Approaches in Psychology

● Outline two features of the cognitive approach. Explain two limitations of the
cognitive approach. [8 marks]
★ One feature of the cognitive approach is the use of theoretical models. Models
enable the representation of complex cognitive processes so that their
components can be better understood. An example of this is the multi-store
model of memory which presents a picture of memory based on an information-
processing analogy. Theoretical models also provide a basis for research.
★ A second feature of the cognitive approach is the information processing theory
known as schema theory. This theory emphasises how perception and memory
are shaped by cognitive frameworks built from experience that organise and
interpret information in the brain (acting as a mental representation). Schemas
allow us to make sense of an often ambiguous world by “filling in the gaps” in our
knowledge and thus enable us to act comfortably even when our information is
incomplete.
★ One limitation of the cognitive approach is the claim that our mind is like a
computer, which is often implied through the use of computer models. Many
people argue that humans are very different from computers. For example, we
have emotions, we forget things, and we make mistakes, unlike computers. This
matters because the use of computer models and analogies provides a weak
comparison to human thinking and behaviour, and provides us with little insight
into the complexities of human thinking.
★ A second limitation of the cognitive approach is the over-reliance on laboratory-
based experiments which can often lack ecological validity. For example,
research examining memory (e.g. Peterson & Peterson, etc.) often reduces
complex human behaviour (memory) to a single variable for testing (e.g. the
duration of STM). This matters because many psychologists argue that this
experimentally reductionist approach overlooks a detailed understanding of
human behaviour and therefore limits the generalisability of the findings to
everyday human memory.
● Outline Skinner’s research into reinforcement. [3 marks]
★ Skinner examined operant conditioning in rats and pigeons. The animal would
move around the Skinner box, and when it pressed the lever (by accident), it
would be rewarded with a food pellet. The animal would learn, through positive
reinforcement, that each time it pressed the lever, it would be rewarded with
food. Consequently, because the animal was rewarded for its behaviour, it would
continue to press the lever and demonstrate the new behaviour. However,
Skinner also found that if the rewarded was stopped and the animal pressed the
lever and was not rewarded with food, it’s behaviour would quickly stop and this
is known as extinction.
● Explain how reinforcement might be used to encourage primary school children to
pick up litter in the playground. [3 marks]
★ A teacher might reward students with praise each time they pick up litter. This
would act as positive reinforcement because the child would be receiving a
 reward (praise) each time they perform the desired behaviour (picking up litter).
This might encourage the child who is being positively reinforced to continue
picking up litter as they would desire further praise; however, it might also act as
vicarious reinforcement to other children, who also want to receive the same
rewards and consequently might also start picking up litter.
● Adil has just started studying the cognitive approach in psychology but does not
understand when his teacher tells him that cognitive psychologists use the
results of experiments to make inferences about behaviour. Write a brief
explanation of inference that would help Adil to understand what his teacher
means. [2 marks]
★ Because cognitive psychologists are unable to directly observe mental processes
(e.g. memory, perception, etc.) they study cognitive processes indirectly by
making inferences. An inference is where a psychologist makes a reasoned
conclusion about mental processes based on observable behaviour. Such
inferences allow cognitive psychologists to generate theories and models, for
example, the multi-store model of memory, which is a theoretical model which is
an inferred representation of human memory.
● Samira and John are talking. Samira says, ‘Look at your little sister. She’s
pretending she’s got a mobile phone like yours and is making a call.’ John replies,
‘Yes. But when she saw me get told off for using my Dad’s favourite pen, she
never copied me doing that!’ Describe and evaluate social learning theory. Refer
to the conversation above as part of your answer. [12 marks]
★ Social learning theory (SLT) rests on the idea of observational learning: that
learning occurs through the observation and imitation of behaviour performed by
models in the social environment. It is evident from the conversation that John’s
little sister has observed her older brother using a mobile phone and is imitating
his behaviour by pretending to make a call. This may be because she looks up to
John and sees him as a role model.
★ Unlike the behaviourist approach from which it derives, SLT recognises the
importance of cognitive processing of informational stimuli (mediational
processes) and rejects the notion that learning is purely the outcome of a
stimulus-response loop. As its name implies, learning is a social phenomenon.
For SLT to take place, someone must model an attitude or behaviour in a context
defined by four distinct characteristics: attention, retention, reproduction, and
motivation. If these factors are implemented, imitation (i.e. copying of what has
been observed) can take place; if the observed behaviour is rewarded (either
directly or vicariously), imitation is more likely. This learning from the observation
of others’ rewards is what Bandura called vicarious learning. However, vicarious
learning can also include learning from someone else’s misfortunes, and John’s
sister does not to use her Dad’s favourite pen because she observed John being
punished (told off) for using her Dad’s pen. Consequently, John’s sister will not
imitate this behaviour because she has learned from the misfortunes of John who
was punished for his actions.
 ★ One strength of SLT is its plentiful research support. For example, Fox and
Bailenson (2009) found that humans were more likely to imitate computer-
generated ‘virtual humans’ who were similar to themselves; Rushton and
Campbell (1977) found that same-sex modelling significantly increased the
number of female observers who agreed to, and then actually did, donate blood.
These studies demonstrate support for different aspects of SLT, including
modelling and vicarious reinforcement, adding credibility to the key principles of
this theory.
★ Another strength of SLT is its applicability to real-world issues. For example, SLT
has been used to examine and evaluate the effectiveness of advertising:
Andsager et al. (2006) found that ‘identification with a character or example may
increase the likelihood that audiences will model behaviour presented in an anti-
alcohol message’. Consequently, the principles of SLT can be used to provide a
positive impact on promotional health campaigns, and indirectly help combat
problem behaviours like alcoholism.
★ However, one limitation of SLT revolves around the issue of causality: Do people
learn behaviour from models, or do they seek out models who exhibit behaviour
or attitudes they already favour? Siegel and McCormick (2006), for example,
argue that young people who hold deviant values and attitudes are more likely to
associate with similarly-inclined peers because they are more fun to be with, and
thus the reinforcement of ‘deviant’ behaviour is a two-way process and not
necessarily the result of SLT itself. Consequently, it is difficult to distinguish
behaviours that develop because of SLT from the many other factors that
contribute to human behaviour, which poses an issue for the social learning
explanation of behaviour.
● We use schema when we process information from the world around us. Explain
one reason why using schema might be useful when processing information from
the world around us, and explain one reason why using schema might not be
useful when processing information from the world around us. [4 marks]
★ One reason that schema might be useful is in unfamiliar situations or events,
where there are expectations of how to behave. Schemas are useful as they
allow us to take cognitive shortcuts when interpreting a large amount of
information, as they help us to ‘fill in the gaps’ in the absence of complete
information. This matters because humans need to use cognitive time-saving
strategies when processing the complex world around us; otherwise they would
have too much information to process in new or unfamiliar situations.
★ However, one issue with schemas is that they may exclude information which
does not conform to our prior expectations. As a result, we may form stereotypes
which are then difficult to move away from, even if new or disputing information is
then presented to us. This matters because we may not be processing the world
around us accurately and may misjudge or represent a person or situation.
● Jed was given a detention meaning that he would miss the football match after
school. Jed felt extremely angry. Later that day, Jed was called in to the Head of
 Year’s office for kicking his locker at break time. Identify and explain the defence
mechanism Jed was displaying. [3 marks]
★ When Jed took his anger out by kicking his locker, he was showing
displacement. This is when an individual redirects their hostile feelings onto
something else because it is not appropriate to express their feeling towards the
person or object in question. In this case, Jed could not take his frustration out on
his teacher, who issued the detention and he displaced his feelings by kicking the
locker.
● Outline the behaviourist approach. Compare the behaviourist approach with the
biological approach. [16 marks]
★ The central claim of the behaviourist approach is that almost all human behaviour
is the result of learning. One of the first behaviourists to explore the relationship
between learning and behaviour was Pavlov. Pavlov developed the theory of
classical conditioning and famously tested it using his dogs, who were
conditioned to associate the sound of a bell with food. This resulted in the dogs
producing a salivation response at the sound of a bell even when no food was
present. Pavlov demonstrated that repeated exposure to an event leads to a
learned and uncontrollable behaviour.
★ Developing these ideas, B.F. Skinner suggested that behaviour was the result of
learning through the consequences of our actions. Skinner conducted research
into his operant conditioning theory using rats, and found that three types of
consequences will affect behaviour: positive reinforcement involves rewarding a
behaviour, which increases the likelihood of it being repeated; negative
reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant outcome to increase the
likelihood of a behaviour being repeated; punishment involves adding an
unpleasant outcome to a behaviour, which reduces the likelihood of it being
repeated. For Skinner, behaviour is the result of learning and remembering the
consequences of previous behaviours.
★ While the behaviourist approach may appear strikingly different to the biological
approach, these two approaches do share some similarities. For example, both
approaches argue that behaviour is, to some extent, determined. Behaviourists
argue that behaviour is determined by the environment and is a product of
stimulus-response associations, while biological psychologists argue that
behaviour is the product of internal biological factors (e.g. genes, hormones,
neurotransmitters, etc.). As a result, it is clear that both approaches argue that
behaviour is determined, although they differ in their belief about the origins of
behaviour.
★ Furthermore, both approaches take a nomothetic approach when studying
human behaviour. Both behaviourists and biological psychologists investigate
behaviour in an attempt to create universal laws that apply to all human beings.
Behaviourists argue that this is possible because human beings share similar
physiologies, and behaviourists argue that this is possible because all behaviour
is the result of learning and stimulus-response associations. Therefore, the aim
 of generating universal laws that apply to all humans is another similarity
between the behaviourist and biological approaches.
★ Despite their similarities, the behaviourist approach and biological approach are
different in their position on the nature-nurture debate. Behaviourist views rest
firmly on the nurture side of the debate, and John Locke famously argued that
human beings are born a tabula rasa (blank slate) and that all behaviour is
learned. Biological psychologists, on the other hand, would argue a nature-based
view of behaviour. They posit that behaviour is the result of innate biological
factors (e.g. genes, hormones, neurotransmitters. etc.) and is, therefore, the
product of nature and not nurture. Therefore, despite their similarities in terms of
determinism and their approach to investigation, the behaviourist and biological
approaches are radically different in terms of their position on the nature-nurture
debate.
● Describe the structure of the personality according to the psychodynamic
approach. [4 marks]
★ According to Freud, personality has three components. The id is pure erotic
energy which lies in the unconscious mind: It is governed by primal urges that
Freud called drives, and operates according to the pleasure principle.
★ The ego is governed by the reality principle and is tasked with taming the id. The
ego has to mediate the demands of the id and the reality of the external world
and the moral demands of the superego.
★ The superego is the conscience inner voice that tells us what’s right and wrong:
The superego is based on the morality principle and represents what is morally
right. The superego punishes the ego (through feelings of guilt) when morals
standards are not upheld.
● Tatiana’s parents are concerned about her mobile phone use. She is an anxious
child and has low self-esteem. Tatiana only feels good about herself when she
receives messages or positive comments on social media. She feels safe when
she has her phone and socially isolated without it. Tatiana’s parents worry that
her dependence on her mobile phone is starting to affect her well-being and
achievement at school. Outline and evaluate the humanistic approach. Refer to
Tatiana’s behaviour in your answer. [16 marks]
★ There are many strands of humanistic psychology, but all draw on the work of
Maslow and Rogers. Maslow’s (1943) famous hierarchy of needs is an enduring
model of psychological development: The most basic needs are biological – food,
water, clothing, shelter, sleep; then come safety needs, which include resources,
employment, family, and health; next is the need for love and belonging, from
friends, family, etc. After that comes the need for esteem, both self-esteem and
respect from others. As Tatiana has low self-esteem she is unable to progress
any further up the hierarchy of needs until she fulfils these needs and therefore
she is unable to self-actualise. According to Maslow, once these ‘deficiency
needs’ have been met, people can turn their attention to self-actualisation, which
includes, spirituality, creativity and acceptance of the world as it is.
 ★ The evidence for the existence of the hierarchy of needs is empirically thin, as
would be expected from an approach that disputes the validity of empirical
research. Some of the concepts within the hierarchy of needs (e.g. self-
actualisation) are difficult to operationalise and therefore very difficult to test
empirically. Furthermore, as humanistic psychologists are typically against
nomothetic methods of investigation, providing any research support for these
abstract concepts becomes difficult if not impossible. Consequently,
psychologists are unable to provide any research support for the existence of the
hierarchy of needs and other aspects of humanistic psychology making such
theories/concepts questionable.
★ Rogers was primarily interested in just two basic needs: the need for self-worth
and the need for unconditional positive regard from other people. Both emerge
from good relationships with supportive parents in childhood, and later with
friends and partners. For Rogers, unhappiness and dissatisfaction were the
outcomes of a psychological gap between self-concept (the way you think you
are) and ideal self (the way you would like to be). Tatiana may be experiencing a
gap between her self-concept (e.g. she sees herself as socially isolated) and her
ideal self (e.g. feeling good as a result of being popular and receiving messages).
According to Rogers, when these concepts are congruent, people are healthy;
when they are not congruent, like Tatiana, it is necessary to use defence
mechanisms to provide protection against feeling bad.
★ One strength of Humanistic psychology is that it has had a major influence on
psychological counselling. For example, many contemporary therapists use
Rogers’ ideas of unconditional positive regard to help clients work toward self-
awareness. This means it is a useful theory with real-world applications and has
helped improve the outlook of many patients support from psychological issues.
★ Furthermore, many psychologists praise the humanistic approach for its positive
and holistic focus. Humanistic psychologists, unlike other psychologists, do not
try and reduce behaviour and experience to simpler component parts. For
example, biological psychologists reduce psychological disorders to
neurochemical imbalances and/or genetic inheritance. In stark contrast,
humanistic psychologist put forward a holistic view of human nature and is the
only approach that attempts to consider all aspects of human nature in a holistic
manner while promoting free will and human choice.
★ However, some critics argue that the humanistic approach offers an unrealistic
view of human nature. Critics point to the more sinister aspects of human
behaviour and argue that humanism focuses on ‘growth-orientated’ behaviour
while ignoring individual capacity for self-destruction. Consequently, such critics
argue that a focus on self-development ignores situational forces that may
provide a more realistic explanation of everyday human behaviour.

Biopsychology
● Briefly outline how excitation and inhibition are involved in synaptic transmission.
[4 marks]
 ★ Excitation occurs when receptor stimulation results in an increase in the positive
charge of the postsynaptic neuron which increases the likelihood of the neuron
firing. Inhibition occurs when receptor stimulation results in an increase in the
negative charge of the postsynaptic neuron and decreases the likelihood of the
neuron firing.
★ Summation is the addition of positive and negative post-synaptic potentials. A
nerve cell can receive both positive and negative potentials simultaneously.
These potentials are summed and if the net effect on the postsynaptic neuron is
inhibitory, the neuron will be less likely to fire, and if the net effect is excitatory,
the neuron will be more likely to fire.
★ (Exam Hint: Students often struggle to demonstrate an accurate understanding of
excitation and inhibition. Students need to be aware that excitation/inhibition
occur at the postsynaptic membrane. Also, students need to avoid common
misconceptions (e.g. that excitation refers to ‘more firing’) as this is not accurate.
Finally, to access top marks students need to understand the process of
summation (see above).)
● Read the following descriptions of behaviour:
A) Sarah is terrified of lifts because she was trapped in one for 5 hours. She
cannot go in a lift now.
B) Jerry watches as his brother James is given sweets for cleaning their pet
hamster’s cage. The next day, Jerry’s mum finds Jerry cleaning out the hamster
cage. How can the behaviours described in A and B above be explained by
learning theories? [6 marks]
★ Sarah has learned to fear lifts because of classical conditioning. Originally, the lift
was a neutral stimulus; however, Sarah has now formed an association between
the lift and being trapped, which would result in an unconditioned response of
fear. Consequently, the lift has become a conditioned stimulus which produces a
conditioned response of fear, which explains why Sarah is now afraid of lifts.
★ Jerry watches his brother receive positive reinforcement and is therefore learning
through vicarious reinforcement. Jerry saw his brother being given sweets (a
reward) for cleaning the pet hamster’s cage, which would make Jerry’s brother
repeat this behaviour in the future to gain further rewards. In addition, Jerry is
experiencing vicarious reinforcement, where he has observed his brother
receiving positive reinforcement, which leads him to imitate this behaviour and
explains why Jerry’s mum found Jerry cleaning the hamster cage.
● In a study of tooth decay, researcher
checked the dental records of 100 pairs of
identical twins. They recorded the number
of fillings for each twin and found the data
on the right. Use your knowledge of
genotype and phenotype to explain the
data in Table 1. [4 marks]
★ Genotype is a person’s actual genetic
makeup, and identical twins would have the same genotype. Therefore, based on
 a person’s genotype we would expect all the identical twins to demonstrate tooth
decay in the same way.
★ Phenotype is the physical expression of a person’s genotype, and therefore
identical twins can display different phenotypes if they experience different
environments. 52 of the twin pairs have different phenotypes because they have
different fillings and therefore this is likely to be the result of the environment
because one twin could have eaten more sugary foods than the other twin.
● Outline the fight or flight response. [3 marks]
★ When someone enters a potentially stressful situation, the amygdala (part of the
limbic system) is activated. The amygdala sends a distress signal to the
hypothalamus, which communicates with the body through the sympathetic
nervous system. If the situation requires a short-term response the
sympathomedullary pathway is activated, triggering the fight or flight response.
This leads to the stimulation of the adrenal glands which secrete adrenaline into
the bloodstream leading to a series of physiological changes (e.g. increased
heart rate) that helps the person either engage in a fight or run (flight).
● Give one difference between the autonomic nervous system and the somatic
nervous system. [1 mark]
★ The somatic nervous system facilitates communication between the central
nervous system and the outside world, whereas the autonomic nervous system
plays an important role in maintaining internal processes like body temperature.
● Information can only travel in one direction at a synapse. Explain why neurons
can only transmit information in one direction at a synapse. [3 marks]
★ The reason that information can only travel in one direction at the synapse is due
to the specific function of different parts of the neuron. At the end of the pre-
synaptic neuron are synaptic vesicles that contain neurotransmitters. When an
action potential reaches the vesicles, they release neurotransmitters which carry
the signal over the synaptic gap. Neurotransmitters bind to specific receptor sites
that are positioned at the start of the post-synaptic neuron that then become
activated.
★ Consequently, the information can only travel in this direction because the
neurotransmitters are released from the vesicles at the end of the pre-synaptic
neuron and bind to sites at the start of the post-synaptic neuron. This would
make it impossible for information to flow in any other direction.
● The fight or flight response enabled our ancestors to survive but can be less
helpful in response to more modern stressors. Explain how the body responds
during fight or flight and why this could be unhelpful in a driving test situation. [4
marks]
★ When someone enters a potentially stressful situation, such as a driving test, the
amygdala is activated. The amygdala sends a distress signal to the
hypothalamus, which communicates with the body through the sympathetic
nervous system (SNS). If the situation requires a short-term response, the
sympathomedullary pathway (SAM pathway) is activated. The SNS stimulates
the adrenal medulla which secretes the hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline
 into the bloodstream. Adrenaline causes a number of physiological changes to
prepare the body for fight or flight such as increased heart rate. This may not be
helpful during a driving test in which the candidate needs to remain calm in order
to follow instructions.
● Julia complains that her baby is sleeping all day and keeping her awake all night.
Using your knowledge of research into exogenous zeitgebers, discuss what Julia
could do to encourage her baby to sleep more at night. [8 marks]
★ Exogenous zeitgebers are external environmental stimuli which train our body
clock into sleep/wake patterns. Light is the most common exogenous zeitgeber,
but since Julia is awake all night, because of her baby, this means that her
natural sleep pattern is being disrupted. Receptors in the suprachiasmatic
nucleus (SCN), which are found in the hypothalamus, are sensitive to levels of
light received by the eyes and help re-set the internal biological clock every 24-
hour day/night cycle. As a result, one strategy that Julia could use would be to
ensure the baby was exposed to a good level of daylight during the daytime
before being placed to sleep in a dark room after sunset.
★ There is research support for the role of light as an important exogenous
zeitgeber. Vetter et al. (2011) conducted a longitudinal study over five weeks with
volunteer participants who were either exposed to a ‘warm’ artificial light source
or a ‘blue-enriched’ artificial light source, which was similar to daylight. Each
participant was required to keep a daily record of their sleep patterns and wore
equipment which measured how active they were during the daytime. It was
found that participants in the first condition synchronised their circadian rhythm
when dawn broke, which advanced every day, whereas those in the second
group did not show this pattern and instead synchronised to their working hours
at the office. This shows that light is indeed important in encouraging a regular
circadian rhythm of the sleep/wake cycle and that the composition of light affects
the SCN.
● A recent study showed that Alzheimer’s disease may be partly inherited. John’s
father suffered from Alzheimer’s disease. John is keen to get genetically tested to
see if he will develop Alzheimer’s disease. Explain why John’s genotype will not
reveal whether he will suffer from Alzheimer’s disease. [4 marks]
★ Genotype refers to a person’s genetic makeup. In John’s case, this is the
inherited genetic material that was passed on from his parents. The genes that
John carries will contain instructions for characteristics (e.g. the development of
Alzheimer’s); however, the development of a characteristic (known as the
phenotype) depends on an interaction between the gene and the environment.
Therefore, even if John has a gene for Alzheimer’s disease he may not develop
this disorder, as the development will depend on a number of other factors
including their interaction with the environment.
★ The results of the study suggest that Alzheimer’s disease is only partly inherited
and therefore the role of other environmental factors which interact with John’s
genes is what might lead to the development of Alzheimer’s disease. Therefore,
the results of the test are unable to reveal whether he will suffer from Alzheimer’s
disease and they are only able to indicate that he has a particular gene
(genotype) associated with the disorder. Consequently, depending on the other
environmental factors he may/may not develop this disorder.