Fundamental of Mathematics

Definition of Set:

A set is a collection of well-defined objects which are distinct from each

other. Sets are generally represented by capital letters A, B, C, ... etc and
the elements of the set by a, b, c, ... etc.

By well defined we mean there is a rule by which one can decide whether
an element belongs to the set or not.
Ex: (i) N atural numbers, prime numbers, real numbers less than 10, all are
well defined objects.
(ii) B
 ut collection of good students in a class, collection of good
batsmen are not sets because good student and good batsman are
not well defined.

Some Important Number Sets:

N = Set of natural numbers = {1, 2, 3, 4, ...}
W = Set of whole numbers = {0, 1, 2, 3, ...}
Z or I = Set of all integers = {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ...}
Z+ = Set of positive integers = {1, 2, 3, ...} =N
Z¯ = Set of negative integers = {–1, –2, –3, ...}
Z0 = Set of all non-zero integers = {±1, ±2, ±3, ...}
Q = Set of all rational numbers = {p/q; p, q ∈ I, q ≠ 0}
R = Set of all real numbers.
{
R–Q = Set of all irrational numbers Ex.   2,   3,  π,  e,  log2 … .. }
Note: Symbol “∈” denotes “belongs to”

Methods of writing a set:

1. Roster Method:

In this method a set is described by listing elements, separated

by commas and enclosing them by curly brackets. It is also called
Tabular Method.
Fundamental of Mathematics

Ex: The set of vowels = {a, e, i, o, u}

2. Set builder Method:

In this case we write down property or rule “p” which gives us all
the elements of the set. A = {x: p(x)}

1.
 Ex: A = {x, x ∈ N and x = 2n for n ∈ N} = {2, 4, 6, .....}
B= {x2, x ∈ Z} = {0, 1, 4, 9, .....}

Q.1 Write the following sets in set builder form

A = {1, 4, 9, 16, .....}
B = {2, 9, 28, 65, .....}
C = {13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31}
Sol. A = {x : x = n2, n ∈ N} or {x2 ; x ∈ N}
B = {x : x = n3 + 1, n ∈ N} or {x3 + 1 ; x ∈ N}
C = {x : x is prime number, 13 ≤ x ≤ 31}

Q.2 Write the following sets into tabular form.

A = {x : x2 – 4 = 0, x ∈ N}
B = {x : x = 2 y, 1 ≤ y ≤ 3, x ∈ N}
Sol. For A ⇒ x2 – 4 = 0
⇒ (x + 2) (x – 2) = 0
x = 2, x = –2 (non-natural number)
∴ A = {2}
For B ⇒ ∵ x = 2y and 1 ≤ y ≤ 3
∴ 2 ≤ x ≤ 6 and x ∈ N
∴ B = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

Types of sets
1. Null set or Empty set:

 set having no element is called null Set or Empty set or void set.
A
It is denoted by φ or { }.

Ex: A = {x ∈ N; 5 < x < 6} = φ

B = {x: x is a prime number, x < 2}
The sets which have atleast one element are called non-empty/
non-void sets.
2. Singleton set:
Fundamental of Mathematics

A set consisting of a single element is called a singleton set.

Ex: A = {0}
3. Finite set:

A set which has finite number of elements is called finite set.

2.
 Ex: A = {a, b, c},    B = {1}, C = { }
Order of a finite set A is the number of elements in the set. It is
denoted by n(A) or O(A) It is also called cardinal number of set A.
Ex: If A = {1, 2, 3}, then n(A) = 3

4. Infinite set:

A set which has infinite number of elements is called infinite set.

Ex: A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .....}

5. Equal sets:
Two sets A & B are called equal if every element of set A is an element
of B and every element of set B is an element of set A. If A and B are
equal sets, then we write A = B and if they are unequal, then we write
A ≠ B.
Ex: A = {1, 2, 4} and B = {x: x = 2y, y = 0, 1, 2} are equal sets.

6. Equivalent sets:
Two finite sets A and B are equivalent if they have same number of
elements i.e. n(A) = n(B)
Ex: A = {1, 2, 3] and B = {4, 5, 6} because n(A) = n(B) = 3

Note:

If two sets are equal, then they are equivalent, but converse is not always
true.

SUBSETS & SUPERSETS:

If every element of set A is an element of set B, then A is subset of B and

B is superset of set A, and we write A ⊆ B
Fundamental of Mathematics

Ex: If A = {5, 7} and B = {1, 5, 7, 9} then A ⊆ B

A is subset of B and B is superset of A

PROPER SUBSET:

If A is subset of set B such that A ≠ B, then A is called proper subset of

B and we write A ⊂ B

3.
 Ex: A = {1, 2},    B = {1, 2, 3},   C = {1, 2, 3}
 A, B are subsets of C, A is proper subset of C but B is not proper
subset of C (as B = C).

Points to Remember:

1.  Every set is subset of itself. (A ⊆ A)

2.  Null set (φ) is subset of every set (φ ⊆ A)
3.  N⊂W⊂Z⊂Q⊂R⊂C
4.  If n(A) = m then total number of subsets of A = 2m
   Proper subsets of A = 2m – 1
5.  A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A ⇔ A = B

UNIVERSAL SET:

A set consisting of all possible elements which occur in the discussion

is called a Universal set. It is denoted by “U”.

Ex: If A = {1, 2}, B = {1, 3, 5}, C = {2, 5, 6} then

U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} can be taken as universal set.

POWER SET:

Set of all subsets of set A is called power set of A and it is denoted

by P(A)

Ex: For A = {1, 2} power set P(A) = {φ, {1}, {2}, {1, 2}}

If n(A) = m, then n (P(A)) = 2m

Q.1 Find the value of n(P(P(P(φ) )))

Fundamental of Mathematics

 
Sol.  n ( φ ) = 0 ⇒ n  P ( φ )  = 20 = 1

 B(let ) 
 
 n (B) = 1 ⇒ n  P (B)  = 21 = 2

 C(let ) 
 n ( C ) = 2 ⇒ n (P ( C ) ) = 22 = 4

4.
Q.2 If n(A) = 4, then find number of subsets of P(A).
Sol. n(A) = 4 ⇒ n(P(A)) = 24 = 16
Hence number of subsets of P(A) = 216
Q.3 State TRUE or FALSE
(i) ϕ = {0}
(ii) {a, b} ⊆ {a, b, c}
(iii) {a, b} ∈ {a, b, c}
(iv) {a} ∈ {{a}, b}
(v) ϕ ⊂ {1, 2}
(vi) φ ∈ {φ,  {1}}
(vii) x ∈ A, A ∈ B ⇒ x ∈ B
(viii) x ∈ A, A ⊄ B ⇒ x ∉ B
(ix) A ⊆ B, x ∉ B ⇒ x ∉ A
(x) A ⊆ B, B ∈ C ⇒ A ∈ C
Sol.
(i) False: {0} is a singleton set & φ is null set.
(ii) True: Clearly {a, b] is a subset of {a, b, c}
(iii) False:{a, b} is a subset, it is not an element for {a, b, c} although a,
b are elements but {a, b} cannot be treated as a, b
(iv) True: Clearly {a} is an element of {{a}, b}
(v) True: ϕ is proper subset of {1, 2}
(vi) True: ϕ is clearly one of the element of {ϕ, {1}}
(vii) False: Let x = 1, A = {1}, B = {{1}, 2}
here x ∈ A, A ∈ B but x ∉ B
(viii) False: Let x = 1, A = {1, 2}, B = {1}
here x ∈ A, A ⊄ B but x ∈ B
(ix) True: If A ⊆ B then all elements of A lie in B and also, we know
x ∉ B then it cannot be an element of A for sure.
(x) False: Let A = {1}, B = {1, 2}, C = {{1, 2}, 3}
Clearly A ⊆ B and B ∈ C but A ∉ C
U
OPERATIONS ON SETS
1. Union of two sets:
Fundamental of Mathematics

A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
A B

2. Intersection of two sets: U

A ∩ B = {x ; x ∈ A and x ∈ B}

A B

5.
 3. Difference of two sets: U

A – B = {x ; x ∈ A and x ∉ B}

A B

4. Symmetric difference of two sets:

A Δ B = (A–B) ∪ (B–A)

U
5. Complement of a set:
A or A´ or Ac = {x ; x ∉ A and x ∈ U} = U – A A AC

6. Disjoint (Incompatible) sets:

Two sets A and B are called disjoint sets if they do

not have any common element i.e A ∩ B = ϕ

Ex: If U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and A = {1, 2}, B = {2, 4, 5} then A ∪ B = {1, 2, 4, 5}

A ∩ B = {2}
A – B = {1}, B – A = {4, 5}
AC = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, BC = {1, 3, 6, 7}
A Δ B = {1, 4, 5}

Laws of Algebra of sets:

1. Commutative Law: A∪B=B∪A
A∩B=B∩A
Fundamental of Mathematics

2. Distributive Law: A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
3. Associative Law: (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)
4. Idempotent Law: A ∪ A = A
A∩A=A
5. Identity Law: A ∪ ϕ = A A∪U=U
A∩ ϕ=ϕ A∩U=A

6.
 6. Demorgan’s Law: (A ∪ B)C = AC ∩ BC

(A ∩ B)C = AC ∪ BC
Some Important Results.

1. A – B = A ∩ BC 2. B – A = B ∩ AC 3. (AC)C = A

4. A ∩ AC = ϕ, A ∪ AC = U 5. A–(B∪C)=(A– B) ∩ (A–C) 6. A ∩ B ⊆ A, A ∩ B ⊆B
A–(B∩C)=(A–B) ∪ (A–C) A ⊆ A ∪ B, B ⊆ A ∪ B

7. A ⊆ B ⇒ A ∩ B = A 8. A ⊆ B ⇒ BC ⊆ AC
A⊆B⇒A∪B=B

Q.1 Prove (A ∩ B)C = AC ∪ BC with and without Venn diagram.

Sol. 1) With Venn diagram.
U

LHS   
A B

U
U

RHS    A   
B
A B
(i)
(ii)
U

(i) ∪ (ii) ⇒ = LHS

A B

2) Without using Venn diagram:

let x ∈ (A ∩ B)C ⇒ x ∉ (A ∩ B)
⇒ x ∉ A or x ∉ B
Fundamental of Mathematics

⇒ x ∈ AC or x ∈ BC
⇒ x ∈ AC ∪ BC
hence (A ∩ B)C ⊆ AC ∪ BC ..... (i)
Now let y ∈ AC ∪ BC
⇒ y ∈ AC or y ∈ BC
⇒ y ∉ A or y ∉ B
⇒ y∉A∩B

7.
 ⇒ y ∈ (A ∩ B)C
hence AC ∪ BC ⊆ (A ∩ B)C .....(ii)
By (i) & (ii)
(A ∩ B)C = AC ∪ BC

Q.2 Prove the following using laws of algebra:

(i) (A ∪ B ∪ C) ∩ (A ∩ B´ ∩ C´)´ ∩ C´ = B ∩ C´
(ii) A´ ∪ {(A ∪ B) ∩ B´} = (A ∩ B)´
Sol. (i) LHS  = (A ∪ B ∪ C) ∩ (A´ ∪ B ∪ C) ∩ C´
= {A ∪ (B ∪ C) ∩ {A´ ∪ (B ∪ C)} ∩ C´
= {(A ∩ A´) ∪ (B ∪ C)} ∩ C´
= {ϕ ∪ (B ∪ C)} ∩ C´
= (B ∪ C) ∩ C´
= (B ∩ C´) ∪ (C ∩ C´)
= (B ∩ C´) ∪ (ϕ) = B ∩ C´ = RHS
(ii) LHS = A´ ∪ {(A ∩ B´) (B ∩ B´)
    = A´ ∪ {(A ∩ B´} ∪ ϕ
    = A´ ∪ (A ∩ B´)
    = (A´ ∪ A) ∩ (A´ ∪ B´)
    = U ∩ (A´ ∪ B´)
    = A´ ∪ B´ = (A ∩ B´) = RHS

THEOREMS ON CARDINAL NUMBERS

1) For two sets A & B
→ n (atleast one in A or B)

n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B)

→ n( exactly one in A or B) = n(A ∪ B) – n(A ∩ B)

= n(A) + n(B) – 2n(A ∩ B)

Fundamental of Mathematics

→ n (only A) = n(A – B)

= n(A) – n(A ∩ B)

→ n (neither A nor B) = n (A’ ∩ B’) = n(U) – n(A ∪ B)

8.
2) For three sets A, B & C
→ n (atleast one in A, B or C)

n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A ∩ B) – n(B ∩ C) –n(C ∩ A) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

→ n (atleast two in A, B or C) = n(A ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(C ∩ A) –2 n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

Q.1 If n(A) = 7, n(B) = 10, then find minimum and maximum value of n(A ∪ B)
Sol. ∵ n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B)
n(A ∪ B)max = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B)min
= 7 + 10 – 0
= 17
n(A ∪ B)min = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B)max
= 7 + 10 – 7
= 10

Q.2 If n(A ∪ B) = 90, n(A – B) = 15, n(A ∩ B) = 30, then find n(B).
Sol. n(A – B) = n(A) – n(A ∩ B) ....(i)
n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B) ....(ii)
(ii) – (i)
n(A ∪ B) – n(A – B) = n(B)
90 – 15 = n(B) ⇒ n(B) = 75

Q.3 In a group of 40 students 25 take tea, 17 take coffee and 8 take neither of the two. How
many take both tea and coffee.
Sol. Let tea → T, coffee → C
given n(U) = 40, n(T) = 25, n(C) = 17, n(T´ ∩ C´) = 8
n (T´ ∩ C´) = n{(T ∪ C)´} = n(U) – n(T ∪ C)
8 = n(U) –{n(T) + n(C) – n(T ∩ C)}
8 = 40 – {25 + (17) – n(T ∩ C)}
⇒ n(T ∩ C) = 10
Fundamental of Mathematics

Q.4 A college awarded 38 medals in Football, 15 in basketball and 20 in cricket. If these

medals went to a total of 58 players and only three players got medals in all the three
sports, then how many players received medals in exactly two of the three sports.
Sol. Let Football → F, Basketball → B, Cricket → C
Given n(F) = 38, n(B) = 15, n(C) = 20
n(F ∪ B ∪ C) = 58, n(F ∩ B ∩ C) = 3
n(F ∪ B ∪ C) = n(F) + n(B) + n(C) – {n(F ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(C ∩ F)} + n(F ∩ B ∩ C)
58 = 38 + 15 + 20 – {k} + 3
⇒ k = 18

9.
 n (exactly two in F, B or C) = {n(F ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(C ∩ F)} – 3 n(F ∩ B ∩ C)
= k – 3(3) = 9

Number System
1. Natural numbers: N = {1, 2, 3, 4, ...}
2. Whole numbers: W = {0, 1, 2, 3, ...}
3. Integers: Z or I = {... –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}
4. Positive Integers: Z+ or I+ = {1, 2, 3, ...} = N
5. Negative Integers: Z¯ or I¯ = {–1, –2, –3, ...}
6. Non-negative Integers: = {0, 1, 2, 3, ...} = W
7. Non-positive Integers: = {... –3, –2, –1, 0}
8. Even Integers: = {... –6, –4, –2, 0, 2, 4, 6, ...}
⇒ These numbers can be expressed by “2n”, n ∈ I
9. Odd Integers: = {... –5, –3, –1, 1, 3, 5, ...}
⇒ These numbers can be expressed by “2n ± 1”, n ∈ I
Note:

(i) 0 is neither positive nor negative integer.

(ii) 0 is an even integer.

10. Prime Numbers:

Natural numbers which have two distinct factors are prime numbers.
Ex. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, …..
Note:

(i) 1 is not a prime number.

(ii) All prime numbers (except 2, 3) can be written as form “6n±1” where n ∈ Z
(iii) 2 is the only prime number which is even.

11. Composite Numbers:

Fundamental of Mathematics

Natural numbers (except 1) which have more than two distinct factors are composite
numbers.
Ex. 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, ...
Note:

(i) 1 is neither prime nor composite.

(ii) 4 is the least composite number.

10.
12. Co-prime (Relative prime) numbers:
Two natural numbers (not necessarily prime) are co-prime if their HCF
(GCD) is 1.
Ex. (1, 2), (3, 5), (5, 9), (16, 15), ...
Note :

(i) Two distinct prime numbers are always co-prime but the converse
need not be true.
(ii) Consecutive natural numbers are always co-prime.

13. Twin prime numbers:

If the difference between two prime numbers is 2 then they are called
twin prime numbers.
Ex. (3, 5), (5, 7), (11, 13), (17, 19), ...

14. Rational numbers:

Numbers which can be written in form of “p/q” where p, q ∈ Z and
q ≠ 0. Set of rational numbers is denoted by “Q”.
Ex. 2/3, 7/9, –2/5, 7/1, ……
Note :

All terminating decimal numbers, non-terminating but repeating decimal

numbers are rational numbers.

15. Irrational numbers:

Real numbers which are not rational, are irrational numbers. The set of
irrational numbers is denoted by “QC” or “ Q´ ”
Ex. 2,    3,    5, … ..π,  e, … ..
Note :

Non-terminating and non-repeating decimal numbers are irrational

numbers.
Fundamental of Mathematics

16. Real numbers:

The complete set of rational and irrational numbers is the set of real
numbers and it is denoted by “R” hence R = Q ∪ QC
Note :

(i) Square of real number is non-negative.

(ii) Real numbers can be represented on real number line.

11.
 17. Complex numbers:
These are the numbers which are represented in the form of a + ib where a, b ∈ R and
i = −1 (iota). Single complex number is denoted by “Z” and Set of all complex numbers
is represented by “C”.
Ex. 2 + 3i, 5–7i, 0 + 2i, 2 − 3i , 5, ...
Note :

All real numbers are complex numbers.

Q.1 Prove that n3–n is divisible by 24, where n is odd integer.

Sol. Let n = 2m + 1, m ∈ I (∵ m is odd integer)
Now n – n = n(n – 1)
3 2

= n(n + 1)(n –1) {it is multiple of 3}

= (2m +1) (2m + 1 + 1) (2m + 1 –1)
= (2m +1) 2(m + 1)2m
= 4m(m +1) (2m + 1)
For all m ∈ I, m(m + 1) (2m +1) will be a multiple of 2.
Hence n3 – n is divisible by 24.

Q.2 Prove that p2 – 1 is divisible by 24, where p is any prime number ≥ 5.

Sol. Let p = 6n ± 1, n ∈ I (∵ p is a prime number ≥ 5)
hence p – 1 = (p + 1) (p – 1)
2

= (6n ± 1 + 1) (6n ± 1 – 1)
= (6n ± 2) (6n)
= 12 n (n ± 1)
For all n ∈ I, n(n ± 1) will be an even number
Hence p2 – 1 is divisible by 24.

Q.3 Find a, b ∈ I given that a2 – b2 = 13

Sol. a2 – b2 = 13
(a + b) (a – b) = 13 = 1 × 13 … (i)
Now let us assume a, b > 0 then from (i)
a + b = 13
 ⇒ a = 7, b = 6
Fundamental of Mathematics

a − b = 1 

So, in general a = ± 7, b ± 6

Q.4 Find m, n ∈ I if m2 – n2 = 2002.

Sol. ∵ m2 – n2 = 2002
(m + n) (m – n) = 2 × 1001
⇒ If m, n both even or both odd then (m + n), (m –n) both are even then LHS will be
multiple of 4 but RHS is not.

12.
  If m is even and n is odd or vice-versa then (m + n), (m –n) both are
⇒
odd hence LHS will be odd but RHS is not.
Hence there will be no solution.

Q.5 If x + y2 = x2 + y = 12, then find (x, y)

Sol. x2 + y = 12 … (i)
x + y2 = 12 … (ii)
(i) – (ii) ⇒ (x2 – y2) + (y – x) = 0
(x – y) {x + y – 1} = 0
x = y or x = 1 – y
if x = y then from (i)
x2 + x = 12 ⇒ x = 3, –4
hence x = y = 3, –4
if x = 1 – y then from (i)
(1 – y)2 + y = 12
1±3 5
y2 – y – 11 = 0 ⇒ y =
2
13 5
x=
2
1±3 5 13 5
(x, y) ≡ (3, 3), (–4, –4),  , 
 2 2 
FACTORIZATION
Some useful identities:
1. a2 − b2 = ( a + b ) ( a − b )
2
2. (a ± b) = a2 + b2 ± 2ab 

a3 − b3 = ( a − b ) ( a2 + ab + b2 ) = ( a − b ) + 3ab ( a − b )
3
3.
a3 + b3 = ( a + b ) ( a2 − ab + b2 ) = ( a + b ) − 3ab ( a + b )
3

3
4. (a − b) = a3 − b3 − 3ab ( a − b )
3
(a + b) = a3 + b3 + 3ab ( a + b )
2
5. (a + b + c ) = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca 
Fundamental of Mathematics

2
6. ( a + b + c + d) = a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2cd + 2da + 2ac + 2bd

7. a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = ( a + b + c ) ( a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca )
→ If a + b + c = 0, then a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc
1
8. a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca =
2
{ 2 2
( a − b ) + (b − c ) + ( c − a )
2
}

13.
 1 + x2 + x4 = ( 1 + x2 ) − x2 = ( 1 + x + x2 ) ( 1 − x + x2 )
2
9.
3
10. (a + b + c ) = a3 + b3 + c3 + 3 ( a + b ) (b + c ) ( c + a )

Q.1 If a + b = 2 and a3 + b3 = 27 then find a2 + b2

Sol. a3 + b3 = (a + b)3 – 3ab (a + b)
27 = (2)3 – 3ab(2)
19 = –6ab ⇒ 2ab = –19/3
(a + b)2 = a2 + b2 +2ab
22 = a2 + b2 + (–19/3) ⇒ a2 + b2 = 31/3

Q.2 If a + b + c = 4, a2 + b2 + c2 = 6 and a3 + b3 + c3 = 8 then find a4 + b4 + c4

Sol. (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(ab + bc + ca)
16 = 6 + 2 (λ)
⇒λ=5
a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc = (a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 – λ)
8 – 3µ = (4) (6 – 5)
⇒ µ = 4/3
(ab + bc + ca)2 = a2b2 + b2c2 + c2a2 + 2abc (a + b + c)
 4
25  =  γ + 2   4
 3
()

⇒ γ = 43/3
(a2 + b2 + c2) 2 = a4 + b4 + c4 + 2(γ)
36 = a4 + b4 + c4 + 86/3
⇒ a4 + b4 + c4 = 22/3

1  1   1 
Q.3 If x − = 3 , then find the value of 2  x3 − 3  − 3  x2 + 2  − 39
x  x   x 
2
 1 1 1
Sol.  x −  = x2 + 2 − 2x  
 x x x
1 1
9 = x2 + − 2 ⇒ x2 + 2 = 11 ...(i)
x 2
x
Fundamental of Mathematics

3
 3 1   1 1 1
 x − 3  =  x −  + 3x  x − 
 x   x  x  x 
1
= 27 + 3 ( 3 ) ⇒ x3 − 3 = 36
x
Put in required expression ⇒ 2(36) – 3(11) – 39 = 0

Q.4 Factorize the following expressions:

(i) x4 – y4 (ii) 9a2 – (2x – y)2

14.
Sol. (i) x4 – y4 = (x2)2 – (y2)2
= (x2 + y2) (x2 – y2)
= (x2 + y2) (x – y) (x + y)
(ii) 9a2 – (2x – y)2 = (3a)2 – (2x – y)2
= (3a + 2x – y) (3a – 2x + y)

Q.5 Factorize
(i) 8x3 – 27y3    (ii) a6 – b6
Sol. (i) 8x3 – 27y3 = (2x)3 – (3y)3
= (2x – 3y) ((2x)2 + (2x)(3y) + (3y)2)
= (2x – 3y) (4x2 + 6xy + 9y2)
(ii) a – b = = (a ) – (b3)2
6 6 3 2

= (a3 + b3) (a3 – b3)

= (a + b) (a2 – ab + b2) (a – b) (a2 + ab + b2)

Q.6 Factorize
(i) x2 + 3x – 40
(ii) x2 – 3x – 40
(iii) 3x2 – 10x + 8
(iv) 12x2 + x – 35
Sol. (i) x2 + 3x – 40 = x2 + 8x – 5x – 40
= x(x + 8) – 5(x + 8)
= (x – 5) (x + 8)
(ii) x2 – 3x – 40 = x2 – 8x + 5x – 40
= x(x – 8) + 5(x – 8)
= (x + 5) (x – 8)
(iii) 3x2 – 10x + 8 = 3x2 – 6x – 4x + 8
= 3x(x – 2) – 4(x – 2)
= (3x – 4) (x – 2)
(iv) 12x + x – 35 = 12x2 + 21x – 20x – 35
2

= 3x(4x + 7) – 5(4x + 7)
= (3x – 5) (4x + 7)

Q.7 Factorize by converting into perfect square:

Fundamental of Mathematics

(i) a2 – 4a + 3 + 2b – b2
(ii) a4 + a2b2 + b4
Sol. (i) (a2 – 4a + 4 – 4) + 3 – (b2 – 2b + 1 – 1)
= (a – 2)2 – 4 + 3 – (b – 1)2 + 1
= (a – 2)2 – (b – 1)2
= [(a – 2) + (b – 1)] [(a – 2) – (b – 1)]
= (a + b – 3) (a – b –1)

15.
 (ii) a4 + a2b2 + b4
= a4 + 2a2b2 + b4 – a2b2
= (a2 + b2)2 – (ab)2
= (a2 + b2 + ab) (a2 + b2 – ab)

Q8. Factorize 8a3 + b3 + c3 – 6abc

Sol. (2a)3 + (b) 3 + (c) 3 – 3(2a) (b) (c)
= (2a + b + c) ((2a) 2 + b2 + c2 – (2a)b – bc – c(2a))
= (2a + b + c) (4a2 + b2 + c2 – 2ab – bc – 2ac)

Q9. Solve the equations:

(i) 4x – 10.2x–1 = 24 (ii) 4·22x – 6x = 18·32x
1
Sol. (i) ( 2x )  –  10 ( 2x )·   =  24 
2

2
Let 2x = t then
⇒ t2 – 5t – 24 = 0 ⇒ t2 – 8t + 3t – 24 = 0
⇒ (t – 8) (t + 3) = 0
⇒ t = 8 ⇒ 2x = 23 ⇒ x = 3
⇒ t = –3 ⇒ 2x = –3 ⇒ Not possible
(ii) 4(2x)2 – 2x · 3x – 18(3x)2 = 0
Let 2x = a, 3x = b then
⇒ 4a2 – ab – 18b2 = 0 ⇒ 4a2 –9ab + 8ab – 18b2 = 0
⇒ (4a – 9b) (a + 2b) = 0
4a = 9b ⇒ 4 · 2x = 9 · 3x ⇒ 2x+2 – 3x+2 ⇒ x + 2 = 0 ⇒ x = – 2
a = – 2b ⇒ 2x = – 2 · 3x ⇒ Not possible

Intervals
These are basically subset of real numbers. If there are two numbers
a, b ∈ R such that a < b then we can define four types of intervals.
(A) Open Interval:
If a < x < b then it can be written as x ∈ (a, b). On number line it can
be represented as
Fundamental of Mathematics

x
a b

(B) Closed Interval:
If a ≤ x ≤ b then it can be written as x ∈ [a, b]. On number line it can
be represented as

x
a b

16.
(C) Semi open or Semi closed interval:
If a < x ≤ b then x ∈ (a, b]

x
a b

If a ≤ x < b then x ∈ [a, b)

x
a b
(D) Infinite Intervals:
If x > a then x ∈ (a, ∞)

x
a
If x ≥ a then x ∈ [a, ∞)

x
a

If x < b then x ∈ (–∞, b)

x
b
If x ≤ b then x ∈ (–∞, b]

x
b
Note: (i) For discrete values of x we use sets
Ex. If x = 1, 2 then we write x ∈ {1, 2}
(ii) If there is no value of x then we write x ∈ ϕ

Operation on Intervals:
1. Union (or):
If x ∈ (2, 3) or x ∈ (5, 7) then we write it as x ∈ (2, 3) ∪ (5, 7)
Fundamental of Mathematics

x
2 3 5 7

2. Intersection (and):
If x ∈ (2, 7] and x ∈ [–3, 5] then common values of both intervals come
under intersection. Hence intersection will be x ∈ (2, 5]

17.
 Common

x
–3 2 5 7

Remainder Theorem

If polynomial p(x) whose degree is greater than or equal to 1, is

divided by (x –a), then the remainder is p(a).

Ex. If p(x) = x3 –7x2 + 6x + 4 is divided by (x –1)

then remainder = p(1) = 1 – 7 + 6 + 5 + 4 = 4
Note :

If p(x) is divided by (ax + b) then remainder is p(-b/a).

Factor Theorem

If polynomial p(x) is of degree ≥ 1 and ‘a’ be a real constant such

that p(a) = 0 then (x – a) will be a factor of p(x).

Ex. Let p(x) = x4 – 7x2 + 6 is a polynomial and it is such that p(1) = 0 then
(x – 1) will be a factor of p(x).
Dividend = Quotient × Divisor + Remainder

Q.1 Find the remainder when p(x) = x3 + 2x2 – 3x + 1 is divided by 2x + 1.

Sol. By remainder theorem
Remainder = p(–½)
−1 1 3 23
Fundamental of Mathematics

∴ p(–½) = (–½)3 + 2(–½)2 – 3(–½) + 1 = + + +1=   is remainder.

8 2 2 8
Q.2 If p(x) = kx4 + 2x2 + 2k + 1 is divided by x – 1 then remainder is 4k – 2,
then find k.
Sol. By remainder theorem
Remainder = p(1)
4k – 2 = k(1)4 + 2(1)2 + 2k + 1
k=5

18.
Q.3 Factorize p(x) = x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6
Sol. If x = 1 then
p(1) = (1)3 – 6(1)2 + 11(1) – 6
= 12 – 12 = 0
hence (x – 1) is factor of p(x)
Similarly p(2) = 0 ⇒ (x – 2) is factor of p(x)
p(3) = 0 ⇒ (x – 3) is factor of p(x)
Hence p(x) = (x – 1) (x – 2) (x – 3)

Q.4 If x2 + x – 6 is a factor of p(x) = 2x4 + x3 – ax2 + bx + a + b – 1, then find

the value of ‘a’ and ‘b’
Sol. ∵ x2 + x – 6 = (x + 3) (x – 2)
∴ (x + 3) and (x – 2) both are factors of p(x)
⇒ p(–3) = 0
⇒ 2(81) + (–27) – a(9) + b(–3) + a + b – 1 = 0
⇒ 8a + 2b = 134
⇒ 4a + b = 67 …(i)
Also, p(2) = 0
⇒ 2(16) + (8) – a(4) + b(2) + a + b – 1 = 0
⇒ 3a – 3b = 39
⇒ a – b = 13 …(ii)
By (i) and (ii)
a = 16,     b = 3

Q.5 A polynomial p(x) when divided by x and x – 1 gives remainder 1 and 3

respectively find the remainder when p(x) is divided by x2 – x
Sol. By remainder theorem
p(0) = 1,     p(1) = 3
If p(x) is divided by x2 – x remainder is R(x) = ax + b (∵ remainder can
have atmost 1-degree as divisor is of degree ‘2’)
Now by division algorithm
Dividend = Quotient × Divisor + Remainder
p(x) = Q(x) × x(x – 1) + ax + b …(i)
Put x = 1 in (i)
Fundamental of Mathematics

p(1) = Q(1) × 0 + a + b
3 = a + b …(ii)
Put x = 0 in (i)
p(0) = Q(0) × 0 + b
1 = b …(iii)
By (ii) and (iii)
⇒ a = 2,    b = 1
∴ Remainder = 2x + 1

19.
 Q.6 Factorize (x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 3) (x + 4) – 8
Sol. {(x + 1) (x + 4)} {(x + 2) (x + 3)} – 8
= (x2 + 5x + 4) (x2 + 5x + 6) – 8
Let x2 + 5x = t then
⇒ (t + 4) (t + 6) – 8
= (t2 + 10t + 16)
= (t + 2) (t + 8)
= (x2 + 5x + 2) (x2 + 5x + 8)

Q.7 Factorize f(x) = x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 2

Sol. Put x = – 2
f(–2) = (–8) + 3(4) + 3(–2) + 2 = 0
∵ f(–2) = 0 ⇒ (x + 2) is a factor of f(x)
Now,

∴ (x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 2) = (x + 2) (x2 + x + 1)

Divisibility Rules

For 2: Last digit of number must be 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8

For 3: Sum of all digits of the number must be a multiple of 3.

For 4: Number formed by last two digits must be a multiple of 4.

Fundamental of Mathematics

For 5: Unit digit of number must be 0 or 5.

For 6: Number must be divisible by both 2 and 3.

For 8: Number formed by last three digits of number must be a multiple of 8.

For 9: Sum of all digits of the number must be a multiple of 9.

20.
 For 10: Last digit of number must be 0.

For 11: (Sum of digits at even places) – (Sum of digits at odd places) = Multiple of 11.

Q.1 If the number 5279ab is divisible by 18 then (a, b) is equal to

Sol. The number must be divisible by 2 and 9 both
For 2 ⇒ Digit b must be 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8
For 9 ⇒ 5 + 2 + 7 + 9 + a + b = 9 k, k ∈ w
23 + a + b = 9 k
if b = 0 then a = 4
if b = 2 then a = 2

(a, b) ≡ (4, 0), (2, 2), (0, 4), (9, 4), (7, 6), (5, 8)

RATIO

It is a comparison of two quantities by division. If a and b are two numbers

a
then ratio of a and b is or a ÷ b and it is denoted by a : b
b

Where a ⇒ antecedent
b ⇒ consequent
3 7 2
Ex. , , , ... 
5 9 7

PROPORTION
a c
The equality of two ratios is called proportion If = then a, b, c and d are
b d
a c
said to be in proportion and we write a : b : : c : d and each term , is
b d
called proportional. Also a, b, c, d are called first, second, third and fourth
proportional respectively.
3 6
Ex. =   we write it 3 : 4 : : 6 : 8
4 8
Fundamental of Mathematics

a c
Note : If = then
b d

a +b c+d a −b c −d a +b c+d
(i)  =    (ii)  =   (iii)  =   
b d b d a −b c −d
(Componendo) (Dividendo) (Componendo and Dividendo)

21.
 Note :

a c e
If = = = λ   (let) then,
b d f
a+c+e
λ=  
b+d+ f

Note :

If a : b : : c : d then
Product of means = Product of extremes
i.e.,  b·c = a·d

Note: (i) Fourth Proportional:

bc
if x is fourth proportional of a, b, c then a : b : : c : x ⇒ x =  
a
(ii) Third Proportional:
b2
if x is third proportional of a, b then a : b : : b : x ⇒ x =
a
(iii) Mean Proportional:
If x is mean (or second) proportional of a, b the
a : x : : x : b ⇒ x = ab 

Q.1 If x : y = 1 : 2 then find the value of (2x + 3y) : (x + y)

x 1
Sol. ∵ =    ⇒   Let x = k,    y = 2k   (k ≠ 0)
y 2
2x + 3y 2 (k ) + 3 ( 2k ) 8k 8
∴ = ⇒ =  
x+y k + 2k 3k 3
∴ required ratio is 8 : 3.

Q.2 If 15(2x2 – y2) = 7xy then find the value of x : y.

Fundamental of Mathematics

x
Sol. Let= k ⇒ x = ky 
y
Now from given equation
15{2(ky)2 – y2} = 7 (ky)y
⇒ 15y2{2k2 –1} = 7ky2
⇒ 15(2k2 – 1) = 7 k
⇒ 30k2 – 7k – 15 = 0

22.
 ⇒ 30k2 – 25k + 18k – 15 = 0
⇒ 5k (6k – 5) + 3(6k – 5) = 0
⇒ (5k + 3) (6k – 5) = 0
3 5
⇒ k=−    or   k =
5 6
x 3 5
∴ = −    or  
y 5 6

a c e
Q.3 If = = = λ   (all numbers are positive)
b d f
1/2
ac  a2 + c2 + e2 
Then prove that (i) λ =     (ii) λ =  2 2 
bd b + d + f 
2

Sol. a = bλ,   c = dλ,   e = fλ

ac (bλ ) (dλ )
(i) = = λ2 = λ
bd bd

(ii) a = b λ  
2 2 2
…(1)
c = d λ  
2 2 2
…(2)
e = f λ  
2 2 2
…(3)
Add all three equations, a + c + e = (b + d + f ) λ
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1/2
 a2 + c2 + e2 
⇒ λ= 2 2 
b + d + f 
2

INDICES
Some useful formulae:

1. am ·an = am+n 2. a ÷ a = a 3. ( a ) = a
m n m−n mn mn

a
−m/n
b
m/n
5. a ÷ b = a ·b
m −n m n
6. a = 1
0
(a ≠ 0)
4.   = 
b a
Fundamental of Mathematics

−3/2
 121 
( )
−1/2
Q. Evaluate (i) 6
64 (ii)  
 169 

Sol. (i)  64 = 26 ⇒ 6 64 = 2 

1/2
 1 1
()
−1/2
∴ given exp. = 2 =  =
 2 2

23.
  3
−3/2 −3/2 2 −   
 112 
(ii)  121   11  133
 2
=  2 =  =
 169   13   13  113

Rational Inequalities
f (x)
Let y =  be an expression in x where f(x) and g(x) are polynomials
g (x)
in x. If it is given that y > 0 (or y < 0) then we have to write set of all

the values of x for which y is positive (or y is negative) to evaluate this

set, we follow these steps.
Step-1:
Express f(x) and g(x) as factor of linear expressions (If possible) also
collect the same linear factors in one place.
3 4 5
f ( x ) ( x − 1) ( x + 2 ) ( x − 3 ) ( x + 6 )
Ex. Let after step-1 y= =
g (x) x2 ( x − 7 )
3

Step-2:
Now mark the values of x for which y = 0 by black dots on number line
(x = 1, –2, 3, –6). Also mark the values for which y is undefined by white
dots (x = 0, 7)

–6 –2 0 1 3 7

Step-3:
Now check value of y for any real number greater than the right most
marked number on number line. If it is positive, then y > 0 for all
numbers greater than the right most marked number.
 Ex. Here if we put x = 8 in y then y > 0 hence y > 0 ∀ x ∈ (7,∞)

Step-4:
If exponent of a factor in y is odd, then this point is called simple point
Fundamental of Mathematics

and if the exponent is even, then the point is called double point.
For above example simple points are x = 1, 3, –6, 7
double points are x = 0, –2
Now sign in neighbouring interval of simple point is different and for
double point it is same.
For above example sign scheme will be following

24.
 + – – – + – +

–6 –2 0 1 3 7

Step-5:
y > 0 for all values of x which lies in interval where positive mark is present and y < 0
for all values of x of interval where negative mark is present. Hence solution of
y > 0 is x ∈ (–∞, –6) ∪ (1, 3) ∪ (7, ∞)
y ≥ 0 is x ∈ (–∞, –6] ∪ {–2} ∪ [1, 3] ∪ (7, ∞)
y < 0 is x ∈ (–6, –2) ∪ (–2, 0) ∪ (0, 1) ∪ (3, 7)
y ≤ 0 is x ∈ [–6, 0) ∪ (0, 1] ∪ [3, 7)

Points to remember:

⇒P  oints where denominator is zero are never included in the answer.

⇒ Never cross multiply in inequality until you are sure that denominator
will always be positive.
⇒ We can also multiply both side by negative expression by changing the
sign of inequality.
⇒ We can add and subtract the same expression on both side without
changing the sign of inequality.

Q.1 Solve the following inequalities for y > 0, y ≥ 0, y < 0 and y ≤ 0.

2
( x + 1) ( 2x − 3) (x 2
− 5x + 6 ) ( x2 − 8x + 15 ) ( 3x − 2) ( 4 − x )
3

(i) y =    (ii) y=   (iii) y =

(x + 7)
3
(x 2
− 16 )
2
( 7 − 2x ) (5 − x )
2

(x 3
− 6x2 + 11x − 6 ) (x 2
− 3) ( x4 + x2 + 1) ( 2x − 1)
(iv) y =  (v) y =    (vi) y = ( x2 − 6x − 2 )
(x 2
+ 2 ) ( x − 8x + 12 )
2 7
( 3x + 1) ( x + 5)
2

3
Sol. (i) y = 0 for x  =  – 1, (black dots)
2
y not defined for x = – 7 (white dot)
Fundamental of Mathematics

3
Single points x = ,  − 7
2
Double points x = −1
+ – – +

–7 –1 3/2

25.
 3 
y > 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( −∞, −7 ) ∪  , ∞ 
2 
3 
y ≥ 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( −∞, 7 ) ∪ {−1} ∪  , ∞ 
2 
 3
y < 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( −7, −1) ∪  −1, 
 2
 3
y ≤ 0 ⇒ x ∈  −7, 
 2

(ii) (x2 – 5x + 6) = (x – 2) (x – 3)
(x2 – 8x + 15) = (x – 5) (x – 3)
(x2 – 16) = (x + 4) (x – 4)
2
( x − 2) ( x − 3) ( x − 5)
y=
(x + 4) (x − 4)
+ – + + – +

–4 2 3 4 5

y > 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( −∞, −4 ) ∪ ( 2, 3) ∪ ( 3, 4 ) ∪ ( 5, ∞ )

y ≥ 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( −∞, −4 ) ∪ [2, 4 ) ∪ [5, ∞ )

y < 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( −4, 2) ∪ ( 4, 5 )

(
y ≤ 0 ⇒ x ∈ −4, 2 ∪ 4, 5 (
– + + – –
(iii)
2/3 7/2 4 5

(Note if we put any number x > 5 in y, then y < 0. Hence right-most

region is negative)
 2  7 
y > 0 ⇒ x ∈  , 4 −  
 3  2
Fundamental of Mathematics

2  7 
y ≥ 0 ⇒ x ∈  , 4 −  
3  2
 2
y < 0 ⇒ x ∈  −∞,  ∪ ( 4, ∞ ) − {5}
 3
 2
y ≤ 0 ⇒ x ∈  −∞,  ∪ 4, ∞ − 5
 3
) {}

26.
(iv) x3 − 6x2 + 11x − 6 = ( x − 1) ( x − 2 ) ( x − 3 )

(x2 + 2) → Always positive

x2 − 8x + 12 = ( x − 6 ) ( x − 2 )

( x − 1) ( x − 3 )
y=

(x 2
+ 2) ( x − 6) ( x − 2) °
– + + – +

1 2 3 6

y > 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( 1, 3 ) ∪ (6, ∞ ) − {2}

y ≥ 0 ⇒ x ∈ [ 1, 3] ∪ (6, ∞ ) − {2}

y < 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( −∞, 1) ∪ ( 3, 6 )

(
y ≤ 0 ⇒ x ∈ −∞, 1 ∪ 3, 6 )
(v) x4 + x2 + 1 ⇒ always positive
2x – 1 can be replaced by x because both have same sign scheme on
number line

(
x2 − 3 = x + 3 x − 3 )( )
y=
(x + 3 ) (x + − 3 ) (x 4
+ x2 + 1 x )
(3x + 1) (x + 5)
7 2

+ + – + – +

–5  3 -1/3 0 3

(  1 
y > 0 ⇒ x ∈ −∞, − 3 ∪  − , 0  ∪
 3 
) ( )
3, ∞ — {5}

 1 
(
y ≥ 0 ⇒ x ∈ −∞, − 3  ∪  − , 0 ∪  3, ∞ − {−5} )
Fundamental of Mathematics

 3 
1

y < 0 ⇒ x ∈  − 3, −  ∪ 0, 3
 3 
( )

 1
y ≤ 0 ⇒ x ∈  − 3, −  ∪ 0, 3 
 3  

27.
 ( ) (
(vi) Let x2 − 6x − 2 = x − α x − β )( )

α, β =
6 ± 36 − 4 −2( ) ⇒ α, β = 6 ± 2 11

2 2

α = 3 − 11, β = 3 + 11 ( α < β)
+ – +

 

( ) (
y > 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( −∞, α ) ∪ ( β, ∞ ) = −∞, 3 − 11 ∪ 3 + 11, ∞ )
y ≥ 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( −∞, α ]∪[ β, ∞ ) = ( −∞, 3 − 11  ∪ 3 + 11, ∞ )

y < 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( α, β ) = ( 3 − 11, 3 + 11 )

y ≤ 0 ⇒ x ∈ [ α, β] = 3 − 11, 3 + 11 

FUNCTION:
It is a relation from non-empty set A to non-empty set B such
that each element of set A is uniquely associated with elements
of set B. A B
Ex.: f(x) = 2x + 3 is a function from set f 5
2
A = {2, 3, 5} to set B = {5, 7, 9, 10, 13} 7
Domain of f = A = {2, 3, 5}
3 9
Range of f = {7, 9, 13}
10
Range ⊆ co-domain 5
“7” is called “Image” of “2” under ‘f’ 13
‘2’ is called “Pre-image” / “Argument” of ‘7’ under ‘f’ and function
f is denoted by
f:A→B

Q.1 Identify which mapping(s) is/are a function (f) from A to B

A B A B
Fundamental of Mathematics

f f
1 1
a a
(i) 2 (ii) 2
b b
3 3
c c
4 4

28.
 A B A B
f f
1 1
a a
(iii) 2 (iv) 2
b b
3 3
c c
4 4

Sol. (i) It is a function

(ii) It is not a function, ∵ a has 2 images
(iii) It is a function
(iv) It is not a function, ∵ f(c) ∈ ϕ

Q.2 Find domain of the following functions:

(i) f ( x ) = x (ii) f ( x ) = x2 (iii) f ( x ) = x2 + 1
1
(iv) f ( x ) = 2x − 1 (v) f ( x ) =
3x + 1
Sol. (i) x ≥ 0 ⇒ Df ∈ [0, ∞)
(ii) x ≥ 0
2
⇒ Df ∈ R
(iii) x2 + 1 ≥ 0 ⇒ Df ∈ R
(iv) 2x – 1 ≥ 0 ⇒ Df ∈ [½, ∞)
(v) 3x + 1 ≠ 0 ⇒ Df ∈ R – {–1/3}

Q.3 Find range of following functions:

(i) f ( x ) = x2 + 1 (ii) f ( x ) = x2 − 1 (iii) f ( x ) = x2 + 4 + 2

Sol. (i) ∵ x2 ≥ 0
∴ x2 + 1 ≥ 1   ⇒ x + 1 ≥ 1 
2

∴ Range ∈ [1, ∞)
(ii) ∵ x2 ≥ 0
∴ x2 – 1 ≥ –1   ⇒ x − 1 ≥ 0 
2

∴ Range ∈ [0, ∞)
(iii) ∵ x ≥ 0
2
Fundamental of Mathematics

∴ x2 + 4 ≥ 4   ⇒ x + 4 ≥ 2 
2

  x + 4 + 2 ≥ 4 
2
        
∴ Range ∈ [4, ∞)

29.
 MODULUS FUNCTION

It is also known as absolute value function and absolute value of a real

number x is denoted by |x|.

Definition:

x ; x≥0
x =
 −x ; x < 0

Domain: x ∈ R,    Range: |x| ∈ [0, ∞)

y

 f x () ()
; f x ≥0
()
If f x = 
−f x() ; f (x ) < 0

Note: Values of x for which f(x) = 0 are critical points for |f(x)|
45° 45°
Graph: x
(0,0)
Let y = |x|
Note:

Graph of y = |x| is symmetric about x = 0

Ex. |2| = 2,      |5| = 5,        3 = 3

|–3| = –(–3) = 3,   |–4| = – (–4) = 4,          … etc

Q.1 Define the following functions:

(i) |2x – 1|     (ii) |x2 – 5x – 24|
 2x − 1 ; 2x − 1  0
Sol. (i) 2x − 1 =   
− ( 2x − 1) ; 2x − 1 < 0
Fundamental of Mathematics

 1
2x − 1 ; x 2
=
1 − 2x ; x < 1
   2
(ii) x – 5x – 24 = (x – 8) (x + 3)
2

+ – +

– 8

30.
  x2 − 5x − 24
x2 − 5x − 24 = 
(
; x ∈ −∞, −3 ∪ 8, ∞ )

− x − 5x − 24
2
( ) ; (
x ∈ −3, 8)
Q.2 Define the following:
(i) |x – 2| + |x – 5| (ii) |x + 1| – |2x – 1| + |x – 5|
Sol. (i) Critical point for |x – 2| is x = 2
Critical point for |x – 5| is x = 5
(
 x−2 + x−5

) ( ) ; x ≥ 5
(
x 2 + x 5 =  x−2 − x−5 ) ( ) ; 2 ≤ x < 5

 
( ) (
− x − 2 − x − 5 ) ; x<2

2x − 7 ; x≥5

= 3 ; 2≤ x < 5
7 − 2x ; x<2
         

(ii) Critical point ⇒ –1, ½, 5

 ( x + 1) − ( 2x − 1) + ( x − 5 ) ; x≥5

 ( x + 1) − ( 2x − 1) − ( x − 5 ) 1
; ≤x<5
 2
x + 1 – 2x – 1 + x – 5 = 
 ( x + 1) + ( 2x − 1) − ( x − 5 ) 1
; −1 ≤ x <
 2
− ( x + 1) + ( 2x − 1) − ( x − 5 ) ; x < −1

 −3 ; x≥5

7 − 2x ; 1 ≤ x < 5
 2
= 
2x + 5 ; −1 ≤ x < 1
 2
 3 ; x < −1
            
Q.3 Draw graph of
(i) f(x) = |x – 3|
(ii) f(x) = |x + 1| + |x – 5|
f(x)
(iii) f(x) = |x –1| + |x – 3| + |x –7|
Fundamental of Mathematics

Sol. (i) Critical point x = 3

f(3) = 0,    
f(4) = |4 – 3| = 1,     (2,1)
(4,1)
f(2) = 2 |2 – 3| = 1
x
(0,0) (3,0)

31.
 (ii) Critical points x = – 1, 5

f(–1) = 0 + 6 = 6,

f(5) = 6 + 0 = 6

f(6) = 7 + 1 = 8,

f(–2) = 1 + 7 = 8

(iii) Critical points x = 1, 3, 7
f(1) = 8,     
f(3) = 6,     
f(7) = 10
f(0) = 11,    
f(8) = 13

Q.4 Find λ if the equation |x + 1| – |x| + |2x – 1| = λ have

(i) No solution y
(ii) Exactly one solution (–2,4)
(iii) Exactly two solutions
(iv) More than two solution y=
Sol. To solve this problem, we will use graphical
(1,2)
approach for y = |x + 1| – |x| + |2x – 1| and y = λ (–1,2) (0,2)

For (i) λ < 1   (ii) λ = 1  (½,1)
(iii) λ ∈ (1, 2) ∪ (2, ∞)    (iv) λ = 2
x
(0,0)

Properties of modulus function:

Fundamental of Mathematics

1. |a| = |–a| 2. |a – b| = |b – a| a a
3. =
b b

4. |ab| = |a| · |b| 5. |a2| = |a|2 = a2 6. a2 = a

32.
 7. |f(x)| = f(x) ⇒ f(x) ≥ 0 8. |f(x)| = –f(x) ⇒f(x) ≤ 0 9. |a| = |b| ⇒ a = ±b

10. |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b| 12. |x – a| < b

11. |a – b| ≥ ||a| – |b||
Equality holds when ⇒(x – a < b) ∩ (x – a > – b)
Equality holds when ab ≤ 0
ab ≥ 0

13. |x – a| > b 14. |a| represents distance 15. |a – b| represents distance
⇒(x – a > b)∪(x – a < – b) between 0 and a on between a and b on
number line. number line.

Q.1 Solve the equations:

(i) |x – 2| = 5
(ii) ||x – 1| – 2| = 3
(iii) (x – 4)2 + |x – 3| + 2 = 0
(iv) x2 – 3|x| – 10 = 0
(v) |x2 + 3x – 4| = |x2 – 1|
(vi) |x2 – 5x + 6| = 5x – x2 – 6
Sol. (i) x – 2 = 5     or     x – 2 = – 5
x = 7       or     x = – 3
(ii) |x – 1| – 2 = 3   or     |x – 1| – 2 = – 3
|x – 1| = 5     or     |x – 1| = – 1
x – 1 = 5, –5   or     Not possible
x = 6, –4
(iii) (x – 4)2 ≥ 0, |x – 3| ≥ 0
∵ LHS ≥ 2
∴ No solution
(iv) |x|2 – 3|x| – 10 = 0
Let |x| = t
t2 – 3t – 10 = 0 ⇒ (t – 5) (t + 2) = 0
⇒ t = 5, t = – 2
⇒ |x|= 5,   |x| = –2 (Not possible)
Fundamental of Mathematics

⇒ x = 5, –5
(v) x2 + 3x – 4 = x2 – 1,     x2 + 3x – 4 = –(x2 – 1)
3x = 3,           2x2 + 3x – 5 = 0
x = 1,            (2x + 5) (x – 1) = 0
x = –5/2, 1
(vi) |x2 – 5x + 6| = –(x2 – 5x + 6)
⇒ x2 – 5x + 6 ≤ 0
(x – 2) (x – 3) ≤ 0   ⇒ x ∈ [2, 3]

33.
 Q.2 Solve the equations:
(i) |x| + |2x – 3| = 4 (ii) |2x + 1| + 3x = 11
Sol. (i) Case-I x ≥ 3/2
7
x + 2x – 3 = 4 ⇒ x  =
3
   Case-II 0 ≤ x < 3/2
x – (2x – 3) = 4 ⇒ x = –1 (Not possible)
   Case-III x<0
1
– x – (2x – 3) = 4 ⇒ x = −
3
1 7
∴ x=− ,
3 3
(ii) |2x + 1| = 11 – 3x … (1)
2x + 1 = 11 – 3x, 2x + 1 = 3x – 11
x = 2 x = 12
(Not satisfying equation (1))
∴ x = 2

Q.3 Solve the equation:

(i) |x – 1| + |x + 1| = |2x|
(ii) ||2x – 3| – |x2 – 4x + 3|| = |x2 – 2x|
Sol. (i) |x – 1| + |x + 1| = |(x – 1) + (x + 1)|
∵ |a| + |b| = |a + b| ⇒ ab ≥ 0
∴ (x – 1) (x + 1) ≥ 0
    x ∈ (–∞, –1] ∪ [1, ∞)
(ii) ||2x – 3| – |x2 – 4x + 3|| = |(x2 – 4x + 3) + (2x – 3)|
∵ ||a| – |b|| = |a + b| ⇒ ab ≤ 0
∴ (2x – 3) (x2 – 4x + 3) ≤ 0
 (2x – 3) (x – 1) (x – 3) ≤ 0
– + – +

1 3/2 3

x ∈ (–∞, 1] ∪ [3/2, 3]
Fundamental of Mathematics

Q.4 Solve the inequalities:

(i) |x| < 3 (ii) |x – 2| > 5 (iii) |x + 5| < 0 (iv) |2x + 1| ≤ 7
Sol. (i) – 3 < x < 3
⇒ x ∈ (–3, 3)
(ii) (x – 2) < – 5 and (x – 2) > 5
x < – 3 and x > 7
⇒ x ∈ (–∞, –3) ∪ (7, ∞)

34.
 (iii) |x + 5| cannot be negative
⇒ x ∈ ϕ
(iv) –7 ≤ 2x + 1 ≤ 7
–8 ≤ 2x ≤ 6
x ∈ [–4, 3]

Greatest Integer Function (GIF)

Definition:
It represents the greatest integer less than or equal to x and denoted by [x].
Example :

[2] = 2 [5] = 5 [0] = 0 [2.1] = 2

[2.99] = 2 [–1] = –1 [–1.9] = – 2 [–1.1] = – 2

 2 ; 2≤x<3

1 ; 1≤x<2
[ ]  0
x = ; 0≤x<1  

 −1 ; −1 ≤ x < 0
−2 ; −2 ≤ x < −1
 

Q.1 Evaluate the value of ([·] represents GIF)

(i) [π] + [e]
(ii) [–e2] + [sin91°]
1 1  1 2  1 3   1 90 
(iii)  +  + +  +  3 + 90  +  +  30 + 90 
 3 90   3 90
Sol. (i) ∵ π≈ 3.14, e ≈ 2.71
[π] + [e] = 3 + 2 = 5
(ii) –e2 ≃ –7.3, 0 < sin91° < 1
[–e2] + [sin91°] = – 8 +0=–8
Fundamental of Mathematics

1 r 
(iii) Let f (r ) =  +
 3 90 
∵ f(1) = f(2) = … = f(59) = 0
f(60) = f(61) = … = f(90) = 1
∴ Given expression becomes,

0 + 0+
 … + 0 + 1
 + 1
+ … + 1
59 terms 31 terms

   = 31

35.
 Graph:
Let y = [x] → GIF
Domain: x ∈ R
Range: [x] ∈ I

Properties: ([·] → GIF)

1. [x + m] = [x] + m  (m ∈ I)
0 ; x ∈I
2. [ x ] + [–x ] =   
−1 ; x ∉ I

Q.1 Solve the equations: ([·] → GIF)

(i) [x] = 2  
(ii) [x + 1] = 0  
(iii) [x] + [–x] = –x2
Sol. (i) [x] = 2
Fundamental of Mathematics

⇒ x ∈ [2, 3)
(ii) [x + 1] = 0
⇒ [x] + 1 = 0   ⇒   [x] = –1
⇒ x ∈ [–1, 0)
(iii) Case-I If x ∉ I then
0 = –x2 ⇒ x = 0

36.
 Case-II If x ∈ I then
–1 = –x2 ⇒ x2 = 1
⇒ x = ±1 (Not possible)
∵x∉ I
Hence x = 0 only

Fractional Part Function (FPF)

Definition:

Fractional part of x denoted by {x} and it can be evaluated as

{x} = x – [x] (where [·] → GIF)

Ex.

{2} = 2 – [2] = 2 – 2 = 0

{1.7} = (1.7) – [1.7] = (1.7) – 1 = 0.7

{–1.7} = (–1.7) – [1.7] = (–1.7) – (–2) = 0.3

x − 2 ; x ∈ [2, 3)

x − 1 ; x ∈ [ 1, 2 )

{x} = x − [x] =  x ; x ∈ [0, 1)  

x + 1 ; x ∈ [ −1, 0 )
x + 2 ; x ∈ [ −2, −1)
 

Graph:
Let y = {x}
y
Fundamental of Mathematics

x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4

Domain: x ∈ R Range: {x} ∈ [0, 1)

37.
 Properties: ({·} → FPF, [·] → GIF)

1. {x + n} = {x},   n ∈ I
0 ; x ∈ I
2. {x} + {−x} =   
1 ; x ∉I
3. {[x]} = [{x}] = 0
4. Any real number x = [x] + {x}
or x = I + f (I = [x], f = {x})

Q.1 Evaluate the value of ([·] → GIF, {·} → FPF)

(i) {π}
 1  1  1  1 
(ii)  1 +  + 2 +  + 3 +  +  + 100 + 
 2  3  4  101  
Sol. (i) π – [π] = π – 3
(ii) {Integer} = 0

Q.2 Solve the equation ([·] → GIF, {·} → FPF)

(i) {x} = ½
(ii) {x + 2} = 0
(iii) [x] + [–x] = {x} + {–x}
Sol. (i) x = [x] + {x} = ..., ½, 1 + ½, 2 + ½, …
x=I+½
(ii) {x} = 0
⇒ x ∈ I
(iii) Case-I    if x ∈ I
        0 = 0   true, hence x ∈ I
Case-II     if x ∉ I
       –1 = 1   false ⇒ x ∈ ϕ
hence, x ∈ I is the solution.
Fundamental of Mathematics

38.
Identity Function
Definition:
It is a function which is defined by f(x) = x ∀ x ∈ R
It is also known as identity relation or identity map or f(x)
identity transformation.

Graph:
Let f(x) = x
 /4
Domain: x ∈ R x
Range: f(x) ∈ R (0,0)

SIMILAR TRIANGELS
Two triangles ABC and DEF are similar if they follow the following
similarities.
A D

E F
B C  
1. A-A-A :If ∠A = ∠D,  ∠B = ∠E,  ∠C = ∠F
then ∆ABC ~ ∆DEF
AB BC AC
2. S-S-S: If = = then ∆ABC ~ ∆DEF
DE DF DF
AB AC
3. 
S-A-S: If =   and ∠A = ∠D then ∆ABC ~ ∆DEF
DE DF A
Theorems related to Triangles:
Theorem-1 (Basic Proportionality theorem)
In a triangle line drawn parallel to one side divides D E
the other two sides in the same ratio.
If DE || BC then AD = AC   B C
Fundamental of Mathematics

DB EC
A
Theorem-2 (Angle bisector theorem)
The bisector of vertical angle of triangle divides the base in the ratio of
other two sides.
If ∠BAD = ∠CAD
BD AB
then =   B C
DC AC D

39.
 Theorem-3 A
Angle opposite to equal sides of a triangle
are equal.
If AC = BC
then ∠B = ∠A
Also, if ∠B = ∠A then AC = BC
B C

Theorem-4 (Exterior angle theorem) A

If a side of a triangle is produced, the exterior 1
angle so formed is equal to sum of the other
two interior angles.
∠3 = ∠1 + ∠2 3
2
B
C D
Theorem-5 (Mid-point theorem)
If the mid points of two sides of triangle are
joined by a line segment, then this segment
is parallel to the third side and is equal to
half of it.
If AD = BD and AE = CE
then DE || BC and DE = ½BC

Some useful results:

1. If in ∆ABC interior angle bisectors of ∠B and
∠C meets at point O then
∠BOC = 90° + ½(∠A)

2. If in ∆ABC exterior angle bisectors of ∠B and A

∠C meets at point O then
Fundamental of Mathematics

∠BOC = 90° – ½(∠A)

B C

40.
3. In ∆ABC if AD is median then A
AB2 + AC2 = 2 (AD2 + BD2)
(Apollonius’s theorem)

B D C

A E
4. In ∆ABC if BC is produced to D and bisector
of ∠ABC and ∠ACD meets of E then
∠BEC = ½(∠BAC)
B D
C
A

5. In an acute ∆ABC if AD ⊥ BC then

(B, D, C are collinear)
B C
D
A
AC = AB + BC – 2BD. BC  (∠B < 90°)
2 2 2

AC2 = AB2 + BC2 + 2BD. BC  (∠B > 90°)

C
D B

6. In ∆ABC if ∠B = 90° D is point on AC such

that BD ⊥ AC then

7. In ∆ABC if ∠B = 90° and M is mid point of AC

A
then
Fundamental of Mathematics

1
BM = ( AC )
2 M

B C

41.
 8. In ∆ABC

(i) If ∠B > ∠C then b > c

(ii) ∠A + ∠B + ∠C = 180°
(iii) a + b > c
(iv) |a – b| < c

Quadrilaterals:
1. Parallelogram: D C

(i) Opposite side are parallel and equal. d2

b
(ii) Adjacent angles are supplementary. 
d1
(iii) Diagonals bisects each other.
1 
(iv) Area = absinθ = d1d2sinφ
2
A E a B
2. Rhombus:
D C
(i) All sides are equal. d2
(ii) Diagonals bisect at 90°.
(iii) Diagonals bisect angles. d1
1
(iv) Area = d1d2
2
A B
3. Rectangle:
D C
(i) All internal angles are 90°.
(ii) Diagonals are equal. d
(iii) a2 + b2 = d2
b
(iv) It is a cyclic quadrilateral. d

A
4. Square: a B
Fundamental of Mathematics

(i) All sides are equal. D C

(ii) D iagonals are equal and bisect each
other at 90°.
(iii) Diagonals are angle bisectors.

A B

42.
5. Trapezium:
D b C
(i) One pair of opposite sides is parallel.
1
(ii) Area = ( a + b ) h
2 h

A E a B
6. Kite:
C
(i) O  ne diagonal divides the quadrilateral
into two congruent triangles. d2
(ii) Diagonals are ⊥.
1 D B
(iii) Area = d1 ·d2
2
d1

A
7. Cyclic Quadrilateral:

D C
(i) Vertices lie on circle.
(ii) ∠A + ∠C = ∠B + ∠D = 180°
E
(iii) AE·EC = BE·DE
(iv) AB·CD + BC·AD = AC·BD
(PTolemy’s theorem) A
B

D
8. PA·PB = PC·PD = PT2 C
P A
Fundamental of Mathematics

B
T

43.
 Circle:

(i) Equal chords subtend equal angles at

centre and vice-versa.
(ii) Equal chords are equidistant from center
and vice-versa.
(iii) Angle subtended by an arc at the center is
double the angle subtended at any point
on the remaining part of the circle.
(iv) Angles subtended by any chord on the
same side on the circle are equal.
(v) The bigger chord will be closer to center.
(vi) A chord divides the circle into two
segments.

Distance formula:
If A ( x1 , y 1 ) and B ( x2 , y 2 ) are two points in
co-ordinate geometry, then distance
between A and B
2 2
AB = ( x 1 − x2 ) + ( y1 − y2 )  

Note:  Sum of all interior angles of n-sided

polygon is equal to (n – 2)π.
P

Q.1 In given figure AB || QR then find PB

Sol. ∵ AB || QR
∴ ∆PAB ~ ∆PQR A B
3 cm
AB PB 3×6
= ⇒ PB = cm = 2cm
QR PR 9 Q R
9 cm
Q.2 In the given figure,
QB, RC are PA, P
Fundamental of Mathematics

1 1 1
perpendicular to AC then prove that + =  .
x z y
Sol. ∆PAC ~ ∆QBC R
x Q
PA QB x y y
= ⇒ = ⇒ BC = AC    …(i) z
AC BC AC BC x y
∆RCA ~ ∆QBA A B C

44.
 RC QB z y y
= ⇒ = ⇒ AB = AC      …(ii)
AC AB AC AB z
 y y
(i) + (ii) ⇒ BC + AB =  +  AC
 x z

1 1 1
⇒ = +      Hence proved.
y x z

Q.3 If side of a rhombus is 10 cm and one of the diagonals D C

is 16 cm, then find the length of other diagonal. 8
Sol. Let AB = 10 cm and AC = 16 cm ⇒ OA = 8 cm
In ∆AOB
8 O
∠AOB = 90°
∴ OA2 + OB2 = AB2
82 + OB2 = 102 A B
10
⇒ OB = 6 cm    
⇒ BD = 12 cm (other diagonal)

Q.4 ABCD is a square F is midpoint of AB. BE is one third of

BC. If area of ∆FBE = 108 cm2, then find the length of AC.
Sol. Let side of square   AB = x cm
x x
Now FB = cm ,   BE = cm 
2 3
ar(∆FBE) = 108 cm2 A D
1
BE·FB = 108 cm2  
2
1xx F
· = 108 ⇒ x = 36 
2 3 2
Now AC = AB2 + BC2 = x2 + x2 = 2x  B C
E
 AC = 36 2 cm Fundamental of Mathematics

45.
 Q.5 Two concentric circles are of radii 5 cm and
3 cm. Find the length of the chord of the
larger circle which touches the smaller
O
circle.
Sol. From the figure we know that
OA = 5 cm C B A
OB = 3 cm
Now, in ∆ OAB
∠OBA = 90°
OB2 + BA2 = OA2
32 + BA2 = 52 ⇒ BA = 4 cm
Length of chord = AC = 2AB = 8 cm
Fundamental of Mathematics

46.