Lecture 2

Aluminium and its alloys

Subjects of interest
• Why aluminium alloys?
• Production of aluminium
• Physical metallurgy of aluminium alloys
• Heat treatments of aluminium alloys
• Corrosion in aluminium alloys
• Mechanical properties of aluminium alloys
• Corrosion resistance of aluminium alloys
• Classification of aluminium alloys
• Wrought aluminium alloys
• Cast aluminium alloys

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Objectives

• This chapter provides fundamental knowledge of different

methods of productions / heat treatments of aluminium alloys
and the use of various types of cast and wrought aluminium
alloys.
• The influences of alloy composition, microstructure and
heat treatment on chemical and mechanical properties of
aluminium alloys will be discussed in relation to its
applications.

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Introduction- Why aluminium alloys?

• Abundant element of 8% on earth crust and normally found in

oxide forms (Al2O3), i.e., bauxite, kaolinite, nepheline and alunite.
• Found in United states, Italy, France.
• Have not been found in Thailand but in Malaysia, Vietnam.

Bauxite with penny Bauxite-pebbly Kaolinite

http://www.galleries.com

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 Introduction- Why aluminium alloys?
www.corusgroup-koblenz.com http://ngdir.ir/minemineral

Comparison of Al and steel

Attractive properties
• High corrosion resistance
• Excellent machining properties
• Light weight
• High thermal/electrical conductivity
• High ductility/easily deformable
http://ngdir.ir/minemineral

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Applications for aluminium alloys

Construction
Containers
& Equipment
& Packaging

Automotives
Aerospace
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 Production of Aluminium

France 1855: • H. Sainte-Claire Deville first reduced

aluminium chloride with sodium.

Austria 1888: • Karl Josef Bayer first patented the Bayer process
(digesting crushed bauxite in strong sodium
hydroxide solution at temperatures upto 240oC.

Germany : • Hall-Héroult introduced Hall-Héroult process by

dissolving the alumina in molten cryolite (Na3AlF6)

United states • Alcoa commenced a chloride-based

1976: smelting process using alumina combined
with chloride.

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Extraction of aluminium

Aluminium can be extracted from bauxite, Kaolinite or nepheline.

30-50% Alumina (Al2O3)

3-13% Silica (SiO2)
Bauxite:
10-18% Titanium oxide (TiO2)
Balanced water (H2O)

30-32% Alumina (Al2O3)

Kaolinite
Balanced Silica (SiO2) and water (H2O)

30% Alumina (Al2O3)

Nepheline 40% Silica (SiO2)
20% Na2O + K2O

Note: extraction processes of aluminium require high electricity

consumption.
suitable for countries where cheap electricity is supplied.
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 Bayer process

Alumina (Al2O3) is extracted by digesting crushed bauxite in

strong sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution at Temp upto 240oC.

First step

• Most of alumina is dissolved to give sodium aluminate (NaAlO2 )

which is soluble in water.
• Insoluble residues or ‘Red mud’, mainly composed of oxide of Fe
and Si, are removed by filtration.

Al 2 O3 .xH 2 O + 2 NaOH → 2 NaAlO2 + ( x + 1) H 2 O …Eq. 1

Note: Optimisation of the process with the aid of temperature and

pressure, depending on the nature of bauxite ores, (to obtain different
forms of alumina α, β or γ).

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Bayer process

Second step

• The next step is to decompose NaAlO2 to give alumina (Al2O3), at

temp ~ 50oC.
• This reverse reaction is achieved by adding crystals of trihydrate
Al2O3.3H2O (seeding agent) to promote fine precipitates of this
compound.

2 NaAlO2 + 2 H 2 O → 2 NaOH + Al 2 O3 .3H 2 O …Eq. 2

• The water is then removed by calcining at high temperatures.

At Temp ~ 400-600oC
γ alumina (chemically active).
At Temp ~ 1200oC
α alumina (inert)
∆
…Eq. 3
Al 2 O3 .3H 2 O → Al 2 O3

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Bayer process

• In the case of bauxite containing high silica, alumina loss

during the process is increased.
• Silica reacts with NaOH at the first step to give sodium silicate
Na2SiO3.

SiO2 + 2 NaOH → Na 2 SiO3 + H 2 O …Eq. 4

• Sodium silicate then reacts with sodium aluminate to give

nonsoluble sodium alumosilicate.

2 NaAlO2 + 2 Na 2 SiO3 → Na 2 Al 2 Si2 O8 .2 H 2 O + 4 NaOH …Eq. 5

Solution: 1) Using bauxite with high alumina, low silica.

2) Adding lime or lime stone to react with bauxite to give
calcium silicate Ca2SiO4.
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 Schematic diagram of Bayer process

• Bauxite is washed ground and dissolved

in caustic soda (NaOH) at high pressure
and temperature.

• Sodium aluminate solution containing

nonsoluble bauxite residues sink to the
bottom
red mud.

• Seeding agent is added to the clear

sodium aluminate solution to give
alumina precipitates.which sink to the
bottom of the tank.

• Precipitates are passed through a

rotary kiln for calcination at ~1100oC
to give white powder of pure alumina.

Schematic diagram of Bayer process

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Fusion process or dry process

• Utilise Na2CO3 instead of NaOH in Bayer process.

• The reaction of ground bauxite and Na2O3 takes place at
800-1200oC and give sodium aluminate and CO2.

Al 2 O3 + Na 2 CO3 → Al 2 O3 .Na 2 O or 2 NaAlO2 + CO2 …Eq. 6

• The Al2O3.Na2O product is further ground and dissolved in

water at 90-95oC to give a solution called leaching.

Carbonization
Al 2 O3 .Na 2 O + CO2 + 3H 2 O → 2 Al (OH ) 3 + Na 2 CO3 …Eq. 7

• Al(OH)3 is insoluble and present as red precipitates, which will

be dewatered using heat to give alumina Al2O3 powder.

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Hall-Héroult process
• Aluminium is produced by electrolytic reduction of its molten
oxide with cryolite (Na3AlF6) as an electrolyte.
• Cryolite is added to lower electrolytic temperature to ~ 950oC
(Tm of alumina ~ 2030oC)
The electrolytic cell consists of
1) Carbon as anode
consumed
2) Molten cryolite-alumina electrolyte
3) Liquid aluminium pool.
Condition: Capacity:
Temp : 950oC 1800 Kg/day
Current : 250 kA
Hall-Héroult electrolytic cell. Voltage : 4.5 V
Total reaction:
CO2 is formed at the anodes,
and Al at the cathode. 2 Al 2 O3 + 3C → 4 Al + 3CO2 …Eq. 8

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Hall-Héroult electrolytic cell

Anode: two types

1) baked petroleum coke or and coal-tar
or petroleum pitch.
2) self-baking known as Soderberg type.

Electrolyte contains 80-90% NaAlF6,

2-8% alumina with additives such as
AlF3 and CaF3.

• A typical cell house contains about 200 cells and is arranged

in series on two lines.
• Alumina is added to the cell periodically because its
concentration drops during the electrolysis.
Under Al feeding
anode affect (sudden operational failure)
Over Al feeding
sick pot (formation of sludge
lower
conductivity)
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 Mechanism of electrolytic reaction

Cathode Cathode:
Na 3 AlF6 → 3Na + + AlF63− Floroaluminate anions are
AlF63− → AlF4 + 2 F − discharged at the cathode interface to
produce NaF.
AlF4 → AlF3 + F −
and Anode:

Na + + F − → NaF Al2O3 dissolved in electrolyte will

produce AlO33- at anode and will later be
discharged to give Al metal and liberated
Anode oxygen, which will combine with C to
2 Al 2 O3 → 2 Al 3+ + 2 AlO33− form CO2.

2 Al 3+ + 6e − → 2 Al Al 2 O3 → 2 Al + 32 O2
2 AlO33− → Al 2 O3 + 32 O2 + 6e − 3C → 3CO 2
Overall
2 Al 2 O3 + 3C → 4 Al + 3CO2
reaction
…Eq. 8
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Purifying aluminium by Cl2

• Aluminium produced by electrolytic process normally contains

impurity such as powder of coal or electrolyte and hydrogen gas.
• Cl2 is blown through a graphite tube to purify aluminium. This
reaction produces bubbles of aluminium chloride AlCl3 which
floats away and helps carrying impurity out from aluminium.

2 Al + 3Cl 2 → 2 AlCl3 …Eq. 9

• In the case of ultra-pure aluminium, i.e.,for use as conductors,

the electrolytic process is again used to purify aluminium.
• Aluminium obtained from the first process is now anode and the
electrolyte used is 60% BaCl2, 17% NaF, 23% AlF3 and 5% NaCl.
(T ~ 760-800oC.)

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Physical metallurgy of aluminium

FCC

Density / Specific Gravity (g.cm-3 at 20 °C) 2.70

Melting Point (°C) 660
Specific heat at 100 °C, cal.g-1K-1 (Jkg-1K-1) 0.2241 (938)
Latent heat of fusion, cal.g-1 (kJ.kg-1) 94.7 (397.0)
Electrical conductivity at 20°C 64.94
(% of international annealed copper standard)
Thermal conductivity (cal.sec-1cm-1K-1) 0.5
Thermal emmisivity at 100°F (%) 3.0
Reflectivity for light, tungsten filament (%) 90.0

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 Solubility of elements in aluminium

• Mg, Cu, Zn and Si are the

most commonly used alloying
elements in aluminium, which
have sufficient solid solubility.
• Cr, Mn and Zr are used
primarily to form compounds
which control grain structure.

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Phase diagrams of aluminium with
various alloying elements
Maximum solid solubility in binary aluminium alloys occurs
at eutectic and peritectic temperatures.

Section of Al-Ti peritectic

phase diagram
Section of Al-Cu eutectic
phase diagram
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Solid solution strengthening of high
purity binary aluminium alloys

• Annealed high-purity
aluminium has very low yield
strength (7-11 MPa), but can be
strengthened by solid solution
hardening.

• Mn and Cu are the most effective

strengtheners at 0.5%, but tend to
form Al6Mn precipitates and
insoluble Al-Cu-Fe constituents
respectively.
• Mg is the most effective
Note: Zinc has high solubility but strengthener on the weight basis
contributes to only mall solid solution due to its high solubility.
strengthening.
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 Heat treatments in aluminium alloys
Principles of age-hardening
• Age hardening requires a decrease in solid solubility
of the alloying elements with decreasing temperature.

Heat treatment usually involves the three following stages:

1. Solution treatment at relatively high temperature to

dissolve the alloying elements.
2. Rapid cooling or quenching usually to room temperature
to obtain supersaturated solid solution (SSSS) of
these elements in aluminium.
3. Controlled decomposition of the SSSS to form a finely
dispersed precipitates, normally accompanied with
ageing at appropriate temperatures.

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 Decomposition of supersaturated
solid solutions
Decomposition of SSSS is complex and normally involves
several stages;
• Equilibrium phase
The formation of • Guinier-Preston (GP) zones
• Intermediate precipitates

The presence of a critical

dispersion of GP zones or an
intermediate precipitates, or
both contributes to the maximum
hardening in commercial alloys.

Variation of yield stress with ageing time

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 1) The GP zone

•The GP zones are ordered, solute-rich clusters of atoms, and

coherent with the matrix, fig (a). The GP zones are normally
finely distributed in the matrix, which contribute to hardening.
• The GP zone solvus shown as a metastable line in the
equilibrium diagram (fig b) which defines the upper temperature
limit of stability of the GP zones. The GP zone size distribution
varies with ageing time, fig (c).

(a) Schematic
of the
distortion of
matrix lattice
plane near the
coherent GP
zone.
(b) Section of Al-Cu (c) Schematic of the variation
eutectic phase diagram of GP zone size distribution
with ageing time.
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 2) Intermediate precipitates

• Intermediate precipitates have a

definite composition and crystal structure
and are of much a larger size than that
of GP zones.
• Intermediate precipitates are partly
coherent with the matrix and can
nucleate at the sites of stable GP zones TEM of rods of S-phase (Al2-Cu-Mg)
or dislocations. precipitates heterogeneously
distributed on dislocation lines.

3) Equilibrium precipitates

• The final equilibrium precipitates occur when the intermediate

precipitates loss its coherecy with the matrix.
• They are formed only at relatively high ageing temperatures and
appear as coarsely dispersed precipitates
little hardening effect.

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Precipitate free zones (PFZ) at grain boundaries
PFZs appear as depleted zones from precipitates, due to

1) Depletion of solute atom (~50 nm) by ready diffusion to the

boundary where large precipitates are formed.
2) Depletion of vacancies to nucleate precipitates at
particular ageing temperature.

The width of the PFZ can be altered

by heat treatment conditions;

• Higher solution heat

treatment temperature
• Faster quenching rate

Wide PFZs in Al-4Zn-3Mg

aged at 24 h at 150oC. Narrower PFZ

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 Trace element effects

• The presence of trace 1) Preferential interaction with vacancies

elements may greatly 2) Raising the GP zone solvus
affect the nucleation 3) Stimulating nucleation of existing precipitates
and growth of 4) Promoting formation of different precipitates
precipitates, due to 5) Providing heterogeneous sites for nucleation
6) Increasing supersaturation.

Ag of 0.3% modifies PFZ width and TEM showing Sn particles promote

distribution in Al-4Zn-3Mg, aged at
precipitation of semi coherent θ’ (Al2Cu)
24h at 150oC. by lowering the interfacial energy.
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 Hardening mechanisms
• Hardening mechanism in aged-harden alloys is based on the
concept of precipitation hardening, where the strength is controlled by
the interaction of moving dislocations with precipitates.

1) Coherent and finely distributed particles

• Coherent particles or GP zones are readily cut by dislocations,

leading to localised deformation on only a few active slip planes on
which dislocations moves.
high yield strength but only small
hardening.
• This might causes planar slips and dislocation pile-up at grain
boundary.
σy but n

Cutting of a fine
particle by moving Shearing of fine particles
dislocation leading to planar slip
and dislocation pile-up
at grain boundary

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 2) Large and widely-spaced particles

• Dislocations can easily bypass

widely spaced particles, leaving
dislocation loops around the
particles.
• In this case, the yield stress is low
but the rate of work hardening is
improved and plastic deformation
tends to spread uniformly throughout
Dislocation bypassing
the grains. widely-spaced particles

Note: This is the situation in over-aged alloys. σy but n

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 Relationship between strength and particle
size in age-hardened alloy

A sheared particles
• In age-hardened alloys, strength will B not sheared particles
increase and drop with ageing time
(increasing particle size).
• Intersection P represents the
maximum strength that can be
developed in that particular alloy.
Relationship between strength and
particle size for age- hardened alloy
Vf σy Lift the curve up

Increase the number of small

particles which still resist P
P’
shearing by dislocation.

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 Heat treatment strategies
There are a number of heat treatment strategies, which stimulate the
formation of dispersed precipitates that resist cutting by dislocation.

1) Duplex ageing first below and then above the GP zone

solvus temperature, enabling the formation of finer
dispersion of intermediate precipitates.
2) Co-precipitation of two phases, fine and coarse particles in
which the former contributes to yield strength and the latter
result in uniform plastic deformation.
3) Co-precipitation of two or more intermediate phases,
having different crystallographic plane, influencing
dislocation mobility.
4) Nucleation of uniform dispersions of intermediate
precipitates by adding some particular trace elements.

Note: Suitable heat-treatment scheme can increase strength up to 40 times.

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Corrosion in aluminium alloys

Surface oxide film

• Aluminium is active and readily oxidised.
form thick natural
protective oxide layers/films of alumina on the surface which
protect reactions in the bulk material.
• These protective films are stable in aqueous solutions of
pH ~ 4.5-8.5, but not stable in strong acid and alkali solutions.
• In aqueous solution, the corrosion product is aluminium
hydroxide and then change to
hydrated aluminium oxide,
which is less adherent and less protective than ones form in air.
•The natural oxide films are of typically 2-3 nm thick
and mainly composed of Al2O3.
• The films will grow thicker with time and depending on
conditions.
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 Coating of oxide films
Conversion coating Anodizing
• Film is ~ 1-2 µm thick. • Film is ~10-20 µm thick.
• Al2O3 film is produced by • Al2O3 film is produced by making
immersion of component in hot acid the component as the anode in an
or alkaline solutions. electrolyte such as 15% H2SO4.
• The film is composed of mainly • The film is first porous, later sealed.
Al2O3 with Chromate
increase • The film can be dyed to give
corrosion resistance. attractive colours.
architectural
• Used in aircraft structures. products.
• Cr is toxic.

Decoration of anodized
aluminium at Bullring,
Birmingham, UK

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 Contact with dissimilar metals

• The electrode potential of Al is -0.85 V whereas Al alloys range

from -0.69 to -0.99 V.
• Mg is anodic (more active) to Al whereas mild steel is cathodic to Al.

However, the magnitude of

galvanic corrosion depends
not only on electrode potential
but also the total electrical
resistance, polalization.

• The nature of oxide firm at

the metal-liquid interface
affects polalization, which
alters the corrosive condition.

Note: In contact with steels are less corrosive in comparison to electrode

potential whereas in contact with copper causes worse effect.
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 Influence of alloying elements and impurities

• Aluminium solid solution, micro-constituents and compounds such

as silicon, Al2CuMg, Mg2Si have different electrode potentials

forming their own minute corrosive cells within the alloy.
• In general, solid solution is the most corrosive resistant.

• Al-Mg alloys retain a

relatively high corrosion
resistance.
• Al-Zn alloys are used as
cladding for certain Al alloys
and as galvanic anodes for
cathodic protection of steel
structures in sea water.

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Surface pitting and exfoliation corrosion in
aluminium alloys.
• Micro-constituents are the source of electrochemical corrosion,
leading to non-uniform attack in specific areas.
• Pitting and intergranular corrosion are examples of
localized attacks.
• Fe and Si as impurities (Al3Fe) are cathodic to aluminium,
promoting electrochemical attack in the surface oxide film.
• Al6Mn, Mg2Si have similar electrode potential to aluminium.

Surface pits in
high-strength
aluminium alloy

Exfoliatoin (layer) corrosion of

aluminium alloy plate
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100x May-Aug 2007
 Metallurgical and thermal treatments
• Ageing and tempering treatments alter
quantity and distribution of micro-
constituents, affecting corrosion resistance.
• Thermo-mechanical treatments can
introduce residual stresses into components

stress corrosion cracking.
• Temperature gradient due to thermal
treatment such as in welding introduces
potential difference between weld beads,
heat-affected zone, and the parent alloy.
• A mixture of unrecrystallised and
recrystallised grain structures in forged or
extruded components or elongated grain
structure along the three principal directions
Cracks may form along the three
in rolling might provide potential difference. principal directions

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 Mechanical behaviour of
aluminium alloys
Mechanical properties of aluminium alloys are controlled
by a number of principal microstructural features;
1) Coarse intermetallic compounds (or constituent particles)
Formed interdendritically by eutectic decomposition during ingot solidification.

• Divided in to soluble constituents

(Al2Cu, Al2CuMg, Mg2Si) and non-
soluble compounds (Al6(Fe,Mn), Al3Fe,
αAl(Fe,Mn,Si), Al7Cu2Fe).
• These particles are non-useful in high Aligned
stringers of
strength wrought alloys and appear as coarse
aligned stringers in the working intermetallic
compounds in a
direction. rolled Al -alloy
• Removal of these particles
necessitate a significant cost.
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2) Smaller submicron particles or dispersoids (0.05-0.5 µm)
Formed during homogenization of the ingots by solid state precipitation.

• The compounds contain one of transition metals, i.e.,

Al20Mn3Cu2, Al12Mg2Cr and Al3Zr.
• They retard recrystallization and grain growth during
processing and heat treatments.
• Influencing dislocation movements, which affect some
mechanical properties.

3) Fine precipitates ( upto 0.1 µm)

Formed during age-hardening.
• Contribute to the most significant effect on strengthening.

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4) Grain size and shape

• Aluminium dynamically recovers during hot deformation

producing a network of subgrains.
• Less deformation occurs in thick sections
do not undergo
bulk recrystallization.
elongated grain structure is remained.

5) Dislocation structure

• Caused by cold working and do not respond to age-hardening.

aluminium.matter.org.uk

6) Crystallographic textures

• Formed in rolled products, giving

a marked effect on formability and
anisotropic mechanical properties.
Earing in drawn can

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 Tensile properties
• Tensile properties of aluminium alloys can be divided into two
groups depending on how they response to precipitation hardening.
1) Responed to precipitation
hardening: dominant effect in
raising σy and σTS depends on
finely dispersed precipitates.
2) Not responded to
precipitate hardening:
obtained σy and σTS depend
on dislocation structures by
cold working.

• Coarse intermetallic compounds reduce tensile ductility.

• Mechanical fibering and crystallographic texture influence tensile
properties in each direction. Greatest in the longitudinal direction and
smallest in the short transverse direction.
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 Toughness
• Toughness is resistance of material to
fracture (in the presence of cracks).

• Toughness yield strength

Depends greatly on microstructures.

• Crack extension is due to nucleation of

crack by decohesion at second phase
particle-matrix interface.
• Toughness is greatest in underaged
condition and decrease as ageing
proceeds to peak strength.
Plane strain fracture toughness in Al-
Nucleation of Cu-Mg sheet alloys with different Fe and
crack and Si levels
crack
propagation
path Note: Reducing Fe and Si
(impurities) greatly improves
the toughness.
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 Fatigue
• The improvement in tensile strength is not always accompanied
with increased fatigue strength in non-ferrous alloys.
• The more an alloy is dependent upon precipitation-hardening for its
tensile strength, the lower its fatigue ratio (endurance limit : tensile
strength) becomes.
• Age-hardened aluminium alloys
possess disappointing fatigue properties
due to localised straining of precipitates
under cyclic stressing.
Improved by
more uniformly dispersed precipitates to
prevent coarse slips formation.
• An increase in dislocation density by
themomechanical processing helps to Effect of TMP on fatigue
improve fatigue performance, fig. performance of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu
alloy 7075
Note: duplex structure is required where fine particles to yield high tensile
strength and coarse particles (producing dispersed dislocations) to improve
fatigue strength.
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 Metallurgical factors influencing
fatigue properties

Precipitate depleted zone in a Coarse slip bands Dispersed dislocation

persistent slip band formed by containing high density of around coarse second
fatigue stressing a high purity Al- dislocations, leading to precipitates, produced
Zn-Mg alloy localisation of strain during fatigue cycling,
(lower fatigue help to improve fatigue
performance) performance

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 Stress-corrosion cracking
• Stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) develops when the alloy is
exposed to simultaneous tensile stress in a corrosive environment,
i.e., water vapour (with trace halide iron)
• The failure stress is well below the level
of the yield strength.
• Electrochemistry between
metallurgical structures and
corrosive environment dominates
the SCC.
• Cu, Mg, Zn, Si and Li as solute
elements have the adverse effects.
Note: Should avoid stressing in
direction normal to the short
transverse direction (susceptible to
corrosion due to mechanical
fibering). Pitting and cracking in stress corrosion testing
of weld tensile specimen of AA7075-AA6065
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 Metallurgical features influencing
stress-corrosion cracking
1) PFZs or grain boundaries are considered to be anodic to the grain
centres and also causing localised straining.
2) The nature of the matrix-precipitate – maximum susceptibility
occurs when the GP zones are present.
3) Dispersion of precipitate particles in GBs.– Closely spaced
particles at GBs promote SCC.
4) Solute concentration at GBs – modifying electrochemical potentials.
5) Hydrogen embrittlement at GBs due to rapid diffusion.
6) Chemisorption of atom species at the crack surface.- lowering the
cohesive strength.

Development of hydrogen bubble at

precipitate particles at grain boundary in
artificially aged Al-Zn-Mg alloy exposed to
laboratory air for three months
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Corrosion fatigue

• Simultaneous cyclic stressing

in a corrosive condition leads to
a significant reduction in strength,
which is much greater than in Corrosion pits
individual cases.
• Protective films provided on the
metallic parts are normally broken
during cyclic stressing.
• Sites such as corrosion pits are
the origin of the fatigue crack
propagation.
Note: the reduction of the fatigue Corrosion pits as the cause of
strength under corrosive condition is corrosion fatigue failure
related to the corrosion resistance of
that material to the medium.
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Creep

• Creep fracture (at high temperature) normally initiates at

grain boundaries especially in aluminium alloys.
• Continued exposure to high temperature leads to over-
ageing and softening.
the operating temperature must
be lower than the ageing temperature to avoid a loss of
strength.
• Submicron intermetallic compounds such as Al9FeNi
or particles introduced during processing which are stable
at service temperature help to improve creep resistance in
aluminium alloys.
• Aluminium alloys reinforced by short fibres also provide
enhanced creep resistance.

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 Melting of aluminium
Direct-chill casting process
• Uniform ingot structure is obtained by direct-chill (DC) casting most
common in vertical than horizontal process.
• Molten alloy is poured into water-cooled moulds having retractable bases.
• During the solidification process, metal solidifies at the bottom block
with subsequent solidification of the rest occurs rapidly by means of chill
water.

Note: the ingot

obtained may be
Direct-chill rectangular or round
casting depending on further
process working processes:
(vertical) rolling, forging or
extrusion.
Grain growth during
Suranaree University of Technology solidification Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Continuous casting process
• The process produces continuous thin slabs and sheets with sizes
to those required in final products.
reducing great amount of
investment cost required to reduce in sizes from large ingot.
• Continuous casting of aluminium alloys involves complex surface
cooling patterns, due to the alternation of rolls and spray zones.
• Sets of water-cooled rolls are rotated continuously to produce slab.

(a)

(b)

Thermal field (a) and

solid fraction (b)
Continuous casting process

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Metallurgical factors affecting
melting of aluminium

Molten aluminium is susceptible to:

1) Excess absorption of hydrogen gas
(embrittlement)
2) Oxidation of the melt to form complex
oxides of Mg, Na, Ca, Sr (affecting
mechanical properties) as films or particles
3) Inclusions in forms of borides, oxides,
carbides and non-metallic particle,
i.e.,Al2C3 (found in all Al alloys).
stress
concentration.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Control of metallurgical structure

Primary factors are ;

1) Dendritic cell size or dendrite arm spacing,
2) Form and distribution of microstructural
phase
3) Grain size.
Fine grain size or structures are desirable,
leading to improvements of;
• feeding characteristics As-cast microstructure
• tear resistance
• mechanical properties Grain refiners:
• pressure tightness
• response to thermal treatment • master alloys of Ti
• chemical, electrochemical and • Al-3-5%Ti refiners
mechanical finishing. • Al-Ti-0.2-1%B refiners
(Ti:B ~ 5:50)
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Grain refinement by inoculation

Grain refiners used are;

• master alloys of Ti
• Al-3-5%Ti refiners
• Al-Ti-0.2-1%B refiners
(Ti:B ~ 5:50)

Al( liq ) + TiAl3( crys ) → α − Al alloy solid solution

• TiAl3 crystals act as nuclei for grains to grow.

• Multiple nucleation of averagely eight sites
may occur on each particle. Petal-like TiAl3 particles in α-Al
solid solution
• TiB2 also offers grain refinement effect.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Homogenisation of DC ingots
Homogenisation of DC ingots at temperatures 450-600oC prior
to working processes is common in aluminium alloys in order to:
1) Reducing micro-segregation
2) Removing non-equilibrium, low melting point eutectics
that may cause cracking during subsequent working.
3) Controlling excess amount of precipitates that are
dissolved during solidification.

• During homogenisation, alloying

elements will diffuse from GBs and
x = Dt …Eq. 10
other solute-rich regions to grain where
centres. x = mean distance
• Diffusion time depends on D = diffusion coefficient
diffusion distance (grain size, t = time
dendrite arm spacing) and the Note: homogenisation time varies
from 6-24 hrs, depending on
diffusion rate of alloying elements.
conditions and alloy systems.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Fabrication of DC ingots

• After homogenisation, the ingot is hot-worked to break down the

cast structure (coarse grain structure), giving uniform grain size
as well as constituent size and distribution.

• Cold working is followed especially to strengthen alloys which do

not response to precipitate hardening. This might be followed by
immediate annealing at T ~ 345-415oC.

X-section of extruded X-section of a high-

bar having coarse strength alloy sheet
recrystallised grains roll-clad with pure
around the periphery 1.5 x 50 x aluminium

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Thermal treatment
Thermal treatment is performed to develop desirable mechanical
properties required for service performance.
Solution treatment
• Solution treatment should be ideally
carried out at temperatures within the
single phase to obtain complete solution
of most of the alloying elements.
• However, this temperature should not be Liquation along GBs due to overheating
over the solidus temperature to avoid of an Al-Cu-Mg alloy during ST

overheating, i.e., liquation of compounds

and at GBs, as well as grain growth

affecting mechanical properties.
• Absorbed hydrogen atoms can
recombine at internal cavities to form
pockets of gas or blistering.
should
minimise water vapour in the furnace or
Blistering on Al alloy surface, heat-treated
cladding. in a humid atmosphere
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Quenching

The alloy is quenched after solution treatment normally to room

temperature to achieve maximum supersaturated alloying
elements for subsequent ageing.

1) Cold-water quenching : for high cooling rate especially in thick

sections, but gives distortions (residual or quenching stresses)
in thin sections.
can be relaxed (20-40%) during ageing.

The effect of minor additions of Cr and Zr on

the quench sensitivity Tensile strength as a function of
quenching rate in Tcrit ~ 290-400oC
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Quenching

2) Hot or boiling water quenching as

well as air-cooled quenching: slower
rates of cooling and quenching
stresses, showing acceptable
response to subsequent ageing –
also depending on quench sensitivity of
each alloy systems. However this might
cause heterogeneous nucleation of Heterogeneous nucleation of
coarse particles. large particles in slow-quenched
and aged Al-Mg-Si alloy.

3) Salt-bath quenching : (at 180oC and holding for a time

before cooling to room temperature.) for high-strength Al-Zn-
Mg-Cu alloys. Provides rapid cooling rate but reduced
residual stresses.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Age-hardening
Age-hardening is the final stage to optimise properties in the
heat-treatable aluminium alloys.

• Natural ageing – at room temperature

• Artificial ageing – at elevated temperatures (100-190oC)

• Ageing temperature and time depend upon alloy systems and

the final required properties.
Solution
Single-step ageing: to treatment

Temp
develop high strength ~ Single or
multiple ageing
8-24 hrs.
Multiple ageing: to give
specific properties such as
stress-corrosion resistance, Time
toughness.
Note: RT ageing provide incubation or nuclei for the growth of GP zone
in the subsequent elevated temperature ageing.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Thermo-mechanical processing

Thermo-mechanical treatment (TMT) is the combination of plastic

deformation and heat treatment to provide high strength properties.

There are two types of TMT for high strength aluminium alloys.

1) Intermediate TMT : The

deformation is applied to give
very fine recrystallised grains
prior to solution treatment.

2) Final TMT : the

deformation is applied after
solution treatment and may
involve cold or warm working
before, during or after
ageing.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Wrought aluminium alloys
The composition of aluminium alloys are regulated by internationally
agreed classifications system for each wrought and cast alloys.
Classification for wrought aluminium alloys;

IADS
1XXX Al of 99% minimum purity
2XXX Al - Cu alloys
3XXX Al - Mn alloys
4XXX Al - Si alloys
5XXX Al - Mg alloys
6XXX Al - Mg - Si alloys
7XXX Al - Zn - Mg alloys
8XXX Miscellaneous alloys, e.g. aluminium-lithium alloys

Each registered alloy is described by a four digit number, with a further

letter and number indicating the temper, or condition of the alloy.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Alloy identification Temper designations
systems (Added as suffix letters of digits to the alloy number)

Suffix letter F, O, H, T or W First suffix digit Second suffix digit

indicates basic treatment or indicates secondary for condition H only.
condition. treatment used to Indicates residual
influence properties* hardening*
F As -
fabricated

Annealed- 2
O wrought 1 Cold worked 1/4 Hard
Aluminium content products only
4-digit series 4
or main alloying only 1/2 Hard
elements Cold worked
2 6
Cold- and partially 3/4 Hard
1 xxx 99.00% minimum
H worked annlealed 8
2 xxx Copper (strain Hard
3 xxx Manganese hardening) 3 Cold worked
and stabilized 9 Extra
4 xxx Silicon
hard
5 xxx Magnesium
1 Partial solution
6 xxx Magnesium and silicon plus natural
7 xxx Zinc ageing
8 xxx Others
2 Annealed cast
products only
• The first digit indicates the alloy group.
• The second indicates modifications to 3 Solution plus * Where a second digit is used for
alloy or impurity limit. Heat cold work T tempers, or a third is used for
T
• The last two identify the aluminium alloy treated condition H, this indicates a
or indicates the aluminium purity. (stable) 4 Solution plus specific treatment, e.g. amount of
natural ageing cold work to secure specific
properties.
5 Artificially aged
only

6 Examples of alloy and temper

Solution plus
descriptions
artificial ageing
1) 5152 H36 =
Aluminium-magnesium alloy, cold
7 Solution plus
Aluminium alloy and temper stabilizing
worked and stabilised to develop a
¾ hard condition
designation systems Solution plus
2) 6061 T6 =
8 Aluminium – magnesium – silicon
(IADS system) cold work pus alloy, solution heat treated
artificial ageing followed by artificial ageing.

9 Solution plus
artificial ageing
plus cold work

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Designation system in Britain

1) BS (British standard) specifications for general

engineering use.
2) BS Specifications for aeronautical use (designated
as the L series).
3) DTD (Directorate of Technical Development)
specifications issued by the Ministry of Technology
for specialized aeronautical applications.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Work-hardening of aluminium and its alloys

During plastic deformation : Dislocation generation and

multiplication occur faster than annihilation by dynamic
recovery
dislocation tangles, cells and subgrain walls

increased strength.

Solid solution elements have significant effects on

work hardening in several ways;

1) Enhancing the rate of dislocation multiplication

2) Reducing the rate of recovery
3) Increasing the effectiveness of dislocations as
barrier to metal flow.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Work-hardening curves

For non-heat treatable alloys

Strain hardening provide strength
to the alloys via dislocation
interaction.

For heat treatable alloys

Strain hardening may supplement

the strength developed by
precipitation hardening.

Strength Ductility 3033 (Al-Mn) and 5052 (Al-Mg)

are non-heat-treatable alloys.

No good for application that

ductility is critical.
Work-hardening curves for aluminium alloys

Note: Cold working causes an initial rapid increase in yield stress.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Work-hardening characteristics
During tensile testing, the alloy exhibits work hardening
after yielding.

Work hardening curves of annealed, recrystallised aluminium

alloys can be expressed as follows

σ = kε n Where σ : true stress

ε : true strain
…Eq. 11 n : work hardening exponent

Work hardening curves of cold-work tempers (non-heat-

treatable alloy after cold working to the initial strain εo) can be
expressed as follows

σ = k (ε 0 + ε ) n Where εο : true strain

n : work hardening exponent
…Eq. 12
Note: work-hardening of aluminium alloys decreases with
increasing temperature.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Deformation and texture of aluminium alloys
• Aluminium has a high stacking fault energy
cellular substructure
is formed during deformation, which imparts work-hardening.
• Deformation of aluminium and its alloys proceeds by slip on
the {111} planes in the <110> directions.
• Aluminium wire, rod and bar normally possess a fibre texture in which
the <110> direction is parallel to the working direction.
• This crystallographic texture developed by cold working causes
directionality not only in certain mechanical properties but also in
metal forming processes.
• Earing on the top of the drawn cup is due to preferred orientations
in the plane of the sheet.

Deep drawn aluminium cups showing earing

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Designations of wrought
aluminium alloys

Non-heat-treatable alloys
• 1xxx series (Super-purity and commercial-purity aluminium)
• 3xxx series (Al-Mn and Al-Mn-Mg alloys)
• 5xxx series (Al-Mg alloys)
• 8xxx series (Miscellaneous alloys)

Heat-treatable alloys
• 2xxx series (Al-Cu and Al-Cu-Mg alloys)
• 6xxx series (Al-Mg-Si alloys)
• 7xxx series (Al-Zn-Mg and Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys)

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Roles of alloying elements

• Zn, Mg, Cu, Mn, Si

are mainly used for
principal commercial
aluminium alloys.

• Most elements have a

very low solid solubility
in Al and are segregated
to the dendrite cell
boundaries during
casting.

• Second-phase particles (~10 mm) are formed if high amount of

these elements is added and remain as particles after processing.
• These particles contribute to little improvement in strength but
lower toughness and corrosion resistance.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Super-purity and commercial-purity
aluminium (1xxx series)
• Super-purity (SP) aluminium (99.99%) • Fe and Si are always present
as impurity and form refined
• Commercial-purity (CP) aluminium FeAl3, Fe3SiAl12 or Fe2Si2Al9
(upto 1% impurities or minor additions) constituents.

Properties:
1100 sheet
showing
• Low tensile strength (90 MPa in fragmented and
CP 1100) redistributed
• Yield stress of only 7-11 MPa. constituent due to
mechanical
working
Applications:
• Electrical conductors
• Chemical process equipment
• Foils
• Decorative finishes.
Aluminium
conductors (bare)
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Al-Mn and Al-Mn-Mg alloys (3xxx series)
• Al-Mn alloys (upto 1.25% Mn) • Al-Mn-Mg alloys
Greater amount leads to large (provide solid solution strengthening)
primary Al6Mn particles)
and widely used in a variety of strain-
deleterious local ductility). hardened tempers.

Properties: Properties:

• Moderate strength, i.e., σTS ~ • Moderate strength, i.e., σTS ~

110 MPa in annealed 3003. 180 MPa in annealed 3004.
• High ductility • Readily fabricated
• Excellent corrosion resistance • Excellent corrosion resistance

Applications: Applications:
• Foil • Manufacturing beverage cans
• Roofing sheet

www.mamata-group.com

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol aluminium.matter.org.uk May-Aug 2007

 Al-Mg alloys (5xxx series)
• Mg (Tm = 651oC, HCP structure)
• Small solubility of 3% at RT and 15.35 at 451oC (eutectic).
• Eutectic reaction gives K phase (FCC) and β phase (Al3Mg2)

Mg2Al3

Grain
boundary
Mg2Al3

5086-H34 sheet showing the constituent

distribution and discontinuous Mg2Al3 grain
Phase equilibrium diagram of Al-Mg boundary particles

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Al-Mg alloys (5xxx series)
• Mg additions (0.8-5%) provide solid solutions and give a
wide range of alloy compositions
strength properties

Properties:
• Al-0.8Mg (5005):σy 40 MPa, σTS 125 MPa
• Al-(4.7-5.5)Mg (5456): σy 160, σTS 310 MPa
• High rate of work hardening
• High corrosion resistance
• Bright surface finish
Aluminium
transportation
Applications: plates

• Transportation structural plates

• Large tanks for petrol, milk, grain
• Pressure vessel
Aluminium fuel
• Architectural components tank

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Miscellaneous alloys (8xxx series)
• This series contains several dilute alloys

Properties:

• High corrosion resistance at

high temp & pressure
• Deep drawing

Applications:

• Al-1.1Ni-0.6Fr (8001) - nuclear

energy installations.
• Al-0.75Fe-0.7Si (8011) - bottle caps.
• Al-Sn (up to 7%) soft bearings

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Al-Cu alloys (2xxx series)
• Cu (Tm = 1085oC, FCC structure)
• Good solubility upto 5.65% at 548oC (eutectic).
L ↔ α +θ
• Eutectic reaction gives α phase (5.65%Cu) - ductile
and θ phase (CuAl2-52.75%Cu) – brittle.
• Eutectic phase consists of alternate lamella structure of α and θ phases,
resembling pearlite in carbon steels, which give high strength but brittle.
Hypoeutectic

• > 5% Cu, cooling is in equilibrium,

grain boundaries of α phase
surrounded by (α+θ ) eutectic phase –
reduced toughness.
• < 5% Cu, α phase in some cases
surrounded by θ phase.
Hypereutectic
• Cu
33%, too brittle due to
high amount of θ phase. Equilibrium phase diagram of Cu-Al
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Al-Cu alloys (2xxx series)
• Precipitation hardening – by forming θ phase in α matrix,
gives high strength and toughness.

Properties: Applications:
• High strength (2119: σTS 505 MPa). • Fuel tanks
• Good creep strength at high temp.
• High toughness at cryogenic temp.
• Good machinability.

Welding
wires Fuel tanks

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Al-Cu-Mg alloys (2xxx series)
• Miner amount of Mg (0.2%) modifies the precipitation
process, resulting in greater age-hardening.
Properties: Applications:
• High strength (2024: σTS 520 MPa). • pistons, rivets for aircraft
• high toughness. constructions
Airplane structure

2024 heated
ingot showing
soluble
Al2CuMg.

2024-T4 (solution heat Aluminium pistons

treated) plate showing and devices for
redistribution of thermal shock used
constituents due to in airplane
mechanical working.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Al-Mg-Si alloys (6xxx series)
• Mg and Si are added in balanced amount
to form Mg2Si.
• Excess amount of Si
brittle.
• Congruent Mg2Si has properties similar to
pure metal can dissolve in α phase upto
1.85% at 595oC (eutectic) and reduces to
0.2% at 200oC.

Mg2Si

L ↔ α + Mg 2 Si + ( Si )

Pseudo-binary Al-Mg2Si diagram 6061-T6 sheet showing excess soluble Mg2Si

particles as redistributed by mechanical
working (dark phase)
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Al-Mg-Si alloys (6xxx series)

Mg + Si (0.8-1.2%)

Properties:
Al 6005
• Medium-strength structural alloys satellite dish
(most widely used 6063-T6, σy 215 Al 6009 car body
MPa, σTS 245).
• Readily extruded
• Colour anodized.

Applications:
• Architectural & Al 6061 Electric train
decorative finishes.
• Automotive trim.
Al 6063
Al 6061 Structural Large water
component pipe
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Al-Mg-Si alloys (6xxx series)

Mg + Si (> 1.4%)
• Some alloys contain excess amount of Si (to form Mg2Si), which
promotes additional response to age-hardening by
1) Refining the size of Mg2Si particles
2) Precipitating as silicon.

Properties:

• Higher strength on ageing, 6013 -

Al-Mg-Si-Cu, σy 330 MPa(T6) and
415 (MPa) T8.

Applications:
• Aircraft, automotive
• Recreation applications
• Extruded sections Extruded sections
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Age-hardening for Al-Cu and Al-Mg alloys

548oC

• Alloys with < 0.5% Cu or <1.4% Mg in Al-Cu and Al-Mg alloys

respectively cannot be aged-hardened.
• Aged hardening of alloys with > 5.7% Cu or < 17.4% Mg in
Al-Cu and Al-Mg alloys respectively are less effective (less
hardness).

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Example: Age-hardening in Al-Cu alloys

L
Solid solution (α
α)
θ (CuAl2) precipitated C α+L
as non-coherent α
B
particles 5.7%
A

Precipitation Slowly
hardening at Quenching cooled α+
too high θ (CuAl2)
temperature

Precipitation
hardening
correctly
Submicroscopical
Supersaturated θ (CuAl2)
formation of coherent
solid solutions (α
α’) precipitates
intermediate phase θ’

• Equilibrium cooling of 4% Cu down to RT gives α + θ (CuAl2)

which are non-coherent precipitates with the matrix (starting at A).
• Quenching from just above point A down to RT will give
supersaturated solid solution (α’ phase) where higher amount of
Cu can be dissolved in the matrix.
non-equilibrium.
• CuAl2 will precipitates from the α ’ phase if leave it for ~ 6 days
(trying to get back to equilibrium) and this leads to higher strength.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Age-hardening mechanism in Al-Cu alloys

GP zone

SSSS
GP zone
θ’
θ

• Coherent precipitates or θ ’ provide distortion within the atom

lattice which affect dislocation movement.
improved mechanical
properties.
• Coherent θ ’ changes to non-coherent precipitates θ with
increasing ageing time (try to get back to equilibrium)
less
strength due to no distortion within the lattice. (Over aging)
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Effects of time and temperature of
precipitates – treatment on the structure
and tensile strength of a suitable alloy

• Ageing at T = 165oC provides the optimum strength due to

homogeneous distribution of high amount of θ ’.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Al-Zn-Mg and Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys
(7xxx series)
• High response to age-hardening especially with Cu addition
(0.3%) to also give stress corrosion cracking resistance.

Properties:
• Strength is insensitive to cooling rate

suitable for welding.
• Yield strength might be double to Al-Mg
and Al-Mg-Si alloys (~ upto 600 MPa).
• Stress corrosion cracking resistance Al 7039 aircraft construction
in Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys.

Applications:
• Light weight military bridge
• Aircraft construction. Al 7005
Al 7075 post box
Component in
motorcycle
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Cast aluminium alloys
Properties required for good casting
• Low melting temperature
• Low solubility of gases except H2
• Good fluidity
• Good surface finishes

Disadvantage
• High solidification shrinkage (3.5-8.5%)

Factors controlling properties

Cast aluminium alloys are widely used
• Melting and pouring practices for transport applications,
Ex: Cast engine block
• Impurity levels
• Grain size
• Solidification rate
Note: Innovations and development are mainly oriented to the
automobile sector which is the most important market for castings.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Designations of cast aluminium alloys
United States Aluminium Association system

• Using four-digit system. 1xx.x series

• Second two digits indicate
1xx.x Al, 99.00% or greater the minimum percentage of
Al alloys grouped by major Al, Ex: 150.x
99.50% Al.
alloying elements • Last digit (after decimal
2xx.x Cu point) indicates product forms.
3xx.x Si with added Cu and/or Mg 1 = casting, 2 = ingot
4xx.x Si
5xx.x Mg 2xx.x to 9xx.x series
7xx.x Zn
• Second two digits identify
8xx.x Sn the different aluminium alloys.
9xx.x Other elements
• Last digit (after decimal
6xx.x Unused series point) indicates product forms.

Note: The 6xx.x series is allocated to Al-Si-Mg alloys in Australia.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
British System

• Designation of cast Al alloy in British system is covered by

the British Standard 1490.

M As-cast
TB Solution treated and naturally aged
TB7 Solution treated and stabilised
TE Artificially aged after casting
TF Solution treated and artificial aged
TF7 Solution treated, artificially aged
and stabilised
TS Thermally stress-relieved

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Casting techniques
The most common aluminium
casting techniques are;
1) Sand casting
2) Die casting - gravity casting
- high pressure die casting
- low pressure die casting
- vacuum die casting
- squeeze casting

Selection of casting process depends upon alloy composition which

is related to controlled characteristics such as solidification range,
fluidity, susceptibility to hot-cracking.

Castability 3xx.x > 4xx.x > 5xx.x > 2xx.x > 7xx.x
Si,Cu,Mg Si Mg Cu Zn
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Alloys based on the Al-Si system
The most important group and constitute for
85-90% of the total aluminium casting.
• Eutectic (Al – 12.7%Si) is formed just
over 1% Si addition, which contains a
coarse microstructure of large plates or
needles of Si in a continuous Al matrix.
• Large Si plates
low ductility and
brittleness.
Equilibrium binary Al-Si phase diagram
Hypoeutectic Al-Si Eutectic Al-Si Hypereutectic Al-Si

Require modification
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol aluminium.matter.org.uk May-Aug 2007
 Composition of common Al-Si casting alloys

Properties:
Note: Available with hypoeutectic • Good castability and high fluidity
and less commonly hypereutectic due to Al-Si eutectic
compositions. • High corrosion resistance
• Good weldability.
• Low solidification shrinkage.
Suranaree University of Technology
•Tapany
Machining
Udomphol
difficulty in hypereutectic.
May-Aug 2007
 Modification of Unmodified

microstructure
• Apart from fast cooling to refine the
microstructure, modification can be
carried out by adding certain alkali
Partially modified with
fluorides to the melt prior to pouring. 0.01% Sr

• Additions of Sr or Na change eutectic

microstructure from needle-like or lamellar
to fibrous.
• Higher concentration of 0.02% Sr fully
modifies to fibrous structure. Fully modified with
0.02% Sr
• Grain refinement improves resistance to
hot tearing, decreases porosity and
increases mass feeding.
Note: Higher Si content requires more
modifying agent. Microstructures of 413 alloy (Al-Si eutectic alloy)
and modified with Sr
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Mechanical property improvement due
to refined microstructure

Tensile strength
Mechanical properties of Al-13%Si alloy
% Elongation

Hardness

Fracture toughness

Fracture toughness of alloy A357 (Al-7Si-0.5Mg) with

and without Sr modification

Note: Cast Al alloys normally have inferior mechanical properties to

those of wrought Al-alloys.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Example: Modification with Na
• Modification mechanism by Na
addition are still controversial.
• The effect of Na on the nucleation and
growth of eutectic silicon during
solidification.
• Na restricts growth of Si particles by 400 x
(a) 12% Si unmodified. (b) 12% Si
segregation at periphery of Si plates unmodified (SEM).
and prohibiting growth.
• Excess amount of P
large particles
of silicon resulting poor mechanical
properties.

400 x
(c) 12% Si modified with Na. (d) 12% Si with excess P.

Al-Si +Na
Ex: 0.005-0.01% Na or 0.02%Sr are
required for modification for 7% Si.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Variables determining microstructure

1) Type of modifier used • Na is more powerful than Sr.

• A critical level is required to obtain a

2) Amount of modifier used full modification.
• Too high level
over modification.
• Modifier fading
need top up.
3) Impurities present in the • P makes modification more difficult.
melt • Mg was found to make modification
easier.
4) Freezing rate
• Higher solidification rates assist the
modification process.
5) Si content of the alloy
• Higher amount of existing Si
requires greater amount of modifier to
obtain complete modification.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Over modification

• Over modification occurs when Na

concentration exceeds 0.018 – 0.020%.
• Coarsening of Si takes place
associated with bands of primary
aluminium.
• Na is rejected in front of the solidifying
interface and form AlSiNa which serves
as nucleation sites for coarse silicon
particles.
• Excess amount of Sr also cause over
modification by coarsening of the Al4SrSi2 phase (1) caused by over
silicon structure. modification of 356 alloy (x270)

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Al-Si-Cu, Al-Si-Mg alloys
Cu and Mg additions provide much greater strengthening effect.

Al-Si-Cu alloys • Cu addition increases strength and

machinability but reduces castability, ductility
3 -10.5% Si and corrosion resistance.
1.5 - 4.5% Cu
• Higher Si alloys are used for pressure die
casting while lower Si and higher Cu alloys are
Applications: used for sand and permanent mould casting.

• Automative cylinder
heads/blocks in place
of cast iron.

Note: more complex compositions

for special properties. i.e., elevated
temperature properties. Pistons and connection
rods. 319.0 (Al-Si-Mg)
EX: Al-12Si-1Cu-1Mg-2Si and Pistons and air compressor.
Al-17Si-4Cu-0.55Mg). 390.0 (Al-Si-Cu)
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Al-Cu alloy
• Strength and hardness at T up to 250oC is achieved from a
combination of precipitation hardening together with dispersion
hardening by intermetallic compounds.
• Strength is higher than other cast Al alloys and comparable to
wrought Al alloys.
Properties:
• σy 345-480 MPa and σTS 415-
550 MPa due to high response to Aerospace housing
ageing, with 5-10% elongation. (201.0)

Applications:
• Elevated temperature applications.
Ex: Al-4Cu-2Ni-1.5Mg for diesel
engine pistons and air-cooled
cylinder heads for aircraft.

Note: Have casting problem with hot-tearing Flywheel housing

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol
(295.0) May-Aug 2007
 Al-Mg alloys
• Al-Mg alloys are less preferable than Al-Si in casting and require
practice during melting and pouring due to oxidation problem.
• Mg content ~ 4 - 10%.
• Most are sand cast.

Properties:
• High resistance to corrosion
• Good machinability
• Attractive anodised surface.
• Little or no response to heat
treatment.

Applications: Watch body

• Chemical and sewage
• Kitchen utensils. Kitchen utensils

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Al-Zn-Mg alloys
• Binary Al-Zn alloys are obsolete except for use of sacrificial
anode for steel structure protection.
• Normally sand cast because permanent moulds tends to cause
hot-cracking.
Properties: Applications:
• σy 115-260 MPa and σTS 120- • High eutectic melting point.
310 MPa. • Good machinability.
• Dimensional stability.
• Corrosion resistance.
• Not suitable for high
temperature applications due to
rapid softening.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Casting processes

• Sand casting
• Die casting
• Semi-solid casting (Thixo-casting)
• Squeeze casting
• Cosworth casting
• Improved low pressure casting

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Sand casting
• Versatile – complex designs, sizes, shapes
• Sand – silica sand, zirconia sand, olivine
• Sand mould is destroyed after each use and reusable
• Bonding of sand mould is a key step.
• Size and shape of sand also control the quality of the cast.

Half mould with cores and an example

of a cast air intake for a turbocharger
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Die casting processes
• Liquid metal is pushed into a die cavity either by ram, gas or a pump
and either by means of high or low pressure.

Low pressure die casting High pressure die casting

Liquid metal enters die at Liquid metal enters die at

relatively low velocity. high velocity.-no sand cores
are normally used.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
 Semi-solid processing (Thixo-casting)
• The use of agitation during solidification to break down
dendrites can improve fluidity although the solid content has
reached 60%.
• Broken down dendrites result in very fine grain size.
• Semi-solid slurry has thixotropy characteristics (agitating
viscosity )

www.metphys.mat.ethz.ch

Note: Use for the production of automotive components

such as master brake cylinders, pistons, compressors

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

Advantages of semi-solid casting
1) Reduced capital investment and operating cost due to
• Contained process of melting.
• Less energy required due to no complete melting.
• Reduced cycle time and minimised scrap.
2) Reduced shrinkage and cracking
• The alloy is party solidified during casting.
3) Lower operating and pouring temperature
• Improve the life of metal dies.
4) Readily produced composite materials (Compocasting)
• Fibres or solid particles can be added into the feedstock.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Squeeze casting
• The process involves working or processing the liquid metal
in a hydraulic press during solidification.
• The use of pressure (~200 MPa) which is higher than
conventional casting helps to fill up pores by the flow of the melt.
• Promote intimate contact between casting and mould walls.

improve heat extraction
grain refinement.
Advantages:

• Improvement in ductility
• Provide isotropic properties where (wrought products suffer from
directionality.
• Liquid metal can be infiltrated into a mesh or pad of fibres (or
particulates) to produce composite materials.
used to manufacture
pistons in for cars.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Direct squeeze casting Indirect squeeze casting

• Pour metered amount of liquid • Pour the liquid metal into a shot
metal into a die and then pressurise sleeve and inject vertically into the
to solidify the metal via the second die by a piston, which sustains the
moving half of the die. pressure during solidification.
• Runners and feeding systems are • Runners and feeding systems are
not required.
good cast yield. not required.
good cast yield.

Direct squeeze casting

Indirect squeeze casting

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

 Cosworth Process
• The Cosworth Process allow
quiescent transfer of metal from the
stage of the ingots to the final filling of
the mould.
• Minimising the undesirable effect of
dispersing fine oxide particles and A casting unit in Cosworth Process
inclusions through the melt.
• Oxides/inclusions are separated by floating or sinking
• No flux or chemicals additions.
atmosphere protection.
• The mould is permeable to allow air to escape.
improve tensile
strength and ductility.
• Use reclaimable zircon sand rather than
silicon sand for mould and core making.

stable mould volume
dimensional
tolerance.
Cylinder head castings produced
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol by Cosworkth Process May-Aug 2007
 Improved low pressure casting
(ILP) process
• Automotive Precision casting
process developed in Australia.
• Molten metal transfer is vertical
through a riser tube into the bottom
of the mould cavity. ILP process

• Molten metal is degassed and filtered in the casting furnace due to

a pressurised atmosphere of nitrogen.
quiescent, computer-
controlled filling of the mould.
• The mould is sealed immediately after filling to allow solidification to
occur remotely from the casting unit.
• High productivity
cycle time ~ 60 s.
• The metal cores are made from resin-bonded silica sand for mould
which promotes rapid unidirectional solidification.
optimal properties.

Reduced dendrite arm spacing and overall microshrinkage.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007
Comparison of mechanical properties of
357 Al alloy produced by different
casting process

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

References
• Polmear I.J., Light alloys: metallurgy of the light metals, 3rd
edition, 1995, Arnold, London, ISBN 0-340-63207-0.
• G.S. Chen, K.-C. Wan, M. Gao, R.P. Wei and T.H. Flournoy,
Transition from pitting to fatigue crack growth—modeling of
corrosion fatigue crack nucleation in a 2024-T3 aluminum alloy,
Materials Science and Engineering A, Vol. 219, Issues 1-2,1996,
p.126-132.
• A. F. Oliveira, Jr. , M. C. de Barros, K. R. Cardoso and D. N.
Travessa, The effect of RRA on the strength and SCC resistance
on AA7050 and AA7150 aluminium alloys, Materials Science and
Engineering A, Vol. 379, Issues 1-2, 2004, p. 321-326.
• A. Yawny, G. Kausträter, B. Skrotzki and G. Eggeler, On the
influence of fibre texture on the compression creep behaviour of
a short fibre reinforced aluminium alloy, Scripta Materialia, Vol.
46, Issue 12, 2002, p. 837-842.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

References

• P. Thevoz, M. Gaumann, and M. Gremaud, The Numerical

Simulation of Continuous and Investment Casting, January
2002, JOM-e.
• Hatch, J.E., Aluminium, Properties and physical metallurgy,
ASM, 1998.
• Totten, G.E., Handbook of aluminium: Physical metallurgy
and processes, Vol.1, Marcel Dekker, Inc., 2003, ISBN 0-8247-
0494-0.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007

References

• www.boeing.com • www.aluvan.com
• www.formigli.it • 193.80.13.115/SAG/upload/
• www.hydro.com images/Alutech/Druck...
• http://www.autointell-news.com • http://www.aluminiumlearning.com
• www.light-alloy-wheels.com • aluminium.matter.org.uk
• www.barrykeen.co.za • http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bauxite
• www.packaging-technology.com • www.azom.com
• virtualskies.arc.nasa.gov
• www.world-aluminium.org
• www.physchem.co.za
• www.scielo.br
• www.working-images.co.uk
• http://www.key-to-metals.com
• www.kamlit.ru
• www.wpi.edu
• www.mmate.ubc.ca
• www.sural.com
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol May-Aug 2007