to 10 times more concentrated
than they were when secreted by the liver.
Pancreas
The pancreas is a complex organ composed of both endocrine and
exocrine tissues that perform several functions. The pancreas consists of a
head, located within the curvature of the duodenum, a body and a tail, which
extends to the spleen. The endocrine part of the pancreas consists of
pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans).
Functions of the Pancreas
The exocrine secretion of the pancreas is called pancreatic juice and has
two major components: an aqueous component and an enzymatic component. The
aqueous component is produced principally by columnar epithelial cells that line
the smaller ducts of the pancreas. It contains sodium and potassium ions in about
the same concentration found in exracellular fluid. Bicarbonate neutralize the
acidic chyme that enters the small intestine from the stomach.
Pancreatic Enzymes
The enzymatic component of the pancreatic juice is produced by the
acini cells of the pancreas and is important for the digestion of all major
classes of food. Without the enzymes produced by the pancreas, lipids,
proteins, and carbohydrates are not adequately digested. The proteolytic
pancreatic enzymes, which digest proteins, are secreted in inactive forms,
whereas many of the other enzymes are secreted in active form. The major
proteolytic enzymes are trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase.
They are secreted in their inactive forms as trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen,
and procarboxypeptidase and are activated by the removal of certain peptides
from the larger precursor proteins. If these were produced in their active forms,
they would digest the tissues producing them. Trypsinogen is activated by the
proteolytic enzyme enterokinase (meaning, intestinal enzyme), which is an
enzyme attached to the brush border (microvilli) of the small intestine.
Trypsin then activates more trypsinogen, as well as chymotrypsinogen

and procarboxypeptidase. Pancreatic juice also contains pancreatic amylase,
which continues the polysaccharide digestion that was initiated in the oral cavity.
In addition, pancreatic juice contains a group of lipid digesting enzymes called
pancreatic lipases, which break down lipids into free fatty acids, glycerides,
cholesterol, and other components. Enzymes that reduce DNA and ribonucleic
acid to their component nucleotides, deoxyribonucleases and ribonucleases,
respectively are also present in pancreatic juice.
Control of Pancreatic Secretion
The exocrine secretions of the pancreas are controlled by both
hormonal and neural mechanisms. Secretin stimulates the secretion of a
watery solution that contains a large amount of bicarbonates ions from the
pancreas. The primary stimulus for secretin release is the presence of acidic
chyme in duodenum.
1. Secretin stimulates
the pancreas to release
a watery secretion, rich
in bicarbonate ions
(purple arrows).
2. Cholecystokinin
(green arrows) causes
the pancreas to release
a sectetion rich in
digestive enzymes.
3. Parasympathetic
stimulation from the
vagus nerve (red arrow)
causes the pancreas to
release a secretion rich
in digestive enzymes.
Fig: 11.10 Control of Pancreatic Secetion
Q. What would happen if sodium bicarbonate from the pancreas do not reach
the small intestine?
11.2 DISORDERS: Digestive System and Food Habits

Ulcer
Etiology: Peptic ulcer is classically viewed as a condition in which the
stomach acids digest the mucosal lining of the GI tract itself. The sites of
peptic ulcer are: oesophagus, stomach, duodenum and jejunum. 90-95% of
duodenal ulcer occurs in the first part of duodenum, 50% are on the anterior
wall. It is common four times than gastric ulcer. More than 90% of gastric
ulcer occurs in the lesser curvature. Helicobacter pylori is the most important
factor in peptic ulcer disease, accounting for 90% of duodenal ulcer and 70%
of the gastric ulcer. Aspirin (acetyl salicylic acid) and other non-steroidal
anti-inflammatory agents are an important etiologic factor. Peptic ulcer tends
to run in families i.e. it is a hereditary disease. Those with blood group O and
those unable to secrete their blood group antigen into the saliva and gastric
juice are more predisposed to peptic ulceration. Smoking is an important risk
factor.
Prevention: Aggravating factors such as smoking, asprin, excess
intake of coffee and tea, alcohol, missing a meal are to be avoided.
Treatment: The relieving factors of ulcer are antacid and milk,
vomiting relieves pain in gastric ulcer, and intake of food relieves pain in
duodenal ulcer. Medicines for acid suppression are the first choice of therapy.
In the early 1980's an

Australian medical resident
named Barry Marshall firmly
believed that bacteria play a
role in ulcers, but physicians
have always blamed the open
sores on stress or prescription
drug side effects. Marshall
set out to prove the bacterial
link. One morning in 1984,
he walked into his lab, stirred
a beaker full of beef soup and Nobel Prize Winner in 2005: Barry Marshall
Helicobacter pylori and (right side) and his co-workder Robin Varan
gulped the concoction. After five days he began to vomit. Marshall and others
demonstrated that Helicobacter pylori is responsible for 70% of ulcer. Mar
shall and his co-worker Robin Varan were awarded Nobel Prize in 2005.
www.learningall.com
Food Poisoning
It includes diarrhoea (American spelling: diarrhea), vomitting and
abdominal pain. They occur within 12-24 hours after eating contaminated
food. It is an illness from indigestion of food containing toxic substances.
Etiology: Due to the toxins produced by bacteria, Salmonella and
Campylobacter. These bacteria live in the intestines of cattle, chicken and duck
without causing disease symptoms. Human, however, may develop food
poisoning by taking the liquid that escapes during defrosting as frozen meat
contains Salmonela bacteria. The dishes and utensils while the meat is defrosting
must not be allowed to come in contact with any other food.
Symptoms: These include fatigue,
dizziness, double vision, headache, nausea, S.T.S Connections
vomitting, diarrhoea and abdominal pain. Relate Ulcer, food poi
soning and dyspepsia
Prevention: Basic hygiene should be with eating habits of
followed. Avoid unboiled /unbottled water, ice, the society.
cubes, salads and peel on fruits. Consume
freshly prepared hot food or thoroughly
rewarmed food.
Treatment: Soft easily digested diet, such as soup, fruits drinks, tea
and cold drinks are preferred. Oral rehydration salt (ORS) is given.
Antidiarrhoeal agent such as Lepromide, antibiotics are prescribed.
Dyspepsia
Incomplete or imperfect digestion is called dyspepsia. It is not a disease in
itself but symptomatic of other diseases. This is characterized by abdominal
discomfort, flatulence, heartburn, nausea, vomiting.
Etiology: It may occur due to excessive acidity in stomach or faulty
function of stomach and intestine or insufficient quality and quantity of bile
secretion.
Prevention: Avoid food that worsens symptoms. Stop smoking, weight
reduction, small meals, avoid alcohol, tea, fatty food, heavy lifting, bending
specially after meals and late night meals to reduce reflex during sleep.
Treatment: Antibiotics to be given against this disease. Drugs which
decrease HCl production such as Cimetidine; stop NSAID (Non-Steroidal
Anti Inflammatory Drugs) e.g. Aspirin
www.learningall.com
Obesity
When a person has abnormal amount of fat on the body it is called obesity.
It can be classified according to the number and size of the cells. In hyperplastic
obesity a greater than normal number of fat cells occur that are also larger than
the normal. Hypertrophic obesity results from a normal number of fat cells that
have increased in size. The distribution of fat in obese individual can vary.
Etiology: Obesity can occur for many reasons and obesity in an individual
can have more than one cause. Excessive intake of food is responsible for obesity.
Emotional disturbances, inherited tendency to obesity, disorder of the thyroid,
pituitary or adrenal glands etc, can also cause obesity.
Prevention: Food should be taken according to energy intake and energy
expenditure. Diet control, regular exercise can prevent obesity.
Related Disorders: The distribution of fat difference can be clinically
significant because upper body obesity is associated with an increased
likelihood of diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, and stroke. Many
other diseases are associated with obesity like angina, heart failure, anaemia,
arthritis etc. Obesity shortens life expectancy.
Q. Write the adverse affects of obesity on health.
Bulimia Nervosa
Symptoms: It is a neurotic disorder in slightly older girls. It is
characterized by bouts of over eating fattening food such as fried food or
cream cakes. This voracious eating followed immediately by self-induced
vomitting, fasting or purging may cause physical effects including serum
electrolytes imbalance and frequent recurring infections.
Treatment: Treatment of bulimics is likely to be prolonged. The
initial treatment is to overcome the effects of weight loss and malnutrition. It
is necessary to undertake the treatment in hospital under strict supervision.
Anorexia Nervosa
It is the loss of appetite due to the fear of becoming obese. Such a
feeling is common in human females between the age of 12 and 21 years.
Usually just after the onset of puberty.
Symptoms: It includes loss of appetite due to the fear of becoming
obese. The anorexic girls over estimate the size of her own body and so insist
that she is over weight, when in reality her weight has dropped to a dangerous
level. These girls are often not matured psychologically and unable to cope
with the challenges of puberty and their emerging sexuality. The losses of
feminine characteristics enable the girls to retreat into a child like state in
which she feels safe.
Therapy: Psychiatric therapy is usually required to treat anorexic
girls. Such patients are fed through any other route other than alimentary
canal i.e. intravenously. The recovery is very slow. It may take 2-4 years and
in some cases longer.

1. Pepsinogen is activated to pepsin by
A) active secretin B) hydrochloric acid
C) active pepsin and HCl D) gastrin
2. Liver secretes bile into the
A) duodenum B) ileum
C) jejunum D) peritoneum
3. Emulsification of fat will not occur in the absence of
A) lipase B) bile pigment
C) bile sat D) pancreatic juice
4. pH of stomach is 7, which component of food will be digested?
A) sucrose B) protein
C) fat D) glucose
5. Fatty acids and glycerol are first absorbed by
A) lymph vessel B) villi
C) blood capillaries D) hepatic portal vein
6. The hormone responsible for stimulating secretion of hydrochloroic acid

by stomach cells is
A) pepsin B) secretin
C) gastrin D) insulin
7. On removal of pancreas the compound, which remains undigested, is
A) protein B) fat
C) glucose D) lactose
8. Excess intake of the following causes obesity
A) vitamin B) proteins
C) carbohydrates D) mineral
9. Enzyme trypsinogen is changed to trypsin by
A) gastrin B) enterokinase
C) secretin D) hydrochloric acid
10. Cholesterol is synthesized in
A) liver B) pancreas
C) spleen D) gallbladder
11. Largest gland in human body is
A) pituitary B) thyroid
C) pancreas D) liver
12. Narrow distal part of stomach is
A) cardiac B) pharynx
C) duodenum D) pylorus
13. The diagram shows part of the human alimentary canal. Which
two structures produce substances involved in the digestion of fat?
A) 1 and 5 B) 3 and 4 C) 2 and 3 D) 4 and 5

14. The diagram shows the effect of pH on the activity of two enzymes, a
protease and an amylase, in the alimentary canal.
In which regions of the alimentary canal would these enzymes be most

active?
15. If the mucus lining covering the stomach breaks down and stomach tissue
is damaged.
A) a peptic ulcer will form
B) appendicitis will result
C) microvilli will invade the stomach
D) absorption of food molecules cananot take place.

1. Why there are villi in the intestine and not in stomach?
2. Bile juice contains no digestive enzymes, yet it is important for digestion.
Why?
3. Give one reason as to why some enzymes in stomach and intestine are
secreted in inactive form?
4. Name the three intestinal enzymes involved in protein digestion.
5. How could no secretion of HCl in our stomach affect food digestion?
6. Trypsin acts at alkaline pH. What provides the alkalinity?
7. Distinguish between gastrointestinal tract, viscera, accessory digestive
organs and gut.
8. Name three eating disorders.
9. How does the stomach protects itself from the damaging effect of HCl?
10. List the functions of large intestine.
11. Name and state the functions of hormones that assist the nervous system
in regulating digestive secretions.
12. Is the muscle activity of peristalsis under voluntary control or is it an
involuntary process? Does digestion occur in the oesophagus as paristalsis
is occurring?
13. How does the absorption of fat differ from absorption of glucose?
14. What happens to ingested cellulose in humans?
15. What would happen to the activity of the intestinal enzymes if the pH in
the small intestine remained at 2?

1. List the organs of the digestive tract and state the contribution of each to
the digestive process.
2. Describe the process of chemical digestion in man.
3. Describe the structure, storage and metabolic role of liver of man.
4. Describe with diagram the process of deglutition in man.
5. Outline the structure of pancreas and explain its functions as an exocrine
gland.
ANSWER MCQS
1. C 2. A 3. C 4. B 5. A 6. C 7. A 8. C 9. B 10. A
11. D 12. D 13. B 14. C 15. A
1. Villee C., Martin D.W., Berg L.R. Solomon E.P. Biology 4th edition.
Saunders college publishing. Philadelphia. 1996
4. Campbell N.A. Mhchell, L.G. & Reece J.B., Biology Concepts and
connections, 2nd edition Benjamin/Cummings Company California, 2003
USEFUL WEBSITES
1) avalon.unomaha.edu/lichens/Bio%201450%20PDF/MINERAL
%20NUTRITION%20IN%20PLANTS.pdf
2) www.esf.edu/efb/course/efb530/lectures/nutritio.html
3) www.hbci.com/~wenonah/min-def/index.html
4) www.biology-online.org/biology-forum/about628.html
5) www.sinauer.com/detail.php?id=1724
6) en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate
7) www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/carbohydrates.html
www.learningall.com
www.learningall.com
CHAPTER 12
CIRCULATION

12.1 Blood Circulatory System of Man (4 Periods)
12.1.1 Heart
12.1.2 Structure of Human Heart
12.1.3 Passage of Blood Through Heart
12.1.4 Heartbeat and its Control
12.1.5 Electrocardiogram
12.2 Blood Vessels (2 Periods)
12.2.1 Vascular Pathway
12.2.2 Rate of Blood Flow in Blood Vessels
12.3 Blood Pressure and its Measurement (3 Periods)
12.4 Cardiovascular Disorders (3 Periods)
12.4.1 Thrombosis
12.4.2 Heart Problems
12.4.3 Diagnosis of Cardiovascular Disorders (CVD)
12.4.4 Treatment and Prevention of Cardiovascular Disorders
12.4.5 Hypertension and Hypotension
12.5 Lymphatic System of Man (2 Periods)
12.5.1 Lymphatic Vessel
12.5.2 Spleen
BIOLOGY XI: Chapter 12, CIRCULATION 367
INTRODUCTION
All organisms must exchange materials with their environment and
distribute materials within their bodies. Most animals have a system of
internal transport - a circulatory system that transports oxygen and carbon
dioxide, distributes nutrients to the body cells and conveys the waste products
of metabolism to specific site for disposal.
12.1 BLOOD CIRCULATORY SYSTEM OF MAN
The circulatory system of man is divided into cardiovascular system
and lymphatic system. The cardiovascular system consists of a strong
muscular heart, three kinds of blood vessels: arteries, capillaries, veins and
blood.
12.1.1 HEART
The heart functions as a pump and is responsible for the circulation of
the blood through the blood vessels. The heart `produces the pressure
responsible for making blood flow through the blood vessels by contracting
forcefully. The human heart is a hollow, fibromuscular organ. The Greek
name for the heart is cardia from which we have the adjective cardiac. The
Latin name for the heart is cor from which we have adjective coronary. The
adult heart has the shape of a cone. The blunt, rounded point of the cone is the
apex and the larger flat part at the opposite end of the cone is the base.
12.1.2 STRUCTURE OF HUMAN HEART
The heart is located in the thoracic cavity between the lungs. The
heart, trachea, oesophagus and associated structures form a middle portion
called mediastinum. The heart lies deep and obliquely in the mediastinum
and slightly to the left of the sternum. The base of heart deep to the sternum,
extends to the second intercostals space and the apex of the heart is in the
fifth intercostals space, approximately 9 cm to the left of the midline.
Pericardium
The pericardium is a closed sac that surrounds heart. It consists of
two parts; the out part and inner part. The outer part consists of inelastic white
fibrous tissue. The inner part is made up of two membranes. The inner
membrane is attached to the heart and the outer one is attached to the fibrous
tissue. Pericardial fluid is secreted between them and reduces the friction
between the heart wall and surrounding tissues when the heart is beating. The
inelastic nature of the pericardium as whole prevents the heart from being
overstretched or overfilled with blood.
368 BIOLOGY XI: Chapter 12, CIRCULATION
Science Titbits
Pericarditis is an inflammation of the serous pericardium. It can be ex
tremely painful, with sensations of pain referred to the back and the chest
which can be confused with the pain of myocardial infarction (heart attack).
Q. What are the functions of pericardium?
Anatomy of the Heart

The heart consists of four chambers: two atria (meaning, entrance
chamber) and two ventricles (meaning, belly)
External Features
The atria lie above and behind the ventricles. On the surface of the
heart they are separated from each other by an atrioventricular groove or
sulcus (meaning ditch). The atria are separated from each other by an
interatrial groove. The ventricles are separated from each other by an
interventricular groove. In normal intact heart the sulci are covered by fat
and only after this fat is removed the actual sulci can be seen.
Structure of the Walls of the Heart
The heart wall is composed of the three layers of tissue. The epicardium,
the myocardium, and the endocardium. The epicardium is a thin serous
membrane comprising of the smooth outer surface of the heart. The thick middle
layer of the heart, the myocardium, is composed of cardiac muscle cells and is
responsible for the ability of the heart to contract. The smooth inner surface of the
heart chambers is the endocardium, which consists of simple squamous
epithelium over a layer of connective tissue. The smooth inner surface allows
blood to move easily through the heart. The heart valves are formed by a fold of
the endocardium, making a double layer of endocardium with connective tissue in
between.
Thickness of the Walls of each Chamber
The right ventricle has thinner walls than the left ventricle in a ratio of 1:3,
it pumps blood to the lungs, which are at a short distance from the heart. The atria
have comparatively thin walls as they only have to force blood into the ventricles
and this does not require much power. On the other hand, the ventricles have to
force blood out of the heart hence they have relatively thick walls, especially the
left ventricle which has to pump blood round the whole body.
Fig: 12.1 Human Heart, External view

Heart Chambers and Valves
The right atrium receives three veins: the superior vena cava, the
inferior vena cava, and the coronary sinus. The left atrium receives the four
pulmonary veins. The two atria are separated from each other by the
interatrial septum. The atria open into the ventricles through atrioventricular
canals. The right ventricle opens into the pulmonary trunk, and the left ventricle
opens into the aorta. The two ventricles are separated from each other by the
interventricular septum.
Atrioventricular Valves
An atrioventricular valve is on each atrioventricular canal and is
composed of cusps, or flaps. These valves allow blood to flow from the atria
into the ventricles, but prevent blood from flowing back into the atria. The
atrioventricular valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle has
three cusps and is called the tricuspid valve. The atrioventricular valve
between the left atrium and left ventricle has two cusps and is therefore called
the bicuspid or mitral (meaning, resembling a bishops miter, a two-pointed
hat), valve. Each ventricle contains cone-shaped muscular pillars called
papillary (meaning, pimple-shaped) muscles. These muscles are attached by
thin, strong connective tissue strings called chordae tendineae (meaning, heart
strings) to the cusps of the atrioventricular valves. The papillary muscles
Fig: 12.2 Dissection of a human heart, as seen from the front, with
the ventral part of both atria and both ventricles removed
contract when the ventricles contract and prevent the valves from opening into
the atria by pulling on the chordae tendineae attached to the valve cusps. Blood
flowing from the atrium into the ventricle pushes the valve open into the
ventricle, but, when the ventricle contract, blood pushes the valve back towards
the atrium. The atrioventricular canal is closed as the valve cusps meet.
Q. What is the function of chordae tendineae?
Semilunar Valves
The aorta and pulmonary trunk possess aortic and pulmonary
semilunar (meaning halfmoon-shaped) valves. Each valve consists of three
pocketlike semilunar cusps, the free inner borders of which meet in the centre
of the artery to block blood flow.
12.1.3 PASSAGE OF BLOOD THROUGH HEART
The superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava, both carrying
deoxygenated blood, enter the right atrium. The right atrium sends blood
through an atrioventricular valve (the tricuspid valve) to the right ventricle. The
right ventricle sends blood through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the
pulmonary trunk and the two pulmonary arteries to the lungs. Four
pulmonary veins, carrying oxygenated blood from the lungs, enter the left
atrium.The left atrium sends blood through an atrioventricular valve (the

bicuspid valve) to the left ventricle. The left ventricle sends blood through the
aortic semilunar valve into the aorta to the body proper. The heart is a double
pump because the right ventricle of the heart sends blood through the lungs,
and the left ventricle sends blood throughout the body.
12.1.4 HEARTBEAT AND ITS CONTROL
The heart is the hub of the circulatory system. In a continuous, rhythmic
cycle it passively fills with blood from the large veins and then actively contracts,
propelling the blood throughout the body. Its alternating relaxations and
contractions make up the cardiac cycle. The cardiac cycle is a sequence of one
heartbeat.
Phases of Heartbeat
The term systole means to contract and diastole means to dilate. Atrial
systole is contraction of the atrial myocardium and atrial diastole is
Fig 12.3 Cardiac Cycle

relaxation of the atrial myocardium. Similarly ventricular systole is

contraction of the ventricular myocardium and ventricular diastole is the
relaxation of the ventricular myocardium. When the word systole and
diastole are used without reference to specific chambers, they mean
ventricular systole or diastole.
Atrial Diastole : Blood enter the right atrium from the body through the vena cavae.
At first the bicuspid and tricuspid valves are closed, but as the atria fill with blood,
pressure in them rises. Eventually it becomes greater than that in the relaxed ventricles
and the valves are pushed open.
Atrial Systole: The two atria contract simultaneously and blood is pushed through
the atrio-ventricular valve into the still relaxed ventricles. At this phase semilunar
valve is closed, tricuspid and bicuspid valves are open.
Ventricular Systole: Almost immediately the ventricle contract. When this occurs
the pressure in the ventricles rises and closes the atrioventricular valves, preventing
blood from returning to the atria. This pressure forces, open semilunar valves of the
aorta and the pulmonary artery and blood enters these vessels. In this phase the
tricuspid and bicuspid valves are closed.
Ventricular Diastole: The high pressure developed in the aorta and pulmonary
artery tends to force some blood back towards the ventricles and close the semilunar
valves of the aorta and pulmonary artery. Hence back flow in the heart is prevented.
In this phase bicuspid valve and tricuspid valve are open, aortic semilunar valve,
and pulmonary semilunar are closed. The normal cardiac cycle of 0.7 to 08 second
depending on the capability of cardiac muscle to contract. The heart muscle rests
0.1 to 0.3 second between the beats.
Heart Sounds
When a stethoscope is used to listen to
the heart sounds, distinct sounds normally are Critical Thinking
heard. The first heart sound is a low-pitched
sound, often described as a lubb (lub) sound. Where are the sounds lub
It is caused by vibration of the atrioventricular and dub produced in heart
valves which close near the beginning of during cardiac cycle?
ventricular systole. The second heart sound is a
higher pitched sound often described as a dupp (dub) sound. It results from
closure of the aortic and pulmonary valves, near the end of systole.
Conducting System of the Heart
Most muscles contract as a result of impulses reaching them from
nerves. This is not, however true of the heart, which will continue beating
1. Action potentials originate in the

sinoatrial (SA) node and travel
across the wall of the atrium (ar
rows) from the SA node to the atrio
ventricular (AV) node.
2. Action potentials pass through the
AV node and along the atrioventric
ular (AV) bundle, which extends
from the AV node, through the fi
brous skeleton, into the interventric
ular septum.
3. The AV bundle divides into right
and left bundle branches, and action
potentials descend to the apex of
each ventricle along the bundle
branches.
4. Action potentials are carried by
the Purkinje fibres from the bundle
branches to the ventricular walls.
Figure 12.4 Conducting System of the Heart
rhythmically even after its nerve supply has been severed. The heart will go
on beating after it has been cut right out of the body. Cardiac muscles are
therefore myogenic (myo: muscle, genic, giving rise to) i.e. its rhythmic
contraction arise from within the muscle itself. Cardiac muscle has an intrinsic
rhythmicity that allows the heartbeat to originate in and be conducted through the
heart without extrinsic stimulation. Specialized strands of interconnecting cardiac
muscle tissue that coordinate cardiac contraction constitute the conduction
system. The conduction system constitutes the cardiac cycle. The components of
the conduction system are the (a) Sinoatrial node, (b) Atrioventricular node,
(c) Atrioventricular bundle (d) Conducting myofibrils.
Sinoatrial Node: In short it is called SA node. It consists of specialized
plexus of cardiac muscles embedded in the upper wall of the right atrium. It is
close to where vena cavae enter the atrium. The SA node has been developed
from the sinus venosus and has become a part of the atrium, so it is called
sinoatrial node.
Atrioventricular Node: There is another specialized group of cardiac
muscle fibres called atrioventricular node. In short it is called AV node. It is
present near the junction of right atrium and right ventricle.
Atrioventricular Bundle: AV node is connected to a strand of
specialized muscles (in the ventricular septum) known as AV bundle or
bundle of His (pronounced as hiss). This bundle passes through a small

opening in the fibrous skeleton to reach the interventricular septum, where it
divides to form right and left bundle branches, which extend beneath the
endocardium on either side of the interventricular septum to the apices of the
right and left ventricles respectively.
The inferior, terminal branches of the bundle branches are called
Purkinje fibres, which are large-diameter cardiac muscle fibres. They have
fewer myofibrils than most cardiac muscle cells and do not contract
forcefully. Intercalated disks are well developed between the Purkinje fibres
and contain numerous gap junctions. As a result of these structural
modifications, action potentials travel along the Purkinje fibres much more
rapidly than through other cardiac muscle tissue. Cardiac muscle cells have
the capacity to generate spontaneous action potentials, but cells of the SA
node do so at a greater frequency. As a result, the SA node is called the
pacemaker of the heart. When the heart beats under resting conditions,
approximately 0.04 second is required for action potentials to travel from the SA
node to the AV node. Within the AV node action potentials are propagated slowly
compared with the remainder of the conducting system. As a consequence, there
is a delay of 0.11 second from the time action potentials reach the AV node until
they pass to the AV bundle. The total delay of 0.15 second allows completion of
the atrial contraction before ventricular contraction begins.
Q. Why action potentials travel along the Purkinje fibres more rapidly than
through other muscle fibres?
Reason for the slight delay between the atrial and ventricular contrac
tion
The wave does not immediately spread to the ventricles from SA
node. Almost 0.1 second passes before the ventricles start to contract. The
reason for the delay is that the atria of the heart are separated from the ven
tricles by connective tissues, which cannot propagate a wave of electrical
excitation. Secondly the cells that carry wave of impulse from the atria to
the ventricle have smaller diameter. Thus they propagate the depolarization
slowly, causing the delay of contraction of ventricles. This delay permits
the atria to finish the emptying the contents into the corresponding ventri
cles before the ventricles start to contract.
Pacemaker
A cardiac arrythmia is a disturbance in electrical rhythm of heart. It may be
bradycardia (heart beat less than 40 beats per minute) or tachycardia (heart
beat more than 100 beats per minute). Pacemaker supplies electrical initiation
to myocardial contraction. The pacemaker is put surgically under the skin
where it may be programmed. It generates electrical rhythm at a set rate, so in
this way arrythmia are controlled.

Rationalize the use of artificial pacemaker in patients of cardiac
arrhythmias.
12.1.5 ELECTROCARDIOGRAM
The electrical impulses that pass through the conduction system of the
heart during the cardiac cycle can be recorded as an electrocardiogram
(ECG). The electrical changes result from depolarization and repolarization
of cardiac muscle fibres and can be detected on the surface of the skin using
an instrument called the electrocardiograph.
The principal aspects of an ECG are shown in fig. 12.5. The wave
deflections, designated P, QRS, and T, are produced as specific events of the
cardiac cycle occur. Any heart disease that disturbs the electrical activity will
produce characteristic changes in one or more of these waves, so
understanding the normal wave-deflection patterns is clinically important.
Depolarization of the atrial fibres of the SA node produces the P wave.
The ventricles of the heart are in diastole during the expression of the
P wave. On the ECG recording, the P-R interval is the period of time from
the start of the P wave to the beginning of the QRS complex. This interval
indicates the amount of time required for the SA depolarization to reach the
ventricles.
The QRS complex begins as a short downward deflection (Q),
continues as a sharp upward spike (R), and ends as a downward deflection
(S). The QRS complex indicates the depolarization of the ventricles. During
this interval, the ventricles are in systole and blood is being ejected from the
heart. The time duration known as the S-T segment represents the period
between the completion of ventricular depolarization and initiation of
repolarization. The T wave is produced by ventricular repolarization.
A normal ECG
indicates that the heart
is functioning properly.
The P wave represents
excitation and occurs
just prior to contraction
of the atria. The second
wave, or the QRS com
plex, occurs just prior
to ventricular contrac
tion. The third, or T,
wave occurs just before
the ventricles relax.
Q. How is an ECG
related to cardiac
cycle?
Figure 12.5 Electrocardiogram (ECG)
Uses of Electrocardiogram
ECG is used to detect cardiac arrythmias and conduction defects. It is
used to diagnose and localize myocardial hypertrophy (increase in size of
heart), ischemia or infarction (decrease in oxygen content) . It may also give
information about electrolyte imbalance and toxicity of certain drugs.
12.2 BLOOD VESSELS

The heart provides the major force that causes blood to circulate, but
the blood vessels carry blood to all tissues of the body and back to the heart.
In addition, the blood vessels take part in the regulation of blood pressure and
help to direct blood flow to tissues that are most active. The circulatory
system has three types of blood vessels, the arteries (and arterioles), which
carry blood away from the heart, the veins, which return blood to the heart,
and capillaries, which permit exchange of materials with the tissues. Now we
will discuss a detailed structure of blood vessels i.e. arteries, veins and
capillaries.
Arteries
Tunica intima
Arteries carry blood away from
the heart. All arteries carry oxygenated
blood except the pulmonary arteries,
which carry deoxygenated blood. Arteries
Tunica media
are pink in colour and are situated within
the muscles. Arteries vary in size. Aorta is
approximately 23 mm and arterioles are
Tunica adventitia
about 0.2 mm in diameter. Arteries have
thick muscular walls.
These branch into arterioles and
capillaries. Arteries are distributing
vessel and carry blood under pressure. Fig: 12.6 Artery
The lumens of arteries have no valves.
The wall of an artery consists of three coats or tunics: tunica adventitia or tunica
externa, tunica media, tunica intima.
The outermost layer is called tunica adventitia or tunica externa. It is
composed of white fibrous connective tissue. The middle layer is called
tunica media, and has variable amount of elastic fibres. It is many layered in
thickness. The innermost layer of the artery is called tunica intima. It is
composed of simple squamous epithelium and elastic fibres composed of
elastin. Arterioles transport blood from small arteries to capillaries and are the
smallest arteries in which the three tunics can be identified. The tunica intima
has no internal elastic membrane and the tunica media consists of one or two
layers of circular smooth muscle cells.
Capillaries
All blood vessels have an
internal lining of simple squamous
epithelial cells called the
endothelium, which is continuous
with the endocardium of the heart. The
capillary wall consists primarily of
endothelial cells, which rest on a
basement membrane. Outside the Fig: 12.7 Blood Capillary
basement membrane a delicate layer
of loose connective tissue called the adventitia that merge with the
connective tissue surrounding the capillary. Most capillaries range from 7 to 9
mm in diameter, and thus branch without a change in their diameter.
Capillaries are approximately 1 mm long. Red blood cells flow

through most of capillaries in a single file.
Capillary Network
Arterioles supply blood to each capillary network, (fig. 12.8) blood then
flows through the capillary network and into the venules. Blood flows from
arterioles through metarterioles. From a metarteriole blood flows into a
thoroughfare channel. Several capillaries branch from the thoroughfare
channels. Flow in these capillaries is regulated by smooth muscle cells called
precapillary sphincter, which are located at the origin of the branches. (see fig.
12.8). This sphincter can open and close the entrance to the capillary.
Fig. 12.8 Capillary Network
Veins
The blood vessels that bring blood back to the heart are called veins.
Veins are relatively not deep in the muscles. Veins can be seen as blue vessels
under the skin. A vein also consists of tunica adventitia, tunica media and
tunica intima.
Tunica adventia is composed of collagenous connective tissue.
Tunica media is a composed of a thin layer of circularly arranged smooth
muscle cells, collagen fibres and a few sparsely distributed elastic fibres.
Tunica intima is a thin layer and consists of endothelial cells, a relatively
thin layer of collagenous connective tissue and a few scattered elastic fibres.
Venules with a diameter of 40 to50 mm are tubes composed of endothelium
resting on a delicate basement membrane.
Their structure, except for their
Tunica intima
diameter is very similar to that of
capillaries. As the vessels increase to 0.2
to 03 mm in diameter, the smooth muscle
Tunica media
cells form a continuous layer; the vessels
then are called small veins. The venules
collect blood from the capillaries and
transport it to the small veins, which in
Tunica adventitia
turn transport it to the medium sized vein.
Medium and large veins collect blood from
small veins and deliver it to large veins.
The large veins transport blood from
medium veins to the heart. Fig: 12.9 Vein
Valves in Veins
Veins having diameters greater then
2mm contain valves that allow blood flow
toward the heart but not in the opposite
direction (fig. 12.10). The valves consists of
fold in the tunica intima that form two flaps
that are shaped and function like the
semilunar valves of the heart. The two fold
overlap in the middle of the vein, when
blood attempts to flow in a reverse direction.
Valves are present only in the lower part of
the body especially in the abdomen and hind
limbs. In the upper region above the heart
there is no valve. As the blood pressure in
the veins is comparatively low, so the flow
Fig: 12.10 Valves in veins
of blood in the veins is helped by gravity,
semilunar valve and muscular contraction.
Critical Thinking
Blood in arteries flows with jerks, while that in veins flows continuously. Why?
Q. What factors assist venous return of the blood?

Role of Arterioles in Vasoconstriction and Vasodilation

The amount of blood flowing through a blood vessel can be regulated by
contraction or relaxation of smooth muscle in the tunica media. A decrease in
blood flow results from vasoconstriction, a decrease in blood vessels diameter
caused by smooth muscle contraction whereas an increase in blood flow is
produced by vasodilation an increase in blood vessel diameter because of smooth
muscle relaxation.
Vasoconstriction Agents
Blood circulation is also controlled by hormones (vasoconstriction
agents) acting on arterioles. Norepinephrine is an especially powerful
vasoconstriction hormone, and epinephrine is less.
Vasodilator Agents
Several substance called kinins (vasodilator agents) can cause
powerful vasodilation are formed in the blood and tissue fluids of some
organs. e.g histamine. Most of the prostaglandins are vasodilator agents
though some of the prostaglandins are vasoconstrictor.
Skills: Analyzing and Interpreting
Justify how Vasoconstriction and Vasodilation is Reflective of

Emotions?
During emotional rage such as apprehension and rage vasodilation occurs due
to secretion of epinephrine. It is a hormone that is responsible for fear, flight
and fright conditions. The sympathetic vasodilator fibres are part of a
regulatory system that originates in cerebral cortex and ends at postganglionic
neurons in blood vessels on skeletal muscles, activate them to release
acetylcholine, and vasodilation occurs.
Blood discharge through thoroughfare channels rather than capillaries so heat
loss occurs and the skin becomes hot and red. While in vasoconstriction blood
supply becomes less to skin, so heat is preserve and the skin becomes cold.
Situations such as shock, hypotention and tachycardia occur by stimulation of
arterial stretch receptors and production of hypertension and bradycardia occur
by increased intracranial pressure.
Role of Precapillary Sphincter in Regulating the Flow of Blood Through

Capillaries
At the point where true capillaries originate from the metarterioles a
smooth muscle fibre usually encircles the capillary. This is called
precapillary sphincter (fig. 12.8). This sphincter can open and close the
entrance to the capillary. Precapillary sphincters are normally either
completely open or completely closed, and the degree of constriction of the
metarteriole also varies. The number of precapillary sphincters that are open
at any given time is about proportional to the requirements of the tissue for
nutrition. In addition the precapillary sphincters and metarterioles often open
and close cyclically several times per minute,with the duration of the open
phases being about proportional to the metabolic needs of the tissue. The
cyclic opening and closing is called vasomotion.
12.2.1 VASCULAR PATHWAY
Cardiovascular system (fig 12.11) includes two circuits, the
pulmonary circuit which circulates blood through lungs and systemic
circuit which circulates blood to all other parts of the body.
Pulmonary Circulation
The path of blood through the lungs can be traced as follows: The left
atrium receives oxygenates blood from the lungs through a pair of pulmonary
veins, which open by common aperture into it. From left atrium the blood
flows into the left ventricle. The superior and inferior vena cavae bring
deoxygenated and open into the right atrium. From right atrium blood flows
into the lungs for oxygenation by a pulmonary arch or trunk which divides
into two pulmonary arteries, each going to the lung of its own side. This part
of circulation is called pulmonary circulation or circuit. The pulmonary
arteries carry deoxygenated blood and pulmonary veins carry oxygenated
blood.
Q. What are the advantages of supplying blood to the pulmonary circulation at

a low pressure than that of the systemic circulation?
Systemic Circulation
The systemic circuit includes all the arteries and veins other than
involved in pulmonary circuit. The largest artery in the systemic circuit is the
aorta and the largest veins are the superior and inferior venae cavae. The
path of systemic blood to any organ in the body begins in the left ventricle
which pumps blood in the aorta.
Fig: 12.11 Cardiovascular System

Branches from aorta go to the organs and major body regions. The
superior vena cava collects blood from the head and the chest and the arms
and the inferior vena cava collects blood from the lower body regions. Both
enter the right atrium. The aorta and the vanae cavae are the major pathways
in the systemic circuit. In most instances the artery and the vein that serve the
same organ are given the same name.
Coronary Circulation
The wall of the heart has its own supply of blood vessels to meet its vital
needs. The myocardium is supplied with blood by the right and left coronary
arteries (fig. 12.1).
From the capillaries in the myocardium, the blood enters the cardiac
veins. The course of these vessels parallels that of the coronary arteries.
These cardiac veins converge to form the coronary sinus channel on the
posterior surface of the heart. The coronary venous blood then enters the heart
through an opening into the right atrium.
Hepatic Portal System
Blood from the capillaries within most of the abdominal viscera such
as the stomach, intestines, and spleen drains through a specialized system of
blood vessels to the liver. Within the liver the blood flows through a series of
dilated capillaries called sinusoids. A portal (meaning door) system is
vascular system that begins and ends with capillary beds and has no pumping
mechanism such as the heart.
The portal system that begins with capillaries in the viscera and ends
with the sinusoidal capillaries in the liver is the hepatic (meaning, relating to
the liver) portal system. The hepatic portal vein, the largest vein of the
system, is formed by the union of the superior mesenteric vein, which drains
the small intestine and the splenic vein, which drains the spleen. The splenic
vein receives the inferior mesenteric and pancreatic veins, which drain the
large intestine and pancreas, respectively. The hepatic portal vein also
receives gastric veins before entering the liver. Blood from the liver sinusoids
is collected into central veins, which empty into hepatic veins. Blood from
the cystic veins also enters the hepatic veins. The hepatic veins join the
inferior vena cava.
Critical Thinking
How does the sequence of blood vessels of the hepatic portal sys
tem differ form that in most other circulatory roots?
Fig: 12.12 Hepatic Portal System
Renal Circulation
Arterial blood enters the
kidney at the hilum through renal
artery, which divides, into
interlobar arteries, arcuate
arteries branch from the
interlobular arteries at the boundary
of renal cortex and renal medulla.
Small interlobular arteries radiate
from the arcuate arteries and
project into the renal cortex.
Microscopic afferent glomerular
arterioles arise from the branches
of the interlobular arteries. From Fig. 12.13 Principal Arteries and Veins of Kidney
here blood enters either the peritubular capillaries or vasa recta. From these
capillary networks the blood is drained into interlobular veins and arcuate veins
which leave the kidney as a single renal vein.
Q. What is the function of hepatic portal system?
12.2.2 RATE OF BLOOD FLOW IN BLOOD VESSELS

Blood flow means simply the quantity of blood that passes through a
given point in the circulation in a given period. Ordinarily, blood flow is
expressed in milliliter or liter per minute, but can be expressed in milliliter,
per second or any other unit of flow. The over all blood flow in the circulation
of an adult at rest is about 5000 ml/min. This is called cardiac output. It is
the amount of blood pumped by the heart in a unit period.
The velocity of blood flow is greatest in the aorta, but the total cross-
sectional area for the capillaries is large, but the velocity of blood flow is low.
As the veins become larger in diameter, their total cross-sectional area
decreases, and the velocity of blood flow increases. The relationship between
blood vessel diameter and velocity of blood flow is much like a stream that
flows rapidly through a narrow gorge, but flows slowly through a broad plane.
12.3 BLOOD PRESSURE AND ITS MEASUREMENT
Blood pressure is the force exerted by the blood against any unit area
on the inner walls of the blood vessel. The standard reference for the blood
pressure is the mercury (Hg) manometer, which measures pressure in
millimetres of mercury (mm Hg). If the blood pressure is 100 mm Hg the
pressure is great enough to lift a column of mercury 100 mm. When the
ventricles of the heart contract the arterial blood pressure is the highest. It is
called systolic pressure. When the ventricles of the heart relax, the arterial
blood pressure is the lowest. It is called diastolic pressure.
Baroreceptor Reflexes
Baroreceptors, or pressoreceptors, are sensory receptors sensitive to
stretch. They are scattered along the walls of most of the large arteries of the neck
and the thorax and are most numerous in the area of the carotid sinus at the base of
the internal carotid artery and in the walls of the aortic arch (fig: 12.15).
Stimulation of baroreceptors produces reflexes which control blood within a
narrow range of values.
Fig: 12.14 Blood Vessel Types and Velocity of Blood Flow: Total cross-sectional area for
each of the major blood vessel types is the space through which blood flows, measured
in square centimeters. The cross-sectional area of the aorta is about 5 cm2. The cross-
sectional area of each capillary is much smaller, but there are so many that the total cross-
sectional area is more than that of the aorta. The line at the bottom of the graph shows
that blood velocity drops dramatically in arterioles, capillaries, and venules. As the total
cross-sectional area increases the velocity of blood flow decreases.
Figure 12.15 Baroreceptor Reflex Control of Blood Pressure (1) Baroreceptors in the
carotid sinus and aortic arch monitor blood pressure. (2) Increased parasympathetic
stimulation of the heart decreases the heart rate. (3) Increased sympathetic stimulation
of the heart increases the heart rate and stroke volume. (4) Increased sympathetic
stimulation of blood vessels increase vasoconstriction.
In the carotid sinus and the aortic arch, normal blood pressure partially
stretches the arterial wall so that a constant, but low, frequency of action
potentials are produced by the baroreceptors. Increased pressure in the blood
vessels stretches the vessel walls and results in an increased frequency of
action potentials generated by the baroreceptors. Conversely, a decrease in
blood pressure reduces the stretch of the arterial wall and results in a
decreased frequency of action potentials. The carotid sinus and aortic arch
baroreceptor reflexes are important in regulating blood pressure moment to
moment.
Volume Receptors
Stretch of the atria also causes reflex dilation of the afferent arterioles
in the kidneys. Also, signals are transmitted simultaneously to the
hypothalamus to decrease the secretion of antidiuretic hormone, thereby
indirectly effecting kidney function. The decreased afferent arteriolar

resistance causes the glomerular capillary pressure to rise, with resultant
increase in filtration of fluid into the kidney tubules. The diminution of
antidiuretic hormone diminishes the re-absorption of water from tubules.
The combination of these two effects causes rapid loss of fluid into the urine,
which serves as a powerful mean to return the blood volume back to normal.
All these mechanisms that tend to return the blood volume back towards
normal after a volume overload act indirectly as pressure controller as well as
volume controller, because axcess volume drives the heart to greater cardiac
output and lead, therefore to greater arterial pressure.

Hypothesize the role and effects of diuretic drugs in regulating
blood pressure.
12.4 CARDIOVASCULAR DISORDERS

Cardiovascular disorders or disease (CVD) are the diseases of the
heart and blood vessels. The CVD are the leading cause of untimely death.
12.4.1 THROMBOSIS
The formation of a clotted mass of blood within a vessel or the heart
during life in called thrombosis. The clotted mass of blood within a vessel or
the heart during life is called thrombus. Morphologically there are two types
of thrombi: Pale or white thrombi and red thrombi. Pale thrombi are
composed of platelets and fibrin and few R.B.C.
They are dry easily breakable, develop in arterial circulation and are
attached to vessel wall. Red thrombi are composed of platelets fibrin and
large number of R.B.C, develop in venous circulation. There are three types
of clinical thrombi, arterial thrombi, cardiac thrombi, and venous thrombi.
The occlusion of some part of the cardiovascular system by any mass
transported to the site through the blood stream is called embolism. Embolus
is a detached intravascular solid, liquid or gaseous mass that is carried to a
site distant from its point of origin. About 99% emboli arise from
dislodgement of thrombi and are therefore called thromboemboli. The
emboli may be solid, gas and liquid. Thrombus and embolus cause death.
12.4.2 HEART PROBLEMS

In this section we will discuss diseases related to heart, such as:
Atherosclerosis, angina pectoris, heart attack, heart failure.
Atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis is characterized by formation of yellow fatty streaks
containing high proportion of cholesterol in the intima of large and medium sized
arteries resulting in the narrowing of the vascular lumen. Later, fibres are
deposited in the cholesterol and these often start to calcify and become hard, a
process known as arteriosclerosis. The deposits are called athromatous
plaques. As a plaque increases in size it protrudes into the lumen of the artery
and begins to block it. The plaque first forms thrombus and may form embolus.
Factors Causing Atherosclerosis and Arteriosclerosis
The major risk factors are: (a) Hypercholesterolemia (hyperlipidemia)
(b) Hypertension (c) Cigarette smoking (d) Diabetes mellitus (e) Male sex
(f) Familial predisposition (occurring in or affecting more members of a family
than would be exposed by chance). The other minor risk factors are:(a) Increasing
age (b) Lack of exercise, (c) Stressful competitive life (d) Obesity (e) High
carbohydrate diet, (f) Hyperuricemia (g) Oral contraceptives.
Angina Pectoris
Due to atherosclerosis a person may feel occasional pain, a condition
known as angina pectoris (Latin angere to choke and pecto breast). Angina
is most likely to occur when the heart is labouring hard because of physical or
emotional stress. Angina is a signal that part of the heart is not receiving a
sufficient supply of oxygen and that part of the heart attack could occur in
future. There are three types of angina pectoris: Typical angina pectoris,
variant angina pectoris, unstable angina pectoris.
Heart Attack
Many heart attacks occur without warning. A blood clot may
completely block a coronary artery, or atherosclerosis may reach a critical
level causing massive damage to the heart muscle. All of a sudden, the person
feels a heavy squeezing ache or discomfort in the centre of the chest. The pain
may radiate to shoulder, arm neck or jaw. Other symptoms may include
sweating, nausea, shortness of breath and dizziness or fainting. The whole
process is called myocardial (heart muscle) infarction (death due to lack of
oxygen). When heart muscle die, they are not replaced because cardiac
muscle do not divide. When a person survives a heart attack scar tissue (a
type of connective tissue) grows into the areas where the heart muscles has
died. The scar tissue cannot contract as cardiac muscle. As a result the
damaged heart is permanently weakened.
Heart Failure
Congestive heart failure is a clinical syndrome resulting from deficient
cardiac stroke volume, relative to body need, with inability of the cardiac
output to keep pace with the venous return i.e. heart is unable to pump all the
blood coming to it.
Congenital heart problem: it is related to the malfunctioning of
cardiac valves includes: Valvular Stenosis, Regurgitation, Patent Ductus
Arteriosus (PDA), Fallots Tetralogy.
Valvular Stenosis: Scaring of the valve leaflets may cause reduction
in diameter of the valve orifice.
Regurgitation: Severe destruction of valve apparatus may cause valve
ring dilation, with thickening and shortening of chordae tendinae resulting in
regurgitation of blood through the valve when it is closed i.e. valve closed is
incomplete.
Patent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA)
PDA is most often diagnosed in childhood. During fetal life, before the
lungs begin to function most of the blood from pulmonary artery passes through
the ductus arteriosus into the aorta. Normally the ductus closes soon after birth
but sometimes it fails to do so. This causes blue babies due to mixing of
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
Fallots Tetralogy
It is the most common cause of congenital cyanotic heart disease. e.g.
Ventricular hypertrophy (increase in the size of ventricle).
12.4.3 DIAGNOSIS OF CARDIOVASCULAR DISORDERS
Modern research efforts have resulted in improved diagnosis of CVD
their treatment and prevention.
Principles of Angiography
Cardiac catheterization is a technique in which specially designed
catheter is inserted into a vein or artery and advanced into the heart under
radiographic fluoroscopic guidance. This allows the operator to obtain
angiograms by injecting contrast media into an area of interest. It is used to
evaluate disease of the mitral valve, aortic valve and aorta, to determine the
Figure.12.16 Coronary Angiogram-Schematic of the Vessels and Branches
size and function of the left ventricle. Coronary angiography is used to detect
stenosis (constriction, narrowing of a tube or passage) and guide revascularisation
procedures such as balloon angiography and stenting (fig. 12.18).
12.4.4 TREATMENT AND PREVENTION OF CVD
In this section we will discuss the range of advances that have been
made for the treatment and prevention of CVD such as coronary bypass,
angioplasty, open heart surgery.
Coronary Bypass
A coronary bypass is a surgical
procedure that relieves the effects of
obstruction in the coronary arteries. The
technique involves taking healthy segments
of blood segments of blood vessel from
other parts of the patients body usually a
vein from the leg called great saphenous
vein and an artery of thorax called internal
thoracic artery and using them to bypass
obstructions in the coronary arteries. The
technique is common for those who suffer
from severe occlusion of parts of the
Fig: 12.17 A triple Coronary Artery
coronary arteries. Bypass Graft Operation
The advantages of coronary artery bypass grafting are: (1) procedure is safe,
(2) angina is abolished or greatly reduced in almost 90% of the patients,
(3) it is used in the patients with: (a) 2 to 3 vessel diseases (b) disease of
left main coronary artery (c) impaired left ventricular function (d) diabetic
patients (e) lesion not suitable for angioplasty. The disadvantages of
coronary artery bypass grafting are: (a) defused left ventricular damage,
(b) peroperative (during operation), myocardial infarction. (c) Infection
(d) wound pain (e) longer hospital stay.

List the advantages and disadvantages of coronary by pass.
Angioplasty
In angioplasty a cardiologist threads a plastic
tube into an artery of an arm or a leg and guides it
through a major blood vessel toward the heart. When
the tube reaches the region of plaque in a coronary
artery a balloon is attached to the end of the tube is
inflated forcing the vessel open. However, the artery
may not remain open, so slotted tubes called stents
are expanded inside the artery to keep the artery
open. Stent are coated with heparin to prevent blood
clotting and chemicals to prevent arterial closing.
Fig: 12.18 Coronary
Open Heart Surgery Angioplasty and Stenting
This is a surgery in which the patient's chest is opened. The surgery is
performed on the heart. The term "open" refers to the chest, not to the heart
itself. The heart may or may not be opened depending on the particular type
of surgery. Heart surgery is used to correct heart problems in children and
adults. An open heart bsurgery is performed under , which requires that the
patient be on a ventilator during surgery. The chest is opened by making an
incision along the sternum, or breastbone. The surgeon then cuts the sternum,
allowing the chest cavity to be opened, giving the surgeon access to the heart.
At this time the heart-lung machine does the work of the heart and the lungs,
and the ventilator is not used. Once the surgery is complete, the heart beat is
started and provides blood and oxygen to the body. The sternum is returned to
its original position and closed using surgical wire, to provide strength the
bone needs to heal, and the incision is closed.
12.4.5 HYPERTENSION AND HYPOTENSION

Hypertension
Sustained high blood pressure is known as hypertension. Blood
pressure 140/90, at least two different readings six hours apart is considered
hypertension.
Factors Regulating Blood Pressure
Pressure difference between the two ends of the vessels (also
frequently called pressure gradient) which is the force that pushes the blood
through the vessels. Blood flows directly proportional to the pressure
difference but indirectly to proportional resistance. The circulatory system is
provided with an extensive system for controlling the arterial pressure. For
instance if at any time the pressure falls significantly below its normal level
of about 100mmHg a barrage of nervous reflexes within seconds elicits a
series of circulatory changes to raise the pressure back to normal. Nervous
control of the circulation provides additional specific attributes to tissue
blood flow control.
Postural Hypotension
In some individuals, sudden standing causes a fall in blood pressure,
dizziness, dimness of vision, and even fainting. The causes of this orthostatic
(postural) hypotension are multiple. It is common in patients receiving
sympatholytic drugs. It also occurs in diseases such as diabetes, syphilis, and
Parkinsons disease, in which there is damage to the sympathetic nervous
system. This underscores the importance of the sympathetic vasoconstrictor

fibres in compensating for the effects of gravity on the circulation.
Mineralocorticoids are used to treat patients with postural hypotension.
Prevention of Cardio Vascular Diseases
All of us can take steps to prevent the occurrence of CVD. One should
pay particular attention to these guidelines for a heart-healthy-life-style.
When a person smokes, the drug nicotine causes arterioles to constrict and
blood pressure to rise. Stimulants such as cocaine and amphetamines can
cause an irregular heart attack and stroke. Hypertension occurs more often in
persons who are obese. So one should try to maintain normal body weight. It
is recommended and one should take diet having low cholesterol and low in
saturated fats, and take low salt diet. The LDL-cholesterol level together with
other risk factors such as age, family history general health and whether the
patient smokes will determine who need dietary therapy to lower their LDL.
12.5 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM OF MAN
The lymphatic system includes lymph, lymphocytes, lymphatic
vessels, lymph nodes, tonsils, spleen and thymus gland.
Interstitial Fluid
About one sixth of the body consists of spaces between the cells,
which collectively are called the interstitium. The fluid in these spaces is the
interstitial fluid or intercellular fluid.
Formation: The fluid in the interstitium is derived by filtration and
diffusion from the capillaries.
Composition: It contains almost the same constituents as plasma except
for much lower concentrations of proteins because proteins do not pass outward
through the walls of the capillaries with ease. The interstitial fluid is mainly
entrapped in the minute space among the proteoglycan filaments. This
combination of proteoglycan filaments and the fluid entrapped within them has
the characteristics of gel and therefore is called tissue gel.
Function: Instead of flowing, fluid mainly diffuse through the gel.
Diffusion through the gel occurs about 95 to 99 percent as rapidly as it does
through free fluid. For the short distances between the capillaries and the
tissue cells, this diffusion allows rapid transport through the interstitium not
only of water molecules but also of electrolytes, nutrients, cellular excreta,
oxygen, carbon dioxide etc. Materials are exchanged between the blood and
interstitial fluid and between the interstitial and the body cells. In other
words, to get from the blood to body cells or vice versa, materials must pass
through the interstitial fluid.
Function: Instead of flowing, fluid mainly diffuse through the gel.

Diffusion through the gel occurs about 95 to 99 percent as rapidly as it does
through free fluid. For the short distances between the capillaries and the
tissue cells, this diffusion allows rapid transport through the interstitium not
only of water molecules but also of electrolytes, nutrients, cellular excreta,
oxygen, carbon dioxide etc. Materials are exchanged between the blood and
interstitial fluid and between the interstitial and the body cells. In other
words, to get from the blood to body cells or vice versa, materials must pass
through the interstitial fluid.
Comparison: Composition of Interstitial Fluid and Lypmph
Approximately 30 litres of fluid pass from the blood capillaries into
the interstitial space each day, whereas only 27 litres pass from the interstitial
W
R E
D B
M M
I T
Fig: 12.19 Relationship between a Blood Capillary, Interstitial Fluid and Tissue Cells
space back into blood capillaries. The remaining 3 litres of fluid enters the
lymphatic capillaries, where the fluid is called lymph (meaning clear spring
water) and passes through the lymphatie vessels back to the blood.
In addition to water lymph contains solutes derived from two sources:
(a) substances in plasma such as ions, nutrients, gases and some proteins, pass
from blood capillaries into the interstitial space and become part of the lymph
and (b) substances derived from cells, such as hormones, enzymes and waste
products are also found in the lymph.
12.5.1 LYMPHATIC VESSELS

The lymphatic system (figure 12.20) unlike the circulatory system only
carries fluid away from tissue. The lymphatic system begins in the tissues as
lymph capillaries, which differ from capillaries as they lack a basement
membrane. The lymph capillaries are far more permeable than blood
capillaries, and nothing in the interstitial fluid is excluded from the lymph
capillaries, Second, the lymph capillary epithelium functions as a series of
one-way valve that allows fluid to enter the capillary but prevent it from
passing back into the interstitial spaces.
The lymph capillaries join to form larger
lymph vessels that resemble small veins.Small Critical Thinking
lymphatic vessels have a beaded appearance What causes lymph to
because of the presence of one-way valves along move through the lymph
their lengths that are similar to the valves of vessels?
veins. Lymph nodes are round, oval, or
beanshaped bodies distributed along the various lymphatic vessels. The lymph
nodes function to filter lymph.
Thoracic Duct
The thoracic duct drains the lower limbs, abdomen, the left thorax, the left
upper extremity, and the left side of the head and neck (fig.12.21). The duct ends
by entering the left subclavian vein.
Fig: 12.20 Lymphatic Vessels

Tonsils
Lymph nodes
Right lymphatic Thoracic duct,

duct, entering vein entering vein
Thymus
Thoracic duct Spleen
Apendix
Bone marrow Lymphatic vessels
Fig: 12.21 Human Lymphatic System
Right Lymphatic Duct

The right lymphatic duct is much short and smaller in diameter than
the thoracic duct. It drains the right thorax, right upper limb, and right side of
the head and neck and opens into the right subclavian vein.
Role of Lacteal Present in Villi
Each villus contains a lymph capillary called lacteal. The lymphatic
system absorbs fats and other substances from the digestive tract. Fat enters
the lacteals and pass through these lymphatic vessels to venous circulation.
The lymph passing through these lacteals has a milky appearance because of
its fat contents. Chylomicrons (these are proteins, triglycerol 90%
phospholipids 4% and cholesterol 5%) enter the lacteal. Chylomicrons enter
the lymph capillaries because lymph capillaries lack basement membrane and
are more permeable to large particles.
www.learningall.com
Lymph Nodes
Lymph nodes are small, round or bran-shaped structures, ranging in size
from 1 to 25 mm long, and are distributed along the course of the lymphatic
vessels. They filter the lymph, remove bacteria and other materials. In addition,
lymphocytes congregate (assemble), function and proliferate within lymph nodes.
Lymph nodes are found throughout the body.
Skills: Analysing and Interpreting
Trace the path of lymph from lymph capillary until it is returned to the
blood.
12.5.2 SPLEEN
The spleen, which is roughly the size of a clenched fist, is located on
the left side in the extreme superior, posterior part of the abdominal cavity.
The spleen detects and responds to foreign substances in the blood, destroys
worn-out erythrocytes, and acts as a blood reservoir. Foreigen substances in the
blood passing through the white pulp can stimulate lymphocytes in the
periarterial sheath or the lymph nodules in the same manner as in lymph nodes.
Before blood leaves the spleen through veins, it passes into the red pulp.
Macrophages in the red pulp remove foreign substances and worn-out
erythrocytes through phagocytosis. In emergency situations such as haemorrhage,
smooth muscle in splenic blood vessels and in the splenic capsule contract in
response to sympathetic stimulation. The result is the movement of a small
amount of blood from the spleen into the general circulation.
Fig: 12.22 Spleen


List major hospitals of cardiology working in your province.
Justify in what ways blood circulatory system is dependent on the

lymphatic system.
The lymphatic system represents an accessory route by which fluid
can flow form the interstitial spaces into the blood. And, the most impor
tant, the lymphatic system can carry proteins and large particulate matter
away from the tissue spaces, neither of which can be removed by absorp
tion directly into the blood capillary. This removal of proteins from the in
terstitial spaces is an essential function, without which we would die with
in 24 hours. Thus blood circulatory system is dependent on lymphatic
system.
Interpret why the swelling of the lymph nodes is a cause of concern.
Lymphatic flow is determine by the interstitial fluid pressure and
activity of lymphatic pump. Lymph node swelling is a cause of concern be
cause lymph node swells in different diseases, e.g. in pyrexia (fever) of un
known origin enlarged lymph nodes appear. Enlargement of anterior and
tonsillar nodes is usually associated with tonsillitis or pharyngitis, posteri
or lymphoadenopathy may suggest a glandular fever syndrome or HIV in
fection. The causes of lymphoadenopathy (swelling of lymph node) are
bacterial (streptococcal, tuberculosis), viral, protozoal, fungal (histoplas
mosis), leukeemias, lymphomas etc.

1. The rhythmic beating of cardiac muscle in the mammalian heart is
initiated by the.
A) atrio-ventricular node
B) parasympathetic nervous system
C) Purkinje tissue
D) sino-atrial node
2. A red blood cell, entering the right side of the heart, passes by or through
the following structures:
1. atrioventricular valve, 2. semilunar valve, 3. right atrium, 4. right
ventricle, 5. sinoatrial node
In which order will the red blood cell passes the structures?
A) 2 3 1 4 5
B) 3 1 5 2 4
C) 3 5 1 2 4
D) 5 3 1 4 2
3. What effect would be caused by cutting the sympathetic nerve fibres to the
heart?
A) a decrease in the heartbeat rate
B) a decrease in the length of the diastole phase
C) a decrease in the length of the systole phase
D) a decrease in the stroke volume
4. What produces systolic blood pressure?
A) contraction of the right atrium B) contraction of the right ventricle
C) contraction of the left atrium D) contraction of the left ventricle
5. Human heart is
A) myogenic B) neurogenic
C) cardiogenic D) digenic
6. Typical lub-dup sounds heard in heart in heartbeat are due to
A) closing of bicuspid and tricuspid valves.
B) closing of semilunar valves
C) blood under pressure through aorta.
D) closure of bicuspid tricuspid valves followed by semilunar valves.
7. Bicuspid valve connects

A) left atrium and left ventricle
B) left atrium and right ventricle
C) right atrium and left ventricle
D) right atrium and right ventricle
8. Pace maker is situated in heart
A) in the wall of right atrium B) on interauricular septum.
C) on interventricular septum D) in the wall of left atrium.
9. During ventricular systole in a mammalian heart the
A) ventricular pressure increases B) atrioventricular valves open
C) semilunar valves close D) aortic pressure decreases
10. Lymph returns------------ to blood
A) oxygen B) carbon dioxide
C) interstitial fluid D) white blood cells
11. Lymph most closely resembles which of the following?
A) blood B) urine
C) water D) interstitial fluid
12. Which of these factors has little effect on blood flow in arteries?
A) total cross sectional area of vessels B) blood pressure
C) skeletal muscle contraction D) heartbeat
13. The Sino Atrial node (SA node)
A) regulates the rhythm of contraction B) is also called AV node
C) regulates the rate of contraction D) is also called bundle of His

1. Which side of the human heart contains oxygenated blood?
2. What are the contraction and relaxation of human heart called?
3. Name two circulatory systems in the body of man.
4. Where are SA node, AV node, Purkinje fibre, Bundle of His located?

5. Name the artery supplying blood to the heart.
6. What is blood pressure?
7. Name the instrument used in measuring blood pressure.
8. Why is SA node called pacemaker of the heart.
9. What is a cardiac cycle?
10. What is the major feature of human lymphatic system?
11. What is an arterial pulse? How much is the normal human pulse rate?
12. Why is AV node essential for the conduction of cardiac impulse?
13. What is the function of the valves in lymph vessel?
14. What are the risks associated with atherosclerosis?
15. Why can you feel your pulse in arteries but not in veins? If there is no
pulse in your veins what pushes the blood in veins back to the heart?
16. List the risk factors in your family history and life style for cardiovascular
disease. Which factors can be changed? Which cannot? What can you do
to lower your risk of heart disease?
17. What is the difference between the lymph capilleries and blood
capilleries?

1. Describe the external and internal structure of human heart.
2. Write a comprehensive note on electrocardiogram.
3. Explain how the structure of each type of blood vessel is suited to its
function?
4. Define blood pressure. How it is measured?
5. Discuss cardiovascular diseases. List the ways to prevent it.
6. Write notes on: Angiography, angioplasty, open-heart surgeries, and
hypertension.
7. Describe the lymphatic system is man.
ANSWER MCQS
1. D 2. D 3. A 4. D 5. A 6. D 7. B 8. A 9. A 10. C 11. D
12. C 13. A
1. Madar S.S. Human Biology, Mcgraw-hill, USA, 1998

connections, 2nd edition Benjamin/Cummings Company California, 2003
USEFUL WEBSITES
1. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/blood
2. www.fi.edu/biosci/blood.htm
3. texasheart.org/HIC/Ana tomy/Anatomy
4. www.worlddinvisible.com/apologet/humbody/heart
5. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/atherosclerosis.
www.learningall.com
www.learningall.com
505
CHAPTER 13
IMMUNITY

13.1 First Line of Defence (2 Periods)
13.2 Second Line of Defence - The Nonspecific Defence (3 Periods)
13.2.1 Killing Cells of Blood
13.2.2 Protective Proteins
13.2.3 Inflammatory Response
13.2.4 Temperature Response
13.3 Third Line of Defence - The Specific Defences (7 Periods)
13.3.1 Inborn and Acquired Immunity
13.3.2 Cell mediated and Antibody mediated immunity
13.3.3 Disorders of Immune system
More than 2000 years ago, the Greek historian Thucydides observed
that occasionally someone contact a disease, recovers and never catches the
particular disease again, the person has become immune (resistant) to
subsequent infection. In 1796 an English country doctor Edward Jenner
hypothesized that cowpox somehow conferred protection against smallpox.
The bodys response to foreign molecules, such as the production of
antibodies directed against a specific antigen, is called an immune response.
The term immune is derived from Latin word immunis meaning safe or free
of burden. Immunity is the ability to resist damage from foreign substances
such as microorganisms and harmful chemicals e.g. toxins released by
microorganisms. Immunology is the study of immunity and the defence
mechanism of the body.
406 BIOLOGY XI: Chapter 13, IMMUNITY
Defences Against Microbial Invasion

The human body has three lines of defences against microbial attack:
(1) First line of defence the external barriers that keep microbes out
of the body. (2) Second line of defence the nonspecific internal defence
(innate immunity) that combat all invading microbes. (3) Third line of
defence the specific (adaptive immunity) or immune system that directs its
assault against specific microbes.
EXTERNAL BARRIERS
Fig 13.1 Levels of defence Against Infection
13.1 FIRST LINE OF DEFENCE

The first and obviously best, defence is to keep microbes out in the
first place. The human body has two surfaces exposed to the environment: the
skin and the mucous membranes of the digestive and respiratory tracts.
These surfaces are barriers to microbial invasion.
BIOLOGY XI: Chapter 13, IMMUNITY 407
Structural Features of Human Skin

The skin is made up two-layers dermis and epidermis. The dermis is
dense, irregular connective tissue. Nerve endings hair follicles, smooth
muscles, glands and lymphatics extend to the dermis. The epidermis is
stratified squamous epithelium separated from dermis by basement
membrane. Most cells of epidermis are keratinocytes, which produce a
protein mixture called keratin. Other cells of the epidermis include
melanocytes, which contribute to skin colour and Langerhan cells, which are
part of immune system. The major glands of skin are the sebaceous glands.
Sebaceous glands
located in the dermis,
are simple or compound
alveolar glands that
produce sebum, an oily,
and white substance
rich in lipids. Most
sebaceous glands are
connected by a duct to
the upper part of the
hair follicles from
which the sebum oils
the hair and the skin
surface. This prevents
drying and provides
protection against some
bacteria. There are two
types of sweat glands
i.e merocrine and
apocrine. Fig: 13.2 Glands of Skin
The Intact Skin is both a Barrier to Entry and Inhospitable Environment

of Microbial Growth
The outer surface of the skin consists of dry dead cells having keratin.
Consequently, most microbes that land an the skin cannot obtain the water
and nutrients they need. Secretion from sweat glands and sebaceous glands
also cover the skin. These secretions contain acids and natural antibiotics
such as lactic acid that inhibit the growth of bacteria and fungi. These
multiple defences make the unbroken skin an extremely effective barrier
against microbial invasion.
Digestive Tract : Role of Acids and Enzymes

The gastrointestinal tract (GIT), is covered by mucous membrane,
which protects the G1T. (a) In the stomach hydrochloric acid is secreted by
oxyntic or parietal cell. It kills the microorganisms (b) Zymogen cells or
principal cells secrete gastric enzymes, which digest the microorganisms.
(c) Intestinal and pancreatic juice also secrete enzymes, which digest the
microorganism.
Role of Respiratory Tract
The nasal cavity cleans the air. The vestibule is lined with hairs that
trap some of the large particles of dust in the air. The air comes into contact
with the mucous membrane lining the nasal cavity. This mucous membrane
consists of pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with goblet cells,
which secrete a layer of mucus. The mucus traps debris in the air and the cilia
in the surface of the mucous membrane sweep the mucus posteriorly to the
pharynx, where it is swallowed and eliminated by the digestive system. The
trachea is lined by mucous membrane. The cilia propel mucus and foreign
particles towards the larynx, where they enter the pharynx and are swallowed.
The nasal turbulence mechanism (see glossary) for removing particles

from air so effective that almost no particles larger than 6 micrometeres in
diameter enter the lungs through the nose. Of the remaining particles, many
that are between 1 and 5 micrometers settle out in the small brochioles as a
result of gravitational precipitation. Particles smaller than 0.5 micrometres
in diameter remain suspended on the alveolar air and are later expelled by
expiration
The cilia and mucus present in the bronchus and bronchioles are the systems
clearing elements.
13.2 SECOND LINE OF DEFENCE -
The Nonspecific Defences
Three nonspecific internal defences are mustered against microbes that
penetrate the skin or mucous membranes. These defences are nonspecific
because they attack wide variety of microbes, rather than targeting specific
invaders as the immune response does. First, the body has a standing army of
phagocytic cells that destroy microbes and natural killer cells that destroy
cells of the body that have been infected by viruses. Second, an injury with
combination of tissue damage and relatively massive invasion of microbes

provokes an inflammatory response. Third, if a population of microbes
proceeds in establishing a major infection, the body often produces fever,
which slows down microbial production and enhances the bodys own
fighting abilities.
13.2.1 KILLING CELLS OF BLOOD
Constantly patrolling your body are white cells called phagocytes. A
phagocyte is a cell that destroys other cells by engulfing and ingesting them.
This process is called phagocytosis. Two types of blood cells are phagocytes:
macrophages and neutrophils.
Macrophages
Monocytes are formed in bone marrow. Monocytes have short life i.e.
only 10-20 hours. Macrophages are derived from monocytes or the monocytes
that that leave the blood are called macrophages. From bone marrow, through
blood, macrophages are transported to the areas of the body where they are
needed. Macrophage can engulf large particles, even the whole red blood cells,
or occasionally even malarial parasites. Macrophages after digesting particles
can extrude the residual products. Macrophages are beneath the free surfaces of
Fig. 13.3 Activation of the Immune Response

the body and provide protection by trapping and destroying microorganisms

entering the tissue.
The macrophages secrete many different proteins. Some of these
proteins trigger the maturation of monocytes into macrophages, thereby
increasing their numbers. Another protein interleucin-1 signals the brain to
raise the body temperature, producing fever. The higher temperature aids the
immune response and inhibits the growth of invading microorganisms.
Neutrophils
These are a type of granular leukocytes, which are mobile and squeeze
between cells of capillary walls. They move like Amoeba forming
pseudopodia . The life of neutrophils once released from the bone marrow is
4-8 hours circulating in blood and 4-5 days in tissue. In serious infections, life
span is shortened to few hours, because they proceed rapidly to infected area
to perform their duty and they often die after a single phagocytic event.
Neutrophils also release lysosomal enzymes that kill microorganisms and also
cause damage and inflammation.
Natural Killer Cells
Natural killer cells are another class of white blood cells. In general,
natural killer cells do not directly attack invading microbes. Instead, natural
killer cells strike at the bodys own cells that have been invaded by viruses.
Virus infected cells usually bear some viral proteins on their surfaces. Natural
killer cells recognize and kill cancerous cells. Natural killer cells do not eat
their victims; they strike from the outside. Their weapons are proteins that they
secrete into the plasma membrane of the infected or cancerous cell. Killer cells
also secrete enzymes that break up some of the molecules of the target cell, as a
result the target cell soon dies.
13.2.2 PROTECTIVE PROTEINS
The complement system often simply called complement is a number
of plasma proteins. Once a complement protein is activated, it activates
another protein, and the result is a set series of reactions. Complement is
activated when microbes enter the body. It complements certain immune
responses and this accounts for its name. For example, it is involved in and
amplifies the inflammatory response because complement proteins attract
phagocytes to the scene.
Another series of reaction is complete when complement proteins
(perforin-1) result in a membrane attack complex that produces holes in the
bacterial cell walls and plasma membranes of bacteria. When K+ ions leave,
Fig. 13.4 Action of the complement system against a bacterium
fluids and salt enter bacterial cell to the point that it bursts.
How the Interferons Inhibit the Ability of Viruses to Infect Cells?

Cells of immune system secrete a remarkable number of regulatory
proteins known as cytokines. When infected by viruses, cells respond by
secreting cytokines called interferons. Interferons are a heterogeneous group
of lipoproteins. They inhibit the growth of viruses by blocking the translation
of viral proteins. Because interferons are produced within a few hours of the
initiation of viral replication, they may act in the early phase of viral diseases
to limit the spread of virus.
13.2.3 INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE
The inflammatory response is a major component of the non-specific
defence. Any damage to tissue, whether caused by an infections
microorganism or by physical injury, even just a scratch or an insect bite
triggers this response. Inflammation can be localized or systemic. Local
inflammation is an inflammatory response confined to a specific area of the
body.
Inflammation literally means setting on fire. The fig. 13.5 shows the
chain of events that make up the inflammatory response, in case where a pin
has broken the skin and infected it with bacteria. The first thing that happened
when a tissue is injured is that the damaged cells release chemical alarm
signals such as histamine. The chemical sparks the mobilization of various
defences. Histamine for instance induces neighbouring blood vessels to dilate
and blood vessels start leaking. Blood flood to the damaged area increases,
and blood plasma passes out of the leaky vessels into the interstitial fluid of
the affected tissues. The major results of the inflammatory response are to
disinfect and clean injured tissues. The white blood cells mustered into the
area engulf bacteria and the remains of the body cells killed by them or by the
physical injury are left. Many of the white blood cells die in the process. The
pus that collects around a wound consists largely of microbes, tissue debris,
Fig. 13.5 The Inflammatory Response
and living and dead white blood cells. The inflammatory response also helps
to prevent the spread of infection to the surrounding tissues.
The body may react with one or several inflammatory weapons for
instance the number of white blood cells circulating in the blood may
increase. Another response is fever.
13.2.4 TEMPERATURE RESPONSE
Fever, which means a body temperature above the usual range of
normal, can be caused by abnormalities in the brain itself or by toxic
substances that affect the temperature-regulating centers. Some causes of
fever are bacterial diseases, brain tumors, and environmental conditions that
may terminate in heatstroke.
Effect of Pyrogens: Many proteins, breakdown products of proteins,
and certain other substances, especially lipopolysaccharide and toxins
released from bacterial cell membrances, can cause the set-point of the
hypothalamic thermostat to rise. Substances that cause this effect are called
pyrogens. It is pyrogens released from toxic bacteria or pyrogens released
from degenerating tissues of the body that cause fever during disease
conditions. When the set point of the hypothalamic temperature-regulating
center becomes increased to a higher level than normal, all the mechanisms
for raising the body temperature are brought into play, including heat
conservation and increased heat production. Within a few hours after the set-
point has been increased to a higher level, the body temperature also
Several experiments have suggested that interleukin-1 causes fever

by first inducing the formation of one of the prostaglandins. When drugs
block prostaglandin formation, the fever is either completely abrogated or
at least reduced. In fact, this may be the explanation for the manner in
which aspirin reduces the degree of fever because aspirin impedes the for
mation of prostaglandins from arachidonic acid. It also would explain why
aspirin does not lower the body temperature in a normal person because a
normal person does not have any interleukin-1. Drugs such as aspirin that
reduce the level of fever are called antipyretics.
approaches this level.
The Ways Fever Kills Microbes

Certain white blood cells in responding to the infection, release
hormones collectively called endogenous pyrogens (self produced fire
makers). Pyrogens travel in the blood stream and raise the thermostats set
point, triggering behaviours that increase body temperature: shivering
increased fat metabolism or feeling cold so more clothing is put on. Pyrogens
also cause other cells to reduce the concentration of iron in the blood.
Fever has both beneficial effects for the bodys defences and
detrimental effects on the invading microbes.1) Many bacteria require more
iron to reproduce at temperature of 380C or 390C than at 370C, so fever and
reduced iron in the blood combine to slow down their rate of reproduction.
(2) Simultaneously, fever increases the activity of phagocytic white blood
cells that attack bacteria, they rely producing a shorter and less serious
infection. (3) When viruses invade certain cells of the body they synthesize
and release a protein called interferon. It travels to other cells and increases
their resistance to viral attack. Fever increases the production of inteferons.
(4) The higher body temperature may directly inactivate the virus particles,
Justify the inflammatory response in arthritis as an example of a
misdirected immune response.
In this disease, autoantibodies are formed against IgG (antibody or
immunoglobin of class G). These autoantibodies are called rheumatoid
factors. The agent that induces these autoantibodies is unknown. Within the
inflamed joints, the synovial membrane is infiltrated with T cells, plasma
cells and macrophages and the synovial fluid contains high levels of
macrophage- produced inflammatory cytokines.
Justify why the physician prescribe antipyretic 1.

drugs, when fever is a nonspecific defense against
microbial infections
2.
Antipyretic Therapy
Antipyretic create their effects by inhibiting
prostaglandin production in the hypothalamus, which 3.
has the effect of blocking set point elevation and main
taining the set point at nearer normal levels.
4.
Pharmaceutical Intervention in Fever
13.3 THE THIRD LINE OF DEFENCE

The Specific Defences
The third line of defence or specific defence mechanism or immune
system recognizes and defends against invading microbes and against cancer
cells. Specific defence mechanisms depend on the lymphatic system and its cells.
Substances that stimulate specific immunity are antigens (large molecules)
and haptens (small molecules). Specific immunity historically has been
divided into two types: Humoral immunity and cell-mediated. Early
investigators of the immune system found that, when plasma from an immune
animal was injected into the blood of a nonimmune animal, the nonimmune
animal became immune. Because the process involved body fluids (humors),
it was called humoral immunity. It was also discovered that blood cells
transferred from an immune animal could be responsible for immunity and
this process was called cell-mediated immunity.
It was also known that immunity results from the activities of
lymphocytes called B and T cells. B cells give rise to cells that produce proteins
called antibodies, which are found in the plasma. Because antibodies are
responsible, humoral immunity is now called antibody mediated immunity.
Monocytes, T cells and B cells as Components of Immune System
The human blood cells consists of: (a) Polymorphonuclear neutrophils
(b) Polymorphonuclear eosinophils (c) Polymorphonuclear basophils(d) Monocytes
(e) Lymphocytes
Monocytes
From bone marrow or lymphoid tissues monocytes are transferred (10
to 20 hours transit time) through the capillary into tissues. Once in the tissue
they swell and attain a larger size to become tissue macrophages and in this
form, they can live for months or even for years unless they are destroyed by
performing phagocytic function. Macrophages secrete about 100 different
compounds including interferons and enzymes that destroy bacteria. When
macrophages are stimulated by bacteria, they secrete interleukins, which
activate B cell and helper T cells. Interleukins also promote a general
response to injury, causing fever and activating other mechanisms that defend
the body against invasion.
Fig. 13.6 The Major Cells of Immune System and Their Roles in the Immune System
T Cells and B Cells

Immune responses depend on two main groups of white blood cells:
phagocytes and lymphocytes. Phagocytes include neutrophils and macrophages
(monocytes). Lymphocytes spend most of their time in tissues and organs of
lymphatic system. Three main types of lymphocytes are: T lymphocytes or T
cells, B lymphocytes or B cells and natural killer (NK) cells.
T Cells are Responsible for Cellular Immunity
T cells originate from stem cells in the bone marrow. After early
embryonic development, the newly forming T cells migrate to thymus gland
for processing. (The T in cells stands for thymus derived). The thymus
makes T cells immunocompetent that

is capable of immunological response.
Two main categories of T cells have
been identified. The first group, known
as CD8 cells because they have surface
marker designated CD8, include
cytotoxin T cells and suppressor T
cells. Cytotoxic T cells also known as
killer T cells recognize and destroy
cells with foreign antigens on their
surface. Among their target cells are
virus-infected cells, cancer cells and
foreign tissue grafts. T cells kill their
target cells by releasing a variety of
cytokines and enzymes. Suppressor T
cells release cytokines that inhibit the
activity of other T cells and B cells.
Helper T cells also known as CD4
cells because they have a surface
marker designated CD4. Helper T cells
secrete substances that activate or
enhance the immune response. Fig: 13.7 The Development of B cell
and T cells
B Cells
B cells are differentiated in bone marrow (hence the name B cells) Each B
cells carries receptors needed to bind with a specific type of antigen. After
binding with specific type of antigen the B cells develop into plasma cells, the
cells that are specialized to secrete antibodies. A plasma cell can produce more
than 10 million molecules of antibody per hour.
13.3.1 INBORN AND ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
The two basic types of immunity are (a) inborn or innate immunity
(b) acquired immunity. If microorganisms breach the first line of defence i.e. skin
and mucous membrane then the innate part of the immune system is available to
destroy the invaders. Because the components of the innate or inborn immunity
are fully active, they can function immediately upon entry of the microorganisms.
The ability of the innate immune system to kill microorganisms is not specific.
Highly specific protection is provided by the acquired (adaptive) part of the
immune system, but it takes several days for this system to become fully
functional. The two components of the acquired immune system are cell-
mediated immunity and antibody mediated (humoral) immunity.
Table 13.2 Main Component oif Innate and Acquired

Immunity
Science Titbits
In 1717 Mary Montagu, the wife of an English ambassador to the
Ottoman Empire, observed local women inoculating their children against
smallpox. Edward Jenner observed and studied Miss Sarah a milkmaid
who had previously caught cowpox and was found to be immune to
smallpox.
Types of Acquired Immunity ---Active and Passive Immunity

There are two ways to acquire adaptive immunity: (a) Active Immunity
(b) Passive Immunity. Both types may be acquired naturally or artificially.
Providing immunity artificially is called immunization.
Natural Active Immunity: This is the kind of immunity, which is
obtained as a result of an infection. The body manufactures its own antibodies
when exposed to an infectious agent. Because memory cells, produced on
exposure to the first infection, are able to stimulate the production of massive
quantities of antibody when exposed to the same antigen again, this type of
immunity is most effective and generally persists for a long time, sometimes
even for life.
Artificial Active Immunity (Vaccination): This is achieved by
injecting (or less commonly administering orally) small amounts of antigen,
called the vaccine, into the body of an individual. The process is called
vaccination. The antigen stimulates the body to manufacture antibodies
against the antigen. Often a second, booster injection is given and this
stimulates a much quicker production of antibody which is long lasting and
which protects the individual from the disease for a considerable time.
Several types of vaccine are currently in use.
Critical Thinking
Why do you think it is important that there are phagocytes constantly
circulating in the blood stream and in the body tissues?
Passive Immunity
In passive immunity antibodies from one individual are passed into
another individual. They give immediate protection, unlike active immunity,
which takes a few days or weeks to build up. However, it only provides
protection against infection for a few weeks, for the antibodies are broken
down by the body's natural processes, so their number slowly fall and
protection is lost.
Natural Passive Immunity
Passive immunity may be gained naturally. For example, antibodies from
a mother can cross the placenta and enter her foetus. In this way they provide
protection for the baby until its own immune system is fully functional. Passive
immunity may also be provided by colostrum, the first secretion of the mammary
glands. The baby absorbs the antibodies through its gut.
Artificial Passive Immunity
Here antibodies which have been formed in one individual are
extracted and then injected into the blood of another individual which may or
may not be of the same species. They can be used for immediate protection if
a person has been; or is likely to be, exposed to a particular disease. For
example, specific antibodies used for combating tetanus and diphtheria used
to be cultured in horses and injected into humans. Only antibodies of human
origin are now used for humans. Antibodies against rabies and some snake
venoms are also available. Antibodies against the human rhesus blood group
antigen are used for some rhesus.
13.3.2 CELL-MEDIATED AND ANTIBODY MEDIATED
IMMUNITY
Cell-Mediated Immune Response
The activation of helper T cells by interleukin-1 and the binding of
antigen to these activated helper T cells unleash a chain of events known as
the cell-mediated immune response. The main event of this response is that
cytotoxic T cells (cell poisoning cells) also known as natural killer (NK)
cells, recognize and destroy infected body cells. When a helper T cell has
been activated it produces a variety of chemical substances collectively called
lymphokines. One type of lymphokine attracts macrophages to the site of
infection and another inhibits their migration away from it. Another type of a
lymphokine stimulates T cells that are bound to foreign antigens to undergo
cell division many times. This cell division produces enormous quantities of
T cells capable of recognizing the antigens specific to the invader. Each type
Fig. 13.8 Cell Mediated Immune Response
of activated T cell does have a specific job. Because the entire cell binds to
the infected cells (by means of specific cell-surface proteins), this response is
called cell-mediated.
The Antibody Mediated Immune Response
When helper T cells are stimulated to respond to foreign antigens they
activate the cell-mediated immune response and activate a second, more long
range defence called the antibody mediated immune response. Depending
upon the types of antigen present,

the helper T cells may stimulate
either or both of the immune
response.
The key players in
antibodymediated immunity are
the lymphocytes called B cells or
B-lymphocytes. The B cells are
named after a digestive organ in
birds called Bursa of Fabricus, in
which these lymphocytes were
first discovered. However, B-
cells mature in the bone marrow
of the humans. The antibody
response is sometimes called the
humoral response, which refers
to the fact that B cells secrete
antigen that specific chemicals
into the blood stream one of the
body fluids called humours
long ago.
On their surface B cells
have about 100,000 copies of a
protein receptor that binds to
antigens. Because different B
cells bear different protein
receptors, each recognizes a
different, specific antigen. At the
onset of a bacterial infection for
example, the receptors of one or
Fig.13.9 Antibody-mediated response
more B cells bind to bacterial
antigens. The B cells may bind to
either free bacteria or bacterial
antigens displayed by macrophages. These antigen-bound B cells are
detected by helper T cells, which then bind to the antigen B cell complex
(fig. 13.9). after binding, the helper T cells release lymphokines that
trigger cell division in the B cells. After about 5 days and numerous cell
divisions, a large clone of cells is produced from each B cell that was
stimulated to divide.
Malignant Melanoma
The presence of tumour infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) amid the tu
mour cells in the stroma and overlying epidermis is a constant feature of
melanoma, the deadliest skin cancer. These lymphocytes are mostly cyto
toxic cells. They can kill melanoma cells. This specific killing can be facil
iated by monoclonal antibodies against CD4, CD8, T cells receptors and
against class 1 human leukocyte antigens. This indicates that these
cytotoxic cells can recognize melanoma cells through the T cells receptors
in a human leukocyte antigen class 1. Therefore, these cells and their prod
ucts are important in killing in melanoma. TILs are not strong enough to
control certain types of tumors such as those of malignant melanona.
Gene therapy is the treatment of genetic disorder by the insertion of
normal genes into the cells of a patient. In 1991 doctors injected genetical
ly engineered cells into the thigh of a melanoma patient in an attempt to use
gene therapy to help his immune system to destroy the cancer. Researchers
first remove TIL cells from the patient and inserted a gene that codes for
the protein tumor necrosis factor (TNF). This protein kills tumor cells by
preventing them from establishing
a blood supply. The engineered
TIL cells were then returned to
the patients bloodstream to seek
out and invade the malignant mel
anoma tumors. As each genetical
ly altered TIL cell finds and enters
a tumor, it is able to attack the tu
mor with the TNF. The engineered
TIL cells, in effect, becomes a
factory that makes the tumor-
killing protein inside the tumor it
self. Malignant Melanoma

Describe malignant melanoma as due to the inability of tumor-infiltrating
lymphocyte (TIL) to control the tumor of skin cancer and correlate it with
the scientific advancements of inserting a gene of tumor necrosis factor in
the lymphocyte.
Then the B cells begin producing and secreting copies of the receptor
proteins that respond to the antigen. These receptor proteins are called
antibodies or immunoglobulins. The secreting B cells are called plasma
cells. After B cells become plasma cells they live only for a few days but
secrete a great deal of antibody during the time. Antibodies do not destroy a
virus or bacterium directly, but rather it destruct them by the mechanism of
complement or macrophages.
Memory Cells
A person who overcomes a disease often remains immune to future
encounter with that specific disease for many years. Retaining immunity is
the function of memory cells. Plasma cells and cytotoxic T cells do the
immediate job of fighting disease organisms, but they usually live only for a
few days. B and T memory cells, on the other hand, may survive for many
years. If foreign cells bearing the same antigens re-enter the body, they will
be recognized by the appropriate memory cells. These memory cells will
multiply rapidly, generate huge populations of plasma cells and cytotoxic T
cells, and produce a second immune response. In the first encounter with a
disease microbe, only a few B and T cells respond. Each of these however
leaves behind hundreds or thousands of memory cells. Further, memory cells
respond to antigen much more rapidly than their progenitor B and T cells
could. Therefore, the second immune response is very rapid.
Structural Model of an Antibody Molecule
A typical antibody is a Y-shaped molecule in which the two arms of the
Y are binding sites. This shape emits the antibody to combine with two
antigen molecules, and allow formation of antigen-antibody complexes. The
tail of the Y performs functions such as binding to cells or activating the
complement system.
The antibody molecule consists of four polypeptide chains: two
identical long chains called heavy chains, and two identical short chains
called light chains. Each chain has a constant segment, a functional
segment, and a variable segment. In the constant segment, or C region, of
the heavy chains, the amino acid sequence is constant within a particular
immunoglobulin class.
The C region may be thought of as the handle portion of a door key.
Like the pattern of bumps and notches at the end of a key, the variable
segment, or V region, has a unique amino acid sequence. In B-cell receptors
the variable region of the immunoglobulin protrudes from the B cell, whereas
the constant region anchors the molecule to the cell.
Fig: 13.10 Structure of the Antibody (IgG)
Monoclonal Antibodies
In 1970 Cesar Milstein and Georges Kohler working in Cambridge
solve the problem of developing a technique for producing monoclonal
antibodies, for which they were awarded Nobel Prize in 1984. Monoclonal
means belonging to one clone. Each type of antibody is made by one type of
B cells which cloned itself, in other words multiplies to make many
identical copies of itself in response to a particular antigen. Milstein and
Kohlar fused B cells with cancer cells, which are immortal to form
hybridoma cells. The hybridoma cells continue to multiply and can be
cloned so that large quantities of antibodies can be produced.
Monoclonal antibodies are harvested from cell cultures rather than
animals. The ability to make monoclonal antibodies has been spawned a
new industry. A common area of application is medical diagnosis.
Monoclonal antibodies are used for determining pregnancy and for
diagnosing diseases (such as gonorrhea, syphilis), hepatitis, rabies,
cancer, Chlamydia, streptococcal throat infections, herpes viruses,
leukaemias (cancers of white blood cells), lymphomas. A monoclonal
antibody has been developed which is very effective at preventing
rejection of transplanted kidneys. Monoclonal antibodies can be used to
find out the types of antigens present in the donor and increase the
accuracy of matching.

Describe the discovery of monoclonal antibodies and justify how
this accomplishment revolution many aspects of biological research.
13.3.3 DISORDERS OF IMMUNE SYSTEM

Many people suffer from allergic reactions to substances that are not
harmful in themselves and to which many other people do not respond. Common
allergies include those to pollen, dust, mold spores, and bee stings.
Allergies are Inappropriately Directed Immure Responses
Allergies are actually a form of immune response. A foreign substance,
such as a pollen grain, enters the bloodstream and is recognized as an antigen by a
particular type of B cell. This B cell proliferates, producing plasma cells that
pour out IgE antibodies attach to the plasma membranes of histamine-containing
cells located in the respiratory and digestive tracts.
When pollen grains encounter the attached IgE antibodies, they tigger
the release of histamine, which causes increased mucus secretion, leaky
capillaries, and other symptoms of inflammation. Because pollen grains most
often enter the nose and throat, the major reactions occur in these locations,
resulting in the runny nose, sneezing, and congestion typical of heavy
fever. Antihistamine drugs block some of the effects of histamine, relieving
the symptoms of allergies. Food allergies cause equivalent symptoms,
including cramps and diarrhea, in the digestive tract.
An Autoimmune Disease is an Immune Response against Some of the
Bodys own Molecules
A persons immune system does not normally respond to the antigens
borne on the bodys own cells. Occasionally, however something goes awry,
and anti-self antibodies are produced. The result is an autoimmune disease,
in which the immune system attacks some component of ones own body.
Some types of anemias, for example, are caused by antibodies that destroy a
persons red blood cells.
Many cases of insulin-dependent (juvenile-onset) diabetes occur
because the insulin-secreting cells of the pancreas are the victims of a
misdirected immune response. Unfortunately, at present there is no way to
cure autoimmune diseases. The autoimmune response can be suppressed
with drugs.
Role of T-cells and B-cells in Transplant Rejections

It is occasionally desirable to transplant some tissue or an organ such
as the skin, kidney, heart, or liver, from one person to another to replace a
non-functional damaged or lost body part. In such cases, there is a danger that
the recipient cells may recognize the donors organ or tissue as being foreign.
This triggers the recipients immune mechanisms, which may act to destroy
the donor tissue. Such a response is called a tissue rejection reaction.
Role of T cells in Transplant Rejection
Although the mechanism of rejection probably varies with the nature of
the tissue and the degree of incompatibility, all the mechanisms require that the
host TH cells (helper T cells) come into contact with the graft tissues major histo
compatibilty complex (MHC) antigens. This contact is probably mediated by the
dendritic cells of the graft tissue itself.
At this point, three different possibilities exist. In the first, antigen-
specific TH cells stimulate the activation and proliferation of appropriate T cells,
which then mount a focused attack on the transplant tissue. In the second, respon
sive antigen-specific TH cells move to the graft site, where they release lymphok
ines. These recruit monocyte/macrophages and T cells to the graft site and main
tain them at the scene while they destroy the tissue.
Role of B cells in Transplant Rejection
There is a third mechanism in which antibodies play a role. The
responsive TH cell interacts with the appropriate B cell clone, producing a shower
of antibodies to the implanted tissues MHC antigens. These can trigger either
complement-mediated graft damage or antibodymediated cellular cytotoxicity.
The latter is accomplished by K or killer cells.
Justify why physician prescribe antihistamine therapy to the pa

tients of runny nose or skin rashes.
Runny nose or skin rashes are a type of hypersensitivity reaction in
which histamine is released from the mast cells and basophils. Its release
causes vasodilation, increased capillary permeability and smooth muscle
contraction. Antihistamine drugs block histamine receptor sites so hista
mine action cannot take place. So in this way they are effective in allergic
rhinitis i.e. runny nose and skin rashes.
Functions of B cells and T cells

Antibody-Mediated Immunity Cell- Mediated Immunity
(B Cells) (T Cells)
1. Host defence against infection (opsonize 1. Host defence against infection (especially
bacteria, neutralize toxins and viruses) M tuberculosis, viruses, and fungi)
2. Allergy, e.g., hay fever 2. Allergy, e.g., poison oak
3. Autoimmunity 3. Graft and tumor rejection
4. Regulation of anitbody response (help and

suppression)
Explain why a transplant recipient is given immune suppressant

drugs and determine what implications does this have on his life.
Organ transplantation has become a routine procedure due to improvement
of surgical techniques, better tissue typing and the availability of drugs that
more selectively inhibit rejection of transplanted tissues and prevent the
patient from becoming immunologically compromised. Transplant rejec
tion occurs as a delayed hypersensitivity reaction as a function of lympho
cytes and not due to antibodies. Administration of immunosuppressive
drugs enhances tolerance. People receiving immunosuppressive drugs have
side effects like pain, diarrhoea, leukopenia, sepsis, lymphoma, thromb
ocytopenia, skin rashes, anaphylactic reaction, hypertension, hyperkalemia
and neurotoxicity (tremors, seizures, hallucination). Hence, each system is
affected, so the person starts to feel weakness and gets fatigue easily.
Science Titbits
Certain sites in the body are immunologically privileged. A few immu
nologically privileged locations exist in which foreign tissue is accepted by a
host. The brain and corneas are examples. Corneal transplants are highly suc
cessful because the cornea has almost no blood or lymphatic vessels associated
with it and so is out of reach of most lymphocytes. Furthermore, antigens in the
cornea circulatory graft probably would not find their way into the circulatory
system, and so would not stimulate an immune response.

1. Plasma cells are
A) the same as memory cells
B) formed from blood plasma
C) B cells that are actively secreting antibody
D) inactive T cells carried in the plasma
2. Antibodies combine with antigens
A) at variable regions B) at constant region
C) only if macrophages are present D) both A and C are correct
3. Vaccines are
A) the same as monoclonal antibodies
B) treated bacteria or viruses or one of their proteins
C) major histocompatibilty complex (MHC) proteins
D) not destroyed by heating
4. In addition to the immune system, we are protected from disease by
A) body temparature B) hormones
C) antigens D) mucous membrane and cilia
5. Fevers
A) decrease interferon production
B) decrease the concentration of iron in the blood
C) decrease the activity of phagocytes
D) decrease the reproduction of invading bacteria
6. T and B cells are

A) lymphocytes B) macrophages
C) natural killer cells D) red blood cells
7. Foreign molecules that evoke an immune response are called
A) pathogens B) antibodies
C) lymphocytes D) histamines
8. When B-cells are presented with antigen they differentiate into
A) T-cells B) helper T-cells
C) plasma cells D) bursa cells
9. Memory cells are
A) modified T-cells B) B-cells
C) killer T-cells D) suppressor cells
10. When one receives a booster shot for polio which type of cell is most
directly stimulated?
A) killer T-cells B) memory cells
C) phagocytes D) suppressor cells

1. List the ways of defence of the human body against invading microbes.
2. Define: immunity, immunology, microbes, monocyte, macrophages,
allergy, T cells, B cells, cell mediated immunity, antigen, lymphocytes,
antibody mediated immunity, autoimmune diseases, vaccine, vaccination.
3. What is the relationship between the lymphatic and immune system.
4. Write the level of defence against infection.
5. Name the parts of antibody molecule.
6. What are the memory cells?
7. How does an antibody differ from an antigen?
8. Name the disorders of immune system.
9. What is the difference between an antibody-mediated immune response
and a cell-mediated immune response?
10. Why is passive immunity temporary?

11. List the benefits of fever.

1. Name the specific and non-specific line of defence of the human body
against microbes. Explain your answer.
2. How do natural killer cells and cytotoxic T cells destroy their targets?
3. Describe humoral immunity and cell-mediated immunity.
4. How do immune system construct so many antibodies?
5. Draw and label the structure of an antibody. What parts bind only to
antigens? Why does each antibody bind only to a specific antigen?
6. How do memory cells contribute to long lasting immunity to specific
diseases?
7. How does vaccine confer immunity to a disease?
9. Explain the process by which a T cell is able to recognise an antigen.
10. How are active immunity and passive immunity achieved?
ANSWER MCQS
1. C 2. A 3. B 4. D 5. B 6. A 7. B 8. C 9. B 10. B

connections, 2nd edition Benjamin/Cummings Company California,
2003.
USEFUL WEBSITES
1. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunology
2. www.immunologylink.com/
3. www.biology.arizona.edu/immunology/immunology.html
4. www.whfreeman.com/kuby/
430
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT AND REFERENCES
1. Campbell N.A. Mhchell, L.G. & Reece J.B., Biology Concepts and connections, 2nd edi
tion Benjamin/Cummings Company California, 2003.
3. Bettleheim, F.A., and J. March introduction to General Organic and Biochemistry, 4th ed.
Saunders College publishing, Philadelphia, 1995.
4. Nakatni. H. Y. Photosynthesis Carolina Biology Reader. Carolina Biological Supply
Company, Burlington, NC, 1988.
5. Taiz, L., and E. Zeiger. Plant Physiology, Benjamin Cummings, Redwood City, CA,
1991.
6. Taylor, D.J., Green, N.P.O. and Stout, G.W. Biological science 3rd Ed. Cambridge uni
versity press, reprint, 2004.
7. Nester, E.W., C.E. Roberts, and M.T. Nester. Microbiology: A Human Perspective. Wm.
C. Brown, Dubuque, Iowa, 1995.
8. Jawetz. E and Levinson W. Medical Microbiology and Immunology. Sixth Edition Lange
Madical Books/McDraw-Hill 2001.
9. Audesirk G. and Audesirk T. Biology Life on Earth. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River,
New Jersy. 1996.
10. Sinha A.K. Fundamentals of Plant Pathology, Kalyani Publishers. New Delhi. 2001.
11. Lewis, R. A New Place for Fungi? Bioscience 44:6, June 1994
12. David son S.Stanley, Principles and Practice of Medicne, 19th edition 2002, Elsevier Sci
ence Limited, London.
13. Kaufman, P.B. Plants Their Biology and Importance. New York: Harper and Row,
1989.
14. Heywood, V.H. Flowering Plants of the World. New York, Oxford University Press,
1993.
15. Mauseth, J.D. Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology. 2nd edition Saunders Collage
Publishing, Philadelphia. 1995.
16. Ruppert, E.E. and R.D. Barnes. Invertebrate Zoology, 6th Ed. Saunders College Publish
ing, Philadelphia, 1994.
17. Brusca, R.C. and G.J. Brusca. Invertebrates. Sinauer Associates, Inc. Sunderland. Massa
chusetts, 1990.
18. Hickman, C.P. Roberts, L.S. Larson M. Integrted Principles of Zoology. 9th Ed. Mosby.
St. louis, Missouri. 1993.
19. Guyton, A.C & Hall J.E, Textbook of Medical Physiology, W.B Sundres Company Lon
don, 1996
20. Villee C., Martin D.W., Berg L.R. Solomon E.P. Biology 4th edition. Saunders college
publishing. Philadelphia. 1996
GLOSSARY 431
GLOSSARY
A immune system produces antibodies

acidosis: an increase in hydrogen ion against the bodys own cells.
concentration. auxin (awk'sin): a plant hormone involved in
allantois: One of the extraembryonic membranes various aspects of growth and development,
of the embryo, in amniotes. Forms a ventral such as stem elongation, apical dominance
outgrowth of the gut, enlarges during and root formation on cuttings.
development, and functions in waste (uric B
acid) storage and gas exchange. B cells: a type of lymphocytes that participates
anaerobic (anair-oh'bik): growing or in humoral immunity, gives rise to plasma
metabolizing only in the absence of cells that secrete antibodies into the
molecular oxygen. circulatory system and to become memory
anaphyylaxia: It is an acute system (multi- cells.
system) and severe type I hypersensitivity basal body (bay'sl): structure involved in the
allergic reaction in humans and other organization and anchorage of a cilium
mammals. Minute amount of allergens may or flagellum.
cause a life-threatening anaphylactic base pair: a complementory pair of
reaction. Anaphylaxis may occur after nucleolides, containing a purine,
ingestion, skin contact, and injection of an pyrimidine.
allergen or in some cases inhalation. basidiocarp (ba-sid'e-o-karp): the fruiting
antibody (an-tih-bodee): protein compound body of a basidiomycete e.g. mushroom.
(immunoglobulin) produced by plasma basidiomycete (ba-side-o-my'seat): member
cells in response to specific antigens and of a phylum of fungi characterized by the
having the capacity to react against the production of sexual basidiospores.
antigens. basidiospores (ba-side-o-spor): one of a set
anticodon: a sequence of three bases in of sexual spores,usually four, borne on a
transfer RNA that is complementary to basidium of a basidiomycete.
the three bases of a codon of messenger basidium (ba-sidee-um): the club-like spore-
RNA. producing organ of basidiomycetes that
antidiuretic hormone: (ADH) (anty-dy-uh- bears sexual spores called basidiospores.
ret'ik) a hormone secreted by the posterior bilateral symmetry: a body shape with right
lobe of the pituitary that controls the rate and left halves that are approximately
of water reabsorption by the kidney. mirror images of one another.
antigen (an'tih-jen): any substance capable bile: a liquid secretion of the liver stored in
of stimulating an immune response; the gall bladder and released into the small
usually a protein or large carbohydrate intestine during digestion. Bile is a
that is foreign to the body. complex mixture of bile salts, water, other
apical dominance (ape'ih-kI): the inhibition salts, and cholesterol.
lateral buds by a shoot up. binary fission: the process by which a single
apical meristem (mehr'ih-stem): an area of bacterium divides in half, producing two
dividing tissue located at the tip of a shoot identical offspring.
or root; apical meristems cause an increase biodiversity: all living things within a given
in the length of the plant body. geographical area and the
apoenzyme (apoh-en'zime): protein portion interrelationships among them.
of an enzyme that requires the presence biotechnology: the use of biological processes
of a specific coenzyme to become a from microorganisms to make substance
complete functional enzyme. or to provide service to man.
apoplast: a continuum consisting of the bipinnaria: free swimming, ciliated, bilateral
interconnected, porous plant cell walls. larva of the asteroid echinoderms;
atherosclerosis: a disease characterize by develops into the brachiolaria larva.
obstruction of arteries by cholesterol blastopore (blas'toh-pore): primitive opening
deposits and thickening of arterial walls. into the body cavity of an early embryo
autoimmune disease: a disorder in which the
432 BIOLOGY XI, GLOSSARY
that may become the mouth (in protists whose feeding stage consists of
protostomes) or anus (in deuterostomes) unicellular, amoeboid organisms that
of the adult organism. aggregate to from a pseudoplasmodium
blood pressure: the force exerted by blood during reproduction.
against the inner walls of the blood centrifuge device: used to separate cells or
vessels. their components by subjecting them to
brachiolaria: this asteroid larva develops centrifugal force.
from the bipinnaria larva. centromere (sen'tro-meer): specialized
budding: asexual reproduction in which a constricted region of a chromatid; contains
small part of the parent's body separates the kinetochore. In cells at prophase and
form the rest and develops into a new metaphase, sister chromatids are joined
individual; Characteristic of yeasts and in the vicinity of their centromeres.
certain other organisms. e.g. Hydra channel protein: a membrane protein that
C forms a channel or pore completely
C3 cycle: the cyclic series of reactions through the membrane and that is usually
whereby carbon dioxide is fixed into permeable to one or a few water-soluble
carbohydrates during the light- molecules specially ions.
independent reactions of photosynthesis chemiosmosis: a process of ATP generation
also called Calvin cycle. in chloroplasts and mitochondria. The
C4 pathway: the series of reactions in certain movement of electron transport system is
plants that fixes carbon dioxide into used to pump hydrogen ions across
oxaloacetic acid, which is later broken membrane, thereby building up a
down for use in the C3 cycle of consideration gradient of hydrogen ions
photosynthesis. across the membrane. The hydrogen ions
carbon fixation: the initial steps in the C3 diffuse back across the membrane through
cycle in which carbon dioxide reacts with the pores of ATP-synthesizing enzymes.
the ribulose bisphosphate to form a stable The energy of their movement down their
organic molecule. concentration gradient drives ATP
cardiac (kar'dee-ak): pertaining to the heart. synthesis.
cardiac cycle: one complete heart beat. chitin (ky'tin): a nitrogen-containing structural
carrier proteins: a membrane proteins that polysaccharide that forms the exoskeleton
facilitates diffusion of specific substances of insects and the cell walls of many fungi.
across the membrane. The molecule to be choanocyte (koh-an'oh-sight): a unique cell
transported binds to the outer surface of having a flagellum surrounded by a thin
the carrier proteins, the protein than cytoplasmic collar; characteristic of
changes shape, allowing the molecule to sponges and group of protists.
move across the membrane through the chorion: the outermost extra embryonic
protein. membrane of the embryo of an amniote.
carrier-mediated active transport: transport Becomes highly vascular and aids in gas
across a membrane of a substance from exchange.
a region of low concentration to a region chromatin (kro' mah-tin): the complex of
of high concentration; requires both a DNA, protein, and RNA that makes up
transport protein with a binding site for eukayotic chromosomes.
the specific substance and an energy chromosomes (kro'moh-soms): structures in
source (often ATP). the cell nucleus, composed of chromatin
casparian strip: a waxy, water proof band in and containing the genes.
the cell walls between endodermal cells ciliate (sil'e-ate): a unicellular protozoon
in a root, which prevents the movement covered by many short cilia.
of water and minerals in and out of the citrate (citric acid): a 6-carbon organic acid.
vascular cylinder through the extracellular citric acid cycle: series of chemical reactions
space. in aerobic cellular respiration in which
cell-mediated immunity: the immune acetyl coenzyme A is completely degraded
response in which foreign cells or to carbon dioxide and water with the
substances are destroyed by contact with release of metabolic energy which is used
T cells. to produce ATP; also known as the Krebs
cellular slime mold: a phylum of fungus-like cycle and the tricarboxylic acid (TCA)
BIOLOGY XI, GLOSSARY 433
cycle. involved in various aspects of plant

clone: a population of cells descended by growth and development, such as cell
mitotic division from a single ancestral division and delay of senescence.
cell, or a population of genetically cytosine: a nitrogenous pyrimidine base that
identical organisms asexually propagated is a component of nucleic acids.
from a single individual. cytoskeleton: internal network of protein
club mosses: a phylum of seedless vascular fibres; includes microfilaments,
plants with a life cycle similar to ferns. intermediate filaments, and microtubules.
cnidocytes: stinging cells characteristic of cytosol fluid: component of the cytoplasm in
cnidarians. which the organelles are suspended.
codon (koh'don): a triplet of mRNA bases that cytotoxic T cells: a type of T cells that directly
specifies an amino acid, a start signal, or destroy foreign cells upon contacting
a signal to terminate the polypeptide. them.
coelom (see'lum): the main body cavity of D
most animals; a true coeloms is lined with deamination (dee-am-ih-nay'shun): removal
mesoderm. of an amino group (-NH2) from an amino
coenocyte (see'no-site): an orgainsim acid or other organic compound.
consisting of a multinucleated cell; an decomposers: microbial heterotrophs that
organism in which the nuclei are not breakdown dead organic material and use
separated form one another by septa. the decomposition products as a source
coenzyme A (CoA): organic cofactor of energy. Also called saprotrophs or
responsible for transferring groups derived saprobes.
form organic acids. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): double
cofactor: a non-protein substance needed by stranded nucleic acid; contains genetic
an enzyme for normal activity; some information coded in specific sequences
cofactors are inorganic (usually metal of its constituent nucleotides.
ions;) others are organic cofactors, known deoxyribose pentose: sugar lacking a
as coenzymes. hydroxyl (--OH) group on carbon-2'; a
conenzyme (koh-en'zime): an organic cofactor constituent of DNA.
for an enzyme; generally participates in diastole (di-as'toh-lee): phase of the cardiac
the reaction by transferring some cycle in which the heart is relaxed.
component. diatom (die'eh-tom): a usually unicellular
conidiophore (kah-nid'e-o-for): a specialized alga that is covered by an ornate, siliceous
hypha that bears conidia. shell consisting of two overlapping halves;
conjugation: (konjew-gay'shun) (1) a sexual an important component of plankton in
phenomenon in certain protists that both marine and fresh waters.
involves exchange or fusion of a cell with dikaryotic (dy-kare-ee-ot'ik): condition of
another cell; (2) a mechanism for DNA having two nuclei per cell (i.e, n + n),
exchange in bacteria that involves cell to characteristic of certain fungal hyphae.
cell contact. dioecious (dy-ee'shus): having male and
coupled reactions: a pair of reactions, one female reproductive structures on separate
exergonic and one endergonic, that are plants.
linked together so that the energy dipeptide: a compound consisting of two
produced by the exergonic reaction amino acids linked by a peptide bond.
provides the energy needed to derive the disaccharide (dy-sak'ah-ride): a sugar
endergonic reaction. produced by covalently linking two
cristae (kris'tee) (sin. crista): shelf-like or monosaccharides.
finger-like inward projections of the inner DNA sequencing: procedure by which the
membrane of a mitochondrion. sequence of nucleotides in DNA is
cycad (sih'kad): a phylum of gymnosperms determined.
that live mainly in tropical and dorsal (dor'sl): toward the uppermost surface
semitropical regions and have stout stems or back of an animal.
and fern-like leaves. double fertilization: a process in the flowering
cycloid scale: Thin overlapping dermal scales plant life cycle in which there are two
of fish posterior margins are smooth. fertilizations; one fertilization results in
cytokinin (sytoh-kih'nin): a plant hormone the formation of a zygote that develops
into a young plant, while the second ripening of fruits and dropping of leaves
results in the formation of endosperm and fruits .
(nutritive tissue). exocytosis (exoh-sy-toh'sis): the active
E transport of materials out of the cell by
electron microscope: microscope capable of fusion of cytoplasmic vesicles with the
producing high resolution, highly plasma membrane.
magnified images through the use of an F
electron beam (rather than facilitated diffusion: the passive transport of
light).Transmission electron microscopes ions or molecules by a specific carrier
(TEM) produce images of thin sections; protein in a membrane. As in simple
scanning electron microscopes (SEM) diffusion, net transport is down a
produce images of surfaces. concentration gradient, and no additional
electron transport system: a series of energy has to be supplied.
chemical reactions during which facultative anaerobe: organism capable of
hydrogens or their electrons are passed carrying out aerobic respiration, but able
along from one acceptor molecule to to switch to fermentation when oxygen is
another (the electron transport chain), not available; e.g. yeast.
with the release of energy. feedback inhibition: in enzyme mediated
electrophoresis: a biochemical technique that chemical reactions the condition in which
separates molecules according to their the product of a reaction inhibits one or
electrical charge and molecular weight. more of the enzymes involved in
encephalitis: it is characterized by necrotic synthesizing the product.
lesion in one temporal lobe, fever, fermentation: anaerobic process by which
vomiting, seizures and altered mental ATP is produced by a series of redox
status. reactions in which organic compounds
endoderm (en'doh-derm): the inner germ layer serve as electron donors and as electron
of the early embryo; becomes the lining acceptors.
of the digestive tract and the structures fibre: (1) in plants a type of sclerenchyma.
that develop from the digestive tract liver, Fibers are long, tapered cells with thick
lungs, and pancreas. walls. (2) in animals, an elongated cell
endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (en'doh- such as a muscle or nerve cell.
plazmik reh-tik'yoo-lum): interconnected florigen (flor'uh-jen): a hypothetical plant
network of internal membranes in hormone that promotes flowering.
eukaryotic cells enclosing a compartment, fluid-mosaic model: the modern picture of
the ER lumen. Rough ER has ribosomes the plasma membrane and other cellular
attached to the cytosolic surface; somooth membranes in which protein molecules
ER, a site of lipid biosynthesis, lacks float in phospholipids bilayer.
ribosomes. f in it cells are rapidly frozen and then
epiglottis: a thin, flexible structure that guards fractured with a sharp metal blade. The
the entrance to the larynx, preventing food technique allows membranes to be split
from entering the airway during and the surfaces inside to be examined
swallowing. G
epinephrine: a hormone secreted by adrenal gametophyte generation (gam-ee;'toh-fite):
medulla. the n. gamete producing stage in the life
ester linkage: covalent linkage formed by the cycle of a plant.
reaction of a carboxyl group and a ganoid scale: Thick, bony rhombic scales of
hydroxyl group, with the removal of the bony fish, not overlapping.
equivalent of a water molecule; the gastrin (gas'trin): a hormone released by the
linkage includes an oxygen atom bonded stomach mucosa; stimulates the gastric
to a carbonyl group. glands to secrete pepsinogen.
estrogens (es'troh-jens): female sex hormones gastrovascular cavity: a central digestive
produced by the ovary; promote the cavity with a single opening that functions
development and maintenance of female as both mouth and anus; characteristic of
reproductive structures and of secondary cnidarians and flatworms.
sexual characteristics. gene therapy: any one of a variety of methods
ethene: a plant hormone that promotes the designed to correct a disease or alleviate
its symptoms through the introduction of haemoglobin (hee'moh-glohbin): the red,

genes into the affected person's cells. iron-containing protein pigment of
genetic engineering: manipulation of genes, erythrocytes that transports oxygen and
often through recombinant DNA carbon dioxide and aids in regulation of
technology. pH.
genital herpes: it is characterized by painful haploid (haployd): the condition of having
vesicular lesions of the male and female one set of chromosomes per nucleus.
genitals and anal areas. haustorium (hah-stor'e-um) (pl. haustoria):
genome (jee'nome): all the genetic material a specialized hypha of a parasitic fungus
in a cell or organism. that penetrates a host cells to absorb food
genomic DNA library: a collection of and other materials.
recombinant plasmids in which all the helper T cell: T lymphocyte that facilitates
DNA in the genome is represented. the ability of B lymphocytes to form an
geotropism: growth with respect to the antibody-producing clone in response to
direction of gravity. an antigen.
germ layers: primitive embryonic tissue hepatic (heh-pak'ik): pertaining to the liver.
layers; endoderm, mesoderm, or ectoderm. hermaphordite (her-maf'roh-dite): an
germ line: in animals, the line of cells that organism that possesses both male and
will ultimately undergo meiosis to form female sex organs.
gametes. herpes labialis: fever, blister and cold sore
gibberellin (jibur-el'lin): a plant hormone and crops of vesicles usually at the
involved in many aspects of plant growth junction of lips of nose.
and development, such as stem elongation, heterocercal: in some fishes, a tail with the
flowering, and seed germination. upper lobe larger than the lower, and end
gingivostomatitis: occurs primarily in children of the vertebral column somewhat
and is characterized by fever, irritability upturned in the upper lobe, as in sharks.
and vesicular lesions in mouth. heterospory (het ur-os'pur-ee): production
globulin (glob'yoo-lin): one of a class of of two types of n spores, microspores
proteins in blood plasma, some of which (male) and megaspores (female).
(gamma globulins) function as anti-bodies. hexose: a monosaccharides containing six
glycerol: a three-carbon alcohol, with a carbon atoms.
hydroxyl group on each carbon; a histones (histones): small, positively charged
component of neutral fats and (basic) proteins in the cell nucleus that
phospholipids. bind to the negatively charged DNA.
glycolysis (gly-kol'ih-sis): the first stage of homeostasis: maintenance of normal internal
cellular respiration, literally the splitting conditions in a cell or an organism by
of sugar. The metabolic conversion of means of a self regulation mechanism.
glucose into pyruvate, accompanied by homocercal: a tail with the upper and lower
the production of ATP. lobes symmetrical and the vertebral
glycosidic linkage: covalent linkage joining column ending near the middle of the
two sugars; includes an oxygen atom base, as in most teleost fishes.
bonded to a carbon of each sugar, homospory (hoh mos'pure-ee): production
goblet cells: unicellular glands that secrete of one type of n spore that gives rise to a
mucus. bisexual gametophyte.
granum (pl. grana): a stacks of thylakoids hormone: an organic chemical messenger in
within a chloroplast. multicellular organisms produced in one
guanine (gwan'een): a nitrogenous purine part of the body and transported to another
base that is component of nucleic acids. part where it affects some aspect of
guard cell: one of a pair of epidermal cells metabolism.
that adjust their shape to form a stomatal hydrolysis: reaction in which a covalent bond
pore for gas exchange. between two subunits is broken through the
H addition of equivalent of a water molecule; a
haemocoel: blood cavity characteristic of hydrogen atom is added to one subunit and a
animals with an open circulatory system. hydroxyl group to the other.
hydrophilic: attracted to water. such as carotenoids and steroids.

hydrophobic: repelled by water. isotonic (eye'soh-ton'ik): term applied to
hydroponics (hydra-paun'iks): growing solutions that have identical
plants in an aerated solution of dissolved concentrations of solute molecules and
inorganic minerals (that is, without soil). hence the same osmotic pressure also
hypertonic: term referring to a solution having called isosmotic.
an osmotic pressure (or solute K
concentration) greater than that of the karatconjunctivitis: corneal ulcers and lesion
solution with which it is compared, also at the conjunctival epithelium. Recurrent
called hyperosmotic. can lead to blindness.
hypha (hu'fah) (pl. hyphae): one of the thread- kinetochore (kin-eh'toh-kore): portion of the
like filaments composing the mycelium chromosomes centromere to which the
of a water mold or fungus. mitotic spindle fibres attach.
hypokalemia: abnormally small concentration L
of potassium ions in the blood lacteal (lak'tee-al): one of the many lymphatic
hypothalamus (hy-poh-thal'uh-mus): part of vessels in the intestinal villi that absorb
the mammalian brain that regulate the fat.
pituitary gland, the autonomic system, lactic acid: a 3-carbon organic acid; also
emotional responses, body temperature, known also lactate.
water balance, and appetite, located below large intestine: the portion of the digestive
the thalamus. tract of humans (and other vertebrates)
hypotonic: term referring to a solution having consisting of the cecum, colon, rectum,
an osmotic pressure (or solute concentration) and anus.
less than that of the solution with which it is larva (pl. larvae): an immature form in the
compared. life history of some animals; may be
I unlike the parent.
immune response: a specific response by the lateral meristems: areas of localized cell
immune system to invasion of the body division on the side of a plant that give
by particular foreign substance or rise to secondary tissues. Lateral
microorganism, characterized by meristems, including the vascular
recognition of the foreign material by cambium and the cork cambium; cause
immune cells and its subsequent an increase in the girth of the plant body.
destruction by antibodies or cellular leeukopenia: It is a disease in number of white
attack. blood cells (leukocyte) found in blood, which
in vitro: occurring outside a living organism places individuals at risk of infection.
(literally in glass). lignin (lig'nin): the substance found in many
in vivo: occurring in a living organism. plant cell walls that confers rigidity and
inflammatory response: a non-specific, local strength, particularly in woody tissues.
response to injury to the body, lipase (lip'ase): fat-digesting: enzyme.
characterized by phagocytosis of foreign lumen (loo'men): (1) the space enclosed by a
substances and tissue debris by white membrane, such as the lumen of the
blood cells and walling off of injury endoplasmic reticulum;
site by clotting of fluids escaping from lymph (limf): the colourless fluid within the
near by blood vessels. lymphatic vessels that is derived from
interferon (intur-feer'on): a protein blood plasma and resembles it closely in
(cytokine) produced by animal cells when composition; contains white cells;
challenged by a virus. Important in ultimately, returns to the blood.
immune responses, it prevents viral lymph nodes: a mass of lymph tissue
reproduction and enables cells to resist a surrounded by a connective tissue capsule;
variety of viruses. manufactures lymphocytes and filters
intron: In eukaryotes, a non expressed lymph.
(noncoding) portion of a gene, that is excised lymphatic system: a subsystem of the
from the RNA transcript. The coding portion cardiovascular system; returns excess
of a gene is called exon. interstitial fluid to the circulation; defends
isoprene units: five-carbon hydrocarbon the body against disease organisms.
monomers that make up certain lipids lymphocyte (limf'oh-site): white blood cell
with nongranular cytoplasm that is in eukaryotic cells that contain enzymes;

responsible for immune responses. include peroxisomes and glyoxisomes.
lymphoma: It is a cancer that begins in the microfilaments: thin fibres composed of actin
lymphocytes of immune system and presents protein subunits; form part of the
as a solid of tumor of lymphoid cells. They cytoskeleton.
often originate like balls in lymph node. micronutrient: an essential element that is
lysosomes (ly'soh-somes): interacellular required in traceamounts for normal plant
organelles present in many animal cells; growth.
contain a variety of hydrolytic enzymes. microphyll (mi'kro-fil): type of leaf found in
M club mosses; contains one vascular strand
macrophage: a type of white blood cell that (i.e., simple venation).
engulfs microbes. Macrophages destroy molting: the shedding and replacement of an
microbes by phagocytosis and also present outer covering such as an exoskeleton.
microbial antigens to T cells, helping to monoacylglycerol (monoo-as-il-glis'er-ol):
stimulate the immune response a neutral fat consisting of glycerol
major histocomatibility complex (MHC): combined chemically with a single fatty
proteins usually located on the surface of acid, also called monoglyceride.
body cell that identify the cell as self. monocyte (mon'oh-site): a type of white blood
MHC proteins are also important in cell, a large phagocytic, nongranular
stimulating and regulating the immune leukocyte that enters the tissues and
response. differentiates into a macrophage.
malignant: term used to describe cancer cells monoecious (mon-ee'shus): having male and
(tumor cells that are able to invade tissue female reproductive parts in separate
and metastasize). flowers on the same plant;
medusa: a jellyfish-like animal; a free- monomer (mon'oh-mer): A molecule of a
swimming, umbrella shaped stage in the compound that can be linked with other
life cycle of certain cnidarians. similar molecules to form a polymer.
megaspore (meg'uh-spor): the n spore in monophyletic group (monoh-fye-let'ik): a
heterosporous plants that gives rise to a group made up of organisms that evolve
female gametophyte. from a common ancestor.
memory cell: B or T lymphocyte that permits mucosa (mew-koh'suh): a mucous membrane,
rapid mobilization of immune response especially in the lining of the digestive
on second or subsequent exposure to a and respiratory tracts.
particular antigen. mucus (mew'cus): a sticky secretion composed
mesonephrons: the middle of the three pairs of of covalently linked protein and
embryonic renal organs in vertebrates. The carbohydrate; serves to lubricate body
functional kidney of fish and amphibians. parts and trap particles of dirt and other
messenger RNA (mRNA): RNA that specifies contaminants. (the adjectival form is
the amino acid sequence of a proteion; spelled mucous.)
transcribed from DNA. mutation: any change in DNA; may include
metabolism: the sum of all the chemical a change in the nucleotide base pairs of
processes that occur within a cell or a gene, a rearrangement of genes, within
organism; the transformations by which the chromosomes so that their interactions
energy and matter are made available for produce different effects, or a change in
use by the organism. the chromosomes themselves.
metamerism: condition in which the body is mycelium (my-seel'ee-um) (pl. mycelia): the
divided into a series of similar segments; vegetative body of fungi and certain
characteristic of annelids and arthropods. protists (water molds); consists of a
metamorphosis (metah-mor'fuh-sis): branched network of hyphae.
transition from one developmental stage mycorrhizea (mykor-rye'zee): mutualistic
to another, such as from a larva to an associations of fungi and plant roots that
adult. aid in the plant's absorption of essential
metastasis (met-tas'tuh-ssis): the spreading minerals from the soil.
of cancer cells from one organ or part of myocardial infarction (MI): heart attack; serious
the body to another. consequence occurring when the heart muscle
microbodies: membrane-bounded structures receives insufficient oxyegen.
myoglobin (my'oh-glohbin): a haemoglobin- or pyrimidine) and a pentose sugar.

like oxygen transferring protein found in nucleosomes (new'k-lee-oh-somz): repeating
muscle. units of chromatin structure, each
myxoviruses: these are enveloped, have single consisting of a length of DNA wound
stranded negative polarity RNA, e.g., around a complex of eight histone
influenza virus. The term myxo refers to molecules (two of four different types)
the affinity of the viruses for mucin and plus a DNA linker region associated with
ortho (orthomyxoviruses) is added to a fifth histone protein.
distinguish them from paramyxo viruses. nucleotide (noo'klee-oh-tide): a molecule
N composed of one or more phosphate
NAD+/NADH: oxidized and reduced forms, groups, a 5-carbon sugar (ribose or
respectively, of nicotinamide adenine deoxyribose) and nitrogenous base (purine
dinucleotide; coenzyme that transfers or pyrimidine).
electrons (as hydrogen), particularly in O
catabolic pathways, including cellular organic compound: a compound composed
respiration. of a backbone made up of carbon atoms.
NADP+/NADPH: oxidized and reduced osmoregulation (ozmoh-reg-yoo-lay'shun):
forms, respectively, of nicotinamide the active regulation of the osmotic
adenine dinucleotide phosphate; pressure of body fluids so that they do
coenzyme that acts as an electron not become excessively dilute or
(hydrogen) transfer agent, particularly in excessively concentrated.
anabolic pathways, including osmosis (oz-moh'sis): net movement of water
photosynthesis. (the principal solvent in biological
nasal turbulence mechanism: The removal of systems) by diffusion through a selectively
particles by turbulent precipitation i.e. the permeable membrane from a region of
air passing through the nasal passageway higher concentration of water (a hypotonic
hits many obstructing vanes: the chonchae, solution) to a region of lower
also (called turbinates because they cause concentration of water (a hypertonic
turbulence of the air) the septum and the solution).
pharyngeal wall. Each time air hits one of osmotic pressure: the pressure that must be
these obstructions, it must change its exerted on the hypertonic side of a
direction of movement, the particles selectively permeable membrane to
suspended in the air, having more mass and prevent diffusion of water (by osmosis)
momentum than air, cannot change their from the side containing pure water.
direction of travel as rapidly as can the air. ovoviviparous (oh'voh-vih-vipur-us): a type
Therefore they continue forward, striking of development in which the young hatch
the surfaces of constructions, and are from eggs incubated inside the mother's
entrapped in mucous coating and transported body.
by cilia to the pharynx to be swallowed. ovule (ov'yool): the structure (i.e.,
nematocyst (nem-at'oh-sist): a stinging megasporangium) in the ovary that
structure found within cnidocytes develops into the seed following
(stinging cells) in cnidarians; used for fertilization.
anchorage, defence, and capturing prey. ovum (pl. ova): female gamete of an animal.
neonatal herpes: originates chiefly from oxidation: the loss of one or more electrons
contact with vesicular lesions within the by an atom, ion, or molecule.
birth canal. oxidative phosphorylation (fosfor-ih-
neurotoxicity: It occurs when the exposure to lay'shun): the production of ATP using
natural or artificial toxic substance, which energy derived from the transfer of
are called neurotoxin, alters the normal electrons in the electron transport system
activity of the nervous system in such a way of mitochondria; occurs by chemiosmosis.
as to cause damage to nervous tissue. oxyhaemoglobin: haemoglobin that has
neutral fat: a lipid used for energy storage, combined with oxygen.
consisting of a glycerol covalently bonded P
to one, two or three fatty acids. P680: chlorophyll a molecules that serve as
nucleoside (new'klee-oh-side): molecule the reaction centre of Photosystem ll,
consisting of a nitrogenous base (purine transferring photoexcited electrons to a
primary acceptor; named by their phosphodiester linkage: covalent linkage

absorption peak at 680 nm. between two nucleotides in a strand of
P700: chlorophyll a molecules that serve as DNA or RNA; includes a phosphate group
the reaction centre of Photosystem I, bonded to the sugars of two adjacent
transferring photoexcited electrons to a nucleotides.
primary acceptor; named by their phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP): 3-carbon
absorption peak at 700 nm. phosphorylated compound that is an
pacemaker (of the heart): the sinoatrial (SA) important intermediate in glycolysis and
node of the heart; specialized cardiac is a reactant in the initial carbon fixation
muscle where each heartbeat begins. step in the C4 and CAM pathways of
passive immunity: temporary immunity that carbon fixation in photosynthesis.
depends on the presence of phosphoglycerate (PGA): phosphorylated 3-
immunoglobulins produce by another carbon compound that is an important
organism. metabolic intermediate.
pathogen (path'oh-gen): an organism, usually phospholipids (fosfoh-lipidz): fatlike
a microorganism, capable of producing substances in which there are two fatty
disease. acids and a phosphorus-containing group
pentose: a sugar molecule containing five attached to glycerol; major components
carbons. of cellular membranes.
pepsin (pep'sin): an enzyme produced in the phosphorylatiohn (fosfor-ih-lay'shun): the
stomach that initiates digestion of introduction of a phosphate group into an
proteion. organic molecule. Kinases are enzymes
peptide (pep'tide): a compound consisting of that catalyze certain phosphorylation
a chain of amino acid groups. A dipeptide reactions.
consists of two amino acids, a polypeptide photolysis (foh-tol'uh-sis): the photochemical
of many amino acids. splitting of water in the light-dependent
peptide bond: a distinctive covalent carbon- reactions of photosynthesis, catalyzed by
to-nitrogen bond that links amino acids a specific enzyme.
in peptides and proteins. photon (foh'ton): a particle of electromagnetic
peptidoglycan (peptid-oh-gly'kan): a radiation; one quantum of radiant energy.
modified protein or peptide possessing photoperiodism (fohtoh-peer'ee-od-izm):
an attached carbohydrate; component of the physiological response (such as
the bacterial cell wall. flowering) of plants to variations in the
period: an interval of geological time that is length of daylight and darkness.
a subdivision of an era. Each period is photophosphorylation (fohtoh-fos-for-ih-
divided into epochs. lay'shun): the production of ATP in
peristalsis (pehrih-stal'sis): rhythmic waves photosynthesis.
of muscular contraction and relaxation in photosystem: a group of chlorophyll
the walls of hollow tubular organs, such molecules, accesory pigments, and
as the ureter or parts of the digestive tract, associated electron acceptors that emits
that serve to move the contents through electrons in response to light; located in
the tube. the thylakoid membrane (in
peroxisomes (pehr-ox'ih-somz): membrane- photoautorophic eukaryotes).
bounded organelles in eukaryotic cells phototropism (fohtoh-troh'pizm): the growth
containing enzymes that produce or of a plant in response to the direction of
degrade hydrogen peroxide. light.
pH: the negative logarithm of the hydrogen phytochrome (fy'toh-krome): a blue-green,
ion concentration of a solution (expressed proteinaceous pigment involved in a wide
as moles per liter). Neutral pH is 7; values variety of physiological responses to light;
less than 7 are acidic, and those greater occurs in two interchangeable forms
than 7 are basic. depending on the ratio of red to far-red
phagocytosis (fagoh-sy-toh'sis): literally, light.
cell eating; a type of endocytosis by pinocytosis (pinoh-sy-toh'sis): cell drinking
which certain cells engulf food particles, a type of endocytosis by which cells
microorganisms, foreign matter, or other engulf and absorb droplets of liquids.
cells. plasma cell: cell that secretes antibodies;
differentiated B lymphocyte. Earth's history.

plasmids (plaz'midz): small circular DNA pressure-flow: hypothesis the mechanism by
molecules that carry genes separate from which dissolved sugar is thought to be
the main bacterial DNA. transported in phloem.
plasmodesmata (sing. plasmodesma): prokaryote (pro-kar'ee-ote): cell that lacks a
cytoplasmic channels connecting adjacent nucleus and other membrae-bounded
plant cells. organelles; include the bacteria, members
plasmodial slime mold (plaz-moh'dee-uhl): of Kingdom Prokaryotae.
a fungus-like protist whose feeding stage prophage (pro'faj): a latent state of a
consists of a plasmodium. bacteriophage in which the viral genome
plasmolysis (plaz-molih-sis): the shrinkage is inserted into the bacterial host
of cytoplasm and the pulling away of the chromosome.
plasma membrane from the cell wall when protist (proh'tist): one of a vast kingdom of
a plant cell (or other walled cell) loses eukaryotic organisms, primarily single-
water, usually in a hypertonic celled or simple multicellular; mostly
environment. aquatic.
platelets (play'lets): cell fragments in the pseudocoelom (soodoh-see'lom): a body
blood that function in clotting; also called cavity between the mesoderm and
thrombocytes. endoderm; derived form the blastocoel.
polymer (pol'ih-mer): a molecule built up pseudocoelomate (soodoh-seel'oh-mate):
from repeating monomers, such as a animal possessing a pseudocoelom.
protein, nucleic acid, or polysaccharide. pulse: alternate expansion and recoil of an
polyp (pol'ip): Hydra-like animal; the sessile artery.
stage of the life cycle of certain cnidarians purines (pure'eenz): nitrogenous bases with
e.g., Obelia. carbon and nitrogen atoms in two attached
polypeptide: a compound consisting of many rings;+components of nucleic acids, ATP,
amino acids linked by peptide bonds. NAD , and certain other biologically
polysaccharide (pol-ee-sak'ah-ride): a active substances. Examples are adenine
carbohydrate consisting of many and guanine.
monosaccharide subunits; examples are R
starch, glycogen, and cellulose. radial cleavage: pattern of blastomere
Positive polarity: it is defined as an RNA production in which the cells are located
with the same base sequence as the mRNA directly above or below one another;
with negative polarity has a base sequence characteristic of early deuterostome
that is complementary to the mRNA. For embryos.
example, if the mRNA sequence is an A- radial symmetry: a body plan in which any
C-U-G, and RNA with negative polarity section through the mouth and down the
would be U-G.A-C and an RNA with length of the body divides the body into
positive polarity
+ would be A-C-U-G. similar halves. Jellyfish and other
potassium (k ) ion mechanism: mechanism cnidarians have radial symmetry.
by which plants open and close their radula (rad'yoo-lah): a rasplike structure in
stomata. The influx of potassium ions into the digestive tract of chitons, snails,
guard cells causes water to move in by squids, and certain other mollusks.
osmosis, changing the shape of the guard recombinant DNA: any DNA molecule made
cells and opening the pore. by combining genes from different
poxviruses: these are largest DNA viruses, organisms.
with bricklike shape, an envelope with an redox reaction (ree'dox): chemical reaction
unusual appearance and a complex capsid in which one or more electrons are
symmetry. They are named for the skin transferred from one substance (the
lesions or 'pocks' they cause. Small pox substance that becomes oxidized) to
virus and vaccinia virus are the two another (the substance that becomes
important member. The later virus is used reduced).
in the small pox vaccine. renin: an enzyme found in gastric juice which
precambrian time: all of geological time cause coagulation.
before the Paleozoic era, encompassing rennin: a protein enzyme secreted by the kidneys
approximately the first 4 billion years of into the blood stream, where it helps to
maintain blood pressure. of secondary tissues, i.e., wood and bark.

reoviruses: these are naked i.e. nonenveloped semilunar valves: valves between the
viruses with two icosahedral capsid coats. ventricles of the heart and the arteries that
Have double-stranded linear RNA .The carry blood away from the heart.
main pathogen is rotavirus which causes sepsis: It is characterized by a whole-body
diarrhoea mainly in infants. inflammatory state and the presence of a
reproduction: process by which new known or suspected infection. The body
individuals are produced. may develop this inflammatory response to
retrovirus (ret'roh-vyrus): an RNA virus that microbes in the blood, urine, lungs, skin or
uses reverse transcriptase to produce a other tissue.
DNA intermediate in the host cell. These septum (pl. septa): a cross-wall or partition;
are enveloped viruses with icosadehedral for example, the walls that divide a hypha
and identical strands of single stranded, into cells. Permanently attached to sessile
linear, plus RNA. The term retro (ses'sile) one location. Coral animals, for
pertains to the reverse transcription of example, are sessile.
RNA genome into two DNA. There are small intestine: portion of the vertebrate
two medically important groups. (1) The digestive tract that extends from the
oncovirus group, which contains the stomach to the large intestine.
sarcoma and leukemia virus.(2) The sodium potassium pump: a set of active
lentivirus (slow virus) group , which transport molecules in nerve cell
includes HIV and certain animal pathogen. membranes that use the energy of ATP to
rhabdoviruses: these are bullet shaped pump sodium ions out of the cell and
enveloped viruses, single stranded linear, potassium ions in maintaining the
negative polarity RNA. The term rabdo concentration gradients of these ions
refers to the bullet shape e.g., rabies virus. across the membrane.
ribonucleic acid (RNA): a family of single- spongy mesophyll (mez'oh-fil): the loosely
stranded nucleic acids that function mainly arranged mesophyll cells near the lower
in protein synthesis. epidermis in certain leaves.
ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP): a 5-carbon sporophyte generation (spor'oh-fite): the 2n
phosphorylated compund with a high spore-producing stage in the life cycle of
energy potential reacts with carbon a plant.
dioxide in the initial step of the Calvin starch: a polysaccharide composed of alpha
cycle. glucose subunits; made by plants for
rubisco: common name of ribulose energy storage.
bisphosphate carboxylase, the enzymes steroids (steer'oids): complex molecules
the reaction of carbon dioxide with containing carbon atoms arranged in four
ribulose bisphosphate in the Calvin cycle. attached rings, three of which contain six
rugae (roo'jee): folds, such as those in the carbon atoms each and the fourth of which
lining of the stomach. contains five. Cholesterol and certain
S hormones, including the male and female
sclereid (skler'id): in plants, a sclerenchyma sex hormones of vertebrates, are
cell that is variable in shape but typically examples.
not long and tapered. stomach: muscular region of the vertebrate
sclerenchyma (skler-en'kim-uh): cells that digestive tract extending from the
provide strength and support in the plant oesophagus to the small intestine.
body, are often dead at maturity, and have stomata (sing. stoma): small pores located in
extremely thick walls; include fibres and the epidermis of plants that provide for
sclereids. gas exchange for photosynthesis, each
scrapie: it is a disease of sheep, characterized stoma is flanked by two guard cells, which
by tremors, ataxia and itching, in which are responsible for its opening and closing.
sheep scrap off their wool against fence storbilus (stroh'bil-us) (pl. strobili): in certain
post. plants, a cone-like structure that bears
secondary growth: an increase in the girth spore-producing sporangia.
of a plant due to the activity of the stroma: a fluid space of the chloroplast,
vascular cambium and cork cambium, enclosed by the chloroplast inner
secondary growth results in the production membrane and surrounding the thylakoids;
site of the reactions of the Calvin cycle. V

substrate: a substance on which an enzyme vaccine (vak-seen'): a commercially produced
acts; a reactant in an enzymatically weakened or killed antigen of a particular
catalyzed reaction. disease that stimulates the body to make
suppressor T cell: T lymphoctye that antibodies
suppresses the immune respones. cytoplasm; may function in storage, digestion,
systole: the part of the cardiac cycle when the or water elimination.
heart is contracting. vertebral column: backbone of vertebrates
T through which the spinal cord passes.
T cell (T lymphocyte): lymphocyte that is vesicle (ves'ih-kl) any small sac, especially
processed in the thymus. T cells have a a small spherical membrane-bounded
wide variety of immune function but are compartment, within the cytoplasm.
primarily responsible for cell-mediated viroid (vy'roid): tiny, naked virus consisting
immunity. only of nucleic acid.
T-cell receptor: a protein receptor located on viscera (vis'ur-uh): the internal body organs,
the surface of a T cell which binds a especially those located in the abdominal
specific antigen and triggers the immune or thoracic cavities.
response of the cell. visna: it is a disease of sheep, characterized
thrombus (throm'bus): a blood clot formed by pneumonia and lesions in brain.
within a blood vessel or within the heart.
thromcytopenia: When the number of blood W
platelets is lower than the normal i.e. 150,000 water potential: free energy of water; the
to 450,000. water potential of pure water is zero, and
thylakoids (thy'lah-koidz): interconnected that of solutions is a negative value.
system of flattened, sac-like membranous water vascular system: unique hydraulic
structures inside the chloroplast; the system of echinoderms; functions in
thylakoids membranes contain chlorophyll locomotion and feeding.
and the electron transport chain, and wavelength: the distance from one wave peak
enclose a compartment, the thylakoids to the next; the energy of electromagnetic
space. radiation is inversely proportional to its
thyroid gland: an endocrine gland that lies wavelength.
anterior to the trachea and releases X
hormones that regulate the rate of xylem (zy'lem): the vascular tissue that
metabolism. conducts water and dissolved minerals in
trace element: an element required by an plants.
organism, but in very small amounts. Y
tracheid (tray'kee-id): a type of water- yeast: a unicellular fungus (ascomycote) that
conducting and supporting cell in the reproduces asexually by budding or fission
xylem of vascular plants. and sexually by ascospores.
transfer RNA (tRNA): RNA molecules that
bind to specific amino acids and serve as Z
adapter molecules in protein synthesis. zoospore (zoh'oh-spore): a flagellated motile
The tRNA anticodons bind to spore produced asexually by certain algae,
complementary mRNA codons. water molds, and other protists.
trichome (try'kohm): a hair or other appendage zygomycotes: fungi characterized by the
growing out from the epidermis of a plant. production of nonmotile asexual spores
tricylglycerol (try-asil-glis'er-oil): a neutral and sexual zygspores.
fat consisting of a glycerol combined zygospore (zy'gah-spor): a thick-walled sexual
chemically with three fatty acids; also spore produced by a zygomycote.
called triglyceride. zygote: the 2n cell that results from the union
triose: a sugar molecule containing three of n gametes in sexual reproduction.
carbons. Species that are not polyploid have
tube feet: structures characteristic of haploid gametes and diploid zygotes.
echinoderms; function in locomotion.
GLOSSARY 443
INDEX
A Anorexia nervosa 360 Auxins 327

Abscisic acid 329 Antennae complex 103 Aves 292
Absorption spectrum 5, 102 Antheridium 223, 225 Axoneme 27
Acetyl Coenzyme A 114 Anticodon 71 B
Acetylcholine 349 Antibiotics 177 B cells 416
Acid chain 100 Antibodies 414, 422 Bacteria 31
Acoelomate 255 Antibody mediated immunity Bacteriochlorophyll 98
Acorn worm 279 414, 416, 418 Bacteriology 160
Acrania 261 Antibody mediated response Bacteriophage 136,141
Actin filaments 25 418 Baroreceptor reflexes 385
Actinomycetes 160 Antibody molecule 422 Barry Marshall 356
Actinopods 194 Antibody-mediated immune Basal body 27
Action spectrum 103 response 419 Base plate 136
Active site 78, 89 Anticodon 71 Basidiocarps 206
Acylglycerol 57 Antidiuretic hormone 388 Basidiomycota 206
Adenine 63 Antigen 13, 305 Basidiospore 206
Adenovirus 135 Antiseptics 184 Basidium 206
Adhesion 43, 311 Anus 340 Bemisia tabaci 152
Adiantum 233 Aorta 383 Bicuspid valve 369
Adipose tissue 352 Aortic semilunar valve 371 Bilateria 254
Adventitia 377 Apical dominance 326 Bile 355
Aerobic respiration 110 Apical meristems 323 Bilirubin 355
Aflatoxin 215 Apicomplexans 194 Biliverdin 355
Agnatha 283 Apoenzyme 78, 79 Binary fission 31,172
Akinete 162 Apoplast pathway 311 Biochemistry 39
Aldosugar 45 Appendix 340 Bioenergetics 95
Algae 195 Arachnida 270
Biogas 177
Allard, H.A. 331 Archaea 158
Archaebacteria 158 Bioremediation 177
Allergy 424 Bipinnaria larvae 277
Allosteric site 89 Archegonium 223, 225
Arcuate arteries 384 Blight 181
Allosteric, 87 Blood capillaries 377
Amanita 212 Arteries 6, 379
Ameoebas 192 Arteriole 377 Blood pressure 385
Amide linkage 53 Arthropoda 271 Blood vessel 376
Amino acids 35 Artificial active immunity 417 B-lymphocytes 420
Amphibia 289 Artificial passive immunity, Brachiolaria larvae 277
Amphibious plant 223, 225 418 Bradford 27
Amphitrichous 157, 357 Aschelminthes 266 Bradycardia 375
Amylase 48 Ascocarp 206 Brown algae 196
Amylopectin 50 Ascomycota 205, 214 Bryophytes 222
Amylose 50 Ascospore 206 Bulimia nervosa 360
Anaerobic bacteria 110 Aspartate 89 Bundle of His 374
Anaerobic respiration 111 Aspergillosis 215 C
Anal canal 340, 346 Atherosclerosis 62, 389 C region 422
Anamniotes 290 ATP-ase complex 22 Calvin cycle 109
Anaphyletic reaction 426 Atrioventricualr node 373 Cambium 324
Angina pectoris 389 Atrioventricular bundle 373 Camillo Golgi, 17
Angiography 390 Atrioventricular valves 369 Candidiasis 215
Angioplasty 392 Atrium 369 Capillaries 377
Angiosperm 235 Autoimmunie disease 424 Capillary action 312
Annelida 269 Autolysis 21 Capillary network 378
Annual rings 326 Autophagy 20 Capitulum 246
444
Capsid 135 Chyme 348, 350 De Duve 18, 19

Capsule 164 Chymosin 91 Decker 123
Carbohydrase 91 Chymotrypsinogen 357 Defaecation 353
Carbohydrates 40, 44, 22 Cilia, 26, 193 Deglutition 347
Carbon fixation 108 Ciliates 193 Deplasmolysis 310
Carboxylase 123 Circinate vernation 231 Deuteromycota 208
Cardiac cycle 371 Circulatory system 367 Deuterostomes 256
Cardiovascular system 367 Cisternae 15 Diastase 76
Carl Woese 158 Clover leaf model 71 Diastole 371
Carotene 228 Club fungi 206 Diastolic pressure 385
Carotenoids 96 Club mosses 229 Diatoms 196
Casparian strip 311 Cnidaria 262 Differential staining 3
Caspomers 135 Codon 71 Dihydroxyacetone 45
Catkin 245 Coelomate 256 Dikaryotic 206
CD8 cell 416 Co-enzyme 80 Dinofalgellates 196
Cecum 345 Co-enzyme Q 116 Dinucleotide 65
Cell fraction 3 Co-factor 78 Diplosome 24
Cell mediated immune Cohesion 43, 312 Disaccharides 48
response 418 Collenchyma 321 DNA nanotechnology 68
Cell mediated immunity 416 Colon 346 Duodenum 345
Cell membrane 11 Competitive inhibitors 87 Dynein arms, 27
Cell theory 2 Complememnt system 410 Dynein protein 27
Cell wall 8,221 Complement proteins 410 Dyspepsia 357
Cell-mediated immunity 416 Condensation 41 E
Cellulose 54, 221 Conidia 205 Ecdysis 273
Centrifugation, 3 Conidiophores 205 Echinodermata 276
Centrifuge 3 Conjugated molecules 72 Ectomycorrhizae 211
Centrioles 24 Conjugating fungi 203 Edward Jenner 305
Centromere 30 Constant segment 422 Ehrenberg.C.G 160
Centrosome 25 Contractile vacuole 231 Electrocardiogram 375
Cephalochordata 282 Coronary bypass 391 Electrocardiograph 375
Cephalospidomorphi 283 Coronary circulation 383 Electromagnetic energy 96
Chaetae 219 Corymb 26 Electromagnetic spectrum 96
Chailakhyan, M.H. 332 Cotton Leaf Curl Disease 151 Electron transport chain 107,
Chemiosmosis 118 Coupled reaction 12 Electrophoresis 4
Chemoautotrophic bacteria Craniata 261 Elementary particles 22
169 Crisscross 10 Elements 40
Chemokine receptors 144 Cristae, 22 Embolism 388
Chemotropism 330 Crustacea 275 Emile Fischer 80
Chief cells 349 Ctenoids 286 Emulsification 352
Chiral 47 Cutin 72, 221, 225 Enantiomers 48
Chitin 51, 271 Cyanide 86 Endocardium 368
Chlorophyll 98, 103, 220 Cyanobacteria 162 Endomycorrhizae 211
Chloroplast 23 Cycloid scale 286 Endoplasmic reticulum 15
Choanoderm 261 Cymose inflorescence 246 Endospermic 243
Choanoflagellate 92 Cystic duct 354 Endospore 16, 165
Choleocystokinin 350 Cytochrome oxidase 59 Energy of activation 83
Cholera 179 Cytokines 411 Engelmann T.W., 102
Cholesterol 12, 62 Cytokinins 329 Enterocoely 258
Chondrichthyes 285 Cytoplasm 39 Enzyme 12, 76
Chordae tendineae 369 Cytosine 63 Enzyme inhibition 87
Chordata 278 Cytoskeleton 25 Epicardium 368
Chromatin 30 Cytotoxic T cells 418 Epinephrine 380
Chromatography 4 D Equisetum 230
Chromosomes 30 Darwin, Charles 327 Ethene 329
Chylomicrons 352, 397 David Baltimore 134 Eubacteria 168
445
Euglenoids 195 Glyoxiomes 28 Hydrophytes 318

Eukaryotic cell 31, 252 Glyoxylate cycle 19 Hydroponics 303
Eumatozoa 253 Gnathostomata 281 Hydrostatic skeleton 326
Eutheria 295 Goblet cells 344 Hydrozoan polyp 262
Exocytosis 28 Golgi complex 17 Hypertension 393
F Golgi vesicles 17 Hypertonic 317
Fallots tetralogy 390 Granum 23 Hyphae 202
Fattyacids 57 Graticule 6 Hypotension 393
Feedback inhibition 89 Green algae 198 Hypotonic 309, 317
Fermentation 111 Guanine, 53 I
Fern 236 Gymnosperms 237 Icosahedral 135
Ferredoxin 107 H Ileum 345
Fever 412 Haemocoel 271 Immunity 305
Fibres 248 Halophiles 314 Immunoglobulins 422
Filterable viruses 133 Hans Kreb 114 Immunology 305
Fimbriae 32 Haploid 233 Imperfect fungi 208
Flaccidity 314 Harshey A. Chase, M. 143 Induced fit model 80
Flagelin 168 Hausteria, 201 Inflammatory response 409,
Flagella 26, 27 Heart attack 389 410
Flame cells 264 Heart failure 390 Inflorescence 244
Flicinae 230 Heart sounds 372 Interferons 415
Florigen 332 Heart valves 369 Interleucin-I 415
Flu virus 136 Heatshock protein 321 Intermediate filament 25
Fluid mosaic model, 11 Heavy chain 422 Interstitial fluid 394
Food poisoning 359 Helicobacter pylori 358 Interstitium 394
Foraminifera 194 Helper T cells 416 Introns 33
Francis 327 Hematin 80 Ionization 43
Francis crick 64 Hemichordata 278 Isomerases 90
Freideric Miescher 62 Hepatic duct 354 Isomerism 47
Funaria 270 Hepatic portal system 383 Isomers 47
Fungi 201 Hepatic vein 354 Isoprene unit 51
G Hepatitis 149 Isotonic 317
Gallbladder 356 Herpes 150 Iwanowsky 133
Galls 182 Heterocoel 285 J
Gametangia 200, 203 Heterocyst 162, 163
Heterogamy 225 Jackolantern 213
Gametophyte 223, 227 James Watson 66
Ganoid scale 286 Heterotroph 251
Heterotrophic bacteria 170 Jejunum 345
Garner, W.W. 331 Joseph Lister 184
Gastrin 349 Hexoes 49
Gastrointestinal tract 339 Histamine 411 K
Gel 14 HIV 137 Kaposis sarcoma 146
Gemmule 261 HIV life cycle 144 Karlene V. Schwartz 157
Geotropism 330 Holoenzyme 78 Keratin 407
Gibberellin 328 Homeostasis in plants 317 Keratinocytes 407
Gills 280, 287 Homoceral 286 Keto sugar 45
Glucan 50 Hormogonia 162 Kinetochores 30
Glucoside linkage 49 Horsetails 213 Koshland 81
Glutamate 54 Humoral immunity 414 Krebs cycle 115
Glyceraldehydes 45 Humour 420 L
Glycine 124 Humus 213 Lacteal 346
Glycocalyx 32 Humoral response 420 Lactose, 48
Glycogen 50 Hydrocarbon chain 100 Lamellae, 23
Glycolate 124 Hydrogen bond 42 Langerhan cells 407
Glycolipids 72 Hydrolase 81, 90 Large intestine 345
Glycolysis 112 Hydrolysis 41 Lateral meristem 324
Glycoproteins 12, 32 Hydrophilic 59 Leaf spot 181
446
Lederberg, J. 173 Messenger RNA 69 Nuclein 62

Leeuwenhoek, Anton van 160 Metabolic pathways 77 Nucleocapsid 155
Levene P.A., 62 Metabolism 77 Nucleoid 31, 33
Lichens 210 Metamorphosis 273,290 Nucleoli 29
Ligases 90 Metatheria 295 Nucleoplasm 29, 39
Light chain 422 Methogens 160 Nucleoside 63
Light dependent reactions 106 Micellus 352 Nucleotide 62, 63
Light harvesting 103 Microdissection, 3 Nucleus 29
Lignin, 10 Microfibrills, 10 Nutrition in plants 303
Lipase 352 Microfilaments, 25 O
Lipid bilayer 60 Micrometer 6 Obesity 360
Lipids 40, 50 Micronutrients 303, 304 Ocular micrometer, 7
Lipoproteins 72 Microscope, 242 Oesophagus 339, 342
Liver 354 Microtubules, 25, 27 Oogonium 200
Lock and Key model 80 Microvilli 352 Oomycotes 199
Lophotrichous 167 Middle lamella, 11 Oospore 200
Lyases 90 Mitochondrial particles 22 Open-heart surgery 392
Lycopodium 229 Mitochondrion 22 Optimum temperature 84
Lycopsida 229 Mitral valve 369 Organelle 2, 15
Lymph 395 Mollusca 267 Orthostatic hypertension 393
Lymph capillaries 396 Monoclonal antibodies 423 Osculum 261
Lymph nodes 398 Monocytes 415 Osmoregulation 320
Lymphatic system 394 Monoecious 223 Osmosis 39,
Lymphocyte 415 Monoglycerol 57 Osmotic adjustment 317, 319
Lymphokines 418 Monomers 47 Osmotic potential 314
Lysogenic cycle 142 Mononucleotide 64 Osteichthyes 286
Lysosomal storage disease 21 Monosaccharids 44 Ostia 261
Lysosomes, 19 Monotremes 294 Ovule 228, 237
Lysozyme 141 Monotrichous 167 Oxaloacetate 26
Lytic cycle 141 Moss 223 Oxidation 110
M Murein 31, 164 Oxidative phosphorylation 117
Macronutrients 303, 304 Mushroom 207 Oxygenase 123
Macrophages 409, 415 Mutants 173 Oxylate 125
Magnification, 6 Mutualism 210 Oxyntic cell 344
Malic acid 126 Mycelium 202 Oxysome 22
Malignant melanoma 421 Mycology 20 P
Malpighian tubules 257 Mycorrhizae 211 Pacemakers 374
Maltase 48 Myocardial infarction 389 Pancreas 356
Mammals 393 Myocardium 368 Pancreatic amylase 351
Mantle 267 Myogenic 373 Parasitic bacteria 170
Marchantia 225 Myriapoda 275 Parazoa 253
Marguis .Lynn, 157 Myxini 284 Parietal cell 344
Marsupials 295 Myxomycota 198 Parotid glands 341
Marsupium 295 N Passive immunity 418
Matrix 22 Natural active immunity 417 Payen and Persoz 76
Mediastinum 367 Natural killer cells 408 Peat mosses 277, 231
Medusae, 264 Natural passive immunity418 Pentose 45
Megasporangium 236, 237 Neimann-Pick disease, 21 Pepsin 349
Melonate 87 Nematocyst 262 Pepsinogen 349
Melvin Calvin 108 Nephridia 269 Peptide bond 50
Memory cell 422 Nitrification 176 Peptide linkage 5
Meniscus 313 Nitrogen base 63 Peptidoglycan 31, 163
Mesenchyma 255, 261 Non competitive inhibitors 87 Pericardium 367
Mesoglea 253, 262 Notochord 280 Peristalsis 348
Mesophytes 318 Nuceloprotiens 72 Peritrichous 167
Mesosome 32 Nucleic acid 40, 62 Peritubular capillaries 385
447
Peroxysomes 18, 19 Postural hypotension 393 Ribosomal RNA 70

Peter Mitchell 118 Primary cell wall, 8 Ribosomes 16, 32
pH 84 Primary electron acceptor 103 Ribulosebisphosphate 108
Phage library 143 Primary lysosomes 29 Robin Varan 358
Phagocytes 409 Prions 153 Rocker.E 22
Phagocytosis 20 Prokaryotes 157 Rubisco 108, 123
Pharynx 342 Prokaryotic cell 31 Rudolf Virchow 2
Phloem tissues 308 Prostaglandins 58 Rust 214
Phosphodiester bond 65 Prosthetic group 80 S
Phosphoglycolate 124 Proteases 91 Sac fungi 205
Phosphohexose isomerase 90 Proteins 40, 52 Salivary amylase 347
Phospholipids, 11, 59 Protista 191 Salivary glands 341
Phosphorylation 64, 65, 97 Protochordata 280 Sanger and Nicholson, 11
Photolysis 106 Protonema 223 Saprotroph bacteria 170
Photon 96 Protonephridea 282 Sarcoplasmic reticulum 15
Photoperiod 330 Protoplasm 14, 39 Saturated fatty acids 58
Photoperiodism 330 Protoplast, 8, 10 Scanning tunneling
Photophosphorylation 106 Protosotmes 256 microscope 68
Photopolymers 50 Prototheria 294 Schizocoely 258
Photoreceptors 399 Protozoa 192 Sclereids 323
Photorespiration 123, 124 Provirus 144 Sclerenchyma 322
Photosynthetic bacteria 169 Pseudocoelomates 256 Secondary cell wall 10
Photosystem 102 Psilopsida 228 Secondary growth 235
Phototropism 330 Psilotum 228 Secondary lysosomes 19
Phycobilins 99, 170 Pteropsida 230 Secretin 357
Phycobilisomes 170 Pulmonary circuit 381 Semilunar valve 370
Phycocyanin 170 Pulmonary circulation 381 Serine 124
Phycoerythrin 170 Purine 63 Sickle cell 54
Physarum 198 Purkinje fibres 374 Simplast pathway 311
Phytochrome 332 Pus 412 Sinoatrial node 373
Pili 32 Pyrimidine 63 Slime capsule 31
Pinacoderm 261 Pyrogen 412, 413 Slime molds 198
Placenta 295 Pyrrole 99 Small intestine 344
Placentalis 295 R Smuts 214
Placoid scale 285 Raceme 245 Soft rot 181
Plaque 389 Racemose inflorescence 245 Sol 14
Plasma cell 424 Radial cleavage 248 Spectrophotometer 5, 101
Plasma membrane, 11 Radiata 253 Spectrophotometery 5
Plasmids 33, 168 Radiation 96 Sphagnum 231
Plasmodesmata 308 Reaction centre 103 Sphenopsida 229
Plasmodium 198 Receptor molecules 13 Spike 245
Plasmolysis 310 Rectum 346 Spikelet 245
Platyhelminthes 264 Red algae 196 Spiral cleavage 256
Pneumonia 180 Reduction 97, 108, 110 Spirogyra 102
Polar covalent 42 Regeneration 261 Spleen 398
Poliomyelitis 151 Renal artery 384 Sporophyte 227, 233
Pollen tube 237 Renal circulation 384 Stage micrometer, 7
Polymers 41 Renal vein 384 Starch 50
Polynucleotide 65 Reptilia 290 Steroids 61
Polyp 264 Residues 12, 48 Stomach 343
Polyphyletic group 191 Resolution 5 Stomata 227
Polysaccharides 49 Reverse transcriptase 144 Storage disease 21
Polysome, 17 Rhynia 228 Stroma 23
Pompe disease, 21 Ribonuclease 78 Sublingual glands 314
Porifera 260 Ribonucleic acid 69 Submandibular glands 341
Porta 354 Ribonucleoprotein, 16 Substrate level
448
phosphorylation 120 Triose 45 Villus 346

Sulphonamides 87 Trochopore larvae 268, 270 Vimentin 25
Symplast pathway 311 Tropomyosin 25 Viral load 147
Syrinx 292 Troponin 25 Viroids 153
Systemic circulation 381 Truffles 212 Virology 133
Systolic pressure 35 Tuberculosis 179 Virus 132
T Tubulin, 25 Viscera 339
TACT forces 311 Tunicate 281 Visible light 96
Tatum, E.L. 173 Turgor pressure 321 Volume receptors 387
Tay-sachs disease, 21 Typhoid 179 W
Terpens 61 U Water molds 199
Thallus 195, 223 Ubiquinone 116 Water potential 314
Thermoacidophiles 160 Ulcer 358 Water vascular system 277
Thigmotropism 330 Uracil 63 Waxes 62
Thoracic duct 396 Urochordata 281 Whisk ferns 228
Threonine 89 Uvula 341 Whittaker, W.H., 157
Thrombosis 388 V Wild type 173
Thromemboli 388 V region 450 X
Thucydides 405 Vaccination 417 Xanthophyll 220
Thylakoids 23 Vacuolar pathway 311 Xerophytes 318
Thymine 63 Valine 54 Xylem parenchyma 307
Thymus gland 415 Valves in veins 379 Xylem tissue 235, 307
Tissue culture 4 Van Mohl, H. 313
Toadstool 212 Van Neil 104 Y
Toxoids Variable segment 422 Yeast 205
Trace elements 40 Vasa recta, 385 Z
Tracheids 235, 307 Vasoconstriction 380 Z Scheme 108
Transduction 174 Vasodialtion 380 Zooflagellates 192
Transfer RNA 70 Vasomotion 381 Zooids 264
Transferases 90 Veins 378 Zooplanktons 200
Transformation 174 Ventricle 369 Zoospore 199
Transpiration 311 Venules 379 Zygomycota 203
Transplant rejections Vermiform appendix 346 Zygospore 204
Transposons 33 Vernalin 335 Zygote 199, 243
Tricuspid valve 369 Vernilization 334 Zymogen cell 344, 349
Triglycerol 352, Vernon Ingram 53
449
PROFILE OF AUTHORS
Dr. Sarwat Jawaid is at present serving as

Medical Officer in Pakistan Institute of Medical
Sciences, Islamabad. She did her graduation in
Medicine from Isra University Hyderabad (2005)
and Master in Public Health from Sarhad University,
Peshawar (2009). She is a co-author of Biology
textbooks of grade 9, 10, 11 and 12 as well as
practical notebooks. She has also written a thesis on
The perception of people toward burn survivors.
Mr. Wasiullah Khan is former Principal Fed.

Govt. College, F-10/4. He served in various
capacities in Federal Government Collages for about
35 years. He has done his M.Sc. in Botany from
University of Karachi and M. Phill in Botany (Plant
Physiology) from Quaid-e-Azam University
Islamabad.
Prof.Jawaid Mohsin Malik is former
Principal Fed. Govt. College (Men) H-9, Islamabad.
He is also former Principal Fed. Govt. College, F-
10/4 and Director Colleges, Federal Directorate of
Education, Islamabad. He did his post-graduate in
Zoology with specialization in Entomology from
Dhaka University, East Pakistan (former). He was
also a student in biology, Quaid-e-Azam University,
Islamabad. He taught for more than 34 year in
various capacities. He has also worked as Education
Officer, in Nigeria for four years. He has published
four research papers in Science Journals of Pakistan
on the butterflies of Pakistan. He is author, co-author
and managing author of more than twenty-five
textbooks of General Science and Biology as well as
Practical Notebooks.
Approved by the Federal Ministry of Education
(Curriculum Wing), Government of Pakistan, Islamabad
vide letter No. F.5 ........ G.Sc. (Biology) Dated , ,2008
National Book Foundation

Islamabad
Lahore - Rawalpindi - Multan - Bahawalpur - Karachi - Sukkur
Hyderabad - Larkana - Peshawar - Abbottabad - Quetta
Mardan - Saidu Sharif - Bannu - Faisalabad - Kohat - Jakobabad
Dera Ismail Khan - Wah Cantt.
thanks
www.learningall.com

Biology 11 Federal

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Biology 11 Federal

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Biology 11 Federal

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Addition of Coenzyme A

Major Concepts: Number of allotted

5.1 VIRUSES-DISCOVERY AND STRUCTURE

Shape and Size of Virus

Fig: 5.2 Shapes and Types of viruses

Structure of Model Viruses

forms of symmetry in virus capsid.

(glycoproteins) and ortho is added to distinguish them from the paramyxovirus.

Science, Technology and Society Connections

Human Immunodeficiency Virus

Viral core (proteins)

Fig: 5.5 Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) (cross section)

Human Immunodeficiency Virus

Skills: Interpreting and Recording

Science, Technology and Society Connections

5.2 PARASITIC NATURE OF VIRUS

viruses have a narrow range, whereas others

Skills: Interpreting and Recording

Record the symptoms of flu in any individual.

5.3 LIFE CYCLE OF A BACTERIOPHAGE

Usage of Bacteriophage in Genetic Engineering

Fig: 5.9 Way of Preparation of a Genomic Library

Skills: Interpreting and Recording

Make a list of the sequence involved in the lytic life cycle of a

5.4 LIFE CYCLE OF HIV

The integrated DNA is now called provirus. Viral mRNA is transcribed

Immunity is primarily the result of the action of the B lymphocytes and T

Skills: Interpreting and Recording

List the factors responsible for the spread of AIDS.

Science, Technology and Society Connections

5.5 VIRAL DISEASES

Treatment: Antiviral drugs are used to S.T.S Connections

Transmission: This disease is transmitted by the whitefly Bemisia

2002-03 357.7 2.05 359.58 265.0 2253

Source: Pakistan Poultry Association, Pakistan.

Science, Technology and Society Connections

Skills: Interpreting and Communication.

Collect and Compare the number of fatalities caused by hepatitis,

5.6 PRIONS AND VIROIDS

SECTION I : MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Select the correct answer

7. Which of the following illness is caused by a retrovirus?

SECTION II : SHORT QUESTIONS

SECTION III : EXTENSIVE QUESTIONS

3. Discuss the parasitic nature of virus?

1. C 2. C 3. B 4. C 5. C 6.C 7.C 8.B 9.A 10.A

SUPPLEMENTARY READING MATERIAL

Major Concepts: Number of allotted

6.1 TAXONOMY OF PROKARYOTES

Phylogenetic Position of Prokaryotes

Unifying Features of Archaea

Most Archaea Inhabit Extreme Environments

The methogens (methano, methane, gen, producer) are found in

Diagnostic Features of the Major Groups of Bacteria

formation is not common. Sometimes the heterocyst forms endospores.

Fig. 6.1 Cyanobacteria

6.4 STRUCTURE: Shape and Size of Bacteria

found only in bacterial cell wall. The term

Fig: 6.3 Cell Wall of Bacteria

(glycoproteins) and ortho is added to distinguish them from the paramyxovirus.

7.1 PROTISTS The Evolutionary Relationship